Tjostolv Moland (28 February 1981 – 18 August 2013) was a former Norwegian army officer and private security contractor or ex-mercenary arrested in May 2009 in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), and convicted (together with Joshua French) of murdering their driver and espionage for Norway.

One day after he died, The Guardian said that his "death overshadowed even the upcoming elections in Norway's media." Furthermore, Reuters claimed that "The death penalty was later overturned by Congo's military high court"—without mentioning that the prisoners were sentenced to death at the next trial.

Early life
Moland was born and raised in Vegårshei, Aust-Agder county, Norway. He joined the army when he was nineteen, served in The King's Guard and later the Telemark Battalion, where he held the rank of second lieutenant before his resignation in 2007.  During his tenure as an army officer, he befriended grenadier Joshua French, a fellow soldier in the Telemark Battalion. After leaving the military, they both worked in the private security industry for a Korean company as security guards in the Gulf of Aden.

2009 Congo trial

In 2009, a manhunt ensued after Moland and French were suspected in the shooting of their driver, who was found dead in the car in which the three had been riding. The men claimed that their driver was murdered by gunmen who waylaid them, and that they escaped from them on foot. On 8 September 2009, a DRC military tribunal in Kisangani (the capital of Orientale Province) found them both guilty of all charges and sentenced them to death. The Democratic Republic of the Congo government insists that the defendants were active-duty Norwegian soldiers, contradicting Norway's insistence that they had no connection with its military since 2007. "The rulings drew immediate international protests amid claims of miscarriages of justice."

Appeal and new trial
On 22 April 2010, the BBC reported that a court overturned the convictions of French and Moland because of flawed procedures at their military tribunal and ordered a new trial with different judges.

On 10 June 2010, the BBC reported that the new tribunal in Kisangani found them guilty of murder and espionage. They were again sentenced to death and the Norwegian State was ordered to pay $65m.

Imprisonment
During their first trial, the men were incarcerated in Kisangani, where they also remained for the first year of their sentence. In 2010, they were transferred to Kinshasa. (Tvedestrandsposten has reported the name of the prison as Prison Militaire Ndolo.)  In 2011, their prison cell was searched by officials including major Jean-Blaise Bwamulunda, one of the prosecutors in the trial.  in cash was found and confiscated.

Diplomats meeting in Democratic Republic of Congo
In 2013, on his visit to the DRC, French president François Hollande suggested that prisoners French and Moland should be moved out of the situation of their six-man prison cell; five days later the two prisoners shared a cell of their own. (Britain's foreign ministry had contacted France's in advance, due to Joshua French being a British citizen in addition to being a Norwegian citizen.)

Death
On 18 August 2013, at 4 a.m. local time, Moland was found dead by his cellmate, Joshua French. French, who slept with ear plugs, had noticed that Moland got out of bed, but when he did not return from the adjoining bathroom, he woke up and found his cellmate dead. The prison officials were notified four hours later, and began investigation. DRC's minister of communications, Lambert Mende Omalanga, said that "We're trying to determine whether it was suicide or homicide. It looks like suicide but we're not sure". His death was confirmed at a press conference by Norway's foreign minister Espen Barth Eide, who also reported that the cause of death was yet unknown. The Norwegian government dispatched a four-man criminal team the following day, to assist the investigation in Congo.

On 20 August, French stated in an interview with VG that Moland had been active and in good health up until his death, doing his daily exercises and jogging in the courtyard just a few hours earlier. Eight days later, on 28 August 2013, Congolese authorities and Norwegian pathologists concluded that Moland had committed suicide. In December 2013, French was charged with drugging and murdering Moland, accusations that led to statements of surprise by Norwegian authorities.

Reactions
Morten Furuholmen, a former lawyer of the two prisoners, said "My opinion has been that there should have been more activity from the highest levels of politics, including meeting in Congo. Norway's foreign ministry has limited itself to short meetings during UN sessions in New York, together with one contact in Ethiopia. There haven't been any meetings in Congo as far as I know".

Prime Minister Jens Stoltenberg told Dagbladet that the death "is deeply tragic".

On 20 August 2013 an Aftenposten editorial wrote that "...some are of the opinion that Norway ought to be able to pay itself out of the troubles. In our opinion such suggestions are overly simplistic. - One must also ask oneself what sort of example that would set for similar incidents in the future; and if Norwegian citizens' safety in critical situations are best cared for through generous ransom payments." Dagbladet'''s editorial said "...if Norwegian authorities had agreed to pay what was necessary to get Moland and French home to Norway, it would have endangered all Norwegians traveling to similar nations. Norwegian citizens visiting corrupt or lawless countries would have their market value increased. They could become commodities. Therefore such cases demand quiet diplomacy." An editorial in Tvedestrandsposten—the newspaper where Moland's family placed the death notice—called for an independent investigation of Norway's foreign ministry.

Jonas Gahr Støre, Norway's foreign minister at the time of Moland and French's arrest and conviction, said "... I understand, of course, that those that lost their son [assign] blame for that it was not possible to help them, and I am very saddened that we were not able to do that".

Morten Strøksnes, author of Et mord i Kongo ["A murder in Congo"]—and journalist—said in a 20 August 2013 article in Bergens Tidende that when his death was made public, "Moland again became the main story in all Norwegian media. The foreign minister and the prime minister announced press conferences. A prisoner on death row in an African prison, and the nation's top leadership hastily announces and holds press conferences  on a Sunday! - The foreign minister said that they could have done more. The prime minister said that they had worked hard. He sent a letter 'not too long ago'. But the letter was sent in March 2012." ... "Norway has erased [Norwegian kroner] 143 million of Congo's debt, and also funded the nation with another half billion for conservation of rainforest in Congo - without demanding anything in return. - It is easy to imagine how the Congolese have interpreted this: Either as an admission of guilt, or as a signal that Norwegian authorities did not wish that the prisoners should be transferred to their homeland."

On 20 August 2013 Aftenposten'' article quoted  Ingrid Samset (a political scientist) on her opinion that a publicized suggestion of holding back development aid funds for "the war-torn nation" to pressure DR Congo is not advisable, but instead Norway ought to open an embassy in DR Congo and invest in other ways also—to show that DR Congo is a nation that Norway cares about, even after Moland's death.

References

External links

1981 births
2013 suicides
21st-century Norwegian criminals
Norwegian male criminals
People from Vegårshei
Norwegian Army personnel
Private military contractors
Norwegian people imprisoned abroad
Norwegian prisoners sentenced to death
Norwegian expatriates in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
People convicted of spying
Prisoners sentenced to death by the Democratic Republic of the Congo
People convicted of murder by the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Prisoners who died in Democratic Republic of the Congo detention
Norwegian people convicted of murder
Norwegian people who died in prison custody
Norwegian military personnel who committed suicide
2009 murders in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Murderers who died by suicide in prison custody

Tjostolv Moland


Prey detection is the process by which predators are able to detect and locate their prey via sensory signals. This article treats predation in its broadest sense, i.e. where one organism eats another.

Evolutionary struggle and prey defenses

Predators are in an evolutionary arms race with their prey, for which advantageous mutations are constantly preserved by natural selection. In turn, predators, too, are subject to such selective pressure, those most successful in locating prey passing on their genes in greater number to the next generation's gene pool. Adaptations of prey that allow them to avoid predators are widespread, those that make them hard to find being collectively known as crypsis. Crypsis may involve temporal evasion such as nocturnality, behavioral methods such as hiding, and non-behavioral adaptations such as camouflage. Antipredator adaptations include methods other than crypsis, such as aposematism and the ability to fight.

Often behavioral and passive characteristics are combined; for example, a prey animal may look similar to and behave like its hunter's own predator (see mimicry).

Prey detection using different senses

There are a variety of methods used to detect prey. Sensory systems used include the visual system, olfactory system (smell), auditory system (hearing) and the somatosensory system (such as touch). Some predators may use all of these senses in pinpointing their prey, while others may depend mainly or entirely on a single one. Detection methods may also be divided into direct detection of the prey organism itself, and indirect clues, such as the smell of its urine.

Visual

Visual predators may form what is termed a search image of certain prey.

