Deforestation in Taiwan is the changes on the forested area in the island due to economy factors, such as agriculture, urban expansion etc. In 1904–2015, Taiwan has a net annual forest area change rate of 34 km2.

History
The changes in forest area of Taiwan is divided into several periods.

First period
The earliest documented period was the first period in 1904–1950, roughly coincided with the later stage of Japanese rule in Taiwan. In 1926, 64% of Taiwan's land was covered in forest. However, many new agricultural land were created in western lowland of Taiwan.

Second period
The second period which in 1956–1993, which coincided with the early era of Kuomintang government, saw a sharp increase in built-up area where it consumed forest areas around major big cities and towns. In 1989, the government issued a ban on the logging of primeval forests.

Third period
The third period in 1995–2015, saw major afforestation made and forested land reached its peak at 67% in 2010. Most of the afforestation were made on former agricultural land. Since 2008, companies, individuals and government bodies have jointly planted more than 230 km2 of trees. Following this period the primary challenge facing forests in Taiwan is illegal logging.

See also
 Geography of Taiwan

References

Taiwan
Environment of Taiwan
Forestry in Taiwan

Deforestation in Taiwan


Vasil (Bulgarian and Macedonian: Васил, Georgian: ვასილ) is a Bulgarian, Macedonian and Georgian masculine given name. It may refer to:

Vasil Adzhalarski, Bulgarian revolutionary, an IMARO leader of revolutionary bands
Vasil Amashukeli (1886–1977), early Georgian film director & cinematographer in Azerbaijan and Georgia
Vasil Angelov (1882–1953), Bulgarian military officer and a revolutionary, a worker of IMARO
Vasil Aprilov (1789–1847), Bulgarian educator
Vasil Barnovi (1856–1934), Georgian writer popular for his historical novels
Vasil Biľak (born 1917), former Slovak Communist leader of Rusyn origin
Vasil Binev (born 1957), Bulgarian actor
Vasil Boev (born 1988), Bulgarian footballer
Vasil Bollano, the ethnic Greek mayor of Himara municipality, in southwest Albania
Vasil Bozhikov (born 1988), Bulgarian football defender
Vasil Bykaŭ (1924–2003), prolific Belarusian author of novels and novellas about World War II
Vasil Chekalarov (1874–1913), Bulgarian revolutionary and one of the leaders of IMARO in Aegean Macedonia
Vasil Chilingrov (born 1951), Bulgarian sprint canoeist who competed in the early to mid-1970s
Vasil Dragolov (born 1962), former Bulgarian footballer
Vasil Etropolski (born 1959), Bulgarian Olympic and world champion sabre fencer
Vasil Garvanliev (born 1984), Macedonian classic and pop singer
Vasil Gendov (1891–1970), Bulgarian actor, film director and screenwriter
Vasil Gigiadze (born 1977), Georgian footballer
Vasil Glavinov (1872–1929), Bulgarian socialist from Ottoman Macedonia, a member of the Bulgarian Workers' Social Democratic Party
Vasil Gruev (born 1926), Bulgarian cross country skier who competed in the 1950s
Vasil Gyuzelev, Bulgarian historian who studies Bulgaria during the Middle Ages
Vasil Iliev, Bulgarian mobster, businessman and wrestler
Vasil Iljoski (1902–1995), Macedonian writer, dramatist, professor
Vasil Kaloyanov (born 1988), Bulgarian footballer
Vasil Kamburov (born 1975), Bulgarian footballer
Vasil Kanchov (1862–1904), Bulgarian geographer, ethnographer and politician
Vasil Khamutowski (born 1978), Belarusian football goalkeeper
Vasil Kirov (born 1975), Bulgarian footballer
Vasil Kiryienka (born 1981), Belarusian racing cyclist for UCI ProTeam Team Sky
Vasil Kochev (born 1988), Bulgarian professional footballer
Vasil Kolarov (1877–1950), Bulgarian communist political leader and leading functionary in the Communist International
Vasil Kutinchev (born 1859), Bulgarian officer
Vasil Laçi (1922–1941), Albanian patriot and monarchist; attempted to kill the King of Italy and Prime Minister of Albania
Vasil Mzhavanadze (1902–1988), the First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Georgian SSR from 1953 to 1972
Vasil Naydenov, Bulgarian singer-songwriter, popular in Bulgaria and the Eastern bloc during the late 1970s and 1980s
Vasil Panayotov (born 1990), Bulgarian football player
Vasil Radoslavov (1854–1929), leading Bulgarian liberal politician who twice served as Prime Minister
Vasil Ringov (born 1955), retired Macedonian football player
Vasil Ruci, retired Albanian football striker
Vasil Shanto (1913–1944), Albanian communist leader and a hero of World War II
Vasil Shkurti (born 1992), Albanian footballer
Vasil Sikharulidze (born 1968), Georgian diplomat and politician
Vasil Slavov (born 1958), Bulgarian author and poet
Vasil Spasov (chess player) (born 1971), Bulgarian chess grandmaster
Vasil Tole (born 1963), Albanian composer of European classical music
Vasil Tsereteli (1862–1937), distinguished Georgian physician, journalist and public benefactor
Vasil Tupurkovski, Macedonian academic, politician and the current president of the Macedonian Olympic Committee
Vasil Varlamos (born 1942), former Australian rules footballer who played for Carlton in the Victorian Football League (VFL) during the early 1960s
Vasil Vasilev (goalkeeper) (born 1976), Bulgarian footballer
Vasil Vasilev (Plovdiv footballer) (born 1984), Bulgarian football defender
Vasil Velev (born 1984), Bulgarian football player
Vasil Yakusha (born 1956), Belarusian former rower who competed for the Soviet Union in the 1980 Summer Olympics and in the 1988 Summer Olympics
Vasil Zacharka (1877–1943), Belarusian statesman and the second president of the Belarusian People's Republic in exile
Vasil Zlatarski, Bulgarian historian-medievalist, archaeologist, and epigraphist

See also
Vasil Levski (disambiguation)
"Vasil Vasiltsiv", song by Esthetic Education devoted to young Ukrainian singer Vasyl Vasyltsiv
Vassil, masculine given name and a surname
 (Serbian Cyrillic: Васиљ), Serbian masculine given name
 (Belarusian: Васіль), Belarusian masculine given name
 (Ukrainian: Василь), Ukrainian masculine given name
Vasiliy (Russian: Василий), Russian masculine given name

Bulgarian masculine given names
Masculine given names
Macedonian masculine given names
Georgian masculine given names

Vasil


Olalekan Babalola (born ) is a Nigerian jazz percussionist and musician. Born in Lagos, Nigeria where he began playing the conga at a young age, he has released seven albums and jointly won two Grammy Awards.

Early life and education
Babalola was born in Lagos State, South-Western Nigeria where he attended Bishop Oluwole Primary School, Agege for his basic education before proceeding to Iwo in the old Oyo State for his secondary school education. At the age of six, he had started playing the conga at his father's Aladura church and later formed a patchwork band with his peers.

In 1980, he left Nigeria for the United Kingdom to study automobile engineering at the Chelsea College of Aeronautical and Automobile Engineering after he won a Lagos State Scholarship. Babalola however dropped the engineering programme for music and later enrolled at the Central Saint Martin's College of Art and Design where he studied filmmaking. He proceeded to the Northern Film School where he completed his master's degree.

Career
He began his professional career after joining a band called Samba Samba Band and later New York City-based Art Blakey's Jazz Messengers band, where he perfected playing the Bongo drums and performing jazz music. Upon his return to the U.K, Babalola later went on to work with notable acts including Prince, Ernest Ranglin, Branford Marsalis, African Jazz All Stars, Roy Ayers, David Byrne, Damon Albarn, Tony Allen amongst others. In 2006, he became Nigeria's first Grammy Award winner for his work on Ali Farka Touré's In the Heart of the Moon which he was credited in three tracks. He also won a second Grammy in 2009 for his work on Cassandra Wilson's 2008 album titled Loverly.

References

External links

1960 births
Living people
Yoruba musicians
Jazz percussionists
Nigerian jazz musicians
People from Lagos State
Atomic Bomb! Band members

Lekan Babalola


Joshua Soule (August 1, 1781 – March 6, 1867) was an American bishop of the Methodist Episcopal Church (elected in 1824), and then of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South.

Birth and rebirth
Born to Joshua and Mary (Cushman) Soule at Broad Cove in Bristol (now Bremen), Maine, Soule was the seventh child in a Norman-English family. He was the great-great-great-grandson of George Soule, who in 1620 arrived at Plymouth, Massachusetts as a Mayflower Pilgrim, eventually becoming a prominent Duxbury landowner. In the autumn of 1781, not long after this Joshua Soule's birth, the Soules moved to Avon where his father, a former sea captain from Duxbury, was an original settler along the Sandy River. Joshua, the son of Joshua, married Sarah Allen in 1803.

Although his parents were strict Presbyterians, the adolescent Joshua Soule converted to the Methodist Episcopal faith in 1797, joining the New England Annual Conference in 1799.

Ministry
He became known as a "Boy Preacher," and an opponent of Calvinism, Unitarianism and Universalism. Tall, dignified and able, Soule was ordained, both deacon and elder, by Bishop Richard Whatcoat. He was appointed a presiding elder at the age of 23, placed in charge of the state of Maine. He also served as a book agent for the M.E. Church. In 1820, he was elected bishop, but declined consecration because the General Conference had adopted a policy he could not approve. He did accept episcopal consecration upon being elected again in 1824.

In the 1844 split of the M. E. Church, he sided with the Methodist Episcopal Church, South. Soule University in Texas was named in his honor in 1856. At that time there was another Methodist institution of higher learning named for Joshua Soule, Soule College in Murfreesboro, Tennessee.

At the age of 85 he was worn out with labor and travel. He died in Nashville in 1867; his body was buried at the old Nashville City Cemetery.  In  1876 it was reinterred on the campus of Vanderbilt University.

Selected writings
is said by Bishop DuBose (Life of Bishop Joshua Soule) to have been "the man who at the age of 27 wrote the Constitution of Methodism."
is said by Bishop Simpson (Cyclopedia of Methodism) to have been the "author of the plan for a delegated General Conference."
Sketch of William Beauchamp in Beauchamp's Letters on Itinerancy, published after his death.
Sermon on Death of McKendree, delivered at General Conference, brochure, 30 pp., 1836.
Christ the Author of Salvation, Akers, T.P., Sermons for the College, 1851.
Sermon:  Infant Baptism, The Southern Methodist Pulpit, Vol. II, C.F. Deems, Editor, 1849-52.
Object and Nature of Religious Worship.  Discourse at Dedication of John St. Church, N.Y.C., 4 January 1818, published 1857.
Sermon:  "The Perfect Law of Liberty," Methodist Pulpit, South, W.T.Smithson, Editor, 1859.
Sermon in Sermons for the Home Circle, T.P. Akers, Editor, 1859.
Religious Experience and Happy Death of Miss Eliza Higgins, 40 pp., n.d.

