Captain William Hennah  (January 1768 – 23 December 1832) was British naval officer, whose largely undistinguished career was suddenly highlighted by his assumption of command of HMS Mars at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805 upon the death of that ship's captain, George Duff, who was decapitated by a cannonball.

Early career

Hennah was born in January 1768 and baptised on the 7th, the son of Richard Hennah, the vicar of St Austell in Cornwall. He joined the navy because of his Cornish hero, the circumnavigator Samuel Wallis, and was entered as captain's servant to Philip Walsh of , in 1778. In March 1779 Hennah was rated as midshipman. He passed the lieutenant's exam at the beginning of January 1788 but was not promoted until the general round of promotions at the outbreak of the French Revolutionary War in 1793. Hennah had little opportunity for distinction until 1800, when he participated in a boat raid on the Morbihan river in which the French corvette Réloaise was burnt. He reportedly acquitted himself "with great judgement and gallantry", under the command of Lieutenant John Pilfold, another lieutenant who was to command a ship at Trafalgar.

Trafalgar

Following the Peace of Amiens, Hennah was posted to HMS Mars as first lieutenant under George Duff, and was with the ship during the lead up to the battle of Trafalgar in 1805, when Mars was the first ship to spot the advancing enemy. He was stationed on the quarterdeck during the battle, and following the early death of Captain Duff, Hennah took command of the ship, directing her fire into the Fougueux, despite serious damage to his ship. Mars was so battered by the engagement that she was almost unmanoeuvrable, but continued to fire on any enemy ship which approached, including the French Algésiras and the Spanish Monarca. Following the action and emergency repairs, the Mars returned to Gibraltar with some difficulty, before Hennah was ordered home that winter.

Later life

Back in London, Hennah received the Thanks of Parliament and a vase from the Patriotic Fund; the naval gold medal was presented to Duff's widow. He was promoted to Captain on 1 January 1806. He also received the very unusual honour of a Letter of Commendation from the ship's company, indicative of the esteem with which he was held even by the common sailors who served under him, who were rarely given over to such overt displays of affection. Hennah did not serve at sea again, settling with his family at Tregony in Cornwall where he lived as a country gentleman and involved himself in local affairs. He was invested as a Companion of the Bath in 1831, on the occasion of King William IV's Coronation Honours. He died peacefully at home in 1832 and was buried nearby at St Cuby Parish Church.

His obituary in The Times of 31 December 1832 read:

Letter to Mrs George Duff

Letter dated HMS Mars, off Cádiz 27 October 1805
from First Lieutenant William Hennah to Mrs George Duff

Madam,

I believe that a more unpleasant task, than what is now imposed upon me, can scarcely fall to the lot of a person, whose feelings are not more immediately connected by the nearer ties of kindred, but from a sense of duty, (as first Lieutenant of the Mars,) as being myself the husband of a beloved partner, and the father of children; out of the pure respect and esteem to the memory of our late gallant Captain, I should consider myself guilty of a base neglect, should you only be informed of the melancholy circumstances attending the late glorious, though unfortunate victory to many, by a public gazette. The consequences of such an event, while it may occasion the rejoicings of the nation, will in every instance be attended with the deepest regrets of a few.

Alas! Madam, how unfortunate shall I think myself, should this be the first intimation you may have of the irreparable loss you have met with! what apology can I make for entering on a subject so tender and so fraught with sorrow, but to recommend an humble reliance on this great truth, that the ways of Providence, although sometimes inscrutable, are always for the best.

By this, Madam, you are in all probability acquainted with the purport of my letter. Amongst the number of heroes who fell on that ever-memorable 21st inst. in defence of their King and Country; after gloriously discharging his duty to both; our meritorious and much respected Commander, Captain George Duff, is honourably classed; his fate was instantaneous; and he resigned his soul into the hands of the Almighty without a moment's pain.

Poor Norwich is very well. Capatain Blackwood has taken him on board the Euryalas, with the other young gentlemen that came with him, and their schoolmaster.

The whole of the Captain's papers and effects are sealed up, and will be kept in a place of security until proper persons are appointed to examine them. Meanwhile, Madam, I beg leave to assure you of my readiness to give you any information, or render you any service in my power.

And am, Madam, with the greatest respect,
Your most obedient and most humble servant,
WILLIAM HENNAH.

Citations

References

Further reading
The Trafalgar Captains, Colin White and the 1805 Club, Chatham Publishing, London, 2005,

External links
 Nelson-society.org
Animation of the Battle of Trafalgar
 William Hennah's descendants

1768 births
1832 deaths
People from St Austell
People from Tregony
Royal Navy officers
Companions of the Order of the Bath
Burials in Cornwall
Royal Navy personnel of the French Revolutionary Wars
Royal Navy personnel of the Napoleonic Wars

William Hennah


The cochineal ( ,  ; Dactylopius coccus) is a scale insect in the suborder Sternorrhyncha, from which the natural dye carmine is derived. A primarily sessile parasite native to tropical and subtropical South America through North America (Mexico and the Southwest United States), this insect lives on cacti in the genus Opuntia, feeding on plant moisture and nutrients. The insects are found on the pads of prickly pear cacti, collected by brushing them off the plants, and dried.

The insect produces carminic acid that deters predation by other insects. Carminic acid, typically 17–24% of dried insects' weight, can be extracted from the body and eggs, then mixed with aluminium or calcium salts to make carmine dye, also known as cochineal. Today, carmine is primarily used as a colorant in food and in lipstick (E120 or Natural Red 4).

Carmine dye was used in the Americas for coloring fabrics and became an important export good in the 16th century during the colonial period. Production of cochineal is depicted in the Codex Osuna (1565). After synthetic pigments and dyes such as alizarin were invented in the late 19th century, use of natural-dye products gradually diminished. Fears over the safety of artificial food additives renewed the popularity of cochineal dyes, and the increased demand has made cultivation of the insect profitable again, with Peru being the largest producer, followed by Mexico, Chile, Argentina and the Canary Islands.

Other species in the genus Dactylopius can be used to produce "cochineal extract", and are extremely difficult to distinguish from D. coccus, even for expert taxonomists; the scientific term D. coccus and the vernacular "cochineal insect" are sometimes used, intentionally or casually, and possibly with misleading effect, to refer to other species.

Etymology
The word cochineal is derived from the French "cochenille", derived from Spanish "cochinilla", in turn derived from Latin "coccinus" meaning "scarlet-colored", or from the Latin "coccum", meaning "berry yielding scarlet dye". A related word kermes refers to the source of a weaker red Mediterranean dye also called crimson, which was used in Europe to color cloth red before cochineal was imported from the New World to Spain in the 1520s. Some sources identify the Spanish source word for cochineal as cochinilla "wood louse" (a diminutive form of Spanish cochino, cognate with French cochon, meaning "pig").

Dactylopius coccus

Life cycle

Cochineal insects are soft-bodied, flat, oval-shaped scale insects. The females, wingless and about  long, cluster on cactus pads. They penetrate the cactus with their beak-like mouthparts and feed on its juices, remaining immobile unless alarmed. After mating, the fertilised female increases in size and gives birth to tiny nymphs. The nymphs secrete a waxy white substance over their bodies for protection from water loss and excessive sun. This substance makes the cochineal insect appear white or grey from the outside, though the body of the insect and its nymphs produces the red pigment, which makes the insides of the insect look dark purple. Adult males can be distinguished from females in that males have wings, and are much smaller.

The cochineal disperses in the first nymph stage, called the "crawler" stage. The juveniles move to a feeding spot and produce long wax filaments. Later, they move to the edge of the cactus pad, where the wind catches the wax filaments and carries the insects to a new host. These individuals establish feeding sites on the new host and produce a new generation of cochineals. Male nymphs feed on the cactus until they reach sexual maturity. At this time, they can no longer feed at all and live only long enough to fertilise the eggs. They are, therefore, seldom observed. In addition, females typically outnumber males due to environmental factors.

Host cacti

Dactylopius coccus is native to tropical and subtropical South America and North America in Mexico, where their host cacti grow natively. They have been widely introduced to many regions where their host cacti also grow. About 200 species of Opuntia cacti are known, and while it is possible to cultivate cochineal on almost all of them, the most common is Opuntia ficus-indica. D. coccus has only been noted on Opuntia species, including O. amyclaea, O. atropes, O. cantabrigiensis, O. brasilienis, O. ficus-indica, O. fuliginosa, O. jaliscana, O. leucotricha, O. lindheimeri, O. microdasys, O. megacantha, O. pilifera, O. robusta, O. sarca, O. schikendantzii, O. stricta, O. streptacantha, and O. tomentosa. Feeding cochineals can damage and kill the plant. Other cochineal species feed on many of the same Opuntia, and the wide range of hosts reported for D. coccus likely is because of the difficulty in distinguishing it from other Dactylopius species.

Predation
Several natural enemies can reduce the population of the insects on hosts. Of all the predators, insects seem to be the most important group. Insects and their larvae such as pyralid moths (order Lepidoptera), which destroy the cactus, and predators such as lady bugs (Coleoptera), various Diptera (such as Syrphidae and Chamaemyiidae), lacewings (Neuroptera), and ants (Hymenoptera) have been identified, as well as numerous parasitic wasps. Many birds, human-commensal, rodents (especially rats), and reptiles, also prey on cochineal insects.

Farming
A nopal cactus farm for the production of cochineal is traditionally known as a nopalry. The two methods of farming cochineal are traditional and controlled. Cochineals are farmed in the traditional method by planting infected cactus pads or infesting existing cacti with cochineals and harvesting the insects by hand. The controlled method uses small baskets called Zapotec nests placed on host cacti. The baskets contain clean, fertile females that leave the nests and settle on the cactus to await fertilization by the males. In both cases, the cochineals must be protected from predation, cold, and rain. The complete cycle lasts three months, during which time the cacti are kept at a constant temperature of 27 °C (81 °F). At the end of the cycle, the new cochineals are left to reproduce or are collected and dried for dye production.

To produce dye from cochineals, the insects are collected when they are around 90 days old. Harvesting the insects is labour-intensive, as they must be individually knocked, brushed, or picked from the cacti and placed into bags. The insects are gathered by small groups of collectors who sell them to local processors or exporters.

