The Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), also referred to as the Last Glacial Coldest Period, was the most recent time during the Last Glacial Period that ice sheets were at their greatest extent 26,000 and 20,000 years ago.
Ice sheets covered much of Northern North America, Northern Europe, and Asia and profoundly affected Earth's climate by causing a major expansion of deserts, along with a large drop in sea levels.

Based on changes in position of ice sheet margins dated via terrestrial cosmogenic nuclides and radiocarbon dating, growth of ice sheets in the southern hemisphere commenced 33,000 years ago and maximum coverage has been estimated to have occurred sometime between 26,500 years ago and 20,000 years ago. After this, deglaciation caused an abrupt rise in sea level. Decline of the West Antarctica ice sheet occurred between 14,000 and 15,000 years ago, consistent with evidence for another abrupt rise in the sea level about 14,500 years ago. Glacier fluctuations around the Strait of Magellan suggest the peak in glacial surface area was constrained to between 25,200 and 23,100 years ago.

There are no agreed dates for the beginning and end of the LGM, and researchers select dates depending on their criteria and the data set consulted. Jennifer French, an archeologist specialising in the European Palaeolithic, dates its onset at 27,500 years ago, with ice sheets at their maximum by around 26,000 years ago and deglaciation commencing between 20,000 and 19,000 years ago. The LGM is referred to in Britain as the  Dimlington Stadial, dated to between 31,000 and 16,000 years ago.

Glacial climate

The average global temperature around 19,000 BC (about 21,000 years ago) was about 6 °C (11 °F) colder than today.

According to the United States Geological Survey (USGS), permanent summer ice covered about 8% of Earth's surface and 25% of the land area during the last glacial maximum. The USGS also states that sea level was about  lower than in present times (2012).

When comparing to the present, the average global temperature was  for the 2013–2017 period. As of 2012 about 3.1% of Earth's surface and 10.7% of the land area is covered in year-round ice.

Carbon sequestration in the highly stratified and productive Southern Ocean was essential in producing the LGM. The formation of an ice sheet or ice cap requires both prolonged cold and precipitation (snow). Hence, despite having temperatures similar to those of glaciated areas in North America and Europe, East Asia remained unglaciated except at higher elevations. This difference was because the ice sheets in Europe produced extensive anticyclones above them. These anticyclones generated air masses that were so dry on reaching Siberia and Manchuria that precipitation sufficient for the formation of glaciers could never occur (except in Kamchatka where these westerly winds lifted moisture from the Sea of Japan). The relative warmth of the Pacific Ocean due to the shutting down of the Oyashio Current and the presence of large east-west mountain ranges were secondary factors that prevented the development of continental glaciation in Asia.

All over the world, climates at the Last Glacial Maximum were cooler and almost everywhere drier. In extreme cases, such as South Australia and the Sahel, rainfall could have been diminished by up to 90% compared to the present, with flora diminished to almost the same degree as in glaciated areas of Europe and North America. Even in less affected regions, rainforest cover was greatly diminished, especially in West Africa where a few refugia were surrounded by tropical grasslands.

The Amazon rainforest was split into two large blocks by extensive savanna, and the tropical rainforests of Southeast Asia probably were similarly affected, with deciduous forests expanding in their place except on the east and west extremities of the Sundaland shelf. Only in Central America and the Chocó region of Colombia did tropical rainforests remain substantially intact – probably due to the extraordinarily heavy rainfall of these regions.

Most of the world's deserts expanded. Exceptions were in what is the present-day Western United States, where changes in the jet stream brought heavy rain to areas that are now desert and large pluvial lakes formed, the best known being Lake Bonneville in Utah. This also occurred in Afghanistan and Iran, where a major lake formed in the Dasht-e Kavir.

In Australia, shifting sand dunes covered half the continent, while the Chaco and Pampas in South America became similarly dry. Present-day subtropical regions also lost most of their forest cover, notably in eastern Australia, the Atlantic Forest of Brazil, and southern China, where open woodland became dominant due to much drier conditions. In northern China – unglaciated despite its cold climate – a mixture of grassland and tundra prevailed, and even here, the northern limit of tree growth was at least 20° farther south than today.

In the period before the LGM, many areas that became completely barren desert were wetter than they are today, notably in southern Australia, where Aboriginal occupation is believed to coincide with a wet period between 40,000 and 60,000 years Before Present (BP, a formal measurement of uncalibrated radiocarbon years, counted from 1950).

In New Zealand and neighbouring regions of the Pacific, temperatures may have been further depressed during part of the LGM by the world's most recent supervolcanic eruption, the Oruanui eruption, approximately 28,500 years BP.

However, it is estimated that during the LGM, low-to-mid latitude land surfaces at low elevation cooled on average by 5.8 °C relative to their present day temperatures, based on an analysis of noble gases dissolved in groundwater rather than examinations of species abundances that have been used in the past.

World impact
During the Last Glacial Maximum, much of the world was cold, dry, and inhospitable, with frequent storms and a dust-laden atmosphere. The dustiness of the atmosphere is a prominent feature in ice cores; dust levels were as much as 20 to 25 times greater than they are in the present.  This was probably due to a number of factors:  reduced vegetation, stronger global winds, and less precipitation to clear dust from the atmosphere. The massive sheets of ice locked away water, lowering the sea level, exposing continental shelves, joining land masses together, and creating extensive coastal plains. During the last glacial maximum, 21,000 years ago, the sea level was about 125 meters (about 410 feet) lower than it is today.