Biographies
Stevens, A., Memorials of Methodism, 1848.
Sketch by L.M.L. in Deems, C.F., Southern Methodist Pulpit, 1849-52.
Wightman, W.M., Address in Appreciation of Bishop Soule, written manuscript, 1867, in the Methodist Bishops' Collection.
Sketch by Tefft, B.F., in Flood and Hamilton, Lives of Methodist Bishops, 1882.
Memorial Sermon, funeral of Joshua Soule, 1867, in McTyeire, H.N., Passing Through the Gates and Other Sermons,  1889.
Denny, Collins, Joshua Soule, Sketch of Life, in Armstrong, J.E., Old Baltimore Conference, 1907.
Dubose, H.M., Life of Joshua Soule, 1911.
Garber, P.N., Young Man from Maine, Epworth Highroad,  May 1940.

See also
 List of bishops of the United Methodist Church
 Soule University

References
 Leete, Frederick DeLand, Methodist Bishops.  Nashville, The Methodist Publishing House, 1948.
Short, Roy Hunter, Chosen to be Consecrated:  The Bishops of The Methodist Church, 1784-1968, Lake Junaluska, N.C., General Commission on Archives and History of the United Methodist Church, 1976.

External links

Stuart A. Rose Manuscript, Archives, and Rare Book Library, Emory University: Joshua Soule papers, 1816-1883

1781 births
1867 deaths
People from Bremen, Maine
American Methodist Episcopal bishops
Bishops of the Methodist Episcopal Church
Bishops of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South
American sermon writers
Methodist ministers
Methodist theologians
19th-century Methodist bishops

Joshua Soule


The Mangler is a 1995 horror film directed by Tobe Hooper and written by Hooper and Harry Alan Towers (under the pseudonym of Peter Welbeck). The film is based upon the Stephen King 1972 short story of the same name, which appeared in his 1978 inaugural short story collection Night Shift. It stars Robert Englund and Ted Levine. It also spawned two sequels, The Mangler 2 and The Mangler Reborn.

Plot
The Mangler, in Gartley's Blue Ribbon Laundry service, is a laundry press owned by Bill Gartley. The trouble starts when Gartley's niece, Sherry, accidentally cuts herself on a lever connected to the machine and splashes blood on the Mangler's tread while trying to avoid being crushed by an old ice box some movers are clumsily carrying past. Sparks and light streams occur when both the blood and the ice box come into close contact with the Mangler. Later, Mrs. Frawley, an elderly worker, struggling to open a bottle of antacids, spills them on the moving tread. When she attempts to collect them, the safety shield inexplicably lifts up and traps her hand inside, followed by her entire body getting pulled into the machine, crushed and folded like a sheet.

Police officer John Hunton, with the help of his demonologist brother-in-law Mark, investigates the incident and others that soon follow. As the plot progresses, Mark tries to convince Hunton that the machine may be possessed, especially after seeing the possessed ice box, and the only way to stop the deaths is to exorcise the machine to dispel whatever demon is inhabiting it. They also come to learn Gartley and the town elders have all sacrificed their virginal daughters to the machine on their 16th birthdays in exchange for wealth and power, with Gartley planning to do the same to Sherry to complete his end of the bargain.

With Sherry's help, the two men attempt to exorcise the demon – which also kills Gartley, his lover and protégé Lin Sue and the laundry's foreman Stanner – by reciting a prayer and administering holy water. The machine gives one last groan and shuts down. As the three sigh with relief, Hunton takes some antacids, admitting to Mark that they belonged to Mrs. Frawley. Mark suddenly realises that the key ingredient in the antacids is deadly nightshade, also called "the Hand of Glory" as outlined in his occult book. Since the machine was accidentally fed the same antacids, Mark realises that not only was the exorcism useless, as the demon is still alive, it is now stronger than ever. The machine bursts to life and now appears to have a mind of its own, shedding pieces of metal and rising up like a wild beast. The three run through the warehouse, chased by the now-mobile Mangler. The Mangler tears Mark apart, killing him, while John and Sherry descend a flight of stairs, where Sherry attempts to give herself to the Mangler to stop it, but John stops her. In their hurry to escape, they fall through a large manhole into the sewer below, the machine struggling to get to them. Suddenly, something falls from the machine into the water and a mechanical wail ensues. The machine draws back and becomes still, and John and Sherry escape.

While waiting to hear news of Sherry, John receives a letter from his departed friend and confidant, photographer J.J.J. Pictureman, who warns him not to trust anyone in the town missing a body part as they are possessed by the Mangler. Time passes and John drops in on her. However, to his great dismay, he discovers the machine has returned to its place on the floor and resumed its duties as a speed ironer and Sherry, now missing her ring finger from her encounter with the Mangler, has taken her uncle's place as the new tyrannical owner of the Blue Ribbon Laundry. He throws away the flowers he brought her and leaves the factory for good.

Cast
 Robert Englund as William "Bill" Gartley
 Daniel Matmor as Mark Jackson
 Ted Levine as Officer John Hunton
 Vanessa Pike as Sherry Ouelette
 Jeremy Crutchley as JJJ Pictureman / Mortician
 Lisa Morris as Lin Sue
 Demetre Phillips as George Stanner
 Vera Blacker as Mrs. Frawley

Release
The Mangler was released in the US on 3 March 1995. New Line Home Entertainment released it on DVD on 17 August 2004.

In its first week, it underperformed and took in $1.1M on 800 screens at the US box office. It also failed in the European box office.

Reception
On film review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds a 27% approval rating based on 11 reviews. Richard Harrington of The Washington Post wrote, "The Mangler is ludicrous from start to finish: its plot lines dangle, its effects fail to dazzle and the acting and directing are uniformly bad. [...] even the least demanding of genre fans will be hard-pressed to tremble in its presence". Marc Savlov of The Austin Chronicle wrote: "Perhaps it's time for Tobe Hooper to hang up his light meter. After a string of disappointments culminating in this silly waste of time, it's hard to care if horror's golden boy carries on or not". Godfrey Cheshire of Variety called its villain a "silly contrivance" and described the acting and story as lackluster. Stephen Holden of The New York Times called it "a potpourri of supernatural cliches and warmed-over Stephen King notions about corruption randomly stuck together with fill-in-the-blanks dialogue". David Kronke of the Los Angeles Times wrote: "Consider, for a second, what you might honestly expect from a movie called The Mangler. Well, it doesn't even aim that high". Steven Rea of The Philadelphia Inquirer called it a "plodding and virtually plotless" film that should have been played for laughs. Stephen Hunter of The Baltimore Sun stated the film recycles common Stephen King themes, but the film's novelty makes it enjoyable for horror fans.

The Mangler fared somewhat better with retrospective reviews from critics. Bloody Disgusting rated it 3/5 stars and wrote that the film "is not good by any objective standards, but it's a fun little gory time-killer with a possessed refrigerator and an evil laundry press. That can't be all bad". Jon Condit of Dread Central rated it 3.5/5 stars and wrote: "The Mangler is a true test for the guilty pleasure connoisseur. Bad in every respect, there are definitely worse ways to blow two hours of your time (this film's sequel comes to mind); it's just a shame Hooper was implicated in it". Mike Long of DVD Talk rated it 0.5/5 stars and wrote: "There have been many bad, throw-away projects based on material from Stephen King, but The Mangler has to be one of the worst. The movie's laughable premise is only brought down by the inept filmmaking on display here". David Johnson of DVD Verdict wrote that the film "features a lot of gore, a solid, creepy atmosphere, some wonky special effects, all set against a really dumb premise".

Film critic Scout Tafoya of RogerEbert.com included The Mangler in his video series "The Unloved", where he highlights films which received mixed to negative reviews yet he believes to have artistic value. Tafoya considers the film to be "up there with [Christine] and [The Shining]" as among the best Stephen King adaptations, "in that it's a stylistic representation of the director's obsessions, not just a boilerplate transposition of his text". Tafoya further lamented that "[i]t's perversely fitting that his greatest failure is about the very machinery of capitalism that would imprison him in the world of low-budget productions.... The Mangler was a kind of oddball film with an unknowable center that had become a rarity in American cinema. That just makes it that much more special".

See also
 Death Bed: The Bed That Eats, another horror film with an inanimate antagonist

References

External links

1995 films
Films based on short fiction
Films based on works by Stephen King
1990s supernatural horror films
American supernatural horror films
South African horror films
1990s English-language films
English-language South African films
New Line Cinema films
Films directed by Tobe Hooper
1990s American films

The Mangler (film)


The Frick Collection is an art museum in New York City. Its permanent collection (normally at the Henry Clay Frick House, currently at the Frick Madison) features Old Master paintings and European fine and decorative arts, including works by Bellini, Fragonard, Goya, Holbein, Rembrandt, Titian, Turner, Velázquez, Vermeer, Thomas Gainsborough, and many others. The museum was founded by the industrialist Henry Clay Frick (1849–1919), and its collection has more than doubled in size since opening to the public in 1935. The Frick also houses the Frick Art Reference Library, a premier art history research center established in 1920 by Helen Clay Frick (1888–1984).

History

The Frick Collection became a public institution when Henry Clay Frick bequeathed his art collection, as well as his Upper East Side residence at 1 East 70th Street, to the public for the enjoyment of future generations.

Frick started his substantial collection as soon as he began amassing his fortune. A considerable portion of his art collection is located in his former residence "Clayton" in Pittsburgh, which is today a part of the Frick Art & Historical Center. Another part was given by his daughter and heiress Helen to the Frick Fine Arts Building, which is on the campus of the University of Pittsburgh.

The family did not permanently move from Pittsburgh to New York until 1905. Henry Frick initially leased the William H. Vanderbilt House at 640 Fifth Avenue, to which he moved a substantial portion of his collection. He had his permanent residence built between 1912 and 1914 by Thomas Hastings of Carrère and Hastings. He stayed in the house until his death in 1919. He willed the house and all of its contents, including the works of art, furniture, and decorative objects, as a public museum. His widow Adelaide Howard Childs Frick, however, retained the right of residence and continued living in the mansion with her daughter Helen. After Adelaide Frick died in 1931, the conversion of the house into a public museum started.