Predators need not locate their host directly: Kestrels, for instance, are able to detect the faeces and urine of their prey (which reflect ultraviolet), allowing them to identify areas where there are large numbers of voles, for example. This adaptation is essential in prey detection, as voles are quick to hide from such predators.

In experimental settings, animals have demonstrated perceptual switching: visual predator would form a searching image of the most abundant cryptic prey species in their environment; as the species is more predated, its number would decrease and the search image for that species would be less useful to the predator; the predator would then switch to a search image of a prey that became more abundant.

Chemical

For many animals the chemical senses are far more important than vision or hearing. Some specialist predatory beetle(s) can locate their bark beetle prey using the pheromones their targets secrete. Pheromones that are exploited by an enemy like this are called kairomones.

Auditory

Some predators rely mainly on sound cues to detect prey. In nocturnal predators non-visual clues are especially important. The barn owl (Tyto alba) relies on noises made by prey, and can locate prey animals with great precision. Bats have the added capability of echolocation to locate prey like flying insects; they can therefore locate prey even if they make no sound.

Following detection

Once a predator has found its prey it will not always attempt to chase or eat it. Prey have other ways of deterring predators from eating them besides avoiding detection. Aposematic plants and animals may have conspicuous coloration such that potential consumers such as a herbivore will avoid eating them based on unpleasant past experiences. Even if a predator may wish to eat its prey, locomotive animals may be extremely difficult to catch.

Animals living in groups have increased vigilance, and even solitary animals are capable of rapid escape when needed. Even if it does make a capture, its prey may attract competing predators, giving it a chance to escape in the struggle. It may also strike a non-vital organ: some species have deceptive appearances such that one part of their body resembles another, such as insects with false heads. This makes consumption (or fatal wounds) less probable, giving the prey a second chance at escaping.

Predators may have extensive capabilities in finding prey, but even when they are successful in doing so they may not end up with a meal.

See also

Observational learning
Optimal foraging theory

References

Alcock, J. (1998) Animal Behavior: An Evolutionary Approach (6th edition), Chapter 10. Sinauer Associates, Inc. Sunderland, Massachusetts.

Notes

Predation
Sensory systems

Prey detection


The Société nationale des chemins de fer français (French pronunciation: [sɔsjete nɑsjɔnal de ʃ(ə)mɛ̃ d(ə) fɛʁ fʁɑ̃sɛ]; abbreviated as SNCF [ɛs‿ɛn se ɛf]; French for "French National Railway Company") is France's national state-owned railway company. Founded in 1938, it operates the country's national rail traffic along with Monaco, including the TGV, on France's high-speed rail network. Its functions include operation of railway services for passengers and freight (through its subsidiaries SNCF Voyageurs and Rail Logistics Europe), as well as maintenance and signalling of rail infrastructure (SNCF Réseau). The railway network consists of about 35,000 km (22,000 mi) of route, of which 2,600 km (1,600 mi) are high-speed lines and 14,500 km (9,000 mi) electrified. About 14,000 trains are operated daily.

In 2010 the SNCF was ranked 22nd in France and 214th globally on the Fortune Global 500 list. It is the main business of the SNCF Group, which in 2020 had €30 billion of sales in 120 countries. The SNCF Group employs more than 275,000 employees in France and around the world. Since July 2013, the SNCF Group headquarters are located in a Parisian suburb at 2 Place aux Étoiles in Saint-Denis. The president of SNCF Group has been Jean-Pierre Farandou since 2019.

Companies of France
1938 establishments in Europe

SNCF


Karl Ewald Konstantin Hering (5 August 1834 – 26 January 1918) was a German physiologist who did much research in color vision, binocular perception, eye movements, and hyperacuity. He proposed opponent color theory in 1892.

Born in Alt-Gersdorf, Kingdom of Saxony, Hering studied at the University of Leipzig and became the first rector of the German Charles-Ferdinand University in Prague.

Biography

Early years

Hering was born in Alt-Gersdorf in Saxony, Germany. He probably grew up in a poor family, son of a Lutheran pastor. Hering attended gymnasium in Zittau and entered the university of Leipzig in 1853. There he studied philosophy, zoology and medicine. He completed an M.D. degree in 1860.

It is somewhat unclear how Hering trained to do research. At the time Johannes Peter Müller was perhaps the most famous physiologist in Germany. Hering seems to have applied for studying under his direction but was rejected, which might have contributed to his animosity towards Hermann von Helmholtz, Müller's protégé. However, in Leipzig, E. H. Weber and G. T. Fechner were conducting groundbreaking studies founding what would become the field of psychophysics. Although there is no evidence that Hering ever studied under their direction, in his later years he proudly acknowledged himself a "student of Fechner".

After graduating, Hering practiced as a physician in Leipzig. Despite having little time to do research and having even scarcer financial resources, he turned to binocular vision (using both eyes together) and the problem of the horopter (the points in space that project on anatomically identical points on the two retinas). There, he surprised the scientific community when he published, as a completely unknown scientist, his own mathematical derivation of the horopter independently from Hermann von Helmholtz, who was by then considered one of the best German scientists and mathematicians. Hering went as far as ridiculing Helmholtz's (unimportant) mathematical errors in his derivation of the horopter.

University posts

Hering was subsequently appointed professor of physiology at the military academy of Vienna until 1870. With better resources he conducted important studies in physiology, in particular on the cardiac and respiratory systems. In 1870, he succeeded Jan Evangelista Purkinje at the university of Prague where he remained for the next 25 years. There he became involved in fierce arguments between nationalistic Czechs who wanted the university taught in the language of the land, and a minority of German professors. Eventually a separate German university, Charles-Ferdinand University, was created in 1882 and Hering became its first rector.

In his late years, Hering returned to Germany, where he became professor at the university of Leipzig in 1895, aged 61. He retired in 1915 and died of tuberculosis three years later. He was an atheist.

Research

Binocular vision

Hering studied a broad range of subjects in vision, among them his outstanding studies on binocular vision.
 He derived, almost simultaneously with Helmholtz, the theoretical shape of the horopter. Despite identical results, Hering's derivation was far more modern and elegant, using recently developed projective geometry. Indeed, Helmholtz himself qualified Hering's approach as "very elegant, comprehensive and complete". Subsequently, Hering empirically estimated the shape of the horopter. Alongside with Helmholtz and Hillebrand, he noticed that the empirical horopter does not match the theoretical horopter, a phenomenon now named the Hering–Hillebrand deviation.

Hering is also well known for his Law of Visual Direction which describes the perceived egocentric direction of an object from an observer. Unbeknownst to Hering and other visual scientists of the time, a similar law had been proposed by Alhazen (1021)  and Wells (1792)
although both their laws were different.

Hyperacuity

Hering did seminal work on what we now call hyperacuity: spatial resolution in certain visual tasks that exceeds visual acuity by about an order of magnitude. In his famous 1899 treatise "On the Limits of Visual Acuity" he summarized empirical data published 1863 by Alfred Wilhelm Volkmann and Ernst Anton Wülfing 1892 who found that there are visual tasks in which  spatial resolution goes well below the size of receptor cells in the central retina.<ref>"In the year 1892, Wülfing showed that one can recognise differences in position that correspond to a visual angle of 12–10 or even less" (translated from Hering 1899)</ref> In an explanatory model, Hering superimposed a Vernier acuity stimulus – a disalignment among two line segments – onto an idealized receptor array. He argued that, by a mechanism of integration across small eye movements, the location information signalled by the involved receptors is coded to a much higher precision than would be possible by a single receptor, an explanation that still holds up today.

Eye movements

Hering further studied eye movements. He developed the Hering's law of equal innervation to describe the conjugacy of eye movements in animals. According to this law eye movements are always equal in intensity in the two eyes but not in direction. Eye movements can therefore be either conjugate (in the same direction such as saccades or smooth pursuit) or disjunctive (such as vergence eye movements). Hering's law of equal innervation is best described by Müller's stimulus where the fixation point changes position in 1 eye but not the other eye. Simplicity conducts that only the misaligned eye should move to refoveate. Hering's law predicts that because the eyes must always move by equal amounts, both eyes should move in the new binocular direction of the target (see Hering's law of visual direction above), then move in opposite direction to adjust vergence to that of the target. In other words, the eye in which the target did not move will move away and then back at the target. This prediction was experimentally confirmed by Yarbus in his seminal work on eye movements. However it is now known that strong deviations from Hering's law exist.