Africa and the Middle East
In Africa and the Middle East, many smaller mountain glaciers formed, and the Sahara and other sandy deserts were greatly expanded in extent. The Atlantic deep sea sediment core V22-196, extracted off the coast of Senegal, shows a major southward expansion of the Sahara.

The Persian Gulf averages about 35 metres in depth and the seabed between Abu Dhabi and Qatar is even shallower, being mostly less than 15 metres deep. For thousands of years the Ur-Shatt (a confluence of the Tigris-Euphrates Rivers) provided fresh water to the Gulf, as it flowed through the Strait of Hormuz into the Gulf of Oman. Bathymetric data suggests there were two palaeo-basins in the Persian Gulf. The central basin may have approached an area of 20,000 km2, comparable at its fullest extent to lakes such as Lake Malawi in Africa. Between 12,000 and 9,000 years ago much of the Gulf's floor was not covered by water, only being flooded by the sea after 8,000 years ago.

It is estimated that annual average temperatures in Southern Africa were 6 °C lower than at present during the Last Glacial Maximum. This temperature drop alone would however not have been enough to generate widespread glaciation or permafrost in the Drakensberg Mountains or the Lesotho Highlands. Seasonal freezing of the ground in the Lesotho Highlands might have reached depths of 2 meter or more below the surface.  A few small glaciers did however develop during the Last Glacial Maximum, in particular in south-facing slopes. In the Hex River Mountains, in the Western Cape, block streams and terraces found near the summit of Matroosberg evidences past periglacial activity which likely occurred during the Last Glacial Maximum.

On the island of Mauritius in the Mascarenhas Archipelago, open wet forest vegetation dominated, contrasting with the dominantly closed-stratified-tall-forest state of Holocene Mauritian forests.

Asia

There were ice sheets in modern Tibet (although scientists continue to debate the extent to which the Tibetan Plateau was covered with ice) as well as in Baltistan and Ladakh. In Southeast Asia, many smaller mountain glaciers formed, and permafrost covered Asia as far south as Beijing. Because of lowered sea levels, many of today's islands were joined to the continents: the Indonesian islands as far east as Borneo and Bali were connected to the Asian continent in a landmass called Sundaland. Palawan was also part of Sundaland, while the rest of the Philippine Islands formed one large island separated from the continent only by the Sibutu Passage and the Mindoro Strait.

The environment along the coast of South China was not very different from that of the present day, featuring moist subtropical evergreen forests, despite sea levels in the South China Sea being about 100 metres lower than the present day.

Australasia
The Australian mainland, New Guinea, Tasmania and many smaller islands comprised a single land mass. This continent is now referred to sometimes as Sahul.

Between Sahul and Sundaland – a peninsula of South East Asia that comprised present-day Malaysia and western and northern Indonesia – there remained an archipelago of islands known as Wallacea. The water gaps between these islands, Sahul and Sundaland were considerably narrower and fewer in number than in the present day.

The two main islands of New Zealand, along with associated smaller islands, were joined as one landmass. Virtually all of the Southern Alps were under permanent ice cover, with alpine glaciers extending from them into much of the surrounding high country.

Europe

Northern Europe was largely covered by ice, with the southern boundary of the ice sheets passing through Germany and Poland. This ice extended northward to cover Svalbard and Franz Josef Land and northeastward to occupy the Barents Sea, the Kara Sea, and Novaya Zemlya, ending at the Taymyr Peninsula in what is now northwestern Siberia. Warming commenced in northern latitudes around 20,000 years ago, but it was limited and considerable warming did not take place until around 14,600 year ago.

In northwestern Russia, the Fennoscandian ice sheet reached its LGM extent approximately 17,000 years ago, about five thousand years later than in Denmark, Germany and Western Poland. Outside the Baltic Shield, and in Russia in particular, the LGM ice margin of the Fennoscandian Ice Sheet was highly lobate. The main LGM lobes of Russia followed the Dvina, Vologda and Rybinsk basins respectively. Lobes originated as result of ice following shallow topographic depressions filled with a soft sediment substrate.

Permafrost covered Europe south of the ice sheet down to as far south as present-day Szeged in Southern Hungary. Ice covered the whole of Iceland. In addition, ice covered Ireland and almost all of Wales, with the southern boundary of the ice sheet running approximately from the current location of Cardiff north-north-east to Middlesbrough, and then across the now submerged land of Doggerland to Denmark.

In the Cantabrian Mountains of the northwestern corner of the Iberian Peninsula, which in the present day have no permanent glaciers, the LGM led to a local glacial recession as a result of increased aridity caused by the growth of other ice sheets farther to the east and north, which drastically limited annual snowfall over the mountains of northwestern Spain. The Cantabrian alpine glaciers had previously expanded between approximately 60,000 and 40,000 years ago during a local glacial maximum in the region.

In northeastern Italy, in the region around Lake Fimon, Artemisia-dominated semideserts, steppes, and meadow-steppes replaced open boreal forests at the start of the LGM, specifically during Heinrich Stadial 3. The overall climate of the region became both drier and colder.

In the Sar Mountains, the glacial equilibrium-line altitude was about 450 metres lower than in the Holocene. In Greece, steppe vegetation predominated.

Megafaunal abundance in Europe peaked around 27,000 and 21,000 BP; this bountifulness was attributable to the cold stadial climate.

North America

In Greenland, the difference between LGM temperatures and present temperatures was twice as great during winter as during summer. Greenhouse gas and insolation forcings dominated temperature changes in northern Greenland, whereas Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC) variability was the dominant influence on southern Greenland's climate. Illorsuit Island was exclusively covered by cold-based glaciers.