In regions dependent on cochineal production, pest control measures are taken seriously. For small-scale cultivation, manual methods of control have proved to be the safest and most effective. For large-scale cultivation, advanced pest control methods have to be developed, including alternative bioinsecticides or traps with pheromones.

Failed farming in Australia
Opuntia species, known commonly as prickly pears, were first brought to Australia in an attempt to start a cochineal dye industry in 1788. Captain Arthur Phillip collected a number of cochineal-infested plants from Brazil on his way to establish the first European settlement at Botany Bay, part of which is now Sydney, New South Wales. At that time, Spain and Portugal had a worldwide cochineal dye monopoly via their New World colonial sources, and the British desired a source under their own control, as the dye was important to their clothing and garment industries; it was used to color the British soldiers' red coats, for example. The attempt was a failure in two ways: the Brazilian cochineal insects soon died off, but the cactus thrived, eventually overrunning about  of eastern Australia. The cacti were eventually brought under control in the 1920s by the deliberate introduction of a South American moth, Cactoblastis cactorum, the larvae of which feed on the cactus.

Failed farming in Ethiopia
The nopal pear has been traditionally eaten in parts of northern Ethiopia, where it is utilized more than cultivated. Carmine cochineal was introduced into northern Ethiopia early in the 2000s to be cultivated among farming communities. Foodsafe exported 2000 tons of dried carmine cochineal over 3 years.

A conflict of interest among communities led to closure of the cochineal business in Ethiopia, but the insect spread and became a pest. Cochineal infestation continued to expand after the cochineal business had ended. Control measures were unsuccessful and by 2014 about  of cactus land had become infested with cochineal.

Biocontrol in South Africa

There has been a population of Dactylopius insects on prickly pear cactuses around Cuyler Manor in Uitenhage; several cochineal species were introduced to South Africa, with use encouraged as a biocontrol for different invasive cactus plant species.

Carmine

Preparation

Cochineal dyes are one of three groups of red insect dyes, all of which are anthraquinone derivatives. The major color components in their respective chemical structures are carminic acid (in cochineal dyes), kermesic acid (in kermes dye) and laccaic acids (in lac dye).

Carminic acid is extracted from the female cochineal insects and is treated to produce carmine, which can yield shades of red such as crimson and scarlet. The dried body of the female insect is 14–26% carminic acid.

Workers collect the female cochineal insects from their host plants. The insects are processed by immersion in hot water or by exposure to sunlight, steam, or the heat of an oven. Each method produces a different color that results in the varied appearance of commercial cochineal. The insects must be dried to about 30% of their original body weight before they can be stored without decaying. It takes about 70,000 insects to make one pound of cochineal dye.

The two principal forms of cochineal dye are cochineal extract, a coloring made from the raw dried and pulverised bodies of insects, and carmine, a more purified coloring made from the cochineal. To prepare carmine, the powdered insect bodies are boiled in ammonia or a sodium carbonate solution, the insoluble matter is removed by filtering, and alum is added to the clear salt solution of carminic acid to precipitate the red aluminium salt. Purity of color is ensured by the absence of iron. Stannous chloride, citric acid, borax, or gelatin may be added to regulate the formation of the precipitate. For shades of purple, lime is added to the alum.

History

Pre-Columbian dye
Traditionally, cochineal was used for coloring fabrics. Cochineal dye was used by the Aztec and Maya peoples of North and Central America as early as the second century BC. Inhabitants of Peru have been producing cochineal dyes for textiles since early in the Middle Horizon period (600–1000 CE).  Cochineal dye was extensively used in the Pre-Columbian era, often for ceremonial textiles and those worn by rulers.

The dye bonds best with animal fibers rather than plant fibers and was most effective for dying wool from alpacas and other Camelidae, rabbit fur, and feathers. It was also used on cottons and plant-based fabrics, to less effect.  Some examples of early cloth have survived in extremely dry areas in Peru.  In addition, the use of cochineal is literally illustrated in drawings on codices and maps. Production of cochineal dyes became well-developed under Nazca culture, and beautiful examples of woven cloth colored by cochineal remain from Moche and Wari culture.

Cochineal's importance is also indicated by its prominence in tribute lists such as the Matrícula de Tributos. Eleven cities conquered by Moctezuma II in the 15th century paid a yearly tribute of 2000 decorated cotton blankets and 40 bags of cochineal dye each.

Use as pigment
Prior to the Spanish invasion, Aztecs also used cochineal pigments in their manuscripts.  The 16th century Florentine Codex contains a variety of illustrations with multiple variations of the red pigments. Specifically in the case of achiotl (light red), technical analysis of the paint reveals multiple layers of the pigment although the layers of the pigment is not visible to the naked eye. Therefore, it proves that the process of applying multiple layers is more significant in comparison to the actual color itself. Furthermore, the process of layering the various hues of the same pigment on top of each other enabled the Aztec artists to create variations in the intensity of the subject matter. A bolder application of pigment draws the viewer's eye to the subject matter which commands attention and suggests a power of the viewer. A weaker application of pigment commands less attention and has less power. This would suggest that the Aztec associated the intensity of pigments with the idea of power and life.

Pigments are insoluble finely ground particles which are mixed with a liquid to make a paint.
To be useful as a pigment, a substance should be insoluble in the vehicle with which it is mixed, in contrast to a dye which is soluble.  The activity of carmines can vary widely depending on their preparation and composition: they tend to be unstable and can vary in solubility depending on pH.

Recipes for artists' use of crimson appear in many early painting and alchemical handbooks throughout the Middle Ages. Red lake pigments were known to be particularly unstable as early as the 1400s.  When cochineal lakes were introduced in Europe, artists soon found that they were not light-fast. The paint turns brown and fades in sunlight, although it is somewhat more permanent if mixed with oil rather than water color. As a result, carmine's use as a pigment was discouraged: its primary use was as a dye rather than in paints.

Comparable colors
In Europe, there was no comparable red dye or pigment. The closest color was Kermes (technically, crimson), one of the oldest organic pigments. Its key ingredient, kermesic acid, was also extracted from an insect, Kermes vermilio, which lives on Quercus coccifera oaks native to the Near East, and the European side of the Mediterranean Basin. Kermes was used as a dye and a laked pigment in ancient Egypt, Greece, Armenia and the Near East.

Colonial export
The Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire in the 16th century introduced new colors to peoples on both sides of the Atlantic. The Spanish were quick to exploit the vibrant, intense color of cochineal for new trade opportunities. Carmine attained great status and value in Europe.

During the colonial period, with the introduction of sheep to Latin America, the use of cochineal increased. It provided the most intense color and it set more firmly on woolen garments compared to clothes made of materials of pre-Hispanic origin such as cotton or agave and yucca fibers. In general, cochineal is more successful on protein-based animal fibres (including silk) than plant-based material.

Once the European market discovered the qualities of this product (grana fina), the demand for it increased dramatically.
Carmine became the region's second-most-valuable export next to silver.
The dyestuff was used throughout Europe and was so highly prized, its price was regularly quoted on the London and Amsterdam Commodity Exchanges (with the latter one beginning to record it in 1589). By the 17th century cochineal was a commodity traded as far away as India.

The production and the use of luxury colors and textiles were regulated in countries such as Spain and Italy.
Dyestuffs produced from the cochineal insect were used for dyeing the clothes of kings, nobles, and the clergy.
In 1454, Pope Paul II officially changed the color of the robes worn by Catholic cardinals from "Cardinal's purple" to vibrant red. By 1558, their red robes would have been created with American cochineal.
By the 1600s, cochineal also gave the English "Redcoats" their distinctive officers' uniforms.
Carmine became strong competition for other colorants such as madder root, kermes, Polish cochineal, Armenian cochineal, brazilwood, and Tyrian purple.
It became the most important insect dye used in the production of hand-woven oriental rugs, almost completely displacing lac. It was also used for handicrafts, and tapestries.

Spanish influence also changed the way in which Aztecs used pigments, particularly in their manuscripts. The use of cochineal in manuscripts was replaced by Spanish dyes like minium and alizarin crimson. The image of Moctezuma's death (seen to the right) uses both indigenous and Spanish pigments, and is therefore representative of the transition and influence between cultures.

During the colonial period in Latin America, many indigenous communities produced cochineal under a type of contract known as Repartimiento de Mercancías. This was a type of "contract forwarding" agreement, in which a trader lent money to producers in advance, with a "call option" to buy the product once it was harvested.  Communities with a history of cochineal production and export have been found to have lower poverty rates and higher female literacy, but also smaller indigenous populations.

Production elsewhere
In 1777, French botanist Nicolas-Joseph Thiéry de Menonville, presenting himself as a botanizing physician, smuggled the insects and pads of the Opuntia cactus to Saint Domingue. This particular collection failed to thrive and ultimately died out, leaving the Mexican monopoly intact.
After the Mexican War of Independence in 1810–1821, the Mexican monopoly on cochineal came to an end. Large-scale production of cochineal emerged, especially in Guatemala and the Canary Islands; it was also cultivated in Spain and North Africa.

Competition from artificial dyes
The demand for cochineal fell sharply in the middle of the 19th century, with the appearance of artificial dyes such as alizarin crimson. This caused a significant financial shock in Spain as a major industry almost ceased to exist. The delicate manual labour required for the breeding of the insect could not compete with the modern methods of the new industry, and even less so with the lowering of production costs. The "tuna blood" dye (from the Mexican name for the Opuntia fruit) stopped being used and trade in cochineal almost totally disappeared in the course of the 20th century. For a time, the breeding of cochineal was done mainly for the purposes of maintaining the tradition rather than to satisfy any sort of demand.

However, the product has become commercially valuable again. One reason for the increasing interest in natural dyes is consumer concern over the possibility that some commercial synthetic red dyes and food colorings may be carcinogenic. Being natural is not a guarantee of safety, but studies show that cochineal is neither carcinogenic nor toxic. Cochineal does, however, have a slight potential to trigger an allergic reaction.

Modern uses

Cochineal continues to be used as a fabric dye, a cosmetics dye and as a food coloring.
It is also used in histology as a preparatory stain for the examination of tissues and carbohydrates.