Color theory

Hering disagreed with the leading theory developed primarily by Thomas Young, James Clerk Maxwell and Hermann von Helmholtz.
Young proposed that color vision is based on three primary colors: red, green, and blue. Maxwell demonstrated that any color can be matched by a mixture of three primary colors. This was interpreted by Helmholtz as proof that humans perceive colors through three types of receptors, while white and black would reflect the amount of light.

Hering instead held that the visual system works based on a system of color opponency. His evidence stemmed from color-adaptation experiments and the linguistic observation that certain color names cannot be combined into one. In this model, colors are perceived through mechanisms sensitive to three pairs of opponent colors: red-green, yellow-blue and white-black.

Johannes von Kries published in 1905 the zone theory that synthesizes both descriptions as one, where the Young-Helmholtz theory describes the interaction of light with receptors and Hering the image processing stage.
Later, in 1925, Erwin Schrödinger published a paper inspired by von Kries, titled On the relation of the four color to the three color theory. There he probes a formal relationship between the two color theories.

Both theories have solid empirical evidence. The conundrum was resolved by the discovery of color-opponent ganglion cells in the retina and lateral geniculate nucleus. We now know that the human eye possesses three types of color-sensitive receptors (as proposed by Young, Maxwell, and Helmholtz) which then combine their signals in three color-opponent channels as proposed by Hering. Thus, both the Hering and Young-Helmholtz theories are correct.

Physiology

Hering made significant contributions to the field of physiology as well as psychology. In particular he demonstrated with his student Breuer the Hering–Breuer reflex, or that artificially inflating the lungs triggers an automatic signal triggering expiration. Then deflating the lungs in turns triggers a new signal inducing respiration. That is, inspirations and expirations are an endless reflex loop triggering each other. He also showed the Traube-Hering reflex, or that inflating the lungs triggers an acceleration of the heart.

Other research

In 1861, Hering described an optical illusion which now bears his name – the Hering illusion. When two straight and parallel lines are presented in front of radial background (similar to the spokes of a bicycle), the lines appear as if they were bowed outwards. The Orbison illusion is one of its variants, while the Wundt illusion produces a similar, but inverted effect.

Hering first suggested the idea of organic memory in an 1870 lecture for the Imperial Academy of Science in Vienna. Hering took influence from the idea of inheritance of acquired characteristics and suggested that memories could be passed on through generations by germ cells.

The Hering-Helmholtz controversy

Hering spent most of his life arguing violently with Helmholtz. The controversy was not only scientific but also philosophical; Hering was a nativist, Helmholtz an empiricist. Helmholtz also came from a higher social class and was always considered a prodigy, whereas Hering had to go through a harder time in his early career. Hering and Helmholtz disagreed on almost everything and the controversy lasted long after the end of both of their lives. Hering however was by far the more aggressive of the two, and was always prompt to point out any mistake that Helmholtz might have made, sometimes even going so far as to insult him ("It is likely that the great Helmholtz in his dozing state..."). Helmholtz's faction (though probably not Helmholtz himself) spread rumors which accorded to Hering the need for help to do his mathematical work and that he was clinically insane ("He has been, as I have heard, mentally ill").

PublicationsThe Theory of Binocular Vision [Die Lehre Vom Binocularen Sehen] (1868/1977)Spatial Sense and Movements of the Eye [Der Raumsinn und die Bewegungen des Auges] (1879/1942)
On the Limits of Visual Acuity. [Ueber die Grenzen der Sehschärfe]  (1899/2018)Outlines of a Theory of the Light Sense [Grundzüge der Lehre vom Lichtsinn] (1905/1964)Handbuch der Physiologie'' (1879)
On Memory and the Specific Energies of the Nervous System (1897)

References

Further reading

External links
 Who Named It?, Karl Ewald Konstantin Hering

1834 births
1918 deaths
German physiologists
German atheists
Color scientists
People from the Kingdom of Saxony
Leipzig University alumni
Academic staff of Charles University
Foreign Members of the Royal Society
Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)
Vision scientists

Ewald Hering


The term administration, as used in the context of government, differs according to the jurisdiction under which it operates. In general terms, administration can be described as a decision-making body.

United States

In American usage, the term generally refers to the executive branch under a specific president (or governor, mayor, or other local executive);  or the term of a particular executive; for example: "President Y's administration" or "Secretary of Defense X during President Y's administration."  It can also mean an executive branch agency headed by an administrator, as the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), Small Business Administration or the National Archives and Records Administration.

The term "administration" has been used to denote the executive branch in presidential systems of government.

Europe
The term's usage in Europe varies by country, but most typically the word "administration" refers to  managerial functions in general, which may include local governments, or the hierarchy of national and local government, that applies to a town or district. More specifically, it may refer to public administration, the business of administering public policy as determined by government. However, outside France and Romania, this usage of the word is uncommon.

For the British sense of the word, most countries use the term government, referring to the "administration" of Winston Churchill as the "Churchill government". This is also true for the non-European members of the Commonwealth of Nations.  An older, chiefly Commonwealth usage, is the term  "ministry", as in "Churchill Ministry", which is still in official and academic use in Britain, Australia and Canada to refer the terms of prime ministers.

Depending on the type of government, the word coalition may be used for a specific government. In the Netherlands, cabinet is the most-used term (as in "the fourth Balkenende cabinet"), although "coalition" or "government" are also used when one does not refer to a specific coalition (note that the two terms have slightly different meanings).

See also
 Executive (government)

References

Government institutions
Public administration

Administration (government)


Isosporiasis, also known as cystoisosporiasis, is a human intestinal disease caused by the parasite Cystoisospora belli (previously known as Isospora belli). It is found worldwide, especially in tropical and subtropical areas. Infection often occurs in immuno-compromised individuals, notably AIDS patients, and outbreaks have been reported in institutionalized groups in the United States. The first documented case was in 1915. It is usually spread indirectly, normally through contaminated food or water (CDC.gov).

Signs and symptoms
Infection causes acute, non-bloody diarrhea with crampy abdominal pain, which can last for weeks and result in malabsorption and weight loss. In immunodepressed patients, and in infants and children, the diarrhea can be severe. Eosinophilia may be present (differently from other protozoan infections).

Cause
The coccidian parasite Cystoisospora belli infects the epithelial cells of the small intestine, and is the least common of the three intestinal coccidia that infect humans (Toxoplasma, Cryptosporidium, and Cystoisospora).

Transmission
People become infected by swallowing the mature parasite; this normally occurs through the ingestion of contaminated food or water. The infected host then produces an immature form  of the parasite in their feces, and when the parasite matures, it is capable of infecting its next host, via food or water containing the parasite.

Life cycle
At time of excretion, the immature oocyst contains usually one sporoblast (more rarely two). In further maturation after excretion, the sporoblast divides in two, so the oocyst now contains two sporoblasts. The sporoblasts secrete a cyst wall, thus becoming sporocysts; and the sporocysts divide twice to produce four sporozoites each. Infection occurs by ingestion of sporocyst-containing oocysts: the sporocysts excyst in the small intestine and release their sporozoites, which invade the epithelial cells and initiate schizogony. Upon rupture of the schizonts, the merozoites are released, invade new epithelial cells, and continue the cycle of asexual multiplication. Trophozoites develop into schizonts which contain multiple merozoites. After a minimum of one week, the sexual stage begins with the development of male and female gametocytes. Fertilization results in the development of oocysts that are excreted in the stool. Cystoisospora belli infects both humans and animals.

Diagnosis
Microscopic demonstration of the large typically shaped oocysts is the basis for diagnosis. Because the oocysts may be passed in small amounts and intermittently, repeated stool examinations and concentration procedures are recommended. If stool examinations are negative, examination of duodenal specimens by biopsy or string test (Enterotest) may be needed. The oocysts can be visualized on wet mounts by microscopy with bright-field, differential interference contrast (DIC), and epifluorescence. They can also be stained by modified acid-fast stain.