Following a preceding period of relative retreat from 52,000 to 40,000 years ago, the Laurentide Ice Sheet grew rapidly at the onset of the LGM until it covered essentially all of Canada east of the Rocky Mountains and extended roughly to the Missouri and Ohio Rivers, and eastward to Manhattan, reaching a total maximum volume of around 26.5 to 37 million cubic kilometres. At its peak, the Laurentide Ice Sheet reached 3.2 km in height around Keewatin Dome and about 1.7-2.1 km along the Plains divide. In addition to the large Cordilleran Ice Sheet in Canada and Montana, alpine glaciers advanced and (in some locations) ice caps covered much of the Rocky and Sierra Nevada Mountains further south. Latitudinal gradients were so sharp that permafrost did not reach far south of the ice sheets except at high elevations. Glaciers forced the early human populations who had originally migrated from northeast Siberia into refugia, reshaping their genetic variation by mutation and drift. This phenomenon established the older haplogroups found among Native Americans, and later migrations are responsible for northern North American haplogroups.

On the Island of Hawaii, geologists have long recognized deposits formed by glaciers on Mauna Kea during recent ice ages. The latest work indicates that deposits of three glacial episodes since 150,000 to 200,000 years ago are preserved on the volcano. Glacial moraines on the volcano formed about 70,000 years ago and from about 40,000 to 13,000 years ago. If glacial deposits were formed on Mauna Loa, they have long since been buried by younger lava flows.

South America
In the Southern Hemisphere, the Patagonian Ice Sheet covered the whole southern third of Chile and adjacent areas of Argentina. On the western side of the Andes the ice sheet reached sea level as far north as in the 41 degrees south at Chacao Channel. The western coast of Patagonia was largely glaciated, but some authors have pointed out the possible existence of ice-free refugia for some plant species. On the eastern side of the Andes, glacier lobes occupied the depressions of Seno Skyring, Seno Otway, Inútil Bay, and Beagle Channel. On the Straits of Magellan, ice reached as far as Segunda Angostura.
During the Last Glacial Maximum valley glaciers in the southern Andes (38–43° S) merged and descended from the Andes occupying lacustrine and marine basins where they spread out forming large piedmont glacier lobes. Glaciers extended about 7 km west of the modern Llanquihue Lake, but not more than 2 to 3 km south of it. Nahuel Huapi Lake in Argentina was also glaciated by the same time. Over most of the Chiloé Archipelago, glacier advance peaked 26,000 years ago, forming a long north–south moraine system along the eastern coast of Chiloé Island (41.5–43° S). By that time the glaciation at the latitude of Chiloé was of ice sheet type contrasting to the valley glaciation found further north in Chile.

Despite glacier advances much of the area west of Llanquihue Lake was still ice-free during the Last Glacial Maximum. During the coldest period of the Last Glacial Maximum vegetation at this location was dominated by Alpine herbs in wide open surfaces. The global warming that followed caused a slow change in vegetation towards a sparsely distributed vegetation dominated by Nothofagus species. Within this parkland vegetation Magellanic moorland alternated with Nothofagus forest, and as warming progressed even warm-climate trees began to grow in the area. It is estimated that the tree line was depressed about 1,000 m relative to present day elevations during the coldest period, but it rose gradually until 19,300 years ago. At that time a cold reversal caused a replacement of much of the arboreal vegetation with Magellanic moorland and Alpine species.

Little is known about the extent of glaciers during Last Glacial Maximum north of the Chilean Lake District. To the north, in the dry Andes of Central and the Last Glacial Maximum is associated with increased humidity and the verified advance of at least some mountain glaciers. In northwestern Argentina, pollen deposits record the altitudinal descent of the treeline during the LGM.

Atlantic Ocean
AMOC was weaker and more shallow during the LGM. Sea surface temperatures in the western subtropical gyre of the North Atlantic were around 5 °C colder compared to today. Intermediate depth waters of the North Atlantic were better ventilated during the LGM by Glacial North Atlantic Intermediate Water (GNAIW) relative to its present day ventilation by upper North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW). GNAIW was nutrient poor compared to present day upper NADW. Below GNAIW, southern source bottom water that was very rich in nutrients filled the deep North Atlantic.

Due to the presence of immense ice sheets in Europe and North America, continental weathering flux into the North Atlantic was reduced, as measured by the increased proportion of radiogenic  isotopes in neodymium isotope ratios.

In the western South Atlantic, where Antarctic Intermediate Water forms, sinking particle flux was heightened as a result of increased dust flux during the LGM and sustained export productivity. The increased sinking particle flux removed neodymium from shallow waters, producing an isotopic ratio change.

Pacific Ocean
Low sea surface temperature (SST) and sea surface salinity (SSS) in the East China Sea during the LGM suggests the Kuroshio Current was reduced in strength relative to the present. Abyssal Pacific overturning was weaker during the LGM than in the present day, although it was temporarily stronger during some intervals of ice sheet retreat. The El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) was strong during the LGM. Evidence suggests that the Peruvian Oxygen Minimum Zone in the eastern Pacific was weaker than it is in the present day, likely as a result of increased oxygen concentrations in seawater permitted by cooler ocean water temperatures, though it was similar in spatial extent.

The outflow of North Pacific Intermediate Water through the Tasman Sea was stronger during the LGM.

In the Great Barrier Reef along the coast of Queensland, reef development shifted seaward due to the precipitous drop in sea levels, reaching a maximum distance from the present coastline as sea levels approached their lowest levels around 20,700-20,500 years ago.

Indian Ocean
The intermediate waters of the southeastern Arabian Sea were poorly ventilated relative to today because of the weakened thermohaline circulation.