John Russell Pope altered and enlarged the building in the early 1930s to adapt it to use as a public institution. It opened to the public on December 16, 1935. Various additions to the architecture and landscape architecture of the museum site have been considered over the years including the placement of a prominent magnolia garden from the 1930s. As stated by the museum announcements: "As a result of a decision of the Board of Trustees in 1939, three magnolias were selected for the Fifth Avenue garden. The two trees on the lower tier are Saucer Magnolias (Magnolia soulangeana) and the species on the upper tier by the flagpole is a Star Magnolia (Magnolia stellata)."

Expansion and controversy
Additional expansions of the museum took place in 1977 and in 2011. In 2014, the museum announced further expansion plans, but came up against community opposition because it would result in the loss of a garden designed by noted British landscape architect Russell Page. Landscape preservation advocate Charles A. Birnbaum of The Cultural Landscape Foundation garnered widespread attention when he and others disproved statements that the garden had been intended as only a temporary installation. The garden was saved when Birnbaum produced a contradictory original document issued by the Frick clearly identifying the space as a permanent garden. The Frick ultimately dropped those plans and is said to be considering other options.

In March 2021, the Collection temporarily relocated to Frick Madison, at the Marcel Breuer-designed building at 945 Madison Avenue, during the renovation of the Henry Clay Frick House.

Collection
The Frick is one of the preeminent small art museums in the United States, with a high-quality collection of old master paintings and fine furniture housed in nineteen galleries of varying size within the former residence. Frick had intended the mansion to become a museum eventually, and a few of the paintings are still arranged according to Frick's design. Besides its permanent collection, the Frick has always organized small, focused temporary exhibitions.

The collection features some of the best-known paintings by major European artists as well as numerous works of sculpture and porcelain. It also has 18th-century French furniture, Limoges enamel, and Oriental rugs. After Frick's death, his daughter, Helen Clay Frick, and the Board of Trustees expanded the collection: nearly half of the collection's artworks have been acquired since 1919. Although the museum cannot lend the works of art that belonged to Frick, as stipulated in his will, The Frick Collection does lend artworks and objects acquired since his death.

Included in the collection are Jean-Honoré Fragonard's masterpiece The Progress of Love, three paintings by Johannes Vermeer including Mistress and Maid, two paintings by Jacob van Ruisdael including Quay at Amsterdam, and Piero della Francesca's St. John the Evangelist.

Temporary exhibits
When the Mauritshuis in The Hague was under reconstruction in 2013 some of its works, including Vermeer's Girl with a Pearl Earring and Carel Fabritius's The Goldfinch, toured the United States and, in New York, were exhibited at the Frick.

Frick Art Reference Library

The Frick Collection oversees the nearby Frick Art Reference Library. The collections held at the library focus on art of the Western tradition from the fourth century to the mid-twentieth century, and chiefly include information about paintings, drawings, sculpture, prints, and illuminated manuscripts. Archival materials augment its research collections. Prior to opening in 1924, Helen Clay Frick used the basement bowling alley as storage space for the library. The library quickly became known as a prime resource for students.

Management

Attendance
According to The Art Newspaper, the Frick Collection has a typical annual attendance of 275,000 to 300,000.

Governance
In 2011, Ian Wardropper succeeded Anne Poulet, who had run the Frick Collection as director since 2003. Poulet took the position after Samuel Sachs II stepped down after running the institution for six years. Poulet was the first female director of the Frick. During her time at the Frick Collection, Poulet increased the museum's small board of trustees, adding 10 new members. She also introduced the Director's Circle, a group of 44 members who each give a minimum of $25,000 a year to the Frick Collection, although many have made significantly larger contributions.

Funding
By 1997, the Frick Collection had an operating budget of $10 million and an endowment of $170 million. Despite its large endowment, the institution still needs money to preserve the building.

Education
In 2008, the Frick hired Rika Burnham as head of their education department. Burnham introduced several changes to the museum, including the introduction of monthly free entrance to the museum, called First Fridays. First Fridays include gallery talks and activities for visitors.

Artworks

Featured artists include:

 Giovanni Bellini (St. Francis in Ecstasy)
 François Boucher
 Cimabue
 John Constable
 Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot
 Aelbert Cuyp
 Jacques-Louis David
 Gentile da Fabriano
 Jean-Honoré Fragonard
 El Greco
 Thomas Gainsborough
 Joshua Reynolds
 Francisco Goya
 Frans Hals
 Malvina Hoffman
 Hans Holbein the Younger
 Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres
 Rembrandt
 Pierre-Auguste Renoir
 Andrea Riccio

 Jacob van Ruisdael
 Barna da Siena
 Titian
 J. M. W. Turner
 Diego Velázquez
 Johannes Vermeer
 Anthony van Dyck
 Jan van Eyck
 James McNeill Whistler

Selected highlights

See also
 Sèvres pot-pourri vase in the shape of a ship
 Cooper–Hewitt, National Design Museum

References
Notes

Further reading

  (Press Release, October 11, 2006, Retrieved November 8, 2013)
 Bernice Davidson, Susan Galassi. Art in the Frick Collection : Paintings, Sculpture, Decorative Arts. Harry N Abrams. 1996.
 Scala Publishers. Frick Collection: Handbook of Paintings. Scala Arts & Heritage. 2006.
 Bernice Davidson, Edgar Munhall, Nadia Tscherny. Paintings from the Frick Collection . Harry N. Abrams. 1991.
 Colin B. Bailey. Fragonard's Progress of Love at The Frick Collection. GILES. 2011.
 Joseph Focarino. The Frick Collection, An Illustrated Catalogue. Volume IX: Drawings, Prints, and Later Acquisitions. Frick Collection. 2003.
 Xavier Salomon, with Aimee Ng and Giulio Dalvit. Cocktails with a Curator: The Frick Collection. New York: Rizzoli Electa. 2022. . Review

External links

Virtual tour of the Frick Collection provided by Google Arts & Culture
 The Frick Collection, Archives Directory for the History of Collecting in America

1935 establishments in New York City
Art museums established in 1935
Art museums and galleries in New York City
Fifth Avenue
Former private collections in the United States
Frick Art Reference Library
Museums in Manhattan
Upper East Side

Frick Collection


Atenulf I (died 2 February 1062) was the Lombard count of Aquino who rose to become Duke of Gaeta in Southern Italy during the chaotic middle of the eleventh century.

Atenulf married the senatrix Maria, daughter of Pandulf IV of Capua, and his brother Lando married another daughter of Pandulf. After the death of Ranulf Drengot, Count of Aversa, in June 1045, his cousin Asclettin succeeded in Aversa, but the Gaetans elected the Lombard Atenulf as their duke. Guaimar IV of Salerno, the suzerain of both Aversa and Gaeta, intervened on Asclettin's behalf and he defeated Atenulf in battle and took him prisoner. At this time, however, Pandulf, the natural ally of Atenulf, was assaulting the lands of the abbey of Monte Cassino with Lando. Lando captured the abbot Richer and in return for the abbot's freedom and his assistance in battling Pandulf, Atenulf was freed and recognised in possession of Gaeta.

In Fall 1058, Atenulf's eldest son, who was betrothed to a daughter of Richard I of Capua, died. Richard demanded the dower nevertheless. The duke refused and consequently Richard besieged and took Aquino, one of the few feudatories of Gaeta remaining. Desiderius of Benevento, the new abbot of Montecassino, convinced Richard to extort only 400 sous from the duke, however.

Atenulf died in 1062 and was succeeded by his second son, Atenulf II. Aquino was ruled by all four of his sons: Atenulf, Lando, Pandulf, and Landulf.

Notes

Sources
Norwich, John Julius. The Normans in the South 1016–1130. Longmans: London, 1967.
Chalandon, Ferdinand. Histoire de la domination normande en Italie et en Sicilie. Paris, 1907.

11th-century births
1062 deaths
Atenulf 1

Atenulf I of Gaeta


The Excelsior Brass Band was a brass band from New Orleans active between 1879 and 1931. It was one of the earliest recognized brass bands on the New Orleans jazz scene.

The Excelsior was founded in 1879 by Théogène Baquet, who led it until 1904; following this it was led by George Moret (1904-1922) and then Peter Bocage, who led it from 1922 until its dissolution in 1931. The band typically held ten to twelve members, including three cornets or trumpets, two trombones, two clarinets, an alto horn, a baritone horn, a tuba, a snare drum, and a bass drum. Their repertory included marches, dance pieces, dirges, and hymns. Among its members were John Robichaux, George Baquet, Alphonse Picou, Luis Tio (Lorenzo Tio's uncle), Lorenzo Tio Sr. (Lorenzo Tio's father), Honore Dutrey, Sam Dutrey Sr. (Sam Dutrey's father), Isidore Barbarin, Albert Snaer, Louis Cottrell Sr., and Willie Humphrey.

References
William J. Schafer, "Excelsior Brass Band". Grove Jazz online.

American jazz ensembles from New Orleans
Brass bands from New Orleans

Excelsior Brass Band


Anthony Horneck  (; 1641–1697) was a German Protestant clergyman and scholar who made his career in England. He became an influential evangelical figure in London from the later 1670s, in partnership with Richard Smithies, curate of St Giles Cripplegate.

Life

Horneck was born in 1641 at Bacharach, where his father was 'recorder' of the town, and brought him up as a Protestant. He studied at Heidelberg University under Friedrich Spanheim the Younger, then professor of divinity. He came to England about 1661, and became a member of The Queen's College, Oxford, 24 December 1663. There he was made chaplain by Thomas Barlow as Provost, and afterwards bishop of Lincoln. He was incorporated MA 15 March 1664.

He was presented by Lincoln College to the vicarage of All Saints, Oxford. In 1665 he became tutor to Christopher Monck, Lord Torrington, son of George Monck, 1st Duke of Albemarle The duke gave him the living of Dolton in Devon, and procured for him a prebend at Exeter Cathedral, where he was admitted 13 June 1670. In 1669 he visited Germany, and was received at the court of the Charles I Louis, Elector Palatine. In 1671 he was appointed preacher at the Savoy Hospital, and soon afterwards married.

He became so popular as a preacher to overflowing congregations that it was said that his parish extended from Whitechapel to Whitehall, reported by Richard Kidder; and John Evelyn's Diary (18 March 1683) calls him 'a most pathetic preacher and a person of saint-like life.' He resigned Dolton on obtaining the Savoy preachership; he had to hire a house near his church, became the father of four children, and gave to charity with an open hand. Kidder also says that he injured any chance of preferment by the plainness of his reproofs to great men. When John Tillotson was consulted by the Countess of Bedford on the appointment to the church of Covent Garden. Horneck's name had been suggested, but he was rejected on account of his unpopularity in the parish. He took the oaths to William III and Mary II; Kidder states that he lost many patrons at this time.