Typical laboratory analyses include:
 Microscopy
 Morphologic comparison with other intestinal parasites
 Bench aids for Cystoisospora

Prevention
Avoiding food or water that may be contaminated with stool can help prevent the infection of Cystoisospora (Isosporiasis). Good hand-washing, and personal-hygiene practices should be used as well. One should wash their hands with soap and warm water after using the toilet, changing diapers, and before handling food (CDC.gov). It is also important to teach children the importance of washing their hands, and how to properly wash their hands.

Treatment
The treatment of choice is trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (Bactrim).

Epidemiology
While isosporiasis occurs throughout the world, it is more common in tropical and subtropical areas. Cystoisospora infections are more common in individuals with compromised immune systems, such as HIV or leukemia.

See also
 List of parasites (human)

References

External links

Intestinal infectious diseases
Conoidasida
Conditions diagnosed by stool test

Isosporiasis


In law, a minor is someone under a certain age, usually the age of majority, which demarcates an underage individual from legal adulthood. The age of majority depends upon jurisdiction and application, but it is commonly 18. Minor may also be used in contexts that are unconnected to the overall age of majority. For example, the smoking and drinking age in the United States is 21, and younger people below this age are sometimes called minors in the context of tobacco and alcohol law, even if they are at least 18. The terms underage or minor often refer to those under the age of majority, but may also refer to a person under other legal age limits, such as the age of consent, marriageable age, driving age, voting age, working age, etc. Such age limits are often different from the age of majority.

The concept of minor is not sharply defined in most jurisdictions. The age of criminal responsibility, of ability to legally consent to sexual activity, at which school attendance is no longer compulsory and thus a person may leave school, at which legally-binding contracts may be entered into, and so on and so forth, may be different from one another.

In many countries, including Australia, Serbia, India, Brazil, Croatia, Colombia, and the UK a minor is defined as a person under the age of 18. In the United States, where the age of majority is set by individual states, "minor" usually refers to someone under 18 but can in some areas (such as alcohol, gambling, and handguns) mean under 21. In the criminal justice system a minor may be tried and punished either "as a juvenile" or "as an adult".

In Taiwan and Thailand, a minor is a person under 20 years of age, and, in South Korea, a person under 19 years of age. In New Zealand, the age of majority is also 20 years of age, but most of the rights of adulthood are assumed at lower ages: for example, entering contracts and having a will are allowed at 15, while the drinking and voting ages are both set at 18.

International

Canada

For all provincial laws (such as alcohol and tobacco regulation), the provincial and territorial governments have the power to set the age of majority in their respective province or territory, and the age varies across Canada.

Alberta, Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec, Saskatchewan, and Prince Edward Island have the age of majority set at 18, while in British Columbia, Yukon, Northwest Territories, Nunavut, Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick the age of majority is 19. In the provinces of Saskatchewan, Ontario, New Brunswick, British Columbia, Nova Scotia, the legal gambling age and the legal drinking age are both 19, while in Alberta, Quebec, and Manitoba it is 18 which is the age of majority.

Under cannabis laws, a minor means anyone under 19 in the country except for Quebec which has a legal age of 21, and Alberta which is age 18.

Italy
In Italy, law nr. 39 of March 8, 1975, states that a minor is a person under the age of 18. Citizens under the age of 18 may not vote, be elected, obtain a driving license for automobiles or issue or sign legal instruments. Crimes committed in Italy by minors are tried in a juvenile court.

Mexico
In all 31 states, a minor is referred to as someone under the age of 18.

Minors aged 16 or 17 who are charged with crimes could sometimes be treated as an adult.

India
In all 28 states and 8 union territories, a minor is referred to as someone under the age of 18. In rare cases minors aged 16 or 17 who are charged with extremely heinous crimes could sometimes be treated as an adult.

Thailand

The Civil and Commercial Code of the Kingdom of Thailand does not define minor; however, sections 19 and 20 read as follows:
 Section 19 – A person, on completion of 20 years of age, ceases to be a minor and becomes sui juris.
 Section 20 – A minor becomes sui juris upon marriage, provided the marriage is made in accordance with the provisions of Section 1448.

Hence, a minor in Thailand refers to any person under the age of 20, unless they are married. A minor is restricted from doing juristic actsfor example, signing contracts. When minors wish to do a juristic act, they have to obtain the consent from their legal representative, usually (but not always) the parents and otherwise the act is voidable. The exceptions are acts by which a minor merely acquires a right or is freed from a duty, acts that are strictly personal, and acts that are suitable to the person's condition in life and are required for their reasonable needs. A minor can make a will at the age of fifteen.

United Kingdom

In England and Wales, the Family Law Reform Act 1969 set the age of majority in both nations at 18. While in Northern Ireland, the age of majority is set at 18 by the Age of Majority Act (Northern Ireland) 1969 - (which directly corresponds to the former legislation, enacted in England and Wales). In Scotland, the Age of Legal Capacity (Scotland) Act 1991 sets out that the legal age of capacity within the country is 16.

The age of criminal responsibility in England and Wales and in Northern Ireland is 10; and 12 in Scotland, formerly 8, which was the lowest age in Europe.

In England and Wales, cases of minors breaking the law are often dealt with by a youth offending team. If they are incarcerated, they are sent to a Young Offender Institution.

Things that persons under 18 are prohibited from doing include sitting on a jury, voting, standing as a candidate, buying or renting films with an 18 certificate or R18 certificate or seeing them in a cinema, being depicted in pornographic materials, suing without a litigant friend, being civilly liable, accessing adoption records and purchasing alcohol, tobacco products, knives and fireworks. The rules on minimum age for sale of these products are frequently broken so in practice drinking and smoking takes place before the age of majority; however many UK shops are tightening restrictions on them by asking for identifying documentation from potentially underage customers.

Driving certain large vehicles, acting as personal license holder for licensed premises, and adopting a child are permitted only upon the age of 21. The minimum age to drive a HGV1 vehicle was reduced to 18. However, certain vehicles, e.g., steamrollers, require that someone be 21 years of age to obtain an operating license.

United States
In the United States as of 1971, minor is generally legally defined as a person under the age of 18. However, in the context of alcohol or gambling laws, people under the age of 21 may also sometimes be referred to as minors. However, not all minors are considered juveniles in terms of criminal responsibility. As is frequently the case in the United States, the laws vary widely by state.

Under this distinction, those considered juveniles are usually (but not always) tried in juvenile court, and they may be afforded other special protections. For example, in some states a parent or guardian must be present during police questioning, or their names may be kept confidential when they are accused of a crime. For many crimes (especially more violent crimes), the age at which a minor may be tried as an adult is variable below the age of 18 or (less often) below 16.
The death penalty for those who have committed a crime while under the age of 18 was discontinued by the U.S. Supreme Court case Roper v. Simmons in 2005. The court's 5–4 decision was written by Justice Kennedy and joined by Justices Ginsburg, Stevens, Breyer, and Souter, and cited international law, child developmental science, and many other factors in reaching its conclusion.

The twenty-sixth amendment to the U.S. Constitution, ratified in 1971, granted all citizens the right to vote in every state, in every election, from the age of 18, reducing the minimum ages for most privileges that had previously been set at 21 (signing contracts, marrying without parental consent, termination of legal parental custody) to 18, with the exception of drinking, which had been raised to 21 around the 1980s due to teen drunk driving cases protested by the Mothers Against Drunk Driving.

The U.S. Department of Defense took the position that they would not consider "enemy combatants" held in extrajudicial detention in the Guantanamo Bay detainment camps minors unless they were less than sixteen years old. In any event, they separated only three of more than a dozen detainees under 16 from the adult prison population. Several dozen detainees between sixteen and eighteen were detained with the adult prison population. Now those under 18 are kept separate, in line with the age of majority and world expectations.

Some states, including Florida, have passed laws that allow a person accused of an extremely heinous crime, such as murder, to be tried as an adult, regardless of age. These laws have been challenged by the American Civil Liberties Union. An estimated 250,000 youth are tried, sentenced, or incarcerated as adults every year across the United States.

Emancipation of minors

Emancipation of minors is a legal mechanism by which a minor is no longer under the control of their parents or guardians, and is given the legal rights associated with adults. Depending on country, emancipation may happen in different manners: through marriage, attaining economic self-sufficiency, obtaining an educational degree or diploma, or participating in a form of military service. In the United States, all states have some form of emancipation of minors.