Southern Ocean
Evidence from sediment cores in the Scotia Sea suggests the Antarctic Circumpolar Current was weaker during the LGM than during the Holocene.

Late Glacial Period
The Late Glacial Period followed the LGM and preceded the Holocene, which started around 11,700 years ago.

See also

Bølling oscillation
Allerød oscillation

Notes

Further reading
Developments in Quaternary Science Series

External links

 (32 digital maps at 1:7 000 000 scale with accompanying digital chronological database and one poster (two sheets) with full map series.)

Paleoclimate Modelling Intercomparison Project (PMIP) PMIP Web Site and 'Publications : Last Glacial Maximum.
Paleoclimate Modelling Intercomparison Project Phase II (PMIP2) PMIP2 Home page and PMIP 2 Publications.

Ice ages
Glaciology

Last Glacial Maximum


Pseudamphithoides incurvaria is a species of amphipod crustacean in the family Ampithoidae. It is native to shallow water in the tropical western Atlantic Ocean where it creates a home for itself from fragments of the algae on which it feeds. This seaweed contains certain chemicals that are distasteful and protect it from predatory fish.

Taxonomy
Two new single-species amphithoid genera were described in close succession in the mid-1970s, Pseudamphithoides Ortiz, 1976 and Amphyllodomus Just, 1977. The latter had A. incurvaria as its type, with the specific name referring to the moth genus Incurvaria, whose cocoon is built similarly to A. incurvarias home.

Both authors noted that the genera they were describing were unusual and divergent. This was marked enough that when Karaman and Barnard later noted the synonymy of the two genera, they further added: "[we] saw specimens of the genus from Puerto Rico in 1975 and had the same difficulty initially placing the genus in a family."

Home
Pseudamphithoides incurvaria lives concealed in a tube of its own construction. Two oval pieces of seaweed are bent in half longitudinally and stuck together along the long edges with a secreted glue, leaving slits open at each end. The anterior part of the animal projects at one end. The "domicile" is carried in a vertical position and the amphipod can clamber around among the hydroids and seaweed around it, and can swim while still enclosed in the casing, using strokes made by the plumose antennae.

Distribution
This amphipod is found in the tropical west central Atlantic Ocean, including the Caribbean Sea. Its depth range is from the shallow subtidal zone down to about .

Ecology
A herbivore, P. incurvaria feeds exclusively on the flat-bladed brown alga Dictyota bartayresiana. This seaweed contains a diterpene alcohol that is distasteful to fish but not to the amphipod. The amphipod also uses pieces of the alga to build itself a home. Fish have been observed spitting out these casings after they have been ingested, but if the amphipod gets dislodged from the casing in the process, it is readily consumed. Researchers found that the amphipods selected D. bartayresiana to build their domicile even where it was rare, but would not use the seaweed Ulva unless there was no alternative. However, treating Ulva with pachydictyol—A, a major secondary metabolite of D. bartayresiana, made it acceptable. The study concluded that the host specificity of the amphipod was primarily driven by the need to avoid predation.

Young amphipods develop in a brood pouch and the juveniles remain inside their mother's domicile for a period of time, protected from predators and provided with easy access to their food supply.

References

Corophiida
Crustaceans of the Atlantic Ocean
Crustaceans described in 1977

Pseudamphithoides incurvaria


Bertel Bruun (November 13, 1937 – September 21, 2011) was a naturalist, international conservationist and neurologist. Bruun wrote many books and was the co-author of The Golden Field Guide to Birds of North America first published in 1966.  He later became very involved in conservation efforts, most especially in the Middle East where he served as a liaison between the Israel and Egypt to promote the preservation of wildlife in the Sinai Peninsula when the region was handed back to Egypt after the 1978 Camp David Peace Treaty.

Early life
Bruun was born in Skaelskor, Denmark, son to Erik Valdemar Marie Andre Ley Bruun and Ebba Kirstine Poulsen, the youngest of four children. He grew up in the Danish fishing village intending to follow his own father's career as a village doctor. Bruun had grown up in Occupied Denmark during World War II. He took a special pride in the fact that his oldest brother and father were active members of the Danish Resistance.

Career
He attended the University of Copenhagen for his undergraduate studies and medical school, completing his studies there in 1964. He then moved to New York City where he served his internship at Lenox Hill Hospital and residency at Columbia Presbyterian Hospital. He became a practicing neurologist in association with Lenox Hill, Columbia Presbyterian, and Harlem Hospital. Bruun conducted research on the neurological impact of heroin on the human brain in the early 1970s. This led to a very brief stint as medical director of the first heroin treatment facility in New York City, a renegade enterprise organized by the mothers of heroin addicts fed up with the city's inaction to provide a treatment center. He later became head of the Columbia Presbyterian stroke center.

Writing
Bruun's work as an ornithologist coincided with his medical career. He went birding on weekends and vacations, often working in his study to late hours researching his books. He wrote more than fifteen books including two prize-winning children's books—The Human Body and The Brain with his wife Dr. Ruth Bruun. He also co-wrote Common Birds of Egypt—the only field guide to birds in that country.
Bruun's interest in birds evolved into a passion to use the conservation of wildlife as a bridge for helping advance peace. In the 1970s Bruun became president of the Holy Land Conservation Fund, a non-profit organization based in New York City that was set up to help support wildlife preservation efforts in Israel. Bruun sought to expand the work in Israel to the fuller mission of advancing conservation in the Middle East. Birding moved from being a benign activity to hazardous duty. In 1978 he was in Tehran when the Shah of Iran was overthrown, leaving the country shortly before the Shah's downfall in an armored personnel carrier. While helping to advance peace between Israel and Egypt, his work posed a threat to violent groups who opposed the peace treaty.

