Bristol City Football Club is a professional football club based in Bristol, England, which compete in the , the second tier of English football. They have played their home games at Ashton Gate since moving from St John's Lane in 1904. The club's home colours are red and white, and their nickname is The Robins—a robin featured on the club's badge from 1976 to 1994 and from 2019 onwards. Their main rivals are Bristol Rovers, with whom they contest the Bristol derby, and Cardiff City, with whom they contest the cross-border Severnside derby.

Founded in 1894, the club competed in the Southern League and Western League, being crowned Western League champions in 1897–98. They were admitted into the Football League in 1901 and won the Second Division in 1905–06. They finished second in the First Division the following season, three points behind champions Newcastle United, and went on to lose to Manchester United in the 1909 FA Cup final. Relegated in 1911, they dropped to the third tier in 1922, though would claim the Third Division South title in 1922–23 and again in 1926–27. They were returned to the third tier in 1932, remaining there until they won the Third Division South again in 1954–55. Having been relegated in 1960, Bristol City won promotion from the third tier in 1964–65 and then from the second tier in 1975–76. They played four seasons in the top-flight before being relegated in three consecutive seasons by 1982.

Bristol City spent just two seasons in the Fourth Division and went on to win the Associate Members' Cup (Football League Trophy) in 1986. Promoted out of the Third Division in 1989–90, the club were relegated in 1995 and again in 1999 after another promotion in 1997–98. Bristol City won the Football League Trophy again in 2003, and were promoted from League One in 2006–07. Relegated after six seasons in the Championship, they won the Football League Trophy for a third time in 2015 on their way to the 2014–15 League One title, and have remained in the Championship since that time.

History

Early years and early successes (1894–1922)
The club was founded in 1894 as Bristol South End and changed their name to Bristol City on adopting professionalism three years later when they were admitted into the Southern League. Finishing as runners-up in three of the first four seasons, in 1900 the club amalgamated with local Southern League rivals Bedminster F.C., who had been founded as Southville in 1887. Bristol City joined the Football League in 1901 when they became only the third club south of Birmingham (following in the footsteps of Woolwich Arsenal and Luton Town) to perform in the competition. Their first game in the Football League was on 7 September 1901 at Bloomfield Road, when Blackpool were beaten 2–0.

Winning the Second Division Championship with a record number of points when they became the first club in Football League history to win 30 league games in a season (out of 38 played) as well as equalling Manchester United's achievement of the previous season in winning 14 consecutive games (a record until 2018, also accomplished by Preston North End in 1950–51). Nicknamed the Bristol Babe at this time, they finished as runners-up in their inaugural First Division campaign (1906–07) as the only southern club to finish in the top two prior to World War I.

In 1909 they won through to their only FA Cup Final, though they were somewhat fortunate that a last-gasp spot-kick saved them from defeat in the semi-final versus Derby County at Stamford Bridge. In the final at the Crystal Palace (now the National Sports Centre) Bristol City lost to Manchester United 1–0. After a five-season stay in the top flight, despite winning 1–0 at Newcastle at the start of the 1910–11 campaign, failure to beat Everton in the season's finale brought City's first-ever taste of relegation and it was to be 65 years before top-flight status would be regained.

Bristol City would then go on to stay in Division 2 until three years after the First World War had ended, and in that time they reached the semi-finals of the 1919–20 FA Cup before being beaten 2–1 by Huddersfield Town and finished third in the Second Division in the 1920–21 season. However, in the next season they were relegated to the Third Division South.

The yo-yo era (1922–65)

The 1920s were a rocky time as City bounced between the Second Division and the Southern Section of the Third Division. The season after City were relegated, they achieved promotion back to the Second Division, before being relegated back to the Southern Section of the Third Division again the following season. After successive high finishes in the league, they were promoted again in 1926–27. However, by the 1930s they had slumped into the lower division and stayed that way until over 10 years after the Second World War. During this stay in the Third Division South, they won the Welsh Cup in 1934, beating Tranmere Rovers in the final. However, in the same year they also suffered their biggest ever league defeat, a 9–0 loss to Coventry City The 1937–38 season was the most successful season for City since they were relegated to the Third Division, coming second in the league and reaching the final of the Third Division South Cup, before losing 6–2 to Reading on aggregate. They then came eighth in the Third Division South in the final full season before the war, in which the Grandstand of Ashton Gate was destroyed by a German air raid.

In 1946–47, City recorded a record league win by beating Aldershot 9–0, although despite Don Clark scoring 36 goals in the League, City failed to get promoted that season. Harry Dolman became chairman in 1949, a post he would hold for over 30 years. An engineer who had bought out the firm he worked for, he designed the first set of floodlights installed at Ashton Gate in the early 1950s. The late 1950s were a better time for City, with a five-year stay in the Second Division, a league they returned to for a further spell in 1965.

Back among the elite (1966–80)
In 1967, Alan Dicks was appointed manager, and things gradually began to improve, with promotion to the First Division in 1976, ending a 65-year exile from the top flight.

Between 1975 and 1981 City were regular participants in the Anglo-Scottish Cup, winning the trophy in 1977–78, beating Hibernian in the semi-finals, and winning 3–2 on aggregate in the final against St Mirren (managed at the time by a relatively new manager, Alex Ferguson). St Mirren had their revenge two seasons later, with an aggregate 5–1 victory over City to become the only Scottish team to win the trophy.

City's second stint in the top flight was less successful than the club's first, with thirteenth position in 1979 being their highest finish during this era. Stars of this era included Peter Cormack, Geoff Merrick, Tom Ritchie, Clive Whitehead, Gerry Gow, Trevor Tainton and Jimmy Mann.

Financial difficulties and revival (1980–2000)
In 1980, the City team went back to the Second Division in the first of three relegations, their debt mounted and their financial losses increased, with two successive relegations following. Thus, in 1982, they fell into the Fourth Division, and were declared bankrupt. A new club was formed and BCFC (1982) Ltd acquired the club's player contracts. The highly paid senior players Julian Marshall, Chris Garland, Jimmy Mann, Peter Aitken, Geoff Merrick, David Rodgers, Gerry Sweeney and Trevor Tainton, who became known as the 'Ashton Gate Eight', each accepted termination of his contract for half the amount due. The club's previous owners had failed to pay its debts to many local businesses. The resulting ill will towards the club made it difficult for the new owners to obtain credit.