References

External links

Ageism
Childhood
Juvenile law

Minor (law)


Le Poste des Cadodaquious was a small French fort founded in 1719; it was located northwest of Texarkana, Texas in today's Bowie County.  Recent analysis suggests that the site was somewhere on the escarpment near either Everett or Barkman.

The fort was constructed by Bénard de La Harpe as a part of his land concession.  It was an opportunistic advance, and was made in an area where the Spanish had built similar military outposts.  The fort was constructed on the south bank of the Red River near a village of Nasoni Indians.  As a result, the fort was sometimes known as Le Poste des Nassonites.  The more common name came from the French pronunciation of "Kadohadacho", which was a name used by various Caddoan groups to describe either themselves or the area in which they lived.  La Harpe served as the first commandant of the fort.  Upon his departure in late 1719 the site was garrisoned by a detachment from Natchitoches, Louisiana, with Louis Juchereau de St. Denis as its leader.  Alexis Grappe, a trader and interpreter, was also of some importance in the history of the fort.

The only military purpose the fort could serve was to limit the northern influence of the Spanish; additionally, it served as a station for trade.  It was the base, in 1719, used by Durivage and Mustel when they explored the Red River.  La Harpe would later move on to the northwest, using the post as a starting point, and encounter various groups of Wichita with which the French soon set up a trade network.  The post served as a supply base for a number of other expeditions, including those of Fabry de La Bruyere in 1742 and Pierre A. Mallet in 1750.  And it was from here that Jean Baptiste Brevel departed for Santa Fe in 1767.  A small settlement of French colonists developed in tandem with the fort for a number of years; at least two of Grappe's children, François and Marie Pelagie, were born there, as was Jean Baptiste Brevel.  The French abandoned the area for good after the cession of Louisiana.

In 1770 Athanase de Mézières attempted to re-establish the post, this time for the Spanish; its new name was to be San Luiz de los Cadodachos.  The Nasonis deserted the area soon thereafter.  In 1806, Thomas Freeman attempted, and failed, to find the location of the post.

References

Herbert Eugene Bolton, ed. and trans., Athanase de Mézières and the Louisiana-Texas Frontier, 1768–1780 (2 vols., Cleveland: Clark, 1914). Herbert Eugene Bolton, Texas in the Middle Eighteenth Century (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1915; rpt., Austin: University of Texas Press, 1970). Charles W. Hackett, ed., Pichardo's Treatise on the Limits of Louisiana and Texas (4 vols., Austin: University of Texas Press, 1931–46). Pierre Margry, ed., Découvertes et établissements des Français dans l'ouest et dans le sud de l'Amerique septentrionale, 1614–1754 (6 vols., Paris: Jouast, 1876–86). William W. Newcomb, The Indians of Texas (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1961). Ralph A. Smith, trans., "Account of the Journey of Bénard de La Harpe," Southwestern Historical Quarterly 62 (July, October 1958, January, April 1959).

External links
 Handbook of Texas entry

Buildings and structures in Bowie County, Texas
Spanish Texas
Forts in Texas
New France
1719 establishments in the French colonial empire

Le Poste des Cadodaquious


The Battle of Ossów took place in the fields near Wołomin on 14 August 1920. It was a part of a much larger battle on the outskirts of Warsaw during the Polish-Bolshevist War (February 1919 - March 1921). During the day Soviet units managed to capture the strategically important village of Ossów, but were repelled in the evening by a Polish counter-attack. The battle was one of the first skirmishes won by the Poles since the beginning of the Soviet offensive in late spring.

Battleground
The battle was fought as the Red Army forces commanded by Mikhail Tukhachevsky approached the Polish capital of Warsaw and nearby Modlin Fortress. The village of Ossów lay on a strategically important road leading from Warsaw towards Stanisławów and was considered crucial for both sides of the conflict. However, the retreat from the Bug River line left Polish forces in disarray and there were barely any forces available to defend the area of Ossów.

In Polish plans, the Leśniakowizna-Ossów road was to be used as a means of retreat from the first line of defences towards Warsaw and the second line of trenches, located slightly to the west of Ossów itself.

Forces
By mid-August the area was manned by the 18th Infantry Division, a battle-hardened and well-equipped, yet tarnished  and overstretched formation. The village itself was defended by remnants of the 33rd and 36th Infantry Regiments of the Polish Army. The earlier unit was considered a high-morale regiment due to a large number of conscripts from the region of Mazovia. The latter unit was considered elite as it was an all-volunteer body drafted from among the students of various Warsaw-based universities, (hence it was nicknamed the Academic Legion).
Immediately before the battle, the two regiments were reinforced with the newly created 221st and 236th Infantry Regiments of the Volunteer Army: both understrength and under-equipped, the latter unit was composed in large part from volunteers of  Warsaw's gymnasiums.

On the Russian side of the front, there were elements of the 79th Rifle Brigade and 2nd Rifle Division, commanded by Grigory Khakhanyan. In total, the Bolshevist commander had three regiments at his disposal, (the 235th, 366th and the 16th Infantry Regiments), with a cavalry corps of Gayk Bzhishkyan in reserve.

Battle
During the day Soviet units managed to capture the strategically important village of Ossów, but were repelled in the evening by a Polish counter-attack. The battle was one of the first skirmishes won by the Poles since the beginning of the Soviet offensive in late spring.

Aftermath
The death of chaplain Ignacy Skorupka during the Polish counter-attack became one of the symbols of the war.

Battles of the Polish–Soviet War
August 1920 events

Battle of Ossów


The Iskar Reservoir (язовир "Искър") is the largest reservoir in Bulgaria. It is situated on the Iskar River and provides 2/3 of the water for the capital Sofia, also being used for producing hydroelectricity.

The reservoir has a total volume of 673 million m3, of which 580 million are in use and the rest is reserve. The reservoir has a drainage basin of 1,046 km² and is 25 km long. It is situated at 820 m above sea level, its dam being 204 m long and 76 m high.

History
The initial plans for the construction of a dam on the Iskar date to as early as 1900-1901, immediately after the building of the Pancharevo Hydroelectric Power Plant. In 1921, the idea was once again brought up, but its accomplishment failed due to the municipality's inability to indemnify the residents of the neighbouring villages of Gorni Pasarel, Shishmanovo and Kalkovo. Topographic photographs and a geological assessment regarding the dam were made and observations of the Iskar's water level at Pasarel were conducted in 1932-1941 in order to build what was initially called the St Peter's Reservoir (named after the monastery in Dolni Pasarel which was supposed to be near the reservoir).

New geological research related to the reservoir's construction began in 1947 at four places between Gorni Pasarel and Pancharevo. The place at the Iskar's 37th kilometre was chosen as the most suitable in terms of geology, topography and economics. The waters of the river were further studied between 1947 and 1948.

Work on the projects for an Iskar water power system commenced in early 1948 in the newly established Energohidroproekt. The design and the first draft were created by a team under the engineer Moiseev with the assistance of Soviet specialists. The project was approved by the expert council of the Ministry of Electrification and Melioration, and it was planned that the reservoir had a working volume of 520 million m3 and a reserve volume of 60 million m3.

The preparative works began in 1949, the main construction was carried out in the end of 1950, the water power system being officially opened on 6 September 1954.

When it was under construction, its name was changed to "Giant Stalin Dam" (Гиган язовир Сталин), but later its name was returned to "Iskar Reservoir". There is also the Beli Iskar Dam, which is another smaller dam and is located in the upper reaches of the Iskar River.

References

Reservoirs in Bulgaria
Landforms of Sofia City Province
Samokov Municipality

Iskar Reservoir


John Gilbert Sawyer (June 5, 1825 – September 5, 1898) was a U.S. Representative from New York.

Background
Born in Brandon, Vermont on June 5, 1825, Sawyer was the eldest of seven children born to John F. and Mary J. Sawyer. His father relocated the family to Knowlesville, New York in 1831 where Sawyer attended the common schools at Shelby, New York and the Millville Academy (New York).
In order to pursue a collegiate education, he relocated to Kentucky and later to Arkansas, where he taught in local one-room schoolhouses to earn enough money for his studies. In 1846, Sawyer returned to Knowlesville and relocated to Albion, New York the following year. There he studied law with Curtis & Stone before finishing with Benjamin L. Bessac.
Before completing his law studies, Sawyer was elected to the position of superintendent of public schools for Orleans County, New York in 1848.