Later life
Bruun retired as a neurologist in 1989, having suffered several strokes. He started small business buying and selling toy soldiers called The March of Time. He subsequently wrote a definitive guide to the niche industry called The Toy Soldiers Identification and Price Guide in 1994.

Publications
Ducks, Geese, and Swans (The Odyssey Library) (1964)
Canards, cygnes et oies (1965)
Golden Field Guide to Birds of North America (1966)
Birdwatching: A Guide to European Birds (1967)
Hvad er det for en fugl? (1969)
British & European Birds in colour (1969)
The Hamlyn Guide to Birds of Britain and Europe (1970)
Animals: the strange and exciting stories of their lives (1970)
The Larousse Guide to Birds of Britain and Europe (1970)
Natuurgids voor het observeren van vogels (1972)
Euroopan lintuopas maastokäsikirja (1972)
Concise Encyclopedia of Birds (1974)
The Dell Encyclopedia of Birds (1974)
Guía de las aves de España y de Europa (1980)
Cappelens fuglehåndbok / Europas fugler i farger (1985)
Common Birds of Egypt (1985)
Der Kosmos-Vogelführer : Die Vögel Deutschlands und Europas in Farbe (1986)
Toy Soldiers Identification and Price Guide (1994)
A Mind of Its Own: Tourette's Syndrome A Story and a Guide (1994)
The Brain (1998)
The Human Body (1999)
Alla Europas fåglar i färg : en fälthandbok
Den nye fugleboken
Aves de Portugal e da Europa

References

1937 births
2011 deaths
Danish naturalists
Danish emigrants to the United States
American neurologists
American conservationists
University of Copenhagen alumni
Physicians from New York City
Activists from New York City
Scientists from New York (state)
People from Slagelse Municipality

Bertel Bruun


Albert Newsam (May 20, 1809 – November 20, 1864) was an American artist. He was a painter and made lithographs of people and places.

Early life

Albert Newsam was born in the city of Steubenville in the state of Ohio in the United States. He was born deaf and mute. He was also an orphan. Newsam was making art when he was a little boy. When he was still a little boy, he met a man named William P. Davis. Davis acted like he was also deaf and mute, but he wasn't. He took Newsam to the city of Philadelphia in Pennsylvania and forced Newsam to make art and Davis would sell it and make money off of it. In 1820, Newsam was saved from being with Davis and went to school at the Pennsylvania School for the Deaf.

Job as an artist

In the year 1827, Newsam started to make art as an apprentice to a printmaker named Cephas G. Childs. Newsam had a lot of artists who taught him when he worked for Childs. One of the artists was George Catlin. Newsam started making art all the time as an artist in 1829. His pictures were published and sold for money. Childs retired and another man named Peter S. Duvall became owner of the company. Newsam worked for him and became the main artist at the company.

Newsam painted and drew pictures of politicians, preachers, and rich people. He also made pictures of landscapes, medical illustrations, and sheet music.

Later life and death

Newsam started to lose his eyesight in the year 1857. In 1859, he had a stroke, which made him stop making art. He had to move to a place called the Living Home for the Sick and Well in the state of Delaware. Since he could not sell art anymore, his friends paid for him to move to the home. He died there in the year 1864.

Legacy

His artwork is owned by the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts and The Library Company of Philadelphia.

Books about Albert Newsam

 Pyatt, Joseph O. Memoir of Albert Newsam. Philadelphia: Self-published (1868).
 Stauffer, DMN. Lithographic Portraits of Albert Newsam. Philadelphia: Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography (1901).

References

1809 births
1864 deaths
American painters
American printmakers
People from Philadelphia
People from Steubenville, Ohio

Albert Newsam


The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine (JHUSOM) is the medical school of Johns Hopkins University, a private research university in Baltimore, Maryland. Founded in 1893, the School of Medicine shares a campus with Johns Hopkins Hospital and Johns Hopkins Children's Center, established in 1889.

Johns Hopkins School of Medicine consistently ranks among the top medical schools in the United States in terms of research grants awarded by the National Institutes of Health, and other factors.

History
The founding physicians of Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, sometimes referred to as the "Four Physicians", were pathologist William Henry Welch (1850–1934), the first dean of the school and a mentor to generations of research scientists,; Canadian, internist William Osler (1849–1919), who was perhaps the most influential physician of the late 19th and early 20th centuries and the author of The Principles and Practice of Medicine (1892), surgeon William Stewart Halsted (1852–1922), who revolutionized surgery by insisting on subtle skill and technique and strict adherence to sanitary procedures, and gynecologist Howard Atwood Kelly (1858–1943), a gynecological surgeon credited with establishing gynecology as a specialty and being among the first to use radium in the treatment of cancer.

Johns Hopkins School of Medicine opened 17 years after its original visionary benefactor Johns Hopkins (1795–1873) died with large financial assistance offered by several wealthy daughters of Baltimore's business elite on condition that the medical school be open equally to students of both sexes, which resulted in the medical school being one of the first co-educational medical colleges.

Campus
The School of Medicine shares a campus with the Johns Hopkins Hospital and Johns Hopkins Children's Center, which serve as the school's main teaching hospitals along with several other regional medical centers, including Johns Hopkins Bayview Medical Center on Eastern Avenue in East Baltimore, Howard County General Hospital near Ellicott City, Suburban Hospital in Bethesda, Sibley Memorial Hospital in Washington, D.C., and Johns Hopkins All Children's Hospital in St. Petersburg, Florida. Together, they form an academic health science centre.