He further gave offence by his share in founding one of the Societies for the Reformation of Manners. Gilbert Burnet says that Horneck and William Beveridge were leaders in this movement just before the Glorious Revolution.

He became a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1669 and received the DD degree from Cambridge in 1681. In January 1689 Horneck was appointed one of eight chaplains to King William. Edward Russell recommended him to the Queen, who obtained for him a promise from Tillotson of the next vacant prebend at Westminster Abbey. He was accordingly installed 1 July 1693. He resigned his prebend at Exeter, but was admitted to a prebend at Wells Cathedral, which required no residence, by his friend Bishop Kidder, 28 September 1694.

Works

A student of the Bible and religious literature, and a casuist consulted in cases of conscience, Horneck was well read in Arabic, Hebrew, and rabbinical literature. He wrote little in controversy, but took an anti-Catholic line during the reign of James II. His books are mainly devotional, and went through many editions down to 1730; some reprints appeared from 1846.

His works are:

 The Great Law of Consideration … wherein the nature, usefulness, and absolute necessity of Consideration, to a … religious life, are laid open, 1676; 11th edit. 1729.
 Letter to a Lady, revolted from the Romish Church (given by Kidder, not in the British Museum).
 The happy Ascetick; or the Best Exercise …; to which is added, A Letter to a Person of Quality concerning the Holy Lives of the Primitive Christians, 1681; 6th edit. 1724, for which William Hogarth engraved a frontispiece (The "Letter" was reprinted in 1849, and in the Churchman's Library, 1853).
 Delight and Judgment; or the Great Assize …, 1683 (where the first title appears to have been the Sirenes; see Short Account); 3rd edit. 1705.
 The Fire of the Altar; or certain Directions how to raise the Soul into holy Flames before, at, and after the receiving of the … Lord's Supper. Appended is A Dialogue betwixt a Christian and his own Conscience, 1683; 13th edit. 1718.
 The Exercise of Prayer (supplementary to the last), 1685.
 First Fruits of Reason, 1685.
 The Crucified Jesus; or a full account of the … Sacrament of the Lord's Supper, 1686; 7th edit. 1727.
 Questions and Answers concerning the two Religions, 1688.
 Advice to Parents, 1690.
 An Answer to the Soldier's Question (mentioned by Kidder).
 Several Sermons upon the Fifth of St. Matthew, being part of Christ's Sermon on the Mount, 2nd edit. 1706, with life by Kidder.

Horneck published separate sermons. He translated from the French An Antidote against a Careless Indifferency … in 1683; and supervised a translation of Royaumont's History of the Old and New Testaments, 1690. He added accounts of witchcraft in Sweden to the later editions of the Sadducismus Triumphatus of Joseph Glanvill, and wrote a preface to Glanvill's Remains, 1681. He attended Borosky and Stern, convicted of the murder of Thomas Thynne in 1682, and with Gilbert Burnet published an account of their confessions and behaviour. On 5 May 1689, Edward Sclater, vicar of Putney, who had gone over to Rome under James II, recanted publicly at the Savoy, and Horneck published an account of the affair.

Family
Three of his four children survived him:
Philip; abused in the Dunciad
William, army officer, father of Kane William Horneck
A daughter; married Robert Barnevald then Captain Warre.

Death
Anthony Horneck died 31 January 1697, after much suffering from kidney stones, and was buried in Westminster Abbey.

Notes

External links

1641 births
1697 deaths
German Anglicans
Fellows of the Royal Society
Canons of Westminster
German sermon writers
English sermon writers
17th-century German Protestant theologians
Anglican theologians
English people of German descent

Anthony Horneck


Ross A. Isaacs is a game designer who has worked primarily on role-playing games.
He had done a scattering of freelance work for Alderac Entertainment Group and Chaosium before doing more extensive work for Holistic Designs. Isaacs contributed to Chaosium's Nephilim line, and ended up at Last Unicorn Games (LUG) shortly thereafter. As a new employee at LUG, he did the initial work on the "Icon" system for their Star Trek games, and after the design of Icon was done, he was made line developer for the Star Trek: The Next Generation Role-playing Game (1998). Isaacs remained with Last Unicorn when the company was bought first by Wizards of the Coast and then by Decipher, Inc. and in February 2001 Decipher offered the remaining Last Unicorn staff jobs in their new roleplaying department. Isaacs eventually returned to New York.

References

External links

Living people
Role-playing game designers
Year of birth missing (living people)

Ross Isaacs


Blood of Heroes is a superhero role-playing game published by Pulsar Games. It was a successor to DC Heroes and used that game's Mayfair Exponential Game System, or MEGS. Blood of Heroes is set in its own fictional world, rather than the DC universe.

Game mechanics
The system features a comparative style of mechanics in which Acting Attributes are compared to Opposing Attributes on one chart, then Effect Attributes are compared to Resistance Attributes on a linked chart. It is a point-based system starting with a base of 450 Hero Points to create a character, which allows the player to design a character typical to sidekick power levels. In the system there is the option to increase this amount by 450 point amounts to make more powerful characters. Unlike the DC Heroes game, this increase does not also increase the costs of Advantages and Drawbacks.

Setting
The actual world included with the game is a 1990s style superhero world with a heavy influence of occult and magical beings, which accounts for the much more detailed magic system included in the game.

Publication history
After Mayfair Games stopped publishing DC Heroes, the rights to the game's mechanics were licensed to a new company called Pulsar Games, who was trying to acquire them even before the original Mayfair went under. Pulsar published the super-hero game Blood of Heroes (1998), which was nearly identical to third edition DC Heroes, minus the DC characters. The original Blood of Heroes was criticized due to poor artwork. A second edition, titled "Blood of Heroes: Special Edition" (pictured above) was printed in 2000 and featured expanded rules and new artwork, including cover art by Dave Dorman. The company went out of business in 2003.

In 2004 Pulsar Games was sold to new owners. Since then, nothing has been done official with the game, leaving it inactive.

References

External links
Official site
Primary fan site

Alternate history role-playing games
Campaign settings
Superhero role-playing games

Blood of Heroes (role-playing game)


Ion of Chios (; ; c. 490/480 – c. 420 BC) was a Greek writer, dramatist, lyric poet and philosopher. He was a contemporary of Aeschylus, Euripides and Sophocles. Of his many plays and poems only a few titles and fragments have survived. He also wrote some prose works, including a Pythagorean text, the Triagmos, of which a few fragments survive.

Life
He was the son of Orthomenes, and was surnamed the son of Xuthus: probably a nickname alluding to Xuthus, the father of the mythical Ion. When very young he went to Athens, where he enjoyed the society of Cimon, of whom he left laudatory notices in some of his works which are quoted by Plutarch. Plutarch informs us that Ion severely criticised Pericles, who is said to have been his rival in love. Ion was familiarly acquainted with Aeschylus, if we may believe an anecdote related by Plutarch, but he did not come forward as a tragedian till after Aeschylus' death. We also learn from Ion himself that he met Sophocles at Chios, when the latter was commander of the expedition against Samos, 440 BC.

His first tragedy was brought out in the 82nd Olympiad (452 BC); he is mentioned as third in competition with Euripides and Iophon, in Olympiad 87.4 (429-8 BC); and he died before 421 BC, as appears from the Peace of Aristophanes, which was brought out in that year. Only one victory of Ion's is mentioned, on which occasion, it is said, having gained the dithyrambic and tragic prizes at the same time, he presented every Athenian with a pitcher of Chian wine. Hence it would seem that he was a man of considerable wealth. He is mentioned by Strabo among the celebrated men of Chios.

Works
The number of his tragedies is variously stated at 12, 30, and 40. We have the titles and a few fragments of eleven plays, namely, Agamemnon; Alcmene; Argeioi; Eurytidai; Laertes; Mega Drama; Omphale; Phoinix or Kaineus; Phoinix Deuteros (The Second Phoenix); Phrouroi; and Teucer. The Omphale was a satyric drama. Pseudo-Longinus describes the style of Ion's tragedies as marked by petty refinements and want of boldness, and he adds an expression that no one in his senses would compare the value of the Oedipus with that of all the tragedies of Ion taken together. Nevertheless, he was greatly admired, chiefly, it would seem, for a sort of elegant wit. There are some beautiful passages in the extant fragments of his tragedies. Commentaries were written upon him by Arcesilaus, Baton of Sinope, Didymus, Epigenes, and even by Aristarchus. Besides his tragedies, we are told by the scholiast on Aristophanes, that Ion also wrote lyric poems, comedies, epigrams, paeans, hymns, scholia, and elegies. Some remnants of his elegies are in the Greek Anthology.

His prose works, mentioned by the scholiast on Aristophanes, are one called Presbeutikon (Πρεσβευτικόν), which some thought spurious; Ktisis (Κτίσις); Kosmologikos (Κοσμολογικός); Hypomnemata (Ὑπομνήματα); and some others, which are not specified. The nature of the first of these works is not known. The full title of the Ktisis was Chiou Ktisis (Χίου Κτίσις): it was a historical work, in the Ionic dialect, and apparently in imitation of Herodotus: it was probably the same as the Syngraphe (Συγγραφή), which is quoted by Pausanias. The Kosmologikos is probably the same as the philosophical work, entitled Triagmos (Τριαγμός) or Triagmoi (Τριαγμοί), which seems to have been a treatise on the constitution of things according to the theory of triads; the few surviving fragments suggesting it had Pythagorean leanings. The Hypomnemata are by some writers identified with the Epidemiai (Ἐπιδημίαι) or Ekdemetikos (Ἐκδημητικός), which contained either an account of his own travels, or of the visits of famous people to Chios.

Notes

References
  Article: "Ion of Chios"
 Smith William. "Ion of Chios" ''Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.'' Volume 2.  p. 606

External links

480s BC births
5th-century BC writers
5th-century BC Greek philosophers
5th-century BC poets
Ancient Chians
Ancient Greek dramatists and playwrights
Ancient Greek metaphysicians
Old Comic poets
Tragic poets
Ancient Greek poets
Ancient Greek elegiac poets
Ancient Greek lyric poets
Pythagoreans
Metic philosophers in Classical Athens
420s BC deaths

Ion of Chios


Al-Mansur al-Qasim al-Iyyani (922? – July 11, 1003) was an imam of the Zaidi state in Yemen who briefly reestablished a comprehensive Zaidi realm in the years 999–1002.