Political career
In 1851 Sawyer was elected as a justice of the peace and served in that position for nearly 5 years. In 1855, he formed a partnership with Sanford E. Church.
In 1862 he was elected as Orleans County District Attorney and in 1863 as county judge. As a strong supporter of education, Sawyer was appointed in 1876 to the original Board of Education for the Albion Union Free School.

John G. Sawyer was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives as a Republican in 1884, serving three consecutive terms to the Forty-ninth, Fiftieth, and Fifty-first Congresses (March 4, 1885 – March 3, 1891). A staunch Republican, he originally aligned with the Whigs and assisted in organizing the Republican party in Orleans County.

Death and legacy
Upon his return to Albion in 1891, he resumed the practice of his profession and died there September 5, 1898. He was interred in Mount Albion Cemetery.

The Hamlet of Sawyer in Orleans County was named in honor of John G. Sawyer.

Sources

1825 births
1898 deaths
People from Brandon, Vermont
People from Orleans County, New York
Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives from New York (state)
People from Albion, Orleans County, New York
19th-century American politicians

John G. Sawyer


The Naval Flight Officer insignia is a breast insignia of the United States military which is awarded to those aviators of the Navy, Marine Corps and Coast Guard who have qualified as Naval Flight Officers (NFO) based on successful completion of flight training.  The insignia is similar in design to the Naval Aviator insignia, consisting of a pair of golden wings, a shield, and crossed anchors.

The Naval Flight Officer insignia is identical for both branches and is awarded in a single degree.  To qualify for the NFO insignia, a service member must have completed officer aviation training and be qualified as a systems operator on board a Naval aircraft.  Such qualifications include weapons system operations, airborne tactical data system operations, electronic warfare, and airborne navigation.

The insignia originated in the 1930s and evolved from the Naval Aviation Observer insignia.  The main reason for creating the NFO insignia in 1965-1966 was to recognize the higher degree of training required for naval flight officers, compared to other airborne support personnel.

In the modern space age, the insignia is also upgradeable to a variation of the Naval Aviator Astronaut insignia.  Known as the Naval Flight Officer Astronaut insignia, the decoration is a standard NFO insignia upon which is centered a golden astronaut "shooting star" logo.  The badge is issued for those Naval Flight Officers who have completed astronaut training at NASA and have subsequently participated in a space flight more than 50 miles above the Earth.

Previously, the United States Coast Guard equivalent of the Naval Flight Officer insignia was known as the Coast Guard Flight Officer Badge. It was similar in appearance to the NFO wings (minus the crossed anchors) and was declared obsolete in 1991.

See also
List of United States Navy enlisted warfare designations
Badges of the United States Navy
Military badges of the United States
Obsolete badges of the United States military
Uniforms of the United States Navy

United States military badges

Naval Flight Officer insignia


EN57 (manufacturer's designation: Pafawag 5B/6B) is an electric multiple unit used by the Polish railway operator (PKP). It was built for suburban and long-distance services. Presently it is used by Polregio, Łódzka Kolej Aglomeracyjna, SKM Trójmiasto, Koleje Dolnośląskie, Koleje Śląskie, Koleje Wielkopolskie and Koleje Mazowieckie companies in Poland.

History

Designed for regional transport, class EN57 was based on the earlier class EW55 units. EW55 were the first electrical multiple units built in Poland with 100% domestic components. They were built by Pafawag works in Wrocław.

Production started in 1962 and ended in 1993 with 1452 trainsets produced, many of which are still in operation. The first-generation units had first-class compartments, but units numbered 602 onwards were produced with only second class. Due to its extensive production period, the series varies between specific production spans. Units up to number 1113 have corrugated sides and three windscreens, units numbered 1114 to 1825 (second-generation) have flat sides and three windscreens, whilst units from number 1900 up to 1953 (third-generation) have flat sides and two windscreens, resembling class EW58 units.

Classes EN71, ED72, and ED73 units were based on class EN57. SKM Trójmiasto which operates service in the Tricity area uses these units and has also modernised them, mostly to the interior.

As a result of several fires and accidents, units numbered 201 to 206 were assembled from surviving cars of previously destroyed units. Since 2006, many EN57 units have been modernised with funding from the European Union. The changes affect the appearance of the units, with the ends being redesigned. The interior was also changed, and air-conditioning retrofit was done on many of said modernisations. Mechanical and electric devices remain mostly unchanged. Modified units are being renumbered from 2001 upwards.

Technical data
EN57 is a three-car electric multiple unit with traction motors located in the middle car. The unit has four LK450 motors, each rated at . The outer two cars are both driving trailers and do not have motors. Trailers are distinguished with letters a and b, with part a including compressor and part b including the batteries.

Each part of the unit consists of three compartments, divided by corridors. In the trailers only two compartments are for passenger accommodation, while the third was thought to be luggage compartment. In the motor car, all three compartments are used by passengers. Originally, there were on-board toilets in all parts of the unit, but due to several fires caused by neighbouring electric devices, as well as their compressor inlets originally being located next to the toilets (hence spreading the odours around, likely leading to the "kibel" [lit. crapper] nickname applied since at least the 1980s), the toilets in the motor cars were removed. Class EN57 is capable of multiple unit operation with two or three units, using Scharfenberg couplers to connect units together.  Each unit can seat up to 212 passengers.

Service in other countries

Three class EN57 units were exported to SFR Yugoslavia in 1964, where they were classified 311-0 (for trailers) and 315-0 (for motor cars). Another eleven were subsequently rebuilt from class 315-1 with additional fourth trailers. These units later remained in service in Slovenia and Croatia as SŽ 311/315 and HŽ 6011 respectively, until they were respectively withdrawn from service in 2021 and 2009. As in the time of delivery Władysław Gomułka was the leader of the Polish United Workers' Party, those units were nicknamed after him.

Rebuilds and refurbishments

Exterior and interior (2006–2018)
Between 2006 and 2018, many extensive EN57 rebuilds were undertaken in which the driver's cab exteriors and headlights/taillights were replaced with new designs, among numerous other improvements, reusing only their underframes and bogies. This allowed to extend their lifespans by 15–20 years. These rebuilt trains are typically nicknamed "turbokibel" (lit. "turbocrapper").

SPOT and EN57-20XX

In 2006, ZNTK "Mińsk Mazowiecki", Pesa Bydgoszcz and Newag Nowy Sącz begin rebuilding 75 EN57 EMUs under the SPOT programme, financed by European Union funds. The modernised units feature updated end walls, driver's cabs, and interiors, as well as accessibility improvements such as elevators for wheelchair users and enlarged toilets. The separate service compartments were removed by connecting them with entrance hallways. EMUs after modernisation had also received alarms and 16 cameras. The original spinning transformer was replaced by an electronic transformer supplying 110 V DC, 230 V AC and 24 V DC power. These trainsets were given the numbering range 2001–2075, which was later changed to 2004–2078.

EN57KM

In 2007 SKM Trójmiasto and Koleje Mazowieckie decided to apply the start pulse in some of their rebuilt EN57s:
SKM Trójmiasto: EN57-768, EN57-1089, EN57-1094 & EN57-1116
Koleje Mazowieckie: EN57-1486, EN57-1566, EN57-1567 & EN57-1562
ZNTK "Mińsk Mazowiecki" works rebuilt these units. They too applied microprocessor controlled drive and electrodynamic braking.

EN57AKM

In 2008, Koleje Mazowieckie decided to rebuild 10 trainsets into EN57AKM, during which LK450X6 AC motors developed by EMIT in Żychlin were installed. These engines were built in old housings to avoid the need to change the final gears. The new engine has a power of , and the entire unit , which significantly improved the traction parameters of the vehicles – the acceleration of starting (up to ) was increased to nearly 1 m/s2, and the maximum speed was raised to . Modernisations were carried out in the ZNTK "Mińsk Mazowiecki" plant (6 units in 2009–2010) and Newag Nowy Sącz (4 units in 2009), and the units modernised in this way were designated as EN57AKM.