City spent two seasons in the Fourth Division before winning promotion under Terry Cooper in 1984. They consolidated themselves in the Third Division during the latter part of the 1980s, and in 1990 Cooper's successor Joe Jordan achieved promotion as Third Division runners-up to local rivals Bristol Rovers.

There was a tragedy for the club, however, in that promotion campaign. In March 1990, two months before the club sealed promotion, striker Dean Horrix was killed in a car crash barely two weeks after joining the club, and having played three league games for them.

Jordan moved to Heart of Midlothian in September 1990, and his successor Jimmy Lumsden remained in charge for 18 months before making way for Denis Smith. Smith's first signing was the 20-year-old Arsenal striker Andy Cole. He was sold to Newcastle United in February 1993 and later played for Manchester United, where he collected five Premier League titles, two FA Cups and the European Cup.

Meanwhile, City remained in the new Division One (no longer the Second Division after the creation of the Premier League in 1992) and Smith moved to Oxford United in November 1993. His successor was Russell Osman. In January 1994 Osman led City to a shock 1–0 victory over Liverpool at Anfield in a third round replay in the FA Cup, a result that would cause the Liverpool manager at the time, Graeme Souness, to resign. Osman was sacked within a year of taking charge.

Joe Jordan was brought back to Ashton Gate in September 1994, but was unable to prevent relegation to Division Two.

Jordan remained at the helm for two seasons after City's relegation, but left in March 1997 after failing to get them back into Division One. Former Bristol Rovers manager John Ward took over, and achieved promotion in 1998 as Division Two runners-up. But City struggled back in Division One, and Ward stepped down in October 1998 to be succeeded by Benny Lennartsson, their first non-British manager. City were relegated in bottom place and Lennartsson was dismissed in favour of Gillingham's Tony Pulis, who lasted six months before leaving to take over at Portsmouth. During his time at Ashton Gate he was manager of perhaps the worst City side since the one that completed a hat-trick of successive relegations almost 20 years earlier.

Coach Tony Fawthrop took over until the end of the season, when Danny Wilson was appointed. Wilson was arguably the most prominent manager to take charge of a City side since Denis Smith, as he had guided Barnsley to promotion to the Premier League in 1997 and Sheffield Wednesday to a 12th-place finish in 1999.

21st century
The early 2000s were a frustrating time for Bristol City. They were regular Division Two play-off contenders during Wilson's spell as manager. They just missed out on the play-offs in 2002, finishing 7th. The following year, Wilson almost took them to automatic promotion, finishing 3rd and winning the Football League Trophy in Cardiff in 2003. The taste of the play-offs was bitter though, losing to rivals Cardiff City 1–0 on aggregate in the semi-final. In 2004, they finished in 3rd place again, and this time they reached the play-off final, but lost to Brighton & Hove Albion. He was sacked within days and replaced by veteran player Brian Tinnion.

City just failed to make the play-offs in Tinnion's first season as manager, finishing seventh, and he stepped down in September 2005 after a poor start to the season. Yeovil Town manager Gary Johnson was recruited as his successor in September 2005. Johnson led Bristol City to a 9th place finish.

In the 2006–07 season, Bristol City finally achieved the elusive promotion that had evaded them in their 8 years in the third tier. Promotion to the Championship was confirmed on the final day of the season with a 3–1 win against already relegated Rotherham United, securing the runners-up place in the division and resulting in automatic promotion.

After a good start in the Championship, City established themselves as real contenders, sitting in 3rd place at Christmas. By the start of March, City were top of the Championship, making an improbable second successive promotion a possibility. However, a poor run ended City's chances of an automatic promotion place but qualified for the play-offs with a 4th-place finish, their highest finish since 1980. City overcame Crystal Palace 4–2 on aggregate to progress to the play-off final at Wembley Stadium, where they were beaten 1–0 by Hull City.

After a poor start in the first half of the 2008–09 season, City recovered after Christmas, peaking at 4th place in late February. After a lot of draws, the season eventually petered out and City finished the season in tenth place. The 2009–10 season saw some good results in the autumn, but heavy defeats by local rivals Cardiff City (0–6) and Doncaster Rovers (2–5) in early 2010 led to much dissatisfaction amongst fans, and Johnson left the club on 18 March 2010. Assistant manager Keith Millen took charge as caretaker manager, and led a series of good results, resulting in a second successive tenth-place finish.

Steve Coppell became manager in 2010 but resigned after just two matches. Longtime assistant manager Keith Millen was announced as Coppell's successor and City fell to a 15th-place finish in 2010–11. After a poor start to the 2011–12 season, Millen left the club in October 2011.

Derek McInnes was appointed next, but after a promising start, City fell into the relegation zone, eventually surviving in 20th place, their worst since promotion in 2007. This steady decline would continue and after a poor start to the 2012–13 season, McInnes was sacked in January 2013 with City bottom of the Championship. He was replaced by Sean O'Driscoll, the club's fifth head coach in three years, but City were relegated to League One after six seasons in the Championship. O'Driscoll left with the team 22nd in League One.

Steve Cotterill joined the club when Bristol City were second bottom of League One. Cotterill guided the club to  a 12th place finish. Bristol City were promoted back to the Championship after securing the League One title in 2014–15, their first league title since 1955. In their last home game, against Walsall, they finished the season with an 8–2 win. Bristol City finished the season with 99 points, the most points in a single season in the club's history, and 5 losses. In the same season, they also won the Football League Trophy after a win over Walsall, which finished 2–0 and their third league trophy, a record held by the club for having the most wins in that competition.