Early activities

Al-Qasim bin Ali was a Sayyid from Tarj in the Khath'am region (present-day south-western Saudi Arabia). His year of birth is (doubtfully) given as 922 or 928. He was a great-great-grandson of al-Qasim al-Rassi (d. 860), a key figure in the emerging of the Zaydiyyah brand of Shi'a Islam. He received a reputation for religious learning from early age. For decades, Zaidi figures from Yemen visited him and asked him to intervene in the Yemeni highland. After the death of the Zaidi imam an-Nasir Ahmad in 934, political conditions had been unstable in the Zaydiyyah-influenced areas. In 993, al-Qasim proclaimed the imamate in Tihamah, but his movement was defeated in the next year by the governor of Mecca. Still, the Fatimid caliph treated al-Qasim with respect and courtesy.

Imam in Yemen

Al-Qasim invaded Yemen in 997 or 998 and appropriated Sa'dah, the traditional capital of the Zaydiyyah domain. As imam he was known as al-Mansur a-Qasim. He subsequently returned to Tarj, and his power in Yemen immediately crumbled. He then returned again, permanently, in 999. This time he was able to extend his power over an extensive area from Bilad Khath to San'a. However, he could not secure an outlet to the sea, and the lowland of Yemen was subjected to the Ziyadid dynasty in Zabid. Al-Mansur al-Qasim resided in Iyyan (Ayyan), south-east of Sad'ah, and therefore became known as al-Iyyani. He called on certain tribes to perform military service. One of his adherents composed a poem which emphasized the enthusiastic response among the tribesmen, and the role of the imam as a restorer: "Rise and lead the people, and send them with justice; remove darkness and ignorance from them. Restore the religion of your ancestor after it had disappeared, and inflict death upon your opponents."

Abdication

His position was nevertheless precarious, since other Rassids (descendants of al-Qasim ar-Rassi) claimed power over the Zaydiyyah community. After his failure to subdue the recalcitrant tribesmen of Banu Harith in Najran, he faced opposition from al-Malih Ibrahim and the former imam ad-Da'i Yusuf. The governor in Dhamar, az-Zaidi, rebelled and captured the imam's son Ja'far. A reconciliation took place in 1002. Az-Zaidi offered al-Mansur al-Qasim al-Iyyani to retain power over Bakil and Wada. The imam, however, preferred to retire from governance altogether. He lived a private life in Madhab and Iyyan where he wrote a text to his defence. He died in the following year in Iyyan. As a religious scholar, he followed al-Qasim ar-Rassi and al-Hadi ila'l-Haqq Yahya in the essentials, although he was also accused of theological deviations. After his death, the imamate was contested between his son al-Mahdi al-Husayn and the old imam ad-Da'i Yusuf.

See also

 Imams of Yemen
 History of Yemen

References

Zaydi imams of Yemen
920s births
1003 deaths
10th century in Yemen
11th century in Yemen
10th-century Arab people
11th-century Arab people
Rassid dynasty

Al-Mansur al-Qasim al-Iyyani


A main line of resistance (MLR) is the most important defensive position of an army facing an opposing force over an extended front. It does not consist of one trench or line of pillboxes, but rather a system, of varying degrees of complexity, of fighting positions and obstacles to slow enemy advances.

Definition
The United States Department of Defense defines main line of resistance as follows:

History of concept

The term first came into use on the Western Front of World War I, after fighting became stalemated. On 1 December 1916, the German General Staff ( or OHL) published The Principles of Command in the Defensive Battle in Position Warfare, by two general staff officers, Hermann Geyer and Max Bauer, which described the principles of an elastic defense in depth.

Under this concept, there were three zones: an outpost zone, a battle zone and a rearward zone. The lightly held outpost zone was there to provide warnings of attacks and repel enemy raids and patrols. Behind them was the main line of resistance, usually consisting of three successive trench lines. Where possible, the outpost zone was located on a forward slope and the main line on a reverse slope, obscured from direct observation by the enemy. Although this restricted the range of the defensive weapons, this was offset by the advantage of concealment, and the ability to surprise an attacker. The rearward zone consisted of another trench line  behind the MLR, depending on the terrain. It was not expected that the MLR could be held against a determined attack, only disrupt one, but a counterattack would be mounted from the rearward zone. The German pamphlet was translated into English and adopted by the British Expeditionary Force for the defensive battles of 1918.

During World War II, in which combat was relatively fluid, the term main line of resistance was used less often, and the positions the term described were usually less deep and complex than in World War I. However, there were exceptions, such as the French Maginot Line and Mareth Line, the German Westwall (Siegfried Line to the Allies), and the Soviet  Stalin Line. After the Korean War became static in 1951, MLR described the defensive positions of the US Eighth Army, a series of trenches and bunkers extending east to west across the Korean peninsula.

Notes

Land warfare

Main line of resistance


The McKinley Birthplace Memorial gold dollar was a commemorative coin struck by the United States Bureau of the Mint in 1916 and 1917, depicting the 25th President of the United States, William McKinley.  The coin's obverse was designed by Charles E. Barber, Chief Engraver of the Mint, and the reverse by his assistant, George T. Morgan.  As McKinley had appeared on a version of the 1903-dated Louisiana Purchase Exposition dollar, the 1916 release made him the first person to appear on two issues of U.S. coins.

The coins were to be sold at a premium to finance the National McKinley Birthplace Memorial at Niles, Ohio, and were vended by the group constructing it.  The issue was originally proposed as a silver dollar; this was changed when it was realized it would not be appropriate to honor a president who had supported the gold standard with such a piece. The coins were poorly promoted, and did not sell well. Despite an authorized mintage of 100,000, only about 30,000 were minted.  Of these, 20,000 were sold, many of these at a reduced price to Texas coin dealer B. Max Mehl. The remaining 10,000 pieces were returned to the Mint for melting.

Background

William McKinley was born in Niles, Ohio, in 1843. He left college to work as a teacher, and enlisted in the Union Army when the American Civil War broke out in 1861. He served throughout the war, ending it as a brevet major. Afterwards, he attended law school and was admitted to the bar.  He settled in Canton, Ohio, and after practicing there, was elected to Congress in 1876.  In 1890, he was defeated for re-election, but was elected governor the following year, serving two two-year terms.

With the aid of his close adviser Mark Hanna, he secured the Republican nomination for president in 1896, amid a deep economic depression. He defeated his Democratic rival, William Jennings Bryan, after a front porch campaign in which he advocated "sound money", that is, the gold standard unless modified by international agreement. This contrasted to "free silver", pushed by Bryan in his campaign.

McKinley was president during the Spanish–American War of 1898, in which the U.S. victory was quick and decisive. As part of the peace settlement, Spain turned over to the United States its overseas colonies of Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines. With the nation prosperous, McKinley defeated Bryan again in the 1900 presidential election. President McKinley was assassinated by Leon Czolgosz in September 1901, and was succeeded by Vice President Theodore Roosevelt.

In the years after McKinley's death, several memorials were built to him, including a large structure housing his remains at Canton. Another memorial was built at his birthplace in Niles under the auspices of the National McKinley Birthplace Memorial Association (the Association).  Designed by the firm of McKim, Mead, and White, the Greek Classic memorial was built of Georgia marble and was dedicated in 1917.  Housing a museum, library, and auditorium, as well as a statue of McKinley and busts of his associates, it remains open to the public, free of charge.

Inception and preparation

The McKinley Birthplace Memorial dollar was proposed as a fundraiser for the construction of the site in Niles. In February 1915, the Association's head, Joseph G. Butler, Jr., met with Ohio Congressman William A. Ashbrook, chairman of the House Committee on Coinage, Weights, and Measures, to propose a silver dollar in honor of McKinley.  Ashbrook was willing, and the two men saw Treasury Secretary William G. McAdoo and Acting Director of the Mint Frederic Dewey, who envisioned no difficulty.  Accordingly, Ashbrook introduced a bill in the final days of the 63rd Congress, which took no action on it.  When the 64th Congress opened in December 1915, Ashbrook reintroduced his bill, H.R. 2.

A hearing was held before Ashbrook's committee on January 13.  Originally, the bill called for mintage of 100,000 silver dollars in commemoration of McKinley, but at the hearing, Butler requested that they be gold instead, stating, "if you will recall the fact, McKinley was elected in 1896 mainly on the question of the gold standard." The gold dollar had not been struck as a circulating coin since 1889.  Asked a question from New York Congressman James W. Husted as to whether a gold dollar would be too small to be a souvenir, Butler responded, "No; I do not think so. I think, on the other hand, a silver dollar might be too large. I think we can dispose of gold dollars very much easier. Mr. Husted, and you know gold dollars are rather scarce just now." Ashbrook agreed, and stated:

Ohio Senator Warren G. Harding was present at the House committee meeting and spoke in favor of the bill, arguing that "this assistance on the part of the Federal Government will cost nothing more than the making of the dies".  On being told that the dies, per the legislation, would be at the Association's expense, Harding replied, "I did not notice that. Then, it essentially costs the Government nothing whatever to render this mark of tribute and assistance." The committee reported the bill favorably on January 18, amending the bill to allow for the 100,000 gold dollars, to be purchased by the Association at par and sold at a profit to help build the memorial. The report indicated that the committee members "believe it is a deserved testimonial to the worth and service of a great man who lost his life while serving our Nation as its Chief Executive". The bill passed the House on February 7, 1916, and the Senate on February 15. It was enacted when President Woodrow Wilson signed it on February 23, 1916.

The act provided that no more than 100,000 pieces be struck, with the necessary gold bullion to be acquired in the open market. The Association could purchase the coins at face value. The act required that the pieces be struck at the Philadelphia Mint, one of only two pieces of authorizing legislation in the classic commemorative coin series (through 1954) that specified the place of striking (the Panama–Pacific issue of 1915 had to be struck in San Francisco).  The act also required that the dies be destroyed after the coining was done, something numismatists Anthony Swiatek and Walter Breen questioned as duplicating provisions in the Coinage Act of 1873.

The designs were prepared in-house at the Philadelphia Mint by Chief Engraver Charles E. Barber, who designed the obverse and his assistant, George T. Morgan, who prepared the reverse. They did not seek outside artists to submit proposals. Numismatic author Q. David Bowers suggested that this was because Secretary McAdoo had sought non-employees to propose designs for the five Panama–Pacific coins along with those sketches prepared by Barber and his assistants, and the Mint's engravers had prepared only two of the five, and that because the artist assigned one, Evelyn Beatrice Longman, had fallen ill. When the McKinley designs were submitted to the Commission of Fine Arts on March 31, 1916, it recommended changes, though Don Taxay, who so stated, does not say what they were. In any event, no alteration was made, and the designs were approved.

Design

The obverse of the dollar features an unadorned bust of McKinley, facing left, with the name of the country above and "McKinley Dollar" (in all capitals) below.  McKinley, who had appeared on one version of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition dollar (issued beginning in 1903), thus became the first person to appear on two different issues of American coinage.  The earlier pieces had also been designed by Barber, and the later coins, according to Bowers, "present an image so different that the uninformed observer would not know that the same man was being depicted". Bowers suggested that Barber might have been trying to create "a distinctively new version". Taxay agreed, opining that Barber's "chief concern seems to have been in making the portrait of McKinley as different as possible from that on the Louisiana Purchase coins".