Johns Hopkins School of Medicine is the home of many medical advancements and contributions, including the first of many to admit women and to introduce rubber gloves, which provided a sterile approach to conducting surgical procedures. Johns Hopkins has also published The Harriet Lane Handbook, an influential source of medical information for pediatricians, for over 60 years. The Lieber Institute for Brain Development is an affiliate of the school.

Reputation
According to the Flexner Report, Hopkins has served as the model for American medical education.

Its major teaching hospital, the Johns Hopkins Hospital, was ranked the top hospital in the United States every year from 1991 to 2011 by U.S. News & World Report. In 2023-2024, U.S. News & World Report ranked Hopkins #2 among all medical schools in the United States.

Colleges
Upon matriculation, medical students at Johns Hopkins School of Medicine are divided into four colleges named after famous Hopkins faculty members who have had an impact in the history of medicine, Florence Sabin, Vivien Thomas, Daniel Nathans, and Helen Taussig. The colleges were established to "foster camaraderie, networking, advising, mentoring, professionalism, clinical skills, and scholarship" in 2005.

In each incoming class, 30 students are assigned to each college, and each college is further subdivided into six molecules of five students each. Each molecule is advised and taught by a faculty advisor, who instructs them in Clinical Foundations of Medicine, a core first-year course, and continues advising them throughout their 4 years of medical school. The family within each college of each molecule across the four years who belong to a given advisor is referred to as a macromolecule. Every year, the colleges compete in the "College Olympics" in late October, a competition that includes athletic events and sports, as well as art battles and dance-offs.

Thomas College was named for Vivien Thomas, the surgical technician who was the driving force behind the successful creation of the Blalock-Taussig Shunt procedure, later renamed the Blalock-Taussig-Thomas shunt. Thomas, an African American, did not initially receive rightful credit due to racial discrimination. His story was detailed in the 2004 HBO documentary Something the Lord Made

Governance
Johns Hopkins School of Medicine is led by Ronald J. Daniels, president of Johns Hopkins University and Paul B. Rothman, its chief executive officer and dean of the medical faculty, and Redonda Miller, president of Johns Hopkins Hospital and its health system.

Nobel laureates
Since its founding, eighteen Nobel laureates have been associated with the School of Medicine as alumni or and faculty. Johns Hopkins University as a whole counts 38 Nobel laureates.

Gregg L. Semenza – Faculty, pediatrician, Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 2019
William Kaelin Jr. – former resident, Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 2019
Carol Greider – Faculty, Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 2009
Richard Axel – MD 1971, Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 2004
Peter Agre – MD 1974, Nobel Prize in Chemistry, 2003
Paul Greengard – PhD 1953, Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 2000
Henry David Abraham – MD 1967, Nobel Peace Prize (co-recipient), 1985
David H. Hubel – former resident, Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1981
Torsten Wiesel – Faculty, Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1981
Hamilton O. Smith – Faculty, MD 1956, Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1978
Daniel Nathans – Faculty, Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1978
Haldan Keffer Hartline – MD 1927, Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1967
Francis Peyton Rous – MD, Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1966
Joseph Erlanger – MD 1899, Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1944
Herbert Spencer Gasser – MD 1915, Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1944
George Minot – Assistant in Medicine, Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1934
George Whipple – MD 1905, Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1934
Thomas Hunt Morgan – PhD 1890, Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1933