Despite huge success in the previous season, the club struggled on their return to the second tier. Steve Cotterill was relieved of his duties in January 2016 after a poor run of form which had seen Bristol City slip to 22nd in the Championship table. Lee Johnson, former player and son of former manager, Gary Johnson, was appointed as Bristol City's new head coach on 6 February 2016. Bristol City eventually finished in 18th place.

In the 2016–17 season, City were only just able to accumulate enough points to ensure survival at the end of the season. Lee Johnson remained at the helm for the following season, again making a positive early start. At the midpoint of the season, after 24 league games, they sat second in the Championship, whilst also knocking out Premier League opposition in Watford, Stoke City, Crystal Palace and Manchester United to reach the semi-finals of the League Cup. However, City would eventually finish in 11th place.

Bristol City ended the 2018–19 season in 8th. The battle for the last play-off spot came down to the final day, before Derby County managed to win their final game and clinch it. From March to June, the 2019–20 season was suspended due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Despite again challenging for the play-offs during the season, Johnson was sacked on 4 July 2020 after a run of just one win in 10 league matches. His long-time assistant, Dean Holden, was appointed as his replacement on 10 August 2020. After suffering six straight defeats in all competitions, Holden was dismissed on 16 February 2021 after just six months in charge. He was replaced by Nigel Pearson.

Club identity

Bristol City have played in red and white since the 1890s, occasionally also including black. The away kit is more variable. It is traditionally white, but has also featured black or yellow. Other colours featured have included green and a purple and lime combination, the latter of which has become a fan favourite.

 The club's current crest is a modernised version of the Robin which has long ties to the fans and the club.
 The club's previous crest was a simplified version of the coat of arms of the city of Bristol.
 The club's mascots are Red and Robyn, replacing Scrumpy the robin who had been the club's mascot from 2005 until 2022.
 The club's official anthem is One for the Bristol City by the Wurzels. First released in 1976, it is the tune the team run out to at home matches. A newly recorded version of the song reached number 66 in the UK charts in September 2007.

About halfway through the 2007–08 season Bristol City manager Gary Johnson said in an interview that he hoped the team could get the whole ground bouncing. City supporters took this rallying cry on board and began to sing "Johnson says bounce around the ground" to the tune of Yellow Submarine, while continually bouncing up and down. The first game at which it was sung was in an away match against Southampton at St Mary's Stadium, and it was also sung at away at Queen's Park Rangers in February. When Bristol City fans travelled to London to play Charlton Athletic on 4 March 2008, the visiting fans, using the rail network to return home, adapted the song to "Bounce Around the Train". Since then, it has become an often used chant at Ashton Gate stadium by the fans. It was also sometimes used by supporters of Gary Johnson's former side Northampton Town, primarily at away matches. When Gary Johnson's son, Lee Johnson returned to his former club in 2016 as their new manager, he stated that he wished to inherit the chant and keep the fans singing it.

Shirt sponsors

Stadium
Bristol City have played at Ashton Gate Stadium in the south-west of Bristol, just south of the River Avon, since moving from St John's Lane in 1904. The ground currently has an all-seated capacity of 27,000. It was the home of Bedminster until the 1900 merger, and the merged team played some games there the following season, but it did not become the permanent home of Bristol City until 1904.

In the past plans were considered for expansion work to be carried out at Ashton Gate. There were also proposals to build a new 36,000-seat stadium at Hengrove Park. This was turned down in a local referendum in December 2000. In 2002, the local council was looking at possible sites for a new 40,000-seat stadium which would house both City, Rovers and Bristol Rugby, but these plans were scrapped and it is widely accepted that this would not have been welcomed by the majority of supporters from all clubs. Ashton Gate's current capacity is an average size for Championship grounds; however, in November 2007 the club announced plans to relocate to a new 30,000-capacity stadium in Ashton Vale. Plans were also in place to increase capacity to 42,000 had England's 2018 World Cup bid been successful.

The South stand opened for the 2015–16 season, with the existing Williams stand being demolished and replaced by the Lansdown stand in 2016. A new partly-artificial Desso pitch was laid and the current Dolman stand refurbished. There is still no decision on the club's request to provide a "safe standing" area, similar to those used in Germany.

A state-of-the-art training facility became operational in 2020. The Robins High Performance Centre is at Failand a short distance from Ashton Gate Stadium.

Gallery

Rivalries

Bristol City's traditional rivals are Bristol Rovers. The clubs have met 105 times, with the first meeting in 1897. Bristol City have the most wins on 43. However, the clubs have not been in the same league for a number of years; they were last in the same division in the 2000–01 season. Since then, they have only met three times; in the two-legged southern final of the 2006–07 Football League Trophy, which Rovers won 1–0 on aggregate, and in the first round of the 2013–14 Johnstone's Paint Trophy, which City won 2–1 at Ashton Gate.

City's other main rivals are Cardiff City, who play in nearby Cardiff. Despite being a local derby, it crosses the Wales–England border, making it one of the few international club derbies in the United Kingdom. The two clubs have been at similar levels in recent years, being in the same division for 10 of the last 16 seasons. This has meant frequent meetings in the league including in the semi-finals of the 2003 Second Division play-offs.

Other clubs have been seen as 'third rivals' by the fans and media. Swindon Town are seen by many as rivals, nicknamed 'Swindle' by City fans. This rivalry was most recently relevant in the 2014–15 season, when the two clubs were rivals for promotion to the Championship. Plymouth Argyle have also previously been considered rivals despite a distance of over 100 miles. The rivalry was especially relevant in the 2000s when the two clubs were the highest-ranking West Country clubs for a number of years, and meetings were seen as a decider of the 'Best in the West'. Swansea City, Newport County, Cheltenham Town and even Yeovil Town have previously been mentioned as rivals, but very rarely. However, during a fixture between Bristol City and Swansea City on 2 February 2019 at Ashton Gate, fighting took place between Bristol City and Swansea City fans resulting in a rivalry flaring up between the two sets of fans.