The reverse, designed by Morgan, is intended to be a facing view of the McKinley birthplace memorial in Niles, but according to Swiatek and Breen, "the most charitable view must characterize it as inaccurate and incompetently done". Above the building is "McKinley Birthplace/Niles Ohio", and beneath it the date and "Memorial".

Art historian Cornelius Vermeule, in his volume on U.S. coins, disliked the McKinley pieces. "When Barber and Morgan collaborated ... the results were almost always oppressive. The McKinley Memorial dollars of 1916 and 1917 bear witness to these stylistic judgments, the unclothed bust on the obverse looking tastelessly Roman and the classical, colonnaded Memorial Building placed across a reverse further constricted by too much, too large lettering."

Distribution and collecting

The Philadelphia Mint struck 20,000 gold dollars in August and October 1916, plus 26 extra reserved for inspection and testing at the 1917 meeting of the United States Assay Commission. In February 1917, 10,000 more (plus 14 assay coins) were minted, again at Philadelphia. The Association sold these to the public at $3 each, the same price at which the Louisiana Purchase pieces, which sold poorly, had been vended. The McKinley Memorial pieces were ill-publicized, and few were sold at full price. Texas coin dealer B. Max Mehl purchased 10,000 pieces at an unknown price, selling them for years afterwards at $2.50 each.

The Washington Post reported on July 30, 1916 that the gold dollars had been released and were being "gobbled up as souvenirs". Nevertheless, according to Mehl in his 1937 volume on commemoratives, "the Committee in charge apparently realized that the number of collectors in the country could not and would not absorb an issue of 100,000 coins at $3.00 each" and some 10,000 coins "were disposed of at a greatly reduced price to the 'Texas Dealer' [that is, himself] who in turn distributed them extensively among collectors of the country at a reduced price". A total of 10,023 were returned by the Committee to the Mint for melting. It is uncertain how many of each year were melted, as the Mint did not keep records of this.  Mehl estimated that the Committee sold 15,000 of the 1916 and 5,000 of the 1917 (including the sale to him), meaning that about 5,000 of each were melted. Bowers deemed these figures "probably correct", given Mehl's personal dealings with the Committee. Bowers calculated that 8,000 of the 1916 were sold by the Committee to collectors and the public, plus 7,000 to Mehl. He opined that 2,000 of the 1917 were sold by the Committee at full price, plus 3,000 to Mehl. Swiatek, in his 2012 book on commemoratives, estimated that between a third and half of the melted pieces were dated 1917.

According to R. S. Yeoman's 2015 edition of A Guide Book of United States Coins, the 1916 is catalogued for $500 in slightly-worn AU-50 (almost uncirculated) to $1,850 in near-pristine MS-66. The 1917 is listed at $550 in AU-50 and $3,250 in MS-66. A 1916 in MS-68 condition was sold by Heritage Auctions in 2009 for $16,100.

References and bibliography

Sources

1916 establishments in Pennsylvania
Cultural depictions of William McKinley
Currencies introduced in 1916
Early United States commemorative coins
United States gold coins
Works by George T. Morgan


Sir Charles Henry Hawtrey (21 September 1858 – 30 July 1923) was an English actor, director, producer and manager. He pursued a successful career as an actor-manager, specialising in debonair, often disreputable, parts in popular comedies. He occasionally played in Sheridan and other classics, but was generally associated with new works by writers including Oscar Wilde and Somerset Maugham.

Born to a long-established county family, Hawtrey was one of three of his parents' five sons to pursue a theatrical career. Before going on the stage he had considered joining the army, but failed to apply himself to the necessary studies to qualify for a commission. Once established as an actor he quickly took on the additional role of a manager, boosted by an early success with his own adaptation of a German farce presented in London as The Private Secretary, which made his fortune. A lifelong gambler, both with theatrical productions and on horseracing, to which he was addicted, he was bankrupted several times during his career.

Regarded as Britain's leading comedy actor of his generation, Hawtrey was mentor and role model to younger actors including Noël Coward. Towards the end of his career Hawtrey starred in a handful of silent movies.

Early life

Hawtrey was born at Slough and educated at Eton College, the fifth son and eighth of the ten children of the Rev. John William Hawtrey and his first wife, Frances Mary Anne, née Procter. The Hawtrey family had a long association with Eton; at the time of Hawtrey's birth his father was a housemaster there, and a cousin, Edward Craven Hawtrey, was Provost. At the age of eight Hawtrey entered the lower school of the college. Three years later John Hawtrey left Eton to found St Michael's School, Slough; Hawtrey was educated there from 1869 to 1872, when he returned to Eton for a year, before moving to Rugby. As a schoolboy he became known as "a sportsman of dash and endurance". At the age of fourteen he became a keen follower of horse-racing, a lifelong obsession that continually disrupted his finances. He commented that his first encounter with racing was "a fatal day for me. I had one bet and lost half-a-crown, and I have been trying for fifty years to win it back."

From Rugby, Hawtrey went briefly to a crammer in London, to study for a career in the army, but soon abandoned the idea. He worked as a private tutor from 1876 to 1879 and then he began his theatrical career. It started badly: he broke his collar-bone while playing football and had to withdraw from the cast before the opening night. In February 1881 he matriculated at Pembroke College, Oxford, but withdrew in October, having been cast in the supporting role of Edward Langton in F. C. Burnand's The Colonel at the Prince of Wales's Theatre, London. Uncertain of success, he temporarily adopted the stage name Charles Bankes. He was well received in the play, and was given valuable lessons in stagecraft from the producer:

Actor-manager
In early 1882 Hawtrey played Jack Merryweather in The Marble Arch, which starred Herbert Beerbohm Tree. Later in that year he toured in The Colonel in a cast headed by Charles Collette. Two of Hawtrey's brothers, William and George (father of the economist Ralph Hawtrey), had also become actors, and in early 1883, Charles and William led a small touring company to towns in south-east England.

In 1884 Hawtrey had a huge success in London presenting his own adaptation of a German farce by Gustav von Moser, Der Bibliothekar, rewritten as The Private Secretary with the action moved to an English setting. It opened in March to disparaging reviews and at first played to small audiences, but Hawtrey persisted and further rewrote the play. It moved from the Prince's to the Globe Theatre, the principal roles were recast (with Hawtrey playing the crusty old Cattermole), and in the words of The Manchester Guardian "the audiences steadily laughed it into a success." The production ran for 785 performances, and Hawtrey made £123,000 from it – an enormous sum for those days. The play was revived in London eight times during his life.

Hawtrey pursued a career as an actor-manager, making a speciality of suave, sometimes immoral, but likable characters. His managerial career was chequered: great successes were often followed by expensive failures, and he was bankrupt several times. He was in charge over the years at eighteen London theatres – including the Globe until 1887 and two spells at the Comedy Theatre, 1887–93 and 1896–98. He staged, "with great attention to detail", about a hundred plays. His biographers H H Child and Michael Read list his most celebrated productions as two more adaptations from Moser (The Pickpocket, 1886, adapted by George Hawtrey, and The Arabian Nights, 1887, by Sydney Grundy); Jane (1890) by Harry Nicholls and William Lestocq; One Summer's Day (1897) by H. V. Esmond; Lord and Lady Algy (1898) by R. C. Carton co-starring with the author's wife, Katherine Compton; A Message from Mars (1899) by Richard Ganthony; The Man from Blankley's (1906) by F. Anstey; and Ambrose Applejohn's Adventure (1921) by Walter Hackett, in which Hawtrey played two roles: a respectable modern man and his disreputable ancestor. Hawtrey's career was long enough to allow him to create leading roles in plays by Oscar Wilde in the 1890s and Somerset Maugham after the First World War – he was Wilde's Lord Goring in An Ideal Husband (1895) and William in Maugham's Home and Beauty (1919). In between his successes he went bankrupt several times, and on one occasion discharged his debts by successfully gambling at baccarat.

After the war Hawtrey appeared occasionally in silent films: A Message From Mars (1913) as Horace Parker, Honeymoon for Three (1915) as Prince Ferdinand, and Masks and Faces (1918) with George Alexander, George Bernard Shaw and J. M. Barrie.

Hawtrey was generous in fostering talent. Among the young actors whose careers he encouraged was Noël Coward, who wrote in his memoirs about "the kindness and care of Hawtrey's direction. He took endless trouble with me ... and taught me during those two short weeks many technical points of comedy acting which I use to this day." One of the dramatists that he promoted was Horace Newte whose one act drama A Labour of Love Hawtrey presented at The Comedy Theatre in 1897.

Personal life
Hawtrey was twice married.  His first wife, whom he married on 3 June 1886, was Madeline ("Mae") Harriet, née Sheriffe; he left her in 1891 and she divorced him in 1893. She died in 1905. In 1909 his then partner, Olive Morris, bore him a son, Anthony Hawtrey. On 10 November 1919 Hawtrey married the Hon Mrs Albert Petre (née Katherine Elsie Clark), daughter of the Rev William Robinson Clark and widow of the youngest son of the 11th Baron Petre.  There were no children of either of his marriages.  His second wife died on 14 November 1930. According to Ada Coleman, head bartender at the Savoy Hotel London, Hawtrey was responsible for naming the Hanky-Panky cocktail, which she created specifically for him.

Last years and posterity
From 1920 Hawtrey's health deteriorated. He was knighted in 1922.  He died, aged 64,  on 30 July 1923 and is buried at Richmond.  His memoirs were edited by Maugham and published in 1924 as The Truth at Last.