Notable faculty and alumni

 John Jacob Abel, pharmacologist, founder and chair of the first department of pharmacology in the U.S.
 Fuller Albright, endocrinologist who discovered Albright's hereditary osteodystrophy and McCune–Albright syndrome
 Dorothy Hansine Andersen, identified cystic fibrosis and Andersen's disease
 John Auer, physiologist and pharmacologist, namesake of the Auer rod in acute myeloid leukemia
 Stanhope Bayne-Jones, bacteriologist and U.S. Army Brigadier General
 Jeremy M. Berg, former director of biophysics and biophysical chemistry and co-author of the Biochemistry textbook
 George Packer Berry, dean of Harvard Medical School
 John Shaw Billings, a Civil War surgeon who pioneered hygiene
 Alfred Blalock, developed field of cardiac surgery, including the Blalock–Taussig shunt
 Mary Blue, neurobiologist and computational neurologist
 Eugene Braunwald, cardiologist, editor of Braunwald's Heart Disease, now in its 11th edition, and longtime editor of Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine
 Max Brödel, medical illustrator who illustrated for Harvey Cushing, William Halsted, and Howard Atwood Kelly
 William R. Brody, radiologist, president of the Salk Institute, and former president of Johns Hopkins University
 Ernesto Bustamante, biochemist and molecular biologist and former chief of the National Institute of Health of Peru, elected Member of Parliament of Peru
 Karen Carroll (pathologist), infectious disease pathologist and medical microbiologist, professor of pathology and Director of the Division of Medical Microbiology
 Ben Carson, pediatric neurosurgeon and U.S. Secretary of Housing and Urban Development, awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom
 Caroline August Chandler, associate professor of pediatrics
 Patricia Charache, microbiologist and infectious disease specialist
 Denton Cooley, cardiovascular surgeon
 John Fielding Crigler, pediatrician who first described Crigler–Najjar syndrome
 Thomas Stephen Cullen, helped establish the first gynecologic pathology laboratory and advanced understanding of endometriosis and other gynecologic conditions
 Harvey Cushing, considered the "father of modern neurosurgery" who identified Cushing's syndrome and the Cushing ulcer
 Walter Dandy, neurosurgeon and the namesake of the Dandy–Walker syndrome
 Daniel C. Darrow, pediatrician and clinical biochemist
 George Delahunty, physiologist and endocrinologist and the Lilian Welsh Professor of Biology at Goucher College
 Catherine Clarke Fenselau, biochemist and mass spectrometrist
 Joseph F. Fraumeni Jr., described Li–Fraumeni syndrome
 Irwin Freedberg, former director of the school's dermatology department
 Ernest William Goodpasture, pathologist who described Goodpasture syndrome
 Alan I. Green, psychiatrist and professor at Geisel School of Medicine
 William Halsted, considered the "father of modern surgery" and one of four founders of Johns Hopkins Medicine
 J. William Harbour, ocular oncologist, cancer researcher, and vice chairman at the Bascom Palmer Eye Institute at the University of Miami's Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine
 Andy Harris, U.S. Congressman
 Tinsley R. Harrison, cardiologist and editor of the first five editions of Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine
 Arthur D. Hirschfelder, apprentice under William Osler and Johns Hopkins' first full-time cardiologist
 Leroy Hood, invented automated DNA and protein sequencing, Lasker Award winner, and entrepreneur
 Howard A. Howe, polio researcher
 Ralph H. Hruban, pancreatic cancer expert who authored over 700 peer-reviewed manuscripts and five books and was recognized by Essential Science Indicators as the most highly cited pancreatic cancer scientist in the world
 Kay Redfield Jamison, psychologist and psychiatry professor and author of An Unquiet Mind
 James Jude, "father of CPR" and thoracic surgeon who developed cardiopulmonary resuscitation
 William Kaelin Jr., Nobel Prize recipient and internal medicine physician
 Leo Kanner, "father of child psychiatry" who first described autism in Autistic Disturbances of Affective Contact, published in 1943
 Chester Keefer, "penicillin czar" during World War II who managed distribution and allocation of the new drug for civilian uses in the U.S., and dean of Boston University School of Medicine
 Howard Kelly, gynecologist credited with establishing gynecology as a specialty
 Harry Klinefelter, rheumatologist, endocrinologist, and namesake of Klinefelter syndrome
 Ricardo J Komotar, neurosurgeon and director of the University of Miami's Brain Tumor Initiative, the University of Miami neurosurgery residency program, and the University of Miami Surgical Neurooncology residence program
 William B. Kouwenhoven, electrical engineer who developed the external defibrillator and helped develop cardiopulmonary resuscitation
 Albert L. Lehninger, former chairman of the school's biological chemistry department and author of 'Principles of Biochemistry, a widely-used textbook
 Bruce Lerman, cardiologist and chief of the Division of Cardiology and director of the Cardiac Electrophysiology Laboratory at Weill Cornell Medicine and New York Presbyterian Hospital
 Michael Lesch, physician who first described Lesch–Nyhan syndrome
 Frederick Masoudi cardiologist, researcher, and medical academic with expertise in cardiovascular outcomes research, clinical registries, and quality measurement
 Howard Markel, pediatrician, historian of medicine, medical journalist; Guggenheim Fellow, and member of the National Academy of Medicine
 Donovan James McCune, first described McCune–Albright syndrome
 Paul R. McHugh, former psychiatrist-in-chief at Johns Hopkins
 Victor A. McKusick, developed the field of medical genetics, namesake of McKusick-Nathans Institute of Genetic Medicine, and founder of OMIM
 John Menkes, first identified Menkes disease
 Adolf Meyer, first psychiatrist-in-chief at Johns Hopkins
 Vernon Mountcastle, neuroscientist and Lasker Award winner
 Victor Assad Najjar, pediatrician who first described Crigler–Najjar syndrome
 William Nyhan, pediatrician who first described Lesch–Nyhan syndrome
 William Osler, considered the "father of modern medicine", discovered Osler–Weber–Rendu syndrome, a hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia
 Monica E. Peek, Ellen H. Block Professor for Health Justice and Associate Vice Chair for Research Faculty Development at the University of Chicago's Pritzker School of Medicine
 Wilder Penfield, pioneer of epilepsy neurosurgery who developed the cortical homunculus
 Peter Pronovost, former anesthesiology faculty, Time 100 in 2008, authored over 800 articles and book chapters on patient safety, advisor to the World Health Organization's World Alliance for Patient Safety
 Alfredo Quiñones-Hinojosa, neurosurgeon and former Johns Hopkins neurosurgery faculty member
 Mark M. Ravitch, surgeon who pioneered modern surgical staples
 Dorothy Reed, pathologist and namesake of Reed–Sternberg cell in Hodgkin's lymphoma
 Dale G. Renlund, cardiologist
 Mark C. Rogers, first director of the pediatric Intensive Care Unit (PICU) at Johns Hopkins Hospital in 1977, authored Rogers' Textbook of Pediatric Intensive Care David Sabatini, Howard Hughes Investigator and molecular biologist who discovered mTOR, the mammalian target of rapamycin
 Florence Sabin, anatomist and namesake of Sabin College at the Johns Hopkins School of Medicine
 Ernest Sachs , neurosurgeon
 Mark Schlissel, president emeritus of the University of Michigan
 Pamela Sklar, neuroscientist and psychiatrist
 Solomon H. Snyder, neuroscientist and Lasker Award winner
 Julie Ann Sosa, professor and chair of the Department of Surgery and the Leon Goldman Distinguished Professor of Surgery at the University of California, San Francisco
 Gertrude Stein, novelist, poet, and playwright
 Charlotte Sumner, neurologist
 Helen B. Taussig, founder of pediatric cardiology, developed Blalock–Taussig shunt, namesake of Taussig College at Johns Hopkins School of Medicine
 Vivien Thomas, developed the Blalock–Taussig shunt, namesake of Thomas College at Johns Hopkins School of Medicine
 Thomas Turner, microbiologist, archivist, and former dean of Johns Hopkins School of Medicine
 Victor Velculescu, cancer genomics pioneer and entrepreneur
 Bert Vogelstein, oncologist and pioneer in cancer genetics, first explained the role of p53 in cancer
 Rochelle Walensky, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention director
 Myron L. Weisfeldt, cardiologist and former William Osler Professor of Medicine and chairman of the Department of Medicine at Johns Hopkins School of Medicine
 David B. Weishampel, paleontologist and author of The Dinosauria William H. Welch, pathologist known as the dean of American Medicine, and the first Dean of Johns Hopkins School of Medicine
 Bang Wong, creative director of the Broad Institute at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Harvard University
 Hugh Hampton Young, urologist and former Johns Hopkins chair head of urology
 Neal S. Young, chief of the Hematology Branch of the National Institutes of Health (NIH), and Director of the Center for Human Immunology at the NIH
 Elias Zerhouni, radiologist and former director of the National Institutes of Health
 Sheila West, ophthalmologist at Wilmer Eye Institute