Records and statistics
 Record League victory – 9–0 v. Aldershot (28 December 1946)
 Record FA Cup victory – 11–0 v. Chichester City (5 November 1960)
 Record League defeat – 0–9 v. Coventry City (28 April 1934)

 Highest attendance – 43,335 v. Preston North End (16 February 1935)
 Highest attendance (at any ground) – 86,703 v. Hull City Championship Play-off Final – Wembley Stadium – (24 May 2008)
 Most League appearances – 597, John Atyeo (1951–66)
 Most League goals scored – 314, John Atyeo (1951–66)
 Most goals scored (overall) – 351, John Atyeo (1951–66)
 Most capped player – Billy Wedlock, 26 caps, England
 Most goals scored in a season – 36, Don Clark (1946–47)
 Record transfer fee paid – £8 million to Chelsea for Tomáš Kalas (July 2019)
 Record transfer fee received – £25 million from Bournemouth for Alex Scott (August 2023)
 Record sequence of League wins – 14; 9 September 1905 – 2 December 1905 – This was a joint league record until 2017.
 Record sequence of League defeats – 8; 10 December 2016 – 21 January 2017
 Record sequence of unbeaten League matches – 24; 9 September 1905 – 10 February 1906
 Record sequence without a League win – 21; 16 March 2013 – 22 October 2013
 Record points total for a Season – 99pts; 2014–15 Football League One

League history
Note: The numbers in parentheses are the tier of football for that season.

 1897–1901: Southern League Division One (3)
 1901–1906: Football League Second Division (2)
 1906–1911: Football League First Division (1)
 1911–1922: Football League Second Division (2)
 1922–1923: Football League Third Division (3)
 1923–1924: Football League Second Division (2)
 1924–1927: Football League Third Division (3)
 1927–1932: Football League Second Division (2)
 1932–1955: Football League Third Division (3)
 1955–1960: Football League Second Division (2)
 1960–1965: Football League Third Division (3)
 1965–1976: Football League Second Division (2)
 1976–1980: Football League First Division (1)
 1980–1981: Football League Second Division (2)
 1981–1982: Football League Third Division (3)
 1982–1984: Football League Fourth Division (4)
 1984–1990: Football League Third Division (3)
 1990–1995: Football League Second Division / Football League First Division (rebranding after the Premier League came into existence) (2)
 1995–1998: Football League Second Division (3)
 1998–1999: Football League First Division (2)
 1999–2007: Football League Second Division / Football League One (rebranded) (3)
 2007–2013: Football League Championship (2)
 2013–2015: Football League One (3)
 2015– : Football League/EFL Championship (2)

Most appearances

Most club appearances including substitute appearances in all competitions (excluding Gloucestershire Cup). Updated 29 December 2013.
Note: On 29 December 2013, Louis Carey broke Bristol City's appearance record when he came on as a substitute in the 4–1 win over Stevenage. He overtook John Atyeo after 47 years and is now the club's all-time top appearance maker.

Most goals

Correct as of 29 July 2018.

Players

First-team squad

Out on loan

Under 21 squad

List of Bristol City players from 1890s to date
For a list of all Bristol City players with a Wikipedia article, see :Category:Bristol City F.C. players.
Bedminster merged with Bristol City in 1900 for a further list of all Bedminster players with articles see :Category:Bedminster F.C. players

Player of the season

Source for 1970s winners:

Top league scorers

Club management

Coaching positions

Managerial history

Bristol City Women's F.C.

The women's team was formed in 1990 supported by the club's community officer, Shaun Parker. Their greatest achievement was reaching the semi-finals of the FA Women's Cup in 1994 and winning promotion to the Premier League under Manager Jack Edgar in 2004. Following the decision by the FA to fund only one centre of excellence in Bristol, the two senior teams were disbanded in June 2008 and the girls' youth side merged with the Bristol Academy W.F.C. The majority of the senior players, with coach Will Roberts, moved to the University of Bath in summer 2008 and now play as AFC TeamBath Ladies in the South West Combination Women's Football League.

Honours
 FA Women's Premier League Southern Division:
 Winners: 2003–04

Honours and achievements
League
 Second Division (level 2)
Champions: 1905–06
2nd place promotion: 1975–76

 Third Division South / Third Division / Second Division / League One (level 3)
Champions (4): 1922–23, 1926–27, 1954–55, 2014–15
2nd place promotion: 1964–65, 1989–90, 1997–98, 2006–07

 Fourth Division (level 4)
4th place promotion: 1983–84

 Western League
Champions: 1897–98

Cup
 FA Cup
Runners-up: 1908–09

 Associate Members' Cup / Football League Trophy
Winners: 1985–86, 2002–03, 2014–15
Runners-up: 1986–87, 1999–2000

 Welsh Cup
Winners: 1933–34

 Anglo-Scottish Cup
Winners: 1977–78

References

External links

1894 establishments in England
Association football clubs established in 1894
Football clubs in Bristol
Football clubs in England
Southern Football League clubs
English Football League clubs
EFL Trophy winners

Bristol City F.C.


Shawn Sawyer (born January 14, 1985 in Edmundston, New Brunswick) is a Canadian figure skater. He won the bronze medal two times at the Canadian national championships. He skated at the 2006 Winter Olympics and came in 12th.

Biography
Unlike most figure skaters who spin on the ice and during their jumps in a counter-clockwise motion, Sawyer is one of few skaters who jumps and spins in a clockwise direction. Other skaters who rotate "lefty" are Johnny Weir and Alissa Czisny.

Sawyer is known for his great flexibility and his artistry on the ice. Most male skaters do not perform spirals during competition because they do not get credit for doing them. Sawyer uses them to highlight his skating and as difficulty entrances. They are also a major part of his non-competitive (exhibition) programs. Sawyer's spirals and flexible spins have given him a different look from most other skaters and have helped his popularity.

Sawyer is often compared to Canadian Olympic bronze medalist Toller Cranston. When Sawyer was 12, Cranston was about to retire from show skating. Cranston put together a televised show in which he and other top ranked skaters, including Scott Hamilton, skated with Sawyer and gave him advice. Cranston still advises Sawyer.

Sawyer can perform a backflip on ice. He was taught this move by Brian Orser.