Notes and references
Notes

References

Sources

External links

Sir Charles Hawtrey.
Family history
   Charles Hawtrey as director in the Theatre Archive, University of Bristol

Charles Hawtrey cover, The Theatre magazine March 1912

1858 births
1923 deaths
Actors awarded knighthoods
People educated at Eton College
Alumni of Pembroke College, Oxford
English male stage actors
English theatre managers and producers
English male silent film actors
Knights Bachelor
People educated at Rugby School
Actors from Slough
20th-century English male actors
Actor-managers
Terry family
Male actors from Berkshire

Charles Hawtrey (actor, born 1858)


Artificial intelligence researchers have developed several specialized programming languages for artificial intelligence:

Languages
 Artificial Intelligence Markup Language (AIML) is an XML dialect for use with Artificial Linguistic Internet Computer Entity (A.L.I.C.E.)-type chatterbots.
 C# can be used to develop high level machine learning models using Microsoft's .NET suite. ML.NET was developed to aid integration with existing .NET projects, simplifying the process for existing software using the .NET platform.
 Lisp was the first language developed for artificial intelligence. It includes features intended to support programs that could perform general problem solving, such as lists, associations, schemas (frames), dynamic memory allocation, data types, recursion, associative retrieval, functions as arguments, generators (streams), and cooperative multitasking.
 Smalltalk has been used extensively for simulations, neural networks, machine learning, and genetic algorithms. It implements a pure and elegant form of object-oriented programming using message passing.
 Prolog is a declarative language where programs are expressed in terms of relations, and execution occurs by running queries over these relations. Prolog is particularly useful for symbolic reasoning, database and language parsing applications. Prolog is widely used in AI today.
 Stanford Research Institute Problem Solver (STRIPS) is a language to express automated planning problem instances. It expresses an initial state, the goal states, and a set of actions. For each action preconditions (what must be established before the action is performed) and postconditions (what is established after the action is performed) are specified.
 Planner is a hybrid between procedural and logical languages. It gives a procedural interpretation to logical sentences where implications are interpreted with pattern-directed inference.
 POP-11 is a reflective, incrementally compiled programming language with many of the features of an interpreted language. It is the core language of the Poplog programming environment developed originally by the University of Sussex, and recently in the School of Computer Science at the University of Birmingham which hosts the Poplog website, It is often used to introduce symbolic programming techniques to programmers of more conventional languages like Pascal, who find POP syntax more familiar than that of Lisp. One of POP-11's features is that it supports first-class functions.
R is widely used in new-style artificial intelligence, involving statistical computations, numerical analysis, the use of Bayesian inference, neural networks and in general machine learning. In domains like finance, biology, sociology or medicine it is considered one of the main standard languages. It offers several paradigms of programming like vectorial computation, functional programming and object-oriented programming.
 Python is widely used for artificial intelligence, with packages for several applications including general AI, machine learning, natural language processing, and artificial neural networks. The application of AI to develop programs that do human-like jobs and portray human skills is machine learning. Both artificial intelligence and machine learning are closely connected and are being used widely today.
 Haskell is a very good language for AI. Lazy evaluation and the list and LogicT monads make it easy to express non-deterministic algorithms, which is often the case. Infinite data structures are great for search trees. The language's features enable a compositional way to express algorithms. The only drawback is that working with graphs is a bit harder at first because of functional purity.
 Wolfram Language includes a wide range of integrated machine learning capabilities, from highly automated functions like Predict and Classify to functions based on specific methods and diagnostics. The functions work on many types of data, including numerical, categorical, time series, textual, and image.
 Julia, e.g. for machine learning, using native or non-native libraries.
 Mojo can run some Python programs, and supports programmability of AI hardware.

See also
 Glossary of artificial intelligence
 List of constraint programming languages
 List of computer algebra systems
 List of logic programming languages
 List of constructed languages
 Fifth-generation programming language

Notes

References

Major AI textbooks
See also the AI textbook survey

History of AI

Artificial intelligence

List of programming languages for artificial intelligence


Kasauli is a town and cantonment, located in the Solan district of the Indian state of Himachal Pradesh. The cantonment was established by the British Raj in 1842 as a Colonial hill station,  from Solan,  from Shimla,  from Chandigarh, and  from Ambala Cantt (Haryana), an important railway junction of North India.

Demographics
Kasauli is a Cantonment Board city in the district of Solan, Himachal Pradesh. The Kasauli city is divided into 6 wards for which elections are held every 5 years. The Kasauli Cantonment Board has a population of 3,885, of which 2,183 are males and 1,702 are females, according to a report released by Census India 2011.

The population of children with age of 0-6 is 406 which is 10.45% of total population of Kasauli (CB). In Kasauli Cantonment Board, Female Sex Ratio is of 780 against state average of 972. Moreover, Child Sex Ratio in Kasauli is around 888 compared to Himachal Pradesh state average of 909. Literacy rate of Kasauli city is 91.23% higher than state average of 82.80%. In Kasauli, Male literacy is around 94.05% while female literacy rate is 87.56%.

Climate

Kasauli has a moderate climate. Winter temperature is approximately 2 degrees Celsius, the summer temperatures rarely exceeds 32 degrees Celsius or more. The general wind direction is south-west to north-east. Total rainfall for the year is 1020 millimetres, with humidity at 90% in September and 28% in April. Sometimes snowfall is also there during early January and in winters are chilly, there are a couple of frosty nights. Minimum temperature recorded in Kasuli was -6 °C.

Landmarks

Central Research Institute
The Central Research Institute (CRI), originally the Pasteur Institute of India, was established at Kasauli in 1904 under its first director Sir David Semple, as an institute working in the fields of immunology and virological research.

The CRI works as a World Health Organization 'Collaborating Centre', and as an immuno-biological laboratory producing vaccines for measles and polio, and the DTP group of vaccines. It also provides a Master of Science programme in Microbiology.

Baptist Church

Kasauli Baptist Church is a 1923 brick and wood building, situated close to the Sadar Bazzar. According to The Indian Express it is "considered a unique example of colonial architecture of the British era". In 2008 the church was damaged by a fire which destroyed all the internal furnishings.

Christ Church

Christ Church was previously an Anglican church, inaugurated on 24 July 1853.

Christ Church Kasauli came into existence in 1844 when Dr. Daniel Wilson (the great Metropolitan Bishop of Calcutta) appointed the Rev MJ Jennings as chaplain to the new station Kasauli for the first time, who started worship services in a barrack as there was no church building.

At the end of October 1844 Dr. Wilson, the Bishop of Calcutta, paid his first visitation of Kasauli and on 26 October laid the foundation stone of the future Christ Church. On 24 July 1853 the shed of the church was completed and on that day the church was used for the worship services for first time.

In the 1880s the church tower was raised and the public clock was placed on it during the leadership of the Rev J.B. Brunesson by importing the same from W.H. Bailey & Co of Manchester, England. The total cost of this was Rs. 2612 and 11 annas towards which Rs. 1250 was given by the Government and the balance raised by public subscription. After remaining in hibernation for many decades, in 2015 the tower clock, started ticking again with the wonderful efforts of a Good Samaritan from Chandigarh and the local EME workshop. The clock still works on mechanical gears and is now in the Limca Book of Records for being the oldest working tower turret clock in India. Link for the restoration story

Since 1970 it has been under the auspices of the Church of North India (CNI) in the diocese of Amritsar. The church contains Spanish and Italian imported stained glass windows depicting Christ, Mary, Saint Barnabas and Saint Francis.

Circuit house

Gurudwara Shri Guru Nanak Ji
The Gurudwara (Sikh house of worship and hospitality) Shri Guru Nanak Ji is located in the Garkhal bazaar near Kasauli.

Kasauli Club
The Kasauli Club was established by civilians and service personnel in 1880, as the Kasauli Reading and Assembly Rooms. It gained its present name in 1898 when a limited liability company and constitution were established; its first director was Sir David Semple of Kasauli's Pasteur Institute. At the time the club was for the exclusive use of the British Raj, and held social meetings, tea and dinner dances, and galas. In 1915 regimental officers at Dagshai, Solan and Subathu could be admitted as honorary members. At Independence in 1947, plans to sell the then loss-making Club failed.

The club was originally constructed of wood and plaster, and was typical of hill architecture. In 2001, after a 2000 restoration, it was destroyed by fire, losing "elegant, old-world furniture, [and] precious and rare books". By 2005 it had been redesigned and rebuilt in stone, and plans were put forward for a new attached gymnasium.

In April 2012 the Kasauli Club hosted a two-day Rhythm and Blues Festival as a benefit concert for ill children.

Nahri Temple
The Nahri Temple, devoted to the Goddess Durga and Lord Shiva, is thought to have been constructed around a hundred and fifty years ago. Also known as 'Jantar Mantar' and 'Choo Mantar Mahadev Temple', the temple is renowned for its festive celebration of Dushera and Shivratri. The temple boasts striking idols of the goddess Durga and Lord Shiva placed in the chamber of temple. The temple is still in good condition and is visited by many people each year. It is a popular spot for prayers and festivals. Near this temple, there is century-old bauri which still offers sweet potable water. This temple is known to be visited by hundreds of pilgrims each year to present their prayers.

Hanuman Mandir (Manki Point)
Monkey Point is situated in the Air Force Station near the Lower Mall region about  from the center of town. According to the Ramayana, when Lord Hanuman was returning from the Himalayas after acquiring the "Sanjivani Booty", one of his feet touched the hill; that's why the top of the hill is in the shape of a foot. On clear nights a view of Chandigarh can be seen from Monkey Point.

Beja State
Beja State was one of the 18 Simla Hill States, situated just below Kasauli to the west and bordered by Mahlog, Patiala, Kuthar and the Bharauli tract of Simla District around Sabathu. Beja included 45 villages, over an area of 13 km2 or 5 mi2 with 1,131 subjects.

Mahlog State

The state of Mahlog was founded in 1183. Its original rulers were ruling earlier near Kalka when Mohamad Gauri attacked that area then they shifted to the Mahlog area. Initially 193 villages were in its jurisdiction but later over 300 villages were included. It was one of the biggest Princely State of Simla Hill States under the British Raj.

Notable people

Braj Kumar Nehru, former Governor of Assam and Jammu and Kashmir, Ambassador of India to the United States (1961–1968) and Indian High Commissioner to the United Kingdom (1973–1977) was a former resident.
Michael Baines, English cricketer and British Army officer, born in Kasauli
Frank Blaker, Victoria Cross recipient, born in Kasauli
 Ram Prasad Bairagi, Freedom Fighter of 1857.
Ruskin Bond – Anglo-Indian author, born in Kasauli
Janet Chisholm – British MI6 agent during the Cold War, born in Kasauli
Tisca Chopra, Indian film actress, born in Kasauli
Nathuram Godse – assassin of Mahatma Gandhi, held in a Kasauli barrack during his trial
Andy Mulligan – Irish rugby international, born in Kasauli
Giles Radice, Baron Radice – resident of Kasauli, 1942–46
Khushwant Singh - part-time resident of Kasauli and inspiration for the annual Kushwant Singh Literary Festival hosted in Kasauli since 2012.

References

External links

Himachal Pradesh website. Retrieved 8 July 2011
"Development plan for Kasauli Planning Area", Himachal Pradesh Government. Retrieved 8 July 2011
"Kasauli - My Ride", Tranquilblog
"Places to visit in Kasauli", Travel Diary

1842 establishments in British India
Cantonments of British India
Cantonments of India
Cities and towns in Solan district
Hill stations in Himachal Pradesh

Kasauli


Anthony Hunter-Choat  (12 January 1936 – 12 April 2012) was a British soldier who served in the French Foreign Legion, the British Army, including in the Special Air Service, and as the commander of the Sultan of Oman's special forces.