In popular culture
The ABC documentary series Hopkins takes a look at the life of the medical staff and students of the Johns Hopkins Hospital and Health System. This new series is a sequel to the 2000 ABC special Hopkins 24/7. Both Hopkins and Hopkins 24/7 were awarded the Peabody Award.
The movie Something the Lord Made'' is the story of two men – an ambitious white surgeon, head of surgery at the Johns Hopkins Hospital and a gifted black carpenter turned lab technician – who defied the racial strictures of the Jim Crow South and together pioneered the field of heart surgery.

References

External links

1893 establishments in Maryland
Academic health science centres
Universities and colleges established in 1893
Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions
Medicine
Medical schools in Maryland
Middle East, Baltimore

Johns Hopkins School of Medicine


Mitchell v. Helms, 530 U.S. 793 (2000), is a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court ruled that it was permissible for loans to be made to religious schools under Chapter 2 of the Education Consolidation and Improvement Act of 1981.

Background
Chapter 2 of the Education Consolidation and Improvement Act of 1981 gave federal funds via state educational agencies to local educational agencies.  In turn, educational materials and equipment were lent to public and private elementary and secondary schools to implement "secular, neutral, and non ideological" programs.

In an average year, about 30% of Chapter 2 funds spent in Jefferson Parish, Louisiana, were distributed to Catholic or religious private schools. Taxpayers filed suit, arguing that this violated the First Amendment's Establishment Clause.

Lee Boothby, representing parents who opposed the aid program in Louisiana, said the issue at stake was "our historic commitment that taxpayers not be required to subsidize religious schools."

Opinion of the Court
The Court voted 6-3 and found that the program was constitutional, and aid could be provided to religious schools. There was no majority opinion, only a plurality of 4, with 2 justices concurring in part.

Mary Helms and other public school parents file suit alleging that Chapter 2, as applied in Jefferson Parish, violated the First Amendment's Establishment Clause. The District Court initially agreed, finding that Chapter 2 had the primary effect of advancing religion because the materials and equipment loaned to the Catholic schools were direct aid and that the schools were pervasively sectarian. However, after the presiding judge who made the initial ruling retired, the case was reviewed by a new judge, who reversed that decision. Thereafter, based on different precedent, the court upheld Chapter 2. In reversing, the Court of Appeals held Chapter 2 unconstitutional.

The Court used the two relevant criteria of the Lemon test to make a ruling:
 Does the program have a secular purpose?
 Does the program have a primary effect of advancing or inhibiting religion?
 Does the program create an excessive entanglement between government and religion?

The third criterion of the Lemon test was held in Agostini v. Felton not to be relevant when considering distributing aid to religious schools.
The Court ruled that the loans were acceptable because they did not represent a governmental indoctrination or advancement of religion. The loans were made in a nondiscriminatory and constitutional fashion to both secular and non-secular schools.

Since the loans were suitable for both religious and public schools, the government was not serving to advance religion.

This decision expressly overruled Meek v. Pittenger (1975), and Wolman v. Walter (1977), as those decisions conflicted with its chosen analysis in this case. Both of those cases invalidated aid in the form of instructional materials to sectarian schools.

Accordingly, the government could provide aid to religious groups as long as such aid advances some legitimate non-religious purpose and is granted in the same manner to non-religious groups.

See also
 Lemon v. Kurtzman (1971)

Notes

External links

Establishment Clause case law
History of religion in the United States
United States Supreme Court cases
United States Supreme Court cases of the Rehnquist Court
United States Supreme Court decisions that overrule a prior Supreme Court decision
2000 in religion
2000 in United States case law

Mitchell v. Helms


Maurits Pasques de Chavonnes (1654 – 8 September 1724) was governor of the Dutch Cape Colony from 1714 till 1721.

Early life
Maurits (or Mauritz) Pasques de Chavonnes was born in The Hague and baptized on 23 July 1654 in de Grote Kerk, The Hague. He was the youngest son of Jeanne de Savornin and Pierre Pasques de Chavonnes, whose father, Joachim Pasques, marquis de Chavonnes, fled from France after the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre in 1572. He married Bathazarina Kien in 1689 and later had two children: Anna Magdalena Pasques de