Sawyer has performed the Biellmann spin in exhibition when he was a junior-level skater, but has since stopped training it. Still, he remains one of the few male skaters to have ever performed this move.

Other websites
Official Site
 International Skating Union biograhy
Skate Canada Profile

1985 births
Living people

Canadian figure skaters

Shawn Sawyer


Jack Edward Dunlap (November 14, 1927 – July 23, 1963) was a United States Army sergeant stationed at the National Security Agency who became a spy for the Soviet Union in the early 1960s.

Dunlap enlisted in the U.S. Army in 1952 and served with distinction in the Korean War. He was gradually promoted to sergeant and was assigned to the NSA in 1958. He was given top secret messages to carry to NSA officials before they had been encrypted. Moreover, Dunlap was given a top-secret security clearance to view these "plaintext" messages before handing them over to the NSA, and therefore was able to read and make copies of them.

NSA spying activities

Learning of Dunlap's sensitive position, a KGB agent approached him in 1958, bluntly offering him to be "paid handsomely" for the contents of the pouches he was carrying. Before delivering the documents, Dunlap slipped them under his shirt, drove to a meeting point in Washington, D.C., had his contact make copies or photograph them, then returned them to the pouch and made his delivery. It was later estimated that Dunlap was receiving from the Soviets between $40,000 and $50,000 a year. When neighbors asked about his new riches, Dunlap said that he had inherited a plantation in Louisiana. NSA security paid no attention to Dunlap's new lifestyle. In 1963, he was about to be transferred to another post, which would cut off his access to documents. To continue making money from the Soviets, Dunlap believed that he could stay on at NSA by simply not re-enlisting when his tour of duty expired.

As an army sergeant assigned to the NSA, he was not subject to a polygraph examination. When he retired from the Army, his Soviet handlers told him to apply for a civilian position, which he did. He was given a polygraph examination by NSA on a Friday and while he passed the examination, the examiner told the FBI there was something that made him uneasy and told Dunlap to come back on Monday. Dunlap committed suicide over the weekend by carbon monoxide poisoning.

The Director of Security for NSA told FBI agents that he and his assistant paid a visit to Dunlap's widow to offer their condolences, and she said, "You probably want his papers", showing them classified material. That was when the NSA realized Dunlap had been a spy. Dunlap was a personable individual and roamed around within NSA. One secretary told the FBI that he stopped at her desk to chat and would see papers in her out box and tell her he was headed in that direction and take the papers.  He would stop at a Xerox machine on the way and make a copy for the Soviets.

His activities were reported to have been the cause of the downfall of Oleg Penkovsky.

As a United States Army veteran, Dunlap was buried at Arlington National Cemetery.

References

Bibliography

1927 births
1963 suicides
1963 deaths
Burials at Arlington National Cemetery
United States Army soldiers
National Security Agency people
American military personnel who committed suicide
Suicides by carbon monoxide poisoning
Suicides in Maryland
American spies for the Soviet Union
United States Army personnel of the Korean War
People from Bogalusa, Louisiana

Jack Dunlap


The suspended load of a flow of fluid, such as a river, is the portion of its sediment uplifted by the fluid's flow in the process of sediment transportation. It is kept suspended by the fluid's turbulence. The suspended load generally consists of smaller particles, like clay, silt, and fine sands.

Sediment transportation

The suspended load is one of the three layers of the fluvial sediment transportation system. The bed load consists of the larger sediment which is transported by saltation, rolling, and dragging on the riverbed. The suspended load is the middle layer that consists of the smaller sediment that's suspended. The wash load is uppermost layer which consist of the smallest sediment that can be seen with the naked eye; however, the wash load gets easily mixed with suspended load during transportation due to the very similar process. The wash load never touches the bed even outside of a current.

Composition

The boundary between bed load and suspended load is not straightforward because whether a particle is in suspension or not depends on the flow velocity – it is easy to imagine a particle moving between bed load, part-suspension and full suspension in a fluid with variable flow. Suspended load generally consists of fine sand, silt and clay size particles although larger particles (coarser sands) may be carried in the lower water column in more intense flows.

Suspended load vs suspended sediment
Suspended load and suspended sediment are very similar, but are not the same. Suspended Sediment contains sediment uplifted in Fluvial zones, but unlike suspended load no turbulence is required to keep it uplifted. Suspended loads required the Velocity to keep the sediment transporting above the bed. With low velocity the sediment will deposit.

Velocity
The suspended load is carried within the lower to middle part of the water column and moves at a large fraction of the mean flow velocity of the stream, with a Rouse number between 0.8 and 1.2. The rates within the Rouse number reveal how at which the sediment will transport at the current velocity. It is the ratio of the fall velocity and uplift velocity on a grain.

Diagrams

Suspended load is often visualised using two diagrams. The Hjulström curve uses velocity and sediment size to compare the rate of erosion, transportation, and deposition. While the diagram shows the rate, one flaw about the Hjulström Diagram is that it doesn't show the depth of the creek giving an estimated rate.

The second diagram used is the Shields Diagram. The Shields Diagram uses the critical shield stress and Reynolds number to estimate transportation rate. Shields Diagram is considered a more precise chart to estimate suspended load.

Measuring suspended load

Shear stress
To find the stream power for sediment transportation, shear stress helps determine the force required to allow sediment transportation.

Critical shear stress
The point at which the sediment is transported within a stream

Suspended load transport rate

See also
 Sediment
 Sediment transport
 Rouse number
 Bed load
 Wash load
 Dissolved load

References

Further reading

Sedimentology

Suspended load


St Salvator's College was a college of the University of St Andrews in St Andrews, Scotland. Founded in 1450, it is the oldest of the university's colleges. In 1747 it merged with St Leonard's College to form United College.

History

St Salvator's College was founded in 1450 by James Kennedy, Bishop of St Andrews. King James II of Scotland had provided an endowment at the college's  foundation  and this allowed the training of ten students. Several of the original medieval buildings survive, including the college chapel, tower, tenement building (adjoining to the west of tower, actually older than the adjoining tower, but much restored) and the Hebdomadar's building.