Early life and education
Hunter-Choat was born in Purley, London, the son of Frederick, who worked in insurance, and Iris, a schoolteacher. The family later moved to Ascot. He attended Dulwich College and Kingston College of Art, where he trained as an architect. In his youth, he developed a taste for travel and languages, hitchhiking around Europe in his holidays.

Military career

French Foreign Legion
After deciding a career in architecture was not for him, Hunter-Choat travelled to Paris in March 1957 to join the French Foreign Legion. He was pursued by his mother, but by the time she caught up with him, he had already signed up. He was sent for basic training in Algeria, which at the time was experiencing the Algerian War. Hunter-Choat volunteered for the additional training to become a paratrooper. On 15 October, he was posted to 1st Foreign Parachute Regiment (1e REP), with whom he would serve for the next five years.

At the time, the Algerian War had become a high-intensity conflict requiring around 400,000 French and colonial troops in the country to maintain order. In this time, Hunter-Choat and his unit were involved in numerous operations, inflicting and suffering many casualties. In February 1958, as a machine-gunner, Hunter-Choat took part in the Battle of Fedj Zezoua, for his service in which he was awarded the Cross for Military Valour. He was later awarded the Cross for Military Valour a further two times, as well as the Médaille militaire. Less than two weeks later he was wounded pursuing FLN troops through wooded territory near the Tunisian border.

In the Algiers putsch of 1961, Hélie de Saint Marc, the commander of 1e REP agreed to take part. Hunter-Choat was one of a number of troops who occupied key parts of Algiers on behalf of the putsch on the night of 21 April 1961. After Charles de Gaulle made an appeal on national television against the coup, support for it collapsed and 1e REP was subsequently disbanded. Shortly after, Hunter-Choat's term of service expired and he returned to Britain.

British Army
His father convinced him to apply to the British Army, but his first application in March 1962 was rejected because he was over the typical age. After his father wrote to them in April, he was accepted "as a special case, for consideration." After passing out the top in his course at Mons Officer Cadet School, he was assigned to the 7th Duke of Edinburgh's Own Gurkha Rifles and posted to Malaya. From there, in early 1963, he was posted to Brunei, and later to Sarawak and Borneo, where he fought in the Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation. Whilst there, Hunter-Choat took part in cross-border raids into Indonesia, as well as coastal raids.

He had initially signed up on a short service commission and wanted to transfer to a regular commission. Finding himself too old for the infantry, he joined the Royal Artillery in 1964. He remained in Borneo as a forward observer officer until 1966, when he returned to Britain. From 1969 to 1970, he attended the Staff College, Camberley, and then served in 45 Field Regiment RA. He became a battery commander and then became second-in-command of 3rd Regiment Royal Horse Artillery in Hong Kong. He served on the directing staff of the junior division of the Land Warfare Centre, Warminster, from 1975 to 1977.

In 1977, he was offered command of 23 Special Air Service Regiment (Reserve), which was unusual for an officer without a British special forces background. He commanded the regiment until 1983, although few details of his service in this period are available due to its sensitive nature. From 1983 to 1986, he was a senior staff officer at the NATO headquarters in Naples and a special forces adviser to the Supreme Allied Commander Europe (SACEUR). His last post in the British Army was as a personal liaison between the Commander-in-Chief of BAOR and his US counterpart. He retired from the army in 1986, at the rank of colonel, and was appointed OBE.

Later service
Immediately after retiring from the British Army, he became Commander of the Sultan of Oman's special forces at the rank of brigadier. His responsibilities included increasing the numbers in the special forces from under 1000 to more than 2000, and for improving their equipment and capability. In 1995, he was awarded the Omani Order of Achievement by Sultan Qaboos. He retired from the Omani Army in 1997. From 1998 to 1999, he worked as a Kosovo ceasefire verifier with the Kosovo Verification Mission. Speaking to The Guardian in 1999, he said "Our attitude is not patronising to either the Serb units or the guerrillas. We are simply trying to persuade them not to do something silly." He became the head of security for Aga Khan IV. This involved helping to create a base for the Aga Khan at Chantilly, Oise.

After the 2003 invasion of Iraq, Hunter-Choat became head of security for the Coalition Provisional Authority's Program Management Office (PMO), which was responsible for funding reconstruction projects in the country. He was involved in some scandal when the PMO awarded a contract worth $293 million to Aegis Defence Services headed by Tim Spicer, who Hunter-Choat knew personally. However, there was no suggestion that Hunter-Choat had acted improperly. He was later responsible for making security plans for USAID in Afghanistan and was an accomplished lecturer on leadership and security.

Legacy
The Hunter-Choat pace stick is awarded biennially to a Combined Cadet Force cadet in Hereford. French Foreign Legion 1831–71, by Martin Windrow, published by Osprey Publishing, is both dedicated to, and prefaced by, Hunter-Choat.

Personal life
He married Maureen McCabe in 1964, but the marriage was later dissolved. He married again, to Linda Wood, in 1982. He had two daughters from his first marriage and two daughters and a son from his second marriage. Hunter-Choat had served as both president and secretary general of the British branch of the Foreign Legion Association and was a keen Freemason. Hunter-Choat was also a member of the Sublime Society of Beefsteaks.

Awards
Besides winning the Cross for Military Valour three times, and winning the Medaille militaire, Hunter-Choat was appointed OBE and awarded the Omani Order of Achievement. In 2001, he was appointed as an Officer of the Legion of Honour, and was raised to Commander in 2011. He was also a Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts and a Freeman of the City of London.

References

1936 births
2012 deaths
Royal Gurkha Rifles officers
British Army personnel of the Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation
Commanders of the Legion of Honour
French military personnel of the Algerian War
Officers of the Order of the British Empire
Recipients of the Cross for Military Valour
Special Air Service officers
Soldiers of the French Foreign Legion
People educated at Dulwich College
Royal Artillery officers
Royal Horse Artillery officers
Graduates of the Mons Officer Cadet School
Military personnel from London
British Army brigadiers
Graduates of the Staff College, Camberley

Tony Hunter-Choat


was a Japanese actress, voice actress, narrator and singer from Ama District, Aichi. Throughout her life, she was attached to Production Baobab; she was attached to Aoni Production at the time of her death. Mizutani was best known for her roles of Sakiko Sakura in Chibi Maruko-chan, Mihoshi Kuramitsu in Tenchi Muyo!, Excellen Browning in Super Robot Wars, Sora Takenouchi in Digimon Adventure, Leina Stol in Machine Robo: Revenge of Cronos, Sarah Zabiarov and Cheimin Noa in Mobile Suit Zeta Gundam and Pinoko in Black Jack. Mizutani was the official Japanese voice actress for Minnie Mouse from 1991 until her death; she also voiced her in the Kingdom Hearts franchise.

On May 17, 2016, Mizutani died as a result of breast cancer. She was 51 years old at the time of her death.

References

Other websites

 Aoni Production (Japanese)

1964 births
2016 deaths
Deaths from breast cancer
Japanese movie actors
Japanese voice actors
Japanese singers

Yūko Mizutani


Fire ecology is about the effects of fire on the ecosystems where it occurs. The results of fire are studied, and also what causes the fires.

In many ecosystems, fire helps keep the habitat healthy. Examples of such habitats are the North American prairie and chaparral ecosystems, and the South African savanna. In these ecosystems, fire helps renew the habitat. In theses places, many plants and trees have adapted and need fire to grow well, or for their seeds to germinate and start ecological succession.

If the fires are stopped, dry wood and dead plants accumulate. Bushes and trees that catch fire easily will start growing. When this area finally does catch fire, it will make the wildfire larger and more damaging, and be harder to control.

In the United States, campaigns have made people believe that wildfires are always bad for nature. This comes from the old belief that ecosystems grow towards a stable system, and disturbances like fires stop that, and destroy the harmony of nature.  But we have since learned that in some areas, fire is needed to make the system work properly; fire also helps biodiversity of many habitats. The plants and animals in these habitats have adapted to protect themselves from fire, and sometimes must have fire to survive.

Still, fire can kill people or burn down buildings.  Now, controlled burns are sometimes done to have fire where it is needed, but don't let it go where it can cause damage to people or their property.

Related pages
Wildfire
Bushfire

References

Ecosystems
Fire

Fire ecology


Assault Support is one of the six functions of United States Marine Corps aviation and comprises those actions required to airlift personnel, supplies or equipment into or within a battle area by helicopters or fixed-wing aircraft.  It provides the Marine Air-Ground Task Force commander the ability to concentrate his strength against selected weaknesses using speed and surprise.  It also provides operational and tactical mobility as well as logistics support to the Marine Air-Ground Task Force.  It is used to focus combat power at the decisive place and time to achieve local combat superiority.

7 categories of assault support

 Combat Assault Transport - provides mobility for the Marine Air-Ground Task Force.  It is used to rapidly deploy forces, bypass obstacles or redeploy forces to meet the enemy threat.  All of these actions provide the Marine Air-Ground Task Force commander with more diverse options for operational planning.  Combat assault transport allow the commander to effect a rapid force build-up at a specific time and place of his choosing.
 Aerial Delivery -
 Aerial Refueling -
 Air Evacuation – is the transportation of personnel and equipment from a forward operating base or remote areas.  This includes flights from areas of operations to secure areas, casualty evacuation, and extraction of forces.
 Tactical Recovery of Aircraft and Personnel – the recovery of personnel and equipment while avoiding additional loss.
 Air Logistical Support – is performed by fixed-wing aircraft and delivers troops, equipment and supplies to areas beyond helicopter range and lift capability or when surface transportation is slow or unavailable.
 Battlefield Illumination  -

Mission categories
 Preplanned Missions – provide the most economical and efficient use of assets.  These missions are requested far enough in advance to allow coordination between the requestor, the supporting unit and fire support/command and control agencies.
 Scheduled Missions – missions requested in advance that permit detailed mission planning and close coordination with the appropriate Marine Air-Ground Task Force elements.
 On Call Missions – assets are positioned close enough to provide a timely response when called needed.
 Immediate Missions – those missions which suddenly arise and cannot be planned.  They can be launched in support of any requesting unit.  Immediate requests will be routed through the Direct Air Support Center and fulfilled based on the commander's priorities.

Asset Allocation
Asset allocations will be determined by aircraft availability, lift requirements, aircraft capabilities, threat analysis, escort and fire support requirements, time, space and logistics requirements and unit proficiency level.

References

United States Marine Corps aviation

Assault Support