At the same time, SKM Trójmiasto commissioned the rebuild of one EN71 unit based on similar assumptions – it was carried out in 2009 by Newag, and on 14–16 October 2009 the unit was presented at the TRAKO 2009 International Railway Fair in Gdańsk.

By July 2013, at a cost of PLN 351 million, another 21 EN57 units belonging to SKM Trójmiasto were to be rebuilt. This was to be carried out within 14 months by a consortium of  (TS Opole) and Škoda Transportation; however, due to the bankruptcy of TS Opole, only one unit (EN57AKM-1718) was rebuilt. In the re-tender for the rebuild of the remaining 20 units for SKM Trójmiasto, the most advantageous offer was submitted by the consortium of Pesa Bydgoszcz SA and ZNTK "Mińsk Mazowiecki" SA, which undertook said rebuild for approx. PLN 124 million. After the rebuild, these trains' top speeds were increased to , with accommodations and ramps for disabled people. They are equipped with air conditioning (only in the driver cabs), toilets in a closed system, CCTVs and passenger information system (on monitors and audiovisual).

EN57AKŁ

Between 2011 and 2012, Newag rebuilt four EN57 units for Łódzka Kolej Aglomeracyjna on the basis of a contract awarded on 29 July 2011 worth PLN 31.4 million; these units were designated as EN57AKŁ. Deliveries lasted from December 2011 to May 2012. The rebuilt trains are units 1226, 1452, 1044 and 1479. Alternating current asynchronous motors were installed in the vehicles, which allowed to increase the maximum speed to . The units are also equipped with air conditioning in both the driver cabs and passenger interiors, two toilets in a closed system and power sockets at the passenger seats. The driver's cab controls were also modernised, the appearance of the front of the cab was changed and the original sliding doors were replaced with plug doors.

EN57AL, EN57AKW, EN57AKD, EN57AKŚ, EN57AP, EN57FPS

From 2011 to 2018, rebuilds into EN57AL (+ ALc & ALd), EN57AKW, EN57AKD, EN57AKŚ, EN57AP and EN57FPS took place in the same range or similar to the above-mentioned EN57AKŁ. They are given various designations: EN57AL (the letter L was initially supposed to symbolise Lubelskie, now this designation can also be found on rebuilt Dolnośląskie, Mazowieckie, Opolskie, Pomorskie and Podlasie units), EN57AKW (letter W symbolising Wielkopolska) or EN57AKŚ (Ś symbolising Śląskie). The original motors are replaced with newer asynchronous ones (in the designation they are symbolised by the letter A), the trains are equipped with air conditioning in both the driver cabs and passenger interiors, ecological toilets in a closed system, blinds in windows, LCD monitors, power sockets and (on many 2013–2018 modernisations) free on-board Wi-Fi. Seats are replaced with ergonomic ones, the seating arrangement is changed and trains are equipped with a new braking system, improving the smoothness of driving. The AL/ALc/ALd versions for Lubelskie are equipped with on-board ticket machines, while the AKŚ units have on-board vending machines selling snacks and drinks for travellers.

EN57FPS (Feniks 57) refers to some of the last and most extensive "turbokibel" rebuilds of twenty EN57 units, done by H. Cegelski between 2015 and 2018 under contract by Polski Tabor Szynowy, Polregio and Koleje Śląskie. Their top speed was similarly increased to , and their added features are similar to EN57AL, except that they have distinctive grey-coloured base liveries on the front.

Interior only (2010–present)
Due to the higher cost of undertaking the aforementioned extensive rebuilds of EN57 units into "turbokibels", some units have received less extensive modernisations since 2010, primarily affecting their interiors with some slight exterior changes. To keep costs low, features such as air conditioning, power sockets and sometimes CCTVs and on-board toilets are often omitted from such modernisations.

EN57-1703 "ENdolino"

In 2016, Koleje Dolnośląskie contracted ZNTK "Mińsk Mazowiecki" to refurbish EN57-1703, in which the area of the cab windshields were optically increased by applying black paint, which gave the front of the vehicle a modern look. For this reason, the unit was nicknamed "ENdolino".

Preserved units

EN57-001 (the first production EN57 trainset), has since 2017 been preserved in Przeworsk under the protection of a conservator. Bearing in mind the value of the vehicle from the point of view of the history and development of the railway industry in Poland, the management board of Przewozy Regionalne had already in 2016 decided to withdraw the earlier decision to scrap this unit, which last saw revenue service in 2009.

See also
Polish locomotives designation
Szybka Kolej Miejska
14WE A heavily reconstructed version of EN57, developed in mid-2000s

References

Citations

Sources
Polish electric multiple units technical data, URL accessed on June 8, 2007
EN57 unofficial website, URL accessed on June 8, 2007
Mundkowa Galeria Kolejowa, retrieved on June 26, 2007.

Electric multiple units of Poland
Electric multiple units of Slovenia
Electric multiple units of Croatia
Pafawag multiple units
3000 V DC multiple units
Train-related introductions in 1961

PKP class EN57


Looking at the history of pre-Columbian Mesoamerica one can see some rather different periods  between the first humans and the early Colonial period (which followed the Spanish colonization of the Americas) in the end.

Overview

Paleo-Indian period

The Paleo-Indian (not so often Lithic) period or era is that which begins with the first signs of human presence in the region and leads to agriculture and other practices (e.g. pottery, permanent settlements) characteristic of proto-civilizations. In Mesoamerica, the end of this phase was at ca. 8,000 BC. It was a period of hunter-gatherers.

Archaic Era
c. 8,000 BCE - 2,000 BCE

In this time agriculture and permanent villages developed in the region. Late in this era, people used pottery and started weaving with a .

Preclassic Era or Formative Period
c. 2,000 BCE - 200 CE

Nation-states developed and with them the first large scale ceremonial architecture and cities. That were the Olmec civilization, the early Zapotec, Monte Alto Culture in Guatemala's pacifc lowlands, and Maya civilization.

Classic Era
c. mid  2nd century - early 10th century

Teotihuacan grows to a metropolis and its empire dominates Mesoamerica.  During this time the cities of the Maya southern lowlands, such as Tikal, Palenque, and Copán have their greatest era.

The Classic Era ended earlier in Central Mexico, with the fall of Teotihuacan around the 7th century, than it did in the Maya area, which continued for centuries more. Around this time, many southern lowland sites (most notably in Tikal) experienced a short period of limited decline, called the Middle Classic Hiatus. The later period of Maya's continued growth is sometimes known as the Florescent Era.

In the early 20th century, the term Old Empire was sometimes given to this era of Maya civilization in an analogy to Ancient Egypt; the term is now considered inaccurate and has long been out of use by serious writers on the subject.

Postclassic Era
10th century - 16th century.

Many of the great nations and cities of the Classic Era collapsed, but some continue, such as in Oaxaca, Cholula, and the Maya of Yucatán, such as at Chichen Itza and Uxmal. This is sometimes seen as a period of increased chaos and warfare.  The Toltec for a time dominate central Mexico in the 11th - 13th century, then collapse.  The northern Maya are for a time united under Mayapan. The Aztec Empire rises in the early 15th century and seems on the path to gain a dominance over the whole region not seen since Teotihuacan, when Mesoamerica is discovered by Spain and conquered by the Conquistadores.

The late florescence of the northern Maya was sometimes called the New Empire in the early 20th century, but this term is no longer considered appropriate and is no longer used.

Arguably, the Post-Classic continued until the conquest of the last independent native state of Mesoamerica, Tayasal, in 1697.

Bibliography

Duverger, Christian (1999): Mesoamérica, arte y antropología. CONACULTA-Landucci Editores. Paris. .
Miller, Mary Ellen. (2001). El arte de mesoamérica. "Colecciones El mundo del arte". Ediciones Destino. Barcelona, España. .
 Several Authors. (1996)  "Historia General de Guatemala"  .

Other websites
Mesoweb Research Center
FAMSI, Foundation for Mesoamerican Study
European Mayanist
The Mirador Basin Project
Guatemala Cradle of the Maya Civilization

History of Mesoamerica

Mesoamerican chronology


Swinging London is a catch-all term applied to the fashion and cultural scene which flourished in London, in the 1960s.

It was a phenomenon which emphasized the young, the new and the modern. It was a period of optimism and  hedonism, and a cultural revolution. One catalyst was the recovery of the British economy after post-World War II hard times had lasted through much of the 1950s. Journalist Christopher Booker, a founder of the satirical magazine Private Eye, recalled the "bewitching" character of the swinging sixties: "There seemed to be no one standing outside the bubble, and observing just how odd and shallow and egocentric and even rather horrible it was".

"Swinging London" was defined by Time magazine in its issue of 15 April 1966, and celebrated in the name of the pirate radio station, Swinging Radio England, that began shortly afterward. However, "swinging" in the sense of hip or fashionable, had been used since the early 1960s. In 1965, Diana Vreeland, editor of  Vogue magazine, said "London is the most swinging city in the world at the moment".

Although The Beatles came from Liverpool, The Rolling Stones,  and the rest of the new culture was London-based. Most of the new fashion designers, models and photographers were young, and packed into a small area in Soho around Carnaby Street, W1., and another area round the King's Road, Chelsea.

Fashion & symbols
During the time of Swinging London, fashion and photography were featured in Queen magazine, which drew attention to fashion designer Mary Quant.

The model Jean Shrimpton was another icon and one of the world's first supermodels. She was the world's highest paid and most photographed model of the time. Shrimpton was called "The face of the '60s", in which she has been considered by many as "the symbol of Swinging London", and the "embodiment of the 1960s". Other popular models of the era included Veruschka, and Twiggy. Twiggy was called "the Queen of Mod", a label she shared with others, such as Cathy McGowan, who hosted the television rock show, Ready Steady Go! from 1964 to 1966.

Mod-related fashions such as the miniskirt stimulated fashionable shopping areas such as Carnaby Street and the Kings Road, Chelsea. The fashion was a symbol of youth culture.

The British flag, the Union Flag, became a symbol, assisted by events such as England's home victory in the 1966 World Cup. The Mini car (launched in 1959) was used by a fleet of mini-cab taxis highlighted by advertising which covered their paintwork.

References

1960s in the United Kingdom
Fashion
20th century in London
English culture

Swinging London


Robert Leslie Shaw (born October 15, 1956) is a former American football center in the National Football League (NFL) for the Dallas Cowboys. He played college football at the University of Tennessee.

Early years
Shaw attended Joseph Wheeler High School and played varsity football for three years, receiving All-American, state football lineman of the year and All-state honors in his senior season of 1975. He also practiced basketball and swimming.

He went on to play college football at Tennessee University, where he was a three-year starter at center, and earned second-team All-SEC honors in 1977 and 1978. Future Dallas Cowboys special teams coach Joe Avezzano, was his offensive coordinator.

As a senior, he was named one of the co-captains and received the team's Mickey O'Brien award. He also started in the East–West Shrine Game and the Senior Bowl.

Professional career
Shaw was selected by the Dallas Cowboys in the first round  (27th overall) of the 1979 NFL Draft. This was only the second time the Cowboys used a first round pick on an offensive lineman. The first time was in the 1966 NFL Draft when the team selected John Niland.

As a rookie in 1980, he started the season as a backup to John Fitzgerald at center and played mainly on special teams. After Fitzgerald injured his knee in the first half against the Washington Redskins, Shaw finished the game and played well enough to be named the starter for the next game against the Houston Oilers in Thanksgiving, while Fitzgerald recovered. He went on to become the starting center for the last five regular season games and three contests in the playoffs where he excelled.

Two games into his third season in 1981, he sprained his right knee against the Saint Louis Cardinals. He returned after sitting out three weeks, only to injure the same knee in the sixth game of the season against the San Francisco 49ers. He prepared and trained for a come back over 20 months, but was never able to pass the team's physical and subsequently retired.

Shaw was expected to anchor the Cowboys offensive line for 1980s, but his ongoing injuries and their effects brought an end to his promising career. He played in just 33 games over a 3-year career with the Cowboys. After Shaw's injury, Tom Rafferty was moved from guard and was named the starting center.

Personal life
After the end of his football career, he went back to college and earned a degree in architectural design and management. He became a vice president, working directly under Bob Breunig in the SBC development company.  In the late-1980s and early 1990s, he became President of Memphis Real Estate and Columbus Realty Holdings.  Along with business partner Roger Staubach, his company helped begin the transformation of a blighted area west of the North Central Expressway and north of the Woodall-Rogers Freeway into what is now known as Uptown Dallas. The first apartment community, positioned between State and Thomas streets, would be the first of many developed using a tax increment financing program with the City of Dallas.  Shaw was named to the Dallas Business Journal's "Top 40 Under 40".  His real estate development prowess has continued, and - in 2014 - it was announced that Shaw and Staubach would work with restaurateur Phil Romano to develop an apartment community in Trinity Groves, a project expected to cost in excess of $100 million.  In 2017, Dallas Cowboys owner Jerry Jones announced that the Shaw/Staubach team would enter into a joint venture to build a 17-story luxury high rise at The Star in Frisco, a mere walking distance from the Dallas Cowboys' world headquarters.

References

External links
Shaw, Cowboys' center of '80s, saw career slip away on 1 play

Living people
1956 births
Players of American football from Tuscaloosa, Alabama
American football centers
Tennessee Volunteers football players
Dallas Cowboys players

Robert Shaw (American football)


The Crystal Ball function, named after the Crystal Ball Collaboration (hence the capitalized initial letters), is a probability density function commonly used to model various lossy processes in high-energy physics. It consists of a Gaussian core portion and a power-law low-end tail, below a certain threshold. The function itself and its first derivative are both continuous.

The Crystal Ball function is given by:

where

,
,
,
,
.

 (Skwarnicki 1986) is a normalization factor and , ,  and  are parameters which are fitted with the data. erf is the error function.

External links
 J. E. Gaiser, Appendix-F Charmonium Spectroscopy from Radiative Decays of the J/Psi and Psi-Prime, Ph.D. Thesis, SLAC-R-255 (1982). (This is a 205-page document in .pdf form – the function is defined on p. 178.)
 M. J. Oreglia, A Study of the Reactions psi prime --> gamma gamma psi, Ph.D. Thesis, SLAC-R-236 (1980), Appendix D.
 T. Skwarnicki, A study of the radiative CASCADE transitions between the Upsilon-Prime and Upsilon resonances, Ph.D Thesis, DESY F31-86-02(1986), Appendix E.

Functions and mappings
Continuous distributions
Experimental particle physics

Crystal Ball function


Sahdona of Halmon (, literally "little martyr") also known as Sahdona of Mahoze and Sahdona the Syrian, Hellenised as Martyrius, was a 7th-century East Syriac monk, theologian and Bishop who later defected to the West Syriac Church.

Biography
Sahdona was born around 600 AD in the village of Halmon near Beth Nuhadra north of Nineveh. He joined the Beth Abe Monastery at his youth and took part in a delegation headed by the Catholicos Ishoyahb II to seek peace with the Byzantine Empire after the Sasanian defeat in a recent war.
Around 635/640 Sahdona was shortly consecrated as the bishop of Mahoze d'Arewan.

Defection
It seems that Sahdona was part of a delegation to the west and was involved in a debate with the monks of a certain Non-Chalcedonian (i.e. West Syriac) monastery. The monks, defeated, suggested that their opponents see their abbot. Sahdona accepted and after the second debate declared his conversion to the West Syriac Church. He was shortly accused of heresy and deposed.
Sahdona first found refuge in Nisibis and later in Edessa. He later returned to the Church of the East but was excommunicated by Ishoyahb II so he stayed for the rest of his life in Edessa where he died around 649 AD.

Works
Sahdona authored the voluminous "Book of Perfection" while a monk in Beth Abe and is considered the most significant work of East Syriac monasticism.
He also left several letters to fellow monks concerning monastical rules.

References

Further reading

7th-century bishops of the Church of the East
Syriac writers
Converts to Oriental Orthodoxy
People excommunicated by the Church of the East
Christians in the Sasanian Empire
7th-century writers

Sahdona