The dramatic west tower was built in the 1460s with the upper part of the spire being remodelled in 1851 by the Edinburgh architect Robert Matheson.

In 1528, the Protestant martyr, Patrick Hamilton, was burned alive outside the college, though Hamilton himself was a member of St Leonard's college.

Initially a college of Theology and the Arts, St Salvator's was created to revitalize and focus the university after its somewhat disorderly foundation.

Due to financial considerations, fall in student numbers and general decline of the university, St Salvator's and St Leonard's Colleges amalgamated into the United College of Saint Salvator and Saint Leonard in 1747.  Shortly after this, the initial site of St Leonard's College was sold, though the university retained ownership of St Leonard's College Chapel.  Although the buildings of St Salvator's College (including the college chapel) were grand by medieval standards, they eventually fell into disrepair.  From 1837 the quadrangle was rebuilt and extended into its current form, with a north and a west wing in Jacobean style (in similar style to Madras College on South Street built at the same time). To the south is the Chapel, where many university services are held.

St Salvator's College was residential until the unification with St Leonard's. The current St Salvator's Hall (built from the 1930s), which lies east of the college, is one of the halls of residence for students.

The chapel, tower and Hebdomadar's Building are all designated as Category A listed buildings by Historic Scotland. Other buildings and structures are listed as Category B.

The college chapel is unusual for a collegiate church in that the main entrance faces out into the town, and not like those in Oxford or Cambridge, closed into the college itself. It is indeed the only collegiate chapel in Scotland with this arrangement. From 1761 the chapel was used as a parish church after the St Leonard's college chapel lost its roof in the 1750s, and this arrangement continued until this arrangement was withdrawn by the university in 1904, when the chapel became the University Chapel.  The 1450 college had cloister buildings to the north of the college chapel - the two doors to the north side of the chapel show the alignment of the cloister.

Today, with the university having abandoned the Collegiate system in all but name, the St Salvator's/United College site houses various lecture theatres, and the departments of Spanish, Russian, and social anthropology.  It is commonly referred to as "the quad", and is the setting of Raisin Monday festivities, the finish point of the post-Graduation processions, and occasionally hosts student events.

References

Bibliography
R.G. Cant The University of St. Andrews, A Short History (Oliver and Boyd Ltd. 1946)

Former colleges of the University of St Andrews
1450 establishments in Scotland
Educational institutions established in the 15th century
Category A listed buildings in Fife
Listed educational buildings in Scotland
Category B listed buildings in Fife

St Salvator's College, St Andrews


Yahya ibn Khalid (; died ) was the most prominent member of the Barmakid family, serving as provincial governor and all-powerful long-time vizier to Caliph Harun al-Rashid before his abrupt fall in 803.

Origin and early career
Yahya was the son of Khalid ibn Barmak, the first member of the family to achieve prominence in the Abbasid court, serving as de facto chief minister to the first Abbasid caliph, al-Saffah (), and then in a number of provincial governorships in Fars, Tabaristan, and Mosul under al-Mansur (). Yahya gained his first experience in administration as his father's aide.

When his father was governor of Tabaristan in northern Iran (766/67–772), Yahya was appointed as his representative in Rayy, where the Caliph's son and heir, the future al-Mahdi (), was serving as viceroy for the eastern caliphate. While there, the two men became close, to the point that when al-Mahdi's younger son, the future Harun al-Rashid () was born, he was nursed by Yahya's wife, Zubayda bint Munir, while al-Mahdi's wife, al-Khayzuran, nursed Yahya's young son al-Fadl, who had been born a few days earlier. This unique, and apparently accidental, relationship created strong bonds between them that proved crucial for the future fate of the Barmakids; by Arab custom, ties of fosterage were equivalent to blood kinship.

Already in 775, Yahya was himself appointed governor of Adharbayjan. When his father entered his second governorship of Fars under al-Mahdi (), Yahya once again accompanied him as his assistant.

In 778, he was named as the tutor and secretary to Harun, replacing Aban ibn Sadaka, and enhancing their relationship: Yahya became a sort of father figure to the young prince, while in turn Yahya and his family attached their fortunes to Harun. When Harun was sent, as his first independent command, to lead an expedition against the Byzantine Empire in 780, Yahya accompanied him. Yahya was placed in charge of the army's supplies, while he and the chamberlain al-Rabi ibn Yunus (who would become a political ally of Yahya) functioned as advisors to Harun on all military decisions. The expedition was a modest success, resulting in the capture of the fortress of Samalu, further strengthening Yahya's position. When Harun was proclaimed second heir (after his older brother, al-Hadi) and given charge of the provinces of Adharbayjan and Arminiya, Yahya administered these on his behalf.

Under al-Hadi
When al-Mahdi died suddenly while hunting in July 785, Yahya was instrumental in ensuring a smooth succession and avoiding a riot of the troops, who were likely to use the opportunity to extract several years' of payment from the exchequer. Yahya and Queen al-Khayzuran kept the death secret, dismissed the troops with a gift of 200 dirhams, buried al-Mahdi, and sent for al-Hadi, who was then at Juzjan, to come to Baghdad and take over the throne. After the truth became known, the troops rioted and secured a payment of two years' worth of their salaries, but the immediate crisis had been averted.

After al-Hadi's accession, Yahya was confirmed in his position, but soon became involved in the struggle for the succession. Al-Hadi, now caliph, wanted to remove his brother from the succession and appoint his own son, Ja'far, instead. Harun himself appeared to be ready to acquiesce to this demotion, but this threatened Yahya's own position, which was dependent on Harun's status as heir-apparent. Consequently, along with al-Rabi ibn Yunus and the influential and powerful queen-mother al-Khayzuran, he tried to uphold Harun's position. At this time, Queen al-Khayzuran was the most powerful person in the caliphate, and al-Hadi hated this immense authority of his mother. Unlike al-Khayzuran, who did not hide her hostility to her older son, Yahya tried to mediate between the two brothers, urging Harun to a firmer defence of his rights, and al-Hadi to a more conciliatory stance. The rivalry between the two brothers was also the expression of a wider conflict, between a military faction, favoured by al-Hadi, and a courtly/bureaucratic faction, that rallied behind the Barmakids and al-Rabi ibn Yunus, with Harun as their candidate. The former clung to the traditional prerogatives of the troops that had brought the Abbasids to power, especially in the role of military leaders as provincial governors, while the newly emerging class of civil administrators (the ) and palace officials desired both a greater share of power as well as a centralization of authority in the central government and its civil departments.