As of 2005, Peru produced 200 tons of cochineal dye per year and the Canary Islands produced 20 tons per year. Chile and Mexico also export cochineal.
France is believed to be the world's largest importer, and Japan and Italy also import the insect. Much of these imports are processed and re-exported to other developed economies. As of 2005, the market price of cochineal was between US$50 and 80 per kilogram, while synthetic raw food dyes are available at prices as low as $10–20 per kilogram.

Natural carmine dye used in food and cosmetics can render the product unacceptable to vegetarian or vegan consumers. Many Muslims consider carmine-containing food forbidden (haraam) because the dye is extracted from insects and all insects except the locust are haram in Islam. Jews also avoid food containing this additive, though it is not treif, and some authorities allow its use because the insect is dried and reduced to powder.

Cochineal is one of the few water-soluble colorants to resist degradation with time. It is one of the most light- and heat-stable and oxidation-resistant of all the natural organic colorants and is even more stable than many synthetic food colors. The water-soluble form is used in alcoholic drinks with calcium carmine; the insoluble form is used in a wide variety of products. Together with ammonium carmine, they can be found in meat, sausages, processed poultry products (meat products cannot be colored in the United States unless they are labeled as such), surimi, marinades, alcoholic drinks, bakery products and toppings, cookies, desserts, icings, pie fillings, jams, preserves, gelatin desserts, juice beverages, varieties of cheddar cheese and other dairy products, sauces, and sweets.

Carmine is considered safe enough for cosmetic use in the eye area. A significant proportion of the insoluble carmine pigment produced is used in the cosmetics industry for hair- and skin-care products, lipsticks, face powders, rouges, and blushes. A bright red dye and the stain carmine used in microbiology is often made from the carmine extract, too. The pharmaceutical industry uses cochineal to color pills and ointments.

Cochineal-colored wool and cotton continue to be important materials for Mexican folk art and crafts. Some towns in the Mexican state of Oaxaca continue to follow traditional practices of producing and using cochineal when making handmade textiles.
In Guatemala, Heifer International has partnered with local women who wished to reintroduce traditional artisanal practices of cochineal production and use.

Because it has a complicated structure involving multiple chemical groups, it is very difficult to create a synthetic molecule for cochineal.  In 1991, carminic acid was first synthesized in the laboratory by organic chemists. In 2018, researchers genetically engineered the microbe Aspergillus nidulans to produce carminic acid.

Risks and labeling

In spite of the widespread use of carmine-based dyes in food and cosmetic products, a small number of people have been found to experience occupational asthma, food allergy and cosmetic allergies (such as allergic rhinitis and cheilitis), IgE-mediated respiratory hypersensitivity, and in rare cases anaphylactic shock. In 2009 the FDA ruled that labels of cosmetics and food that include cochineal extract must include that information on their labels (under the name "cochineal extract" or "carmine"). In 2006 the FDA stated it found no evidence of a "significant hazard" to the general population. In the EU authorities list carmine as additive E120 in the list of EU-approved food additives. An artificial, non-allergenic cochineal dye is labeled E124.

Explanatory notes

See also
 Kermes (dye)
 Red pigments

References

Further reading

External links

Hemiptera of South America
Insects described in 1835
Taxa named by Oronzio Gabriele Costa
Pigments
Animal dyes
Food colorings
Dactylopiidae
Insects as food
E-number additives

Cochineal


damali ayo (born February 26, 1972) is  an American conceptual artist, performance artist, and author. She created conceptual art from 1997-2017. She is of African-American, English, Italian, and Native American descent. She prefers her name in lower case. Her art used a range of mediums, including assemblage, collage, installation, audio, video, photography, new genres, writing, speaking, and performance.

Early life

damali ayo was born Damali Ayo Patterson, February 26, 1972 in Washington, D.C. where she attended Sidwell Friends School from kindergarten through high school. She legally dropped her last name in 1995.

Ayo earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1990 from Brown University with a double concentration in Public Policy and American Civilization. Ayo moved to Portland, Oregon, in 1997. After establishing her career as a self-taught artist, she was invited to apply to Portland State University and earned a Master of Fine Arts in studio art in 2006.

Visual and performance art
Ayo created work in the tradition of conceptual art. Her work displayed influences from artists such as Adrian Piper, Yoko Ono, On Kawara, and William Pope.L. She used a wide range of media and her work was frequently interactive. Her work utilized assemblage, collage, photography, installation, audio, video, new genres, writing, speaking, and performance. Ayo's art explored a variety of topics from love, to politics, to song lyrics. Her work often engaged social issues, ranging from race relations, to gender, to sexual assault, issues of existence, emotion, mortality, and invisibility.

Her 2003 web-art-performance, rent-a-negro.com is considered a pioneering work in the development of the genre of internet art and performance art.  It received over 400,000 hits per day in its first month, and garnered global media attention. The piece was a satirical web site that examines racism in the interactions between black and white people. The site employed parody and satire to engage the viewer in an artificial premise that one could rent a black person for their personal entertainment or to advance their social clout. The site remained online until 2012.

Her 2000 show The Little Black Dress Project and accompanying performance Take it Off explored the notion of the reality of women's lives juxtaposed with the wardrobe of fashion conformity.

American/Girl was a post-9/11 stage performance exploration of patriotism, alienation, and belonging. Performed in Portland, Boulder, Syracuse, and at the 2004 International Geographic festival at Galerie SAW in Ottawa, Canada.

Her  collaborative Flesh Tone #1: Skinned project where she visited various paint stores and asked them to mix paint to match various parts of her body won Second Prize Jurors' Award, Center on Contemporary Art in 2002. The accompanying radio piece based on the recordings of her interactions with the paint mixers aired on Public Radio International's Studio 360 in 2003.

In 2007 Ayo created an interactive guidebook titled You Can Fix Racism by asking the members of her email list for their top ten solutions to improve race relations. She created a lecture-performance to spread the solutions to communities nationwide.

Her 2004-10 street performance Living Flag: Panhandling for Reparations collected money from white passersby and paid those funds to black passersby. She performed the piece in Portland, Chicago, Boston, and New York. In 2006 ayo created an online kit that anyone could download and do the performance in their own community. Several hundred people participated across the country.

Theatre

Ayo was one of four co-founders and Co-artistic Directors of the consensus-run defunkt theatre in Portland, OR in 2000. She served as the resident set designer winning Drammy Awards for her designs for David Mamet's The Woods and Mac Wellman's The Bad Infinity. She served as assistant director on three plays, and acted in one play in the role of Strophe in Phaedra's Love by Sarah Kane.

Books

Ayo wrote two books of humorous social satire. How to Rent a Negro, was a satirical guidebook about race relations in the United States. It was granted a 2005 Honorable Mention in the Outstanding Book Awards from the Gustavus Myers Center for the Study of Bigotry and Human Rights. Obamistan! Land without Racism: Your Guide to the New America is a hypothetical exploration of what a post-racism country might be like, and what domino effect the end of racism would have on the United States as a whole. It proposes that everything from pollution to political prisoners to how food is talked about would change.

Books as author and contributor
 Obamistan! Land without Racism: Your Guide to the New America (2010, Lawrence Hill Books)
 How to Rent a Negro (2005, Lawrence Hill Books)
 How to Be Black by Bartunde Thurston (member of the "Black Panel") (2012)
 Reality Radio: Telling True Stories in Sound by John Biewen (contributor) (2010)
 Tipping the Sacred Cow: The Best of LiP: Informed Revolt, 1996-2007 by Brian Awehali (contributor) (2007)
 Found II: More of the Best Lost, Tossed, and Forgotten Items from Around the World  by Davy Rothbart (interviewed) (2006)
 The Sage Woman Cookbook (contributor) (1998)

Radio

Ayo's stories for public radio explored the process of art making, social issues, environmental consciousness, her own identity transformations, and classical music. The stories aired on Public Radio International's Studio 360, NPR's Tell Me More, and NPR's State of the Re:Union. She contributed a radio essay to the 2008 reboot of the historic This I Believe Series. Her story "Living Flag" received a 2005 Silver Reel Award from the National Federation of Community Broadcasters.

Radio stories
 Becoming Multiracial NPR's State of the Re:Union (2014)
 Celebrate Obama but Acknowledge Us Too NPR's Tell Me More (2009)
 This I Believe: The Potential for a New Life This I Believe Series, aired on NPR's Tell Me More (2008)
 Living Flag Public Radio International's Studio 360 (2004)
 Beethoven's Fifth  Public Radio International's Studio 360(2004)
 The Paint Mixers Public Radio International's Studio 360 (2003)
 Me and the Golliwog  Public Radio International's Studio 360(2003)
 Trashed  Public Radio International's Studio 360(2003)

Eco-Fashion

The July 2008 issue of Redbook magazine reported that after a string of terrible on-line dates, ayo redirected her energies to "eco fitting" her house. During this time, she started CROW Clothing, an eco-friendly clothing company that also provided resources on health and social justice. CROW broke new ground by pricing their clothing on a sliding scale, allowing customers to choose the price they would pay for each garment. The company closed in November 2008 during the economic downturn.

Speaking

As part of her body of art, ayo gave lectures and workshops on the artistic process as well as the social issues she has explored through her art. She reflected on her art and books about race and racism and the impact exploring that topic had on her life and career in a presentation titled Race Girl/Artistically Pigeon-holed: How one artist tackled race and how it tackled her.  She discussed the process of being a conceptual artist and engaging social issues through her lecture, You Have to Mess with People But Don't Let them Mess with You. She taught workshops on how to make conceptual art to people of all ages. In 2016 ayo completed her speaking work and subsequently removed the related website.

References

External links
damali ayo Official Website
Official rent-a-negro.com Statement

1972 births
African-American non-fiction writers
American conceptual artists
Women conceptual artists
American environmentalists
American performance artists
American satirists
Artists from Washington, D.C.
Living people
Writers from Washington, D.C.
American women non-fiction writers
20th-century American artists
20th-century American women artists
20th-century American non-fiction writers
20th-century American women writers
21st-century American artists
21st-century American women artists
21st-century American non-fiction writers
21st-century American women writers
Women satirists
Portland State University alumni
Brown University alumni
Sidwell Friends School alumni
20th-century African-American women
20th-century African-American artists
21st-century African-American women

Damali ayo


The Cherryfield Historic District encompasses the historic village center of Cherryfield, Maine.  This area is distinctive for its collection of high-quality 19th century architecture, which is unique in rural contexts in the state.  The district was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1990.

Overview
The Cherryfield Historic District is an area of approximately  lying on both sides of the Narraguagus River. The historic district comprises a collection of substantially intact residential and commercial buildings that clearly depict the nineteenth century development of a riverside community. There are 52 contributing and 10 non contributing buildings in the district.

Cherryfield was approved as a historic district because of its depiction of community development and association with commerce, through its association with significant persons, and for architectural history.

Although the 52 contributing buildings in the district and those outside the district are framed with wood, the district architecturally holds representative examples of the most popular nineteenth century residential styles with an especially impressive concentration of Second Empire dwellings. Included in the styles are:  Second Empire; Federal; Greek Revival; Italianate; Queen Anne; Colonial Revival.

The Second Empire Style houses are Cherryfield's unique contribution to the inventory of Maine's historic patterns of building. While the design of these houses may be equalled and surpassed in urban areas such as Bangor and Portland; given their small town context, integrity and relative number they are truly remarkable.

List of structures

Peter Smith Store, 1858: Vernacular Italianate
Freeman Nash House, 1840: Greek Revival
Arthur Willey House, 1876: Second Empire (Willey was a justice and his family included lumber manufacturers and merchants)
O. Ward House, 1870: Italianate
Uriah N. Small, 1840: Greek Revival (Small was a merchant, his store was in what was the old post office)
(First) Amaziah Ricker House, 1803: Federal (Second oldest house in the district, Ricker was the first blacksmith in the area, and his shop was in the adjacent building. The Masonic Lodge organized and met in this house)
W.D. Ricker House, 1835: Greek Revival
J.T. Campbell House, 1860: Italianate
Harland Schoppee House, built after 1881: Late 19th Century Vernacular
Nugent/Smith House, 1870: Vernacular Greek Revival (by 1881 local merchant Peter Smith had acquired this property)
Frank Shoppe House, 1900: Vernacular Italianate
James Campbell House, 1860: Greek Revival (Campbell was a carpenter and a ship joiner)
Godfrey/Patten House, 1860: Greek Revival/Italianate (Godfrey was a blacksmith & shipsmith, Patten a merchant & shoe manufacturer - his store still stands)
M. Coffin House, 1860: Greek Revival/Italianate
J.Strout House, 1855: Greek Revival/Italianate
Frank Campbell House, 1875: Second Empire
General Alexander Campbell House, 1790: Federal (oldest home in the village. Campbell was the most prominent of Cherryfield's early settlers. He developed a substantial lumber business and was a Massachusetts State Senator from 1791 to 1798. His descendants still live in the house)
Samuel N. Campbell House, 1883: Queen Anne (A grandson of Alexander Campbell, Samuel was engaged in the lumber business and active in State politics)

See also
National Register of Historic Places listings in Washington County, Maine

References

Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Maine
Buildings and structures in Washington County, Maine
Cherryfield, Maine
National Register of Historic Places in Washington County, Maine

Cherryfield Historic District


Jane is a discontinued GUI-based integrated software package for the Apple II, Commodore 64 and Commodore 128 personal computers. It was developed by Arktronics in 1984, and the Commodore version was published by Commodore in 1985. Like Commodore's earlier Magic Desk software, it used a literal desktop metaphor with the interface consisting of an onscreen graphic of a desktop with icons representing associated business tools - a typewriter represented the word processor component (JaneWrite), a filing cabinet for the database (JaneList), a calculator for the spreadsheet (JaneCalc) and so on. It was designed to be controlled by either a joystick or a mouse. Like most of the other examples of integrated software for home computers, Jane's components were criticized for being slow and limited. It was not a success in the marketplace but represented an early example of a graphical interface on an 8-bit computer.

Arktronics was a software development company in Ann Arbor, Michigan, founded by Howard Marks and Bobby Kotick. Jane was originally intended to be a package not only for the Apple and Commodore lines, but also for the Atari 8-bit family and others. This transportability was engineered by a combination of higher level systems written in the C language and machine specific drivers written in the assembly language for each machine (6502 Assembly for the Apple II and Commodore 64). For the C64, DOS manager was written by Howard K. Weiner, and the font manager/windows manager was written by Daniel J. Weiner. The Weiner brothers, both went on to attend the University of Michigan Integrated Pre-medical-Medical (Inteflex) Program. Other programmers included Andrew Marcheff (z"l) and Thomas Naughton.

References

Apple II software
Commodore 64 software
1984 software
1985 software

Jane (software)


Catherine Carlson was appointed to the Provincial Court of Manitoba on November 23, 2006.

Judge Carlson graduated from the Faculty of Law at the University of Manitoba in 1986. She began her legal career with the Winnipeg law firm of Aikins, MacAulay & Thorvaldson, where she primarily practiced family law.

In 2005, she accepted a position with Justice Canada, working primarily on residential school claims and held the position of senior counsel and team leader in Aboriginal law services.

Her work included co-ordinating litigation involving Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, as well as managing a litigation team. She has also been an active member of the community and has participated on numerous boards including Child Find Manitoba.

References
Government of Manitoba news release (accessed August 3, 2007)

Judges in Manitoba
University of Manitoba alumni
Canadian women judges
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)

Catherine Carlson


Millstones or mill stones are stones used in gristmills, used for triturating, crushing or, more specifically, grinding wheat or other grains. They are sometimes referred to as grindstones or grinding stones.

Millstones come in pairs: a stationary base with a convex rim known as the bedstone (or nether millstone) and a concave-rimmed runner stone that rotates. The movement of the runner on top of the bedstone creates a "scissoring" action that grinds grain trapped between the stones. Millstones are constructed so that their shape and configuration help to channel ground flour to the outer edges of the mechanism for collection.

The runner stone is supported by a cross-shaped metal piece (millrind or rynd) fixed to a "mace head" topping the main shaft or spindle leading to the driving mechanism of the mill (wind, water (including  tide) or other means).

History

The origins of an industry
Often referred to as the "oldest industry", the use of the millstone is inextricably linked to human history. Integrated into food processes since the Upper Palaeolithic, its use remained constant until the end of the 19th century, when it was gradually replaced by a new type of metal tool. However, it can still be seen in rural domestic installations, such as in India, where 300 million women used hand mills daily to produce flour in 2002.
The earliest evidence for stones used to grind food is found in northern Australia, at the Madjedbebe rock shelter in Arnhem Land, dating back around 60,000 years. Grinding stones or grindstones, as they were called, were used by the Aboriginal peoples across the continent and islands, and they were traded in areas where suitable sandstone was not available in abundance. Different stones were adapted for grinding different things and varied according to location. One important use was for foods, in particular to grind seeds to make bread, but stones were also adapted for grinding specific types of starchy nuts, ochres for artwork, plant fibres for string, or plants for use in bush medicine, and are still used today. The Australian grindstones usually comprise a large flat sandstone rock (for its abrasive qualities), used with a top stone, known as a "muller", "pounder", or pestle. The Aboriginal peoples of the present state of Victoria used millstones to crush roots, bulbs, tubers and berries, as well as insects, small mammals and reptiles before cooking them.

In Ancient history

Careful examination of Paleolithic grinders (pebbles, wheels, mortar and pestle, etc.) enables us to determine the nature of the action exerted on the material and the gesture performed; the function of the tool can then be specified, as well as the activity in which it participated.

Neanderthal people were already using rudimentary tools to crush various substances, as attested by the presence of rudimentary grinders at the end of the Mousterian and millstones in the Châtelperronian. From the Aurignacian period onwards (around 38,000 years ago), Cro-Magnon man regularly used millstones, elongated grinders, and circular wheels. From the Gravettian period onwards (circa 29,000 years), this equipment became more diversified, with the appearance of new types of tools such as millstones and pestle grinders.

At the end of the Palaeolithic, millstones from Wadi Kubbaniya (Middle East, 19,000 B.C.) were involved in dietary processes and associated with residues of tuberous plants, which were known to require grinding before consumption, either to extract their toxins (Cyperus rotundus, nutsedge), or to remove the fibrous texture that would make them indigestible (Scirpus maritimus). The rhizomes of ferns and the peel of the fruit of the doum palm, also found on this site, benefit from being ground to improve their nutritional qualities; they thus complemented the meat diet of hunter-gatherers. Grinding barley or oat seeds was practiced at the end of the Upper Palaeolithic (Franchthi) or the Kebarian (Ohalo II, 19,000 BC).

As tools improved, the material was increasingly finely ground, but only when it became a real powder could we speak of grinding. Thus, the men of the European Upper Paleolithic were already dissociating grinding and milling, as attested by the appearance at this time of the first grinding slabs used with grinders or millstones. While there is no evidence of the milling of wild cereals in the early Upper Paleolithic, at least in Europe, there is no reason not to believe that other plant matter (acorns, nuts, hazelnuts, etc.) and animal matter (fat) were already being ground into paste before cooking. Similarly, it's likely that millstones were being used at this time for technical purposes, to crush mineral substances (dyes) and certain plant or animal fibers for technical use.

In the Mesolithic and Neolithic eras, with the domestication of plants, much larger, fully formed grinding, pounding, and milling equipment appeared. From the Natufian onwards, several types of millstones can be found side by side, such as the deep "trough-shaped" millstone or the flat millstone, indicating a specialization of their function. In the Near East, the pestle-grinder began to be developed in the Kebarian and Natufian periods. It gradually evolved into the heavy, generally wooden, thrown pestle. This type of equipment is still used today in many regions, such as in Ethiopia for milling millet.

The appearance of flat, elongated millstones in the Natoufian period (Abu Hureïra on the Euphrates) dates back to the 9th millennium BC. They feature larger active surfaces and mark the emergence of a new gesture, that of grinding from front to back, with both hands, which implies a new posture for the body, kneeling in front of the millstone. The appearance of large, asymmetrical, shaped millstones (Mureybet, Sheikh Hassan, circa 10,000 BP) led to the "saddle-shaped" millstones still known today as the metate.

In the rest of the world

At the Tell Abu Hureyra archaeological site, as early as the 8th millennium BC, women's skeletons show traces of osteoarthritis in the knees, spinal deformity and deformation of the first metatarsal, pathologies associated with long periods of bending while grinding, supporting the theory that early humans practiced a sexual division of labor.

In India, millstone (Chakki) were used to grind grains and spices. These consist of a stationary stone cylinder upon which a smaller stone cylinder rotates. Smaller ones, for household use, were operated by two people. Larger ones, for community or commercial use, used livestock to rotate the upper cylinder. Today a majority of the stone flour mills (Atta Chakki) are equipped with lower stone rotating and upper stone stationary millstones also called Shikhar Emery Stones which are made from abrasive emery grains and grits, with a binding agent similar to Sorel Cement. These stones are made from two types of emery abrasives - Natural Jaspar Red Emery or Synthetic Calcined Bauxite Black Emery.
In Korea, there were three different millstones, each made from different materials, serving other purposes, such as threshing, grinding, and producing starch. Generally, the handle of a millstone in Korea was made from an ash tree, the process for making a handle from the ash tree was known as "Mulpure-namu". To ensure that everything is "all right" with the creation of a millstone, a mason within ancient Kora offered food and alcohol in a ritual.

Millstones were introduced to Britain by the Romans during the 1st century AD and were widely used there from the 3rd century AD onwards.

In 1932-1933 in Ukraine, during the man-made famine known as Holodomor, the Soviet authorities prohibited the use of millstones, claiming that a millstone is a "mechanism for enrichment" (which was a negative term in Soviet communist ideology). This forced Ukrainian villagers to hide their manually-operated millstones and use them secretly during the famine. In response, Soviet authorities regularly searched villages for "illegal" millstones and destroyed them. In 2007, the people of Victorivka village in Cherkasy Oblast built a monument using the millstones they had managed to hide and save from the Soviet plunder during the Holodomor.

Different techniques: grinding, crushing, milling
The preparation of vegetable products (roots, tubers, almonds, leaves, etc.), animal products (marrow, tendons, etc.), or mineral products (ochre) by grinding or milling, for consumption or technical use, has existed for several dozen millennia. Unlike crushing, in which a hard envelope such as a shell or bone is broken open to recover its contents, in this case, the aim is to reduce a much softer material to a powder or paste.

Depending on the place and time, millstones were used for "dry" grinding: in the manufacture of flour, sugar, or spices, but also for the preparation of kaolinite, cement, phosphate, lime, enamel, fertilizer, and other minerals. The milling operation can also be carried out "wet", as in the case of durum wheat semolina, nixtamal, or the grinding of mustard seeds. During preparation, some raw materials produce a naturally fluid paste, as in olive crushing or cocoa grinding.

In his typology of percussion, André Leroi-Gourhan defines several families of gestures, three of which are essential for the preparation of raw materials:

 Crushing gestures involve vertical percussion using a heavy, elongated object in the manner of the African pestle. This gesture is also used by the trip hammer to make paper pulp, or in forging;
 Milling gestures, using percussion, which are performed in a circular, disordered, or back-and-forth motion on a millstone;
 Grinding gestures, in which the movements are roughly circular and occasionally vertical, thus combining a thrown percussion and a percussion posed, are qualified here as diffuse. This is the case with the contemporary mortar-pestle system.

Milling systems
Until the invention of the watermill, mills operated using "strength-powered", i.e. the force of animals or people.

The metate

The metate is a nether millstone for domestic use, for grinding corn. It has been used for several thousand years (around 3000 BC) in the cultural area of Mesoamerica, and its name comes from the Nahuatl "metatl".

Today's millstones are monolithic, usually made of basalt, apodous, or tripod, rectangular, and slightly concave on the grinding surface. These millstones are associated with a two-handed wheel, called a "mano", whose size generally exceeds the width of the millstone and which is driven in an alternating rectilinear motion. On tripod wheels, one of the legs is slightly higher than the other two, giving the whole unit an inclination, with the user standing in front of the highest part.

The manufacture of millstones was essentially a male occupation. In pre-Hispanic times, millers used only stone tools, a practice that persisted in some villages until the mid-20th century. The use of metal tools, probably inherited from building stone masons, made it possible to use the hardest basalts, resulting in millstones with a lifespan of over thirty years. While the manufacture of apod millstones from blocks of stone naturally polished in a riverbed was once within the reach of many farmers, the production of tripode metates requires specialized craftsmanship.

Grinding plays a key role in Mexican cuisine. Dry grinding is possible, but very few recipes are produced in this way: roasted coffee, roasted corn or beans, salt, sugar loaves, and cocoa are ground into powder. But most preparations require grinding with water. Fruits are ground into juices, beans or boiled vegetables, ingredients are added to various spicy sauces and, above all, corn is used to make the tortillas that form the basis of every meal. The latter are made from nixtamal, i.e. dry corn kernels cooked with lime, then rinsed with water, which softens the kernels and produces a paste. Maize or nixtamal can be ground for preparations other than patties: tamales, pozole, atole, pinole, and masa, with variations in the fineness of the grind depending on the use.

The metate was used exclusively by women, and in Mixtec lands, the place where the millstone is located was a space reserved for women. A couple often acquires, or is given, a millstone when they set up home. This acquisition represents a major expense in the life of a Mixtec peasant, as evidenced by the wills of nobles and wealthy peasants from the 16th to 18th centuries, which included metates.

Daily tortillas are made from sufficiently moistened corn dough, which, unlike flour, cannot be preserved. This technical characteristic no doubt explains why domestic metates were not replaced centuries ago by mills, as they were in Europe. During the wars of the 19th century and the Mexican Revolution of 1910, Mexican armies were accompanied by women and metates to ensure the stewardship of the country; the Spanish conquest did not replace tortillas with bread - quite the contrary. At the end of the 19th century, the owners of the large plantations introduced motorized corn mills, which freed up female labor for the fields. From 1920 onwards, electric mills appeared in the countryside, owned by municipalities, cooperatives or private individuals. However, still in use today, nether millstones are still part of Mexico's rural heritage.

The Olynthus mill

The town of Olynthus was destroyed in 348 BC by Philip II of Macedonia, and the name "Olynthus millstone, Olynthus grinder, Olynthus mill" has come to be attached to this type of mill, which represents a genuine technical revolution. In 1917, the Greek Konstantinos Kourouniotis elucidated the workings of the hopper millstone, which played an important role in ancient Greece.

In the Olynthus mill, the nether millstone(4) is rectangular, resting on a table (5); it measures between 0.42 m and 0.65 m in length, 0.36 m to 0.54 m in width and 0.08 to 0.25 m in thickness. The grinder, which forms the upper millstone (common millstone (3)), is usually rectangular, sometimes oval, with a central hopper parallel to the long sides, designed to receive the grain to be ground. The mill is capped by a horizontal axle attached to a pivot (1) on one side of the table, the other end being operated by a worker who moves the lever (2) back and forth horizontally. The Olynthus mill thus shows the beginnings of mechanization, with millers now standing on their feet, making work easier.

This type of mill certainly appeared as early as the beginning of the 5th century BC. Its use was widespread throughout the Greek civilization in the 4th century B.C., from Macedonia to the Peloponnese, and was adopted as far afield as the islands of Anatolia, Egypt, and modern-day Syria. It continued into the 1st century B.C., and sometimes even later, as the excavations at the Agora in Athens suggest. The importance of this mill type for the Greek world was confirmed by the discovery, in 1967, of 22 hopper mills in the cargo of a ship wrecked off Kyrenia, dated to the end of the 4th century BC. Increasing demand undoubtedly led to standardization in manufacturing and specialization of production centers. For example, flat Argolidian millstones, made of andesite and rhyolite, were produced from local quarries (Isthmus of Corinth, Saronic Gulf), while grinders came from more distant quarries (islands of Nysiros, Milos).

The use of this type of mill was not limited to grinding cereals, as the finds from Thasos or Lavrio suggest: it was also used to grind ore, so as to calibrate it for subsequent selection by washing. It may even have appeared in the mines of Pangaion Hills. The text by Agatharchides on the gold mines of Egypt in the 1st century B.C., transmitted by Photios and Diodorus, mentions a mill with a lever:

"Women and older men then receive this ore crushed to the size of peas, throw it into the millstones, in numerous lines, two or three people standing at each lever and grind it." Photius' version specifies "on either side" of the lever.

The rotating millstone
It's also known as a "hand millstone", "arm millstone" or "moulinet", and in Latin as a "molendinum bracchis" or "molendinum manuale".

According to de Barry, the oldest circular stone millstone was unearthed in the ruins of the town of Olynthus: it was the millstone of an oil mill, not a flour mill. Historians Marie-Claire Amouretti and Georges Comet point out that these millstones pre-date the earliest known examples of circular grain mills. So it was probably through oil production that the first rotary crushing machine was introduced. Cereals and other fruits and seeds followed.

It seems that the rotating millstone appeared at the end of the 5th century BC, and that it was directly derived from attempts to perfect the Olynthus mill. André Leroi-Gourhan states that "the transformation of rectilinear reciprocating motion into circular-continuous motion leads to another form of milling". Authors do not agree on its geographical origin, located for some "towards Carthage and the Syrian-Egyptian region", "simultaneously in Spain(fr) Rafael Frankel: The Olynthus Mill, Its Origin, and Diffusion: Typology and Distribution, in American Journal of Archaeology, vol. 107, no. 1 (2003),  and England" for others, and even though it was found in China in the 1st century BC. According to L.A. Moritz, the rotating grain mill only appeared in the first century BC. He bases his demonstration on Latin texts, in particular those of Plautus and Cato, and fixes the introduction of this type between the time of Plautus' death in 184BC and the composition of De agri cultura, around 160 BC.

Several types of mills can be identified in Europe, depending on the morphology of the millstones used in these manually operated rotary mills.

The Celtic mill is made up of massive millstones, with a conical external profile and virtually flat active stone surfaces.

In Dacia, between the 1st century B.C. and the 1st century A.D., the Celtic mill evolved into an intermediate type with two millstones superimposed and integrated, featuring a three-lobed feed opening. The more sharply tapered inner surfaces of the millstones ensured that the grains flowed more quickly under the effect of gravity, but the quality of the flour obtained remained mediocre. On the other hand, the effort required to operate the current millstone is considerable. The profile of the millstones makes them more difficult to cut, imposes a standardization of the millstones, and explains their diffusion and maintenance in a given region. Some examples feature flatter wheels, with a much reduced taper, which reduces the stone mass. The speed of rotation became higher, providing a greater gyroscopic effect, but also requiring the installation of a system of claws fixed with molten lead on the upper side of the movable wheel, to hold it in place around the pivot.

Romanization led to the widespread use of hand mills, which were perfected in terms of volume by increasing diameter and reducing height and weight. The profile of the millstones became flatter, and a number of improvements were introduced, such as an upper wedge to center the movable wheel on the pivot. A device for adjusting the distance between the millstones (the anille) also appeared, enabling grinding quality to be controlled (1st century B.C.), and radii cut into the millstone could accentuate the natural abrasiveness of the stone. Later developments, such as the installation of the double lever or the use of a crank fixed to the center of the millstone (14th - 15th centuries), meant that this type of hand mill was used in the countryside until the 20th century.

Because they wear more quickly, this type of millstone requires a stricter selection of stones, among which basalt has a privileged place. Most of the stone used in Roman times seems to have come from just a few quarries. In France, millstones from Cap d'Agde supplied Languedoc and Provence; further north, quarries from the Massif Central (Volvic) supplied a vast territory stretching from Aquitaine to the Helvetic valleys; finally, from the Saône valley to the German border, millstones came mainly from Eifel quarries (Mayen).

In Europe as a whole, the hand mill remained the main milling method until the end of Antiquity, and then throughout the Middle Ages; it only began to give way to the advances of water and then wind mills.

The Pompeian mill or "blood" mill
With a diameter limited to the reach of an arm's movement, i.e. 40 to 70 cm, the hand mill could only produce a limited quantity of flour and was therefore essentially reserved for domestic use. By increasing the diameter and, above all, the height of the meta (nether millstone) and the catillus (runner millstone), the Romans were able to overcome this constraint with the animal-drawn Pompeian mill, also known as the "blood" mill.

In this mill, the nether millstone is conical at the top and the runner millstone looks like an hourglass, with its lower half covering the conical top of the nether millstone. The upper part of the runner millstone acts as a funnel, and a slight gap is maintained between the two millstones. The running wheel pivots around a wooden axle embedded in the standing wheel, and it is thanks to its suspension on this axle that the gap between the two wheels is ensured. This type of millstone could be powered either by two or four men, or by animal rides, hence its name mola asinaria, literally "donkey mill".

An example of this type of millstone can be found as early as the Classical era, used to grind ore in the Laurion mines, although it did not overtake the less efficient reciprocating millstone. Despite its qualities, it didn't really spread throughout the Roman world until later. They were found throughout the Mediterranean basin, but never in very large numbers, except in Italy. Their very high cost - 1,250 denarii in the Late Roman period, compared with 250 denarii for hand millstones - meant that they were only used by millers and bakers. In Gaul, millstones are known from Lyon, Saint-Raphaël, Paris, Amiens and Clermont-Ferrand, all fashioned from basalt from the Eifel, Volvic or Cap d'Agde.

During the Late Antiquity, the donkey mill retreated, probably disappearing after the 5th century as a result of the expansion of the watermill, then the windmill, except in Sardinia, where it remained until the 20th century.

The Roman trapetum
The Hellenistic period also saw the appearance of the olive crusher, which the Romans called the trapetum. Legend has it that it was invented by Aristaeus, and excavations at Olynthus have revealed examples dating back to the 5th century BC.

The trapetum was precisely described by Cato the Elder, who gave us the technical names of all its parts. Excavations at Stabies, Pompeii, the villa at Boscoreale and in Roman Africa show that the system was widely used in ancient Rome and disappeared with it.

The trapetum consists of two plano-convex millstones (3, orbes), standing vertically, supported by a horizontal axis rotating around a vertical pivot (1, columella). This pivot rests on a short stone column (milliarium) at the center of a large hemispherical mortar (4). The lying millstone is a stone vat (4, mortarium) whose walls follow the external profile of the two common millstones. The orbs can move in a circular motion inside the mortarium, and are set in motion by the action of two wooden handles (2, modioli). Wooden wedges (orbiculi) inserted between the milliarium and the columella are used to adjust the height of the orbs above the bottom of the vat. In this system, the olives are not crushed under the millstone, but between the millstone and the sides of the vat. As in the previous model, a gap was maintained between the two millstones. The resistance offered by the fruit forces the stone half-spheres to turn slightly on their axis; the two movements combine and the pressure is exerted only moderately, without breaking the stones, which would give bad taste. The resultant pulp could then be subjected to the action of a press to collect the oil.

Millstones of southern Morocco

A melting pot of African, Eastern and Mediterranean civilizations, Morocco has preserved tools and techniques from different eras.

The Volubilis site, located in Mauritania Tingitana (northeastern Morocco), features grain and olive mills from the Roman period (1st century-2nd century). These mills consist of a truncated cone-shaped standing millstone and a convex grinding ring to which the wooden machinery is connected, apparently operated without the aid of animal power. In this arrangement, the grinding ring is fitted onto the lying millstone. The Volubilitan olive millstone differs from the grain millstone by having oblique striations on the truncated surface of the lying millstone and on the inside of the grinding ring. Columella asserts that, to extract the oil, the millstones (molae) are more useful than the crusher (trapetum), as they can be lowered or raised according to the size of the fruit, so as to avoid crushing the stone.

A second type of olive mill can be found on the same site, and consists of a monolithic vat on which a fluted drum turns around a vertical mast like the section of a column. This type of mill is more common and can be found on many sites, even in recent times.The argan tree is a woodland species endemic to southwest Morocco. The technical environment of the argan mill covers its range. It's a stone hand mill used to grind roasted kernels and almonds.

It stands out from the grain mill thanks to the truncated cone shape and greater height of its runner millstone (agurf wuflla), as well as the presence of a spout (abajjr or tilst) and a pouring spout (ils) on the nether millstone (agurf u wadday). At the center of the nether millstone is a short pivot (tamnrut) made of argan wood, around which the upper millstone rotates, pierced by an eyelet (tit n tzrgt) into which one or two handfuls of kernels are inserted. The circular movement is interrupted to remove the kernels after the millstone has been lifted. The whole unit can be raised on stones welded together in a "bakehouse"-style architecture, allowing embers or argan shells to warm the unit, thus facilitating grinding in winter.

Chronology of milling systems
Mortars and pestles have survived the centuries and are predominant for barley in Greece, starch in Italy, and millet in Africa. They slowly became marginal in some regions, but did not disappear. In classical times, they were still widely represented in Greece and were still used for hulling cereals, even if the advent of adjustable millstones meant that they could now be ground. The advance of naked wheat, particularly common wheat, in Italy and Egypt made them less useful, but they were still mentioned in the Late Roman Empire, in Roman Egypt, and in the monastic rule of Saint Isidore. With the arrival of maize, they were once again used in certain regions.

A first typology of milling systems can be drawn up according to the driving force used; a complementary approach will look at the social context in which the mechanism is implemented.

According to Diocletian's edict, the "blood" mill costed six times more than the hand mill, and the watermill eight times more. The latter therefore competed mainly with the "blood" mill, and took almost three centuries to supplant it. This was also the time it took the "blood" mill to supplant the hopper mill, and the hopper mill to supplant the flat millstone.

It seems that the watermill originated in the Eastern Mediterranean. An inscription from the Phrygian town of Orcistus, which praised the advantages of its site in order to retain its privileges, states that it possesses "thanks to the slope of the waters flowing through it, a large number of watermills". At the beginning of the Christian era, the watermill was still a novelty in the western Mediterranean, and Vitruvius classed it with irrigation machines. This type of mill proved ill-suited to the design of Pompeian millstones. In Caligula's time, "blood" mills were still dominant, as Apuleius describes. Over the course of the 1st and 2nd centuries, the watermill slowly spread to a wide variety of provinces: Brittany, Gaul, and Africa, where the rotary millstone was often more widespread than the Pompeian mill. Over the course of the 4th century, the watermill slowly replaced the "blood" mill in Rome itself, becoming the predominant mill in the 2nd century. While there were some spectacular achievements in cities, such as the Barbegal mill in Arles, the watermill seems to have spread more slowly to rural villas, as Palladius indicates.

We don't really know how the Greeks processed their cereals between the 1st and 4th centuries. The "blood" mill was undoubtedly widespread, as attested by the legend of Lucius' donkey, borrowed by Lucian of Samosata and Apuleius. The coexistence of several types of milling seems to be the rule in the Aegean world, and the codification of Diocletian's edict in the 2nd century, which established three types of mills (hand, blood, and water), can still be found in the Byzantine rural code in the 6th century, and even in travellers' accounts in the 17th century.

In the Mediterranean, watermills, which depended on water supply, progressed especially when they had a complement to avoid the vagaries of the dry season. In this context, windmills undoubtedly contributed to the spread of watermills as early as the 11th century in regions such as Provence and the Greek islands.

Other milling systems

Assembled millstones

In a study of millstones in Flanders from the Middle Ages to the French Revolution, Jean Bruggeman points out that medieval millstones were always monolithic, that black basalt stones were still monolithic in later centuries, and that white stones remained so until the 18th century. However, "gisantes" were sometimes made up of several irregularly-shaped pieces. These were bound in plaster, encased in an iron or wooden casing, and sometimes placed on a bed of cemented bricks.

In fact, the invention of millstones made of pieces, i.e. an assembly of several stones or tiles, remains difficult to date precisely.

In the 15th century, the river trade passing through Paris was strictly controlled by the Hanseatic League of water merchants; "French companies" had to inform the clerks of the names of their partners, the city of destination, and the nature and value of the cargo. Thus, on May 3rd, 1452, a Rouen merchant named Robert Le Cornu declared that he was bringing to Normandy one or more boats loaded with 35 millstones, 5 blinkers, 100 carreaux and a tombstone.

Various texts provide clues to the manufacture of millstones in the 17th century. On March 10th, 1647, Jacques Vinault "sold 3 rounds of grinding stone" to Pierre Bailly. On March 26th, 1652, another text evokes the difficulties of a millstone assembly site, with a "lack of wood to cook the plastre quy is not in sufficient quantity to plastrer and put in the places where it is necessary, joinct aussy that there is stone to suffice to make the millstones". On July 7th, 1680, Sr Delugré "made a deal with Claude Duvau and Jullien Boullmer, stone molders [...] to supply them with 2 molds of molding stone and plaster to make the millstones [...] made and perfect to make flour".

According to Dorothée Kleinmann, "economic milling" and its improvements really took off at the end of the 18th century. This led to the development of stone quarrying and millstone production in new regions such as Cinq-Mars-la-Pile and Domme, where "millstones are always formed by joining several pieces together; there are no blocks large enough to make masses from a single piece". In these locations, it seems that at the beginning of the eighteenth century, millstone was not yet quarried, preferring to salvage scattered blocks from woods, fields and vineyards, which sometimes considerably increased their value.

Once the millstone blocks have been transported to the site and "peeled", the manufacturer selects the stones required for the millstone. The different pieces are classified according to their quality, taking into account hardness, grain, porosity, and color. At this stage, it is also necessary to take into account the milling system used in the country of dispatch, and the type of wheat produced in the region. Once the choice has been made, production begins with the center or "boitard", which is usually made in one piece. This must be very solid, especially for the current millstone, as it is at this level that the casing on which the millstone is suspended is fixed. Around the boitard, the tiles are arranged and fixed with plaster or cement, and chiseled to fit together sufficiently. A wheel of this type is generally made up of two to six quarters. "When the job is done and the blocks match, the worker adjusts them by cementing them with Portland cement, sometimes with a paste of Spanish white and oil that hardens with age, and clamps the whole with iron hoops". On the other side of the working surface, the back of the millstone, or "counter-molding", is surrounded by a strip of sheet metal serving as temporary formwork. To give the millstone the necessary weight and thickness, it is reloaded with small stones embedded in fine concrete, into which are inserted cast-iron balancing boxes, which may contain lead if necessary.

Edge mill

Horizontal use of the millstone is generally associated with milling. When the millstone is "upright", i.e. on its edge, it is used for grinding, crushing, or milling operations. In this configuration, the nether millstone is fixed by its eyebolt to a vertical mast located centrally on the nether millstone which acts as a pivot. Depending on the size of the installation, and to maintain the verticality of the mast, its upper part may be attached to a beam overhanging the mill. The current millstone is rotated either " by means of force", or more often, in a riding hall. In this way, the mill is driven by a double movement, turning on itself while pivoting around the mast, as in the Roman trapetum. In this type of device, the millstone is monolithic or made up of a paved or even masonry surface. Depending on the product to be processed, the millstone may be slightly concave, with a rim around the periphery to avoid dispersing the crushed material.

Materials

In common language, "millstone" refers to any type of rock that may have been used in a mill, whereas in the geological sense, true "millstone" is defined as a siliceous accident in a sedimentary basin.

The type of stone most suitable for making millstones is a siliceous rock called burrstone (or buhrstone), an open-textured, porous but tough, fine-grained sandstone, or a silicified, fossiliferous limestone. In some sandstones, the cement is calcareous.

On a historical scale, it seems that most types of rock have been used in milling. Among the sedimentary rocks of potential use are limestone and sandstone. The latter soon emerged as the stones of choice, with porosities that make them easy to shape and extraction that can be facilitated by bedding between clay interbeds. It wasn't until the 15th century that millstones stricto sensu began to be quarried, a practice that became widespread in the 18th century.

Deep-lying magmatic rocks, such as granite, are widespread, but were ultimately little used for millstone manufacture, probably due to their low porosity and the presence of black mica, which rapidly alters to form iron oxides. Basalt was widely used in Germany (Eifel), but is not widespread in France, with the exception of the Évenos volcano in Provence; other examples include the basalt millstones of the Agde volcano, and those of the Sainte Magdeleine volcano at La Môle, not far from Cogolin.

Limestones are generally porous, with medium to low compressive strengths, so "classic" limestones seem to have been quickly abandoned in favor of better stones. Although very fine-grained, limestone polishes very quickly and needs to be re-cut frequently to keep the stones rough. Some sandstone limestones (Saint-Julien-des-Molières limestone) can have very good compressive strength (over 100 Mpa).

Sandstone rocks (sandstones and microconglomerates up to 1 cm) are the preferred material for millstones. Analysis of production sites shows that they can be limestone-cemented sandstones, silica-cemented sandstones, or even slightly metamorphosed sandstones.

Limestone-cemented sandstones, such as Alpine molasses, are widespread. They have medium porosities (6 to 12%), medium compressive strength (35 MPa), often coarse grain size, and variable silica content.

A very good millstone is generally rich in silica: the higher the percentage, the stronger the rock, silica being the hardest common mineral on the Earth's surface. The same is true of sandstone with siliceous cement, where the percentage of silica is high because both the grains and the cement are siliceous in nature. However, they don't necessarily make good millstones, like Vosges sandstone, which has a rather fine grain and traces of iron.

Slightly metamorphosed sandstones often have very low porosity (around 2%) due to tectonic compression, resulting in somewhat compact sandstones. Compressive strength can be very high (over 100 MPa), as in the case of Arros sandstone, despite an average silica percentage.

Finally, millstones in the geological sense are porous stones, which play a role not only for cutting, but also undoubtedly for grinding. These include stones such as those from La Ferté-sous-Jouarre, with high porosity (20%), compressive strength of 80 MPa, and medium grain. Corfélix stones have exceptional compressive strength on the order of solid basalt (190 Mpa), 98% silica, fairly coarse grain, and medium to high porosity.

In a nutshell, for the rock mechanics, a good millstone has three fundamental characteristics:

 insensitivity to alteration, whether through dissolution (gypsum), the action of moisture (as in the case of limestone), or the chemical action of water, as in the case of granite mica or Vosges sandstone (presence of iron) ;
 heterogeneity on a millimeter and centimeter scale is a quality that provides crushing asperities and evacuating channels, like hard punches held together by a slightly less hard but tenacious cement, which is not generally a characteristic of limestone;
 high porosity, which facilitates quarrying, as it is easier to introduce cutting tools into porous rock than into solid rock, but also undoubtedly facilitates grinding.

The following table presents some examples of geological and petrophysical data obtained from sites used for the production of millstones:

Millstones used in Britain were of several types:

 Derbyshire Peak stones of grey Millstone Grit, cut from one piece, used for grinding barley; imitation Derbyshire Peak stones are used as decorative signposts at the boundaries of the Peak District National Park. Derbyshire Peak stones wear quickly and are typically used to grind animal feed since they leave stone powder in the flour, making it undesirable for human consumption.
 French buhrstones, used for finer grinding. French Burr comes from the Marne Valley in northern France. The millstones are not cut from one piece, but built up from sections of quartz cemented together, backed with plaster and bound with shrink-fit iron bands. Slots in the bands provide attachments for lifting.  In southern England the material was imported as pieces of rock, only assembled into complete millstones in local workshops. It was necessary to balance the completed runner stone with lead weights applied to the lighter side.
Composite stones, built up from pieces of emery, were introduced during the nineteenth century; they were found to be more suitable for grinding at the higher speeds available when auxiliary engines were adopted.

In Europe, a further type of millstone was used. These were uncommon in Britain, but not unknown:

 Cullen stones (stones from Cologne), a form of black lava quarried in the Rhine Valley at Mayen near Cologne, Germany.
 Lava stones from Orvieto (Italy), Mount Etna and Hyblaean Mounts (Sicily), and Pantelleria island, were used by the Romans.

Patterning

The surface of a millstone is divided by deep grooves called furrows into separate flat areas called lands. Spreading away from the furrows are smaller grooves called feathering or cracking. The grooves provide a cutting edge and help to channel the ground flour out from the stones.

The furrows and lands are arranged in repeating patterns called harps. A typical millstone will have six, eight or ten harps. The pattern of harps is repeated on the face of each stone, when they are laid face to face the patterns mesh in a kind of "scissoring" motion creating the cutting or grinding function of the stones. When in regular use stones need to be dressed periodically, that is, re-cut to keep the cutting surfaces sharp.

The major challenge is to limit the heat generated by the pressure of the millstones on the ground flour. In addition to denaturing the flour (browning), this overheating, and any sparks generated by the rubbing of the stones, could cause an explosion in the mill, whose atmosphere is charged with fine flour particles. A complex system of spokes had to be devised to ventilate the gap between the millstones and, at the same time, progressively push the material from the eyelet to the peripheral rabbet. Wheat millstones have long been used to grind cereals in a single pass. We had to find the best way of extracting the flour and cleaning the bran, ensuring that it was unbroken and free of flour.

Millstones need to be evenly balanced, and achieving the correct separation of the stones is crucial to producing good quality flour. The experienced miller will be able to adjust their separation very accurately.

For the manufacture of the millstone, the customer had to specify the diameter, the size of the eye and the direction of the furrows. Occasionally, a miller was mistaken about the direction of the furrows, as extracts from correspondence testify: "You tell us that your top wheels must be rifled to turn counter-clockwise. We therefore understand that these millstones must be radiused to turn counter-clockwise, i.e. in the opposite direction to that in which the sun seems to revolve around the earth". Despite all the precautions taken at the time of ordering, it sometimes happened that, in the event of a dispute, we were obliged to travel to change the direction: "we sent a workman a hundred leagues from here to unravel, straighten and re-radiate two pairs of millstone; the profit is eaten twice".

Between the furrows, the millstone is covered with fine grooves called feathering or cracking, also cut into the stone, to make it more aggressive and thus better able to grind the grains. They run along the edge of the millstone, over a width of around 15 cm, to form the rabbet. Regularly, the furrows need to be redone with a special hammer: the millstone is said to need to be rhabillaged or rebatted. This operation must be carried out after grinding around 50 tons of wheat. Special steel hardening techniques enabled certain companies, such as Kupka in Germany, to produce picks and hammers that were particularly appreciated by millstone reworkers. During the operation, the light blows emitted a cloud of siliceous dust that could cause lung ailments in specialized workers. In addition, the cutting of millstones led to professional tattoos, with steel particles from the tools embedded under the dermis. Eye diseases were also common.

Grinding with millstones

Grain is fed by gravity from the hopper into the feed-shoe. The shoe is agitated by a shoe handle running against an agitator (damsel) on the stone spindle, the shaft powering the runner stone. This mechanism regulates the feed of grain to the millstones by making the feed dependent on the speed of the runner stone. From the feed shoe the grain falls through the eye, the central hole, of the runner stone and is taken between the runner and the bed stone to be ground. The flour exits from between the stones from the side. The stone casing prevents the flour from falling on the floor, instead it is taken to the meal spout from where it can be bagged or processed further.
The runner stone is supported by the rind, a cross-
shaped metal piece, on the spindle. The spindle is carried by the tentering gear, a set of beams forming a lever system, or a screw jack, with which the runner stone can be lifted or lowered slightly and the gap between the stones adjusted. The weight of the runner stone is significant (up to ) and it is this weight combined with the cutting action from the porous stone and the patterning that causes the milling process.

Millstones for some water-powered mills (such as Peirce Mill) spin at about 125 rpm.

Especially in the case of wind-powered mills the turning speed can be irregular. Higher speed means more grain is fed to the stones by the feed-shoe, and grain exits the stones more quickly because of their faster turning speed. The miller has to reduce the gap between the stones so more weight of the runner presses down on the grain and the grinding action is increased to prevent the grain being ground too coarsely. It has the added benefit of increasing the load on the mill and so slowing it down. In the reverse case the miller may have to raise the runner stone if the grain is milled too thoroughly making it unsuitable for baking. In any case the stones should never touch during milling as this would cause them to wear down rapidly. The process of lowering and raising the runner stone is called tentering and lightering. In many windmills it is automated by adding a centrifugal governor to the tentering gear.
Depending on the type of grain to be milled and the power available the miller may adjust the feed of grain to stones beforehand by changing the amount of agitation of the feed-shoe or adjusting the size of the hopper outlet.
Milling by millstones is a one-step process in contrast with roller mills in modern mass production where milling takes place in many steps. It produces wholemeal flour which can be turned into white flour by sifting to remove the bran.

Symbolism

Symbolism in the Bible
Millstones were often essential objects within a community. For that reason, they gain multiple symbolic meanings and symbolism within mythology, folklore, and the bible. The Hebrew Bible admonishes (Deuteronomy 24:6): "No one shall take a lower millstone, nor an upper millstone, in pledge [for the payment of a debt], for that would be tantamount to taking away a life in pledge." The rabbis have explained that not only a millstone cannot be taken as security for a pledge, but anything in which the life of man depends cannot be taken as security for a pledge.

The Bible heavily utilized millstone symbolism within its various proverbs. A common one is the millstone's proverbial designation of something as a great weight, as seen in Matthew 18:6
Likewise, due to the exhausting physical labor associated with the earliest millstones, they were symbolic of hard work and accredited as a menial task given to the lowest form of a laborer. This isn't the only symbolic meaning of millstones within the Bible; millstones were also used as a symbol of civilization, prosperity, and comfortable living.

Other symbolism
Out of the Bible, the millstone can be seen as a symbol of transformation, death, and rebirth. This is due to the strenuous amount of work and effort that goes into utilizing a millstone to grind grain into flour. Other symbolic meanings associated with millstones include fertility and abundance. In Korea, a practice existed in which the husband would use a millstone while his wife was in childbirth, hoping that she could share her pain. In both the Bible and folklore, the millstone can be associated with punishment. In some instances and stories, a millstone is used to harm an individual for their behavior. Examples of millstones being used to punish individuals can be seen in "The Juniper Tree" and Judges 9:53, where one is used to kill Abimelech by tossing it on his head.

Heraldry
In heraldry, as a demonstration of military bravado, a millstone features as the heraldic crest of John de Lisle, 2nd Baron Lisle (c.1318-1355), one of the founder knights of the Order of the Garter, as shown on his garter-plate in St George's Chapel, Windsor: A mill-stone argent pecked sable the inner circle and the rim of the second the fer-de-moline or. Thus symbolising super-human strength necessary to support such a weight atop his helmet.

In its more basic heraldic form it is a charge symbolising industry. The fer-de-moline ("mill-iron") or millrind, which attaches to the millstone and transfers to it the torque of the drive-shaft, is also a common heraldic charge, used as canting arms by families named Mills, Milles, Turner, etc.

Photo gallery

References

Appendix

Bibliography

 (fr) Meules à grains. Actes du colloque international de La Ferté-sous-Jouarre, 16-19 mai 2002 archive, Éditions Ibis Press - Éditions de la maison des sciences de l'homme (ISBN 2-910728-35-8)
 (fr) Alain Belmont, La Pierre à pain. Les carrières de meules de moulins en France, du Moyen ge à la révolution industrielle, Presses universitaires de Grenoble, 2006, 2 vol. (ISBN 2706113057)
 (fr) Bertrand Gille (s. dir.), Histoire des techniques, Gallimard, coll. "La Pléiade", 1978. (ISBN 9782070108817)
 (fr) Bertrand Gille, Les sources statistiques de l'histoire de France - Des enquêtes du xviie siècle à 1870, Centre de recherches d'histoire et de philologie de la IVe section de l'École pratique des hautes études, 1964.
 (fr) Auguste Armengaud, Claude Rivals, Moulins à vent et meuniers des pays d'oc, Toulouse, Loubatières, 1992 (ISBN 2862661627)
 (fr) Marie-Claire Amouretti, Le pain et l'huile dans la Grèce antique. De l'araire au moulin, Besançon, Les Belles Lettres, ALUB, (328), 1986 (ISBN 2-251-60328-X)
 (fr) Jean-Pierre Brun. Archéologie du vin et de l'huile. De la préhistoire à l'époque hellénistique. Éditions errance, 2004 (ISBN 2-87772-285-6)
 (fr) Jean-Pierre Brun. Archéologie du vin et de l'huile dans l'Empire romain. Éditions errance, 2004 (ISBN 2-87772-293-7)

See also
 Bedrock mortar
 Edge mill
 Gristmill
 Quern-stone
 Mühlsteinbrüche, historic millstone quarries in Saxony
 Grain grinding wheel

External links

 Millstone Dressing Tools
 European millstone quarries: a database
 Abandoned Millstones - Peak District
 Video clip demonstrating millstone dressing
 Millstones & Querns on Flickr
 Atlas of the millstones of France and Europe archive
 Millstones. Recherche, protection et valorisation d'un patrimoine industriel européen (Antiquité-xxie s.) archive. International symposium, Grenoble - Thursday 22nd to Sunday 25th September 2005 - Maison des Sciences de l'Homme-Alpes.
 Techniques in Greco-Roman antiquity archive.
 The Dussart mill archive
 History of anille archive
 Le moulin de la Mousquère archive Detail of the grindstone's grain-feeding mechanism
 Millstone" encyclopedia article on wikisources
 [PDF] Processing techniques archive
 [PDF] And man created the millstone archive
 Fédération Des Moulins de France archive, Monde des Moulins magazine archive
 Fédération Française des Associations de sauvegarde des Moulins archive, Moulins de France magazine archive
 Rotary hand mills archive

Grinding and lapping
Grinding mills
Food grinding tools
Stone objects
Heraldic charges

Millstone


Bobo is a Franco-Belgian comics series created by Paul Deliège and Maurice Rosy. The series features an eponymous prisoner of the jail Inzepocket ("in the pocket" with a French accent). In Dutch, the series' name is Jaap.

History
Bobo first appeared in a mini–récit (mini-story) in Spirou magazine on May 11, 1961 In the early years, it was written by Rosy, who also took artistic responsibility during a brief period in the 1970s. Eventually, the character evolved into its own series, mostly consisting of short stories, and a few full length (i.e. 44 pages) stories. Fifteen albums appeared until the 1990s, when the series ended its run.

Synopsis
Bobo was sentenced to twenty years in jail for stealing a bicycle (it was the bicycle of the sentencing judge). Bobo is always trying to escape in various ways, usually by digging, and thus make his way to the beaches of Acapulco. Other major characters are the prison's manager who is fond of pies and cookies; the prison bully who has it in for Bobo and his various schemes; the Professional, a grumpy old prisoner who insists that everything be done "by the book," his copy of which dates back to before the prison reform movement (at his insistence, the Professional lives in an old dungeon, wears a ball-and-chain, does heavy labor and only eats stale bread and dirty water); and Stonie the warden, who always carries a stone (left over after building the prison), and which he is constantly trying to get rid off, but his colleagues insist that he carries. There is also Julot-les-pinceaux (Julian Brush), Bobo's outside accomplice who is always coming up with various schemes to get his beloved boss out of the nick.

Computer game
A six-stage computer game was made (released in 1988), with the player steering Bobo through six tasks: feeding soup to his hungry inmates in the mess hall whiles killing flies; peeling an ever-increasing mount of potatoes; cleaning the floor of the prison office hallway; helping his numerous mates escape via a trampoline; running over a set of three high-mounted power lines; and finally, stopping your cellmates from snoring when you are trying to sleep.

The purpose of the game is not to reach a certain goal, but to collect as many points as possible in the short space of time given in most of the tasks. Failing in these task is inevitable—like in the first, the inmates get hungry very quickly as time passes, and eventually someone puts the soup pot on Bobo's head; and in the third an increasing number of guardsmen, dogs and inmates keep running through the hallway, staining the floor with their dirty shoes.

References

 Bobo publications in Spirou BDoubliées
 Bobo albums Bedetheque
Footnotes

External links

 Paul Deliège interview on Auracan.com

Dupuis titles
Belgian comics characters
1961 comics debuts
Belgian comic strips
Humor comics
Gag-a-day comics
Comics characters introduced in 1961
Fictional prisoners and detainees
Fictional prison escapees
Male characters in comics
Comics adapted into video games

Bobo (Belgian comic)