In the end, in September 786, matters came to a head: Yahya was imprisoned and was about to be executed, but on the same night, al-Hadi was found dead. The exact cause of al-Hadi's death is unknown, but several sources imply that al-Khayzuran was responsible, by having one of her slave-girls suffocate the caliph in his sleep. On the same night, al-Hadi's young son was arrested and forced to renounce his rights to the succession, and the new regime installed. According to one version reported by al-Tabari, Harun freed Yahya once he was seated on the throne, while according to another, Yahya hurried to wake his sleeping protégé with the words, "Arise, O Commander of the Faithful".

Yahya's vizierate and the Barmakid regime

With Harun safely ensconced on the throne, Yahya was named vizier, with plenipotentiary authority over all affairs of government, as well as a free hand in choosing personnel. Even after the death of Queen-mother al-Khayzuran, Yahya was also awarded the position of keeper of the seal, with the sources reporting that the Caliph handed over his seal in person, to symbolize the powers vested in his vizier. Nevertheless, until her death in 789, al-Khayzuran remained in power control, with Yahya relying to her opinion and orders. The Caliph gave strict orders to Yahya to seek al-Khayzuran's approval in all of his decisions, a regulation which reduced the status of the Vizier to a subordinate of the queen mother. Her death changed everything; Yahya and his family  (Barmakid) were out of her control, but lost a strong supporter.

Yahya made his two older sons, al-Fadl and Ja'far, his associates, sharing with them all duties and powers of his office, to the point that they also held the caliphal seal, and appear to also have been designated as viziers. From 788 until 795, Yahya's brother, Muhammad, also served as the Harun al-Rashid's chamberlain. This concentration of power inaugurated the period known in the sources as the "reign of the Barmakids" (). This was an era of comparative peace and prosperity, when even the entries in al-Tabari's chronicle are unusually brief due to the lack of noteworthy events.

As the representatives of the civil bureaucratic faction, the new Barmakid regime was characterized by the centralization of power in Baghdad: provincial governors lost in importance, especially as they were regularly changed after very brief tenures, in stark contrast to the long terms customary under al-Mansur. In the same manner, the central oversight of the fiscal administration of the provinces was tightened, with inspectors sent out to investigate allegations of abuses, and governors obliged to bring the revenue of their province and their accounts with them to the capital for auditing.

Over the years, the tasks of governance devolved more and more to Yahya's sons, and in 798, he asked for leave to retire to Mecca, during one of the Caliph's pilgrimages there. This did not last long, as within a year he was back at his post in Baghdad.

Patronage of scholars

Yahya was distinguished for his patronage of scholars and poets, and especially for sponsoring a massive translation effort of Indian works from Sanskrit to Arabic. In terms of bringing knowledge to the Arabic world, Yahya's efforts were not matched until al-Biruni's Indica in the 11th century. Apart from the translations, Yahya also brought numerous Indian physicians to Baghdad, in a specially constructed hospital. He commissioned the poet Aban al-Lahiqi to put the stories of Kalīla wa-Dimna, Mazdak, and Bilawhar wa-Būdhāsaf into verse; the latter especially was likely translated from Sanskrit for the Barmakids as well. In the anecdotes relayed by the chroniclers, Yahya also appears "as the host of numerous learned sessions and discussions among diverse participants" (van Bladel), while Hugh Kennedy stresses that "the literary assemblies the Barmakids held were notable for the freedom with which unusual opin- ions were voiced".

Downfall and death
The major weakness of the Barmakids' position was their lack of support among the military. The old military leadership was dismissed following Harun al-Rashid's accession, but the Barmakids' own attempts to recruit a power base among the soldiers failed, and their inability to suppress the Kharijite revolt of Walid ibn Tarif in 794—itself caused by the Barmakids' harsh fiscal measures—led the Caliph to turn to a representative of the old military elites, Yazid ibn Mazyad al-Shaybani, for help.

Following this, the old military establishment gradually returned to favour, and the Barmakids' monopoly on power was broken. From 796/7 on, the Barmakids found themselves challenged not only with a resurgent military elite, but also at the centre, where the Caliph dismissed Yahya's brother Muhammad and appointed instead as his chamberlain al-Fadl ibn al-Rabi, the son of Yahya's old ally, al-Rabi ibn Yunus. Al-Fadl ibn al-Rabi's access to the Caliph made him the centre of a rival court faction, and in the anecdotes of the time he appears both as the Barmakids' foil and their main antagonist at court. This change was not only the result of the Barmakids' own weakness, but apparently a conscious policy by Harun al-Rashid, who endeavoured to limit his dependency on the Barmakids. The Barmakids' more lenient attitudes towards the Alids, whom Harun continued to persecute, further widened the rift between the Caliph and the Barmakids, as seen in the protracted affair of Yahya ibn Abdallah.

In 803, his family fell into disgrace, and he was cast into prison, where he died in 806.

Legacy
As the historian Hugh N. Kennedy writes, although Yahya was perhaps the dominant court figure of his time, "it is difficult to form a clear idea of [Yahya's] talents and achievements. Many of the stories about his life read more like exemplars written to show how a good minister and bureaucrat should behave and what he should accomplish , rather than as a historical record", the result of his idealization in the eyes of successive generations of Abbasid officials.

Family tree

References

Sources

8th-century births
806 deaths
8th-century Iranian people
8th-century people from the Abbasid Caliphate
9th-century Iranian people
9th-century people from the Abbasid Caliphate
Barmakids
One Thousand and One Nights characters
Prisoners and detainees of the Abbasid Caliphate
Viziers of the Abbasid Caliphate
Patrons of literature
8th-century government officials
9th-century government officials

Yahya ibn Khalid


Aphthona flava is a beetle of the genus Aphthona. It is native to Eurasia, and has been introduced into North America as a biocontrol agent for leafy spurge. Adults are brown and difficult to distinguish in the field from A. cyparissiae and A. nigriscutis. A. flava is still the dominant beetle at some Manitoba release sites, but it is relatively scarce in North Dakota and Minnesota. Besides Manitoba, it is widespread in Hungary and Italy.

Ecology

Larvae
The larvae is active from July to early spring of next year. When they are young, they feed on the hairs of the roots. As soon as they grow up they become bigger and start eating bigger roots. The larvae size is tiny, and are of white colour and are worm-like.

Pupa
Starting from late spring to early summer the pupa stage begins in the soil.

Adult
From June to through early fall, if the temperature is right, the adults will come out. They look like flea beetles, and behave like ones too. Their size is 3.4 mm for males, and 3.6 mm for females.

References

External links

Alticini
Beetles of Europe
Beetles of Asia
Beetles described in 1895

Aphthona flava


The Audiencia Nacional (; ) is a centralised court in Spain with jurisdiction over all of the Spanish territory. It is specialised in a certain scope of delinquency, having original jurisdiction over major crimes such as those committed against the Crown and its members, terrorism, forgery of currency, credit and debit cards and checks, some trade crimes committed in more than one region and over drug trafficking, food frauds and medical frauds committed in a nationwide level as well as over international crimes which come under the competence of Spanish courts. (LOPJ § 65). It has also appellate jurisdiction over the cases of the Criminal Chamber of the National Court (LOPJ § 64).

The Audiencia Nacional was created in 1977 at the same time as the Public Order Court (Tribunal de Orden Público), an exceptional court created in Francoist Spain, ceased to exist.

Most of the rulings of the National Court can ultimately be appealed before the Supreme Court (Tribunal Supremo). Its seat lies in Madrid, at Calle García Gutiérrez, 1, located across the Plaza Villa de Paris from the Supreme Court.

Structure
The Audiencia is composed of its President, the Presidents of the Chambers, and the magistrates that the law specifies for each one of its courts and divisions.

The Audiencia includes the following chambers:

 Criminal Chamber, which is competent to try certain types of serious crimes such as terrorism, money laundering, genocide, etc., makes decisions about extradition demands by foreign countries and the execution of European arrest warrants, and hears appeals against rulings of the Central Criminal Courts (Juzgados Centrales de lo Penal).
 Appeals Chamber, which hears appeals against rulings of the Criminal Chamber.
 Administrative Chamber, which exercises judicial review of administrative decisions by senior officers (Ministers and Secretaries of State of the Government) and certain specialised agencies (Spanish Data Protection Agency, Concurrence Protection Commission, etc.)
 Social Chamber, which has jurisdiction over collective conflicts between businesspersons and workers.

Related courts
Even when they are not part of the National Court, because they are in the same building, the Central Courts are popularly considered part of it. These courts have jurisdiction in all the national territory.

 Central Criminal Courts (LOPJ § 89 bis). They prosecute the same crimes as the Criminal Chamber when they have sentence of less than five years of prison.
 Central Instruction Courts (LOPJ § 88). These courts investigate the crimes that are then prosecuted by the Criminal Chamber of the National Court or the Central Criminal Courts.
 Central Courts of Prison Vigilance (LOPJ § 94.4). They attend to the enforcement of the penalties imposed by the National Court or the Central Criminal Court
 Central Minors Courts (LOPJ § 96.2). They prosecutes the same crimes as the National Court and the Central Criminal Court but when minors are accused.
 Central Administrative Courts (LOPJ § 90.4). These courts a responsible for the appeals against dispositions and acts emanated from authorities, organisms, organs and public entities with competence over the national territory.

Prosecutor's Office

The Prosecutor's Office of the National Court is the body of the Attorney General's Office that prosecute all the cases related to the National Court with the exception of those cases granted to the Special Prosecution Offices (Anti-Drug Prosecutor's Office and Prosecutor's Office against Corruption and Organized Crime).

The Prosecutor's Office, and the Special Prosecution Offices are headed each one by a Chief Prosecutor and with a Lieutenant Prosecutor as second-in-command.

See also
 Constitutional Court of Spain
 Judiciary of Spain

References

Courts in Spain
1977 establishments in Spain
Judiciary of Spain

Audiencia Nacional


Pudong New District (Chinese: 浦东新区), major eastern district of Shanghai founded in 1990 as part of the Reforming and Opening Up Policy of Deng Xiaoping. It is named for its position on the eastern bank of the Huangpu River. Famous attractions include Lujiazui, Century Park, Shanghai World Expo Site, Shanghai Science and Technology Museum, Dishui Lake and Pudong International Airport.

Shanghai

Pudong New District


Susan Hussey (June 1, 1954 – February 19, 2009) was an American playwright and co-founder of the Gorilla Theatre performing arts venue in Tampa, Florida.

Hussey was born in Martinsville, Indiana and was educated at Indiana University. She received a master's degree in English literature from the University of South Florida in 1984. While completing her studies, she took a typist job at the Tampa-based Aubrey Organics, a natural cosmetics company. She stayed with the company, working her way up to vice president of marketing and advertising and becoming the editor of the company's quarterly magazine Organica. In 1999, she married Dr. Aubrey Hampton, the company's founder and president.

In 1990, Hampton and Hussey founded the Gorilla Theatre for the presentation of both socially conscious dramatic work and light entertainment. Hussey's plays included Plutography in the Slave Trade (1990), The Dressing Room (1993, Off-Broadway premiere in 1994), Small Mammals (1997), Christmas Trio (1998) and The Toxic Wave (2000). In 2002, the University of Tampa Press published a book of The Toxic Wave and The Dressing Room.

References

20th-century American dramatists and playwrights
Indiana University alumni
University of South Florida alumni
1954 births
2009 deaths
People from Martinsville, Indiana

Susan Hussey (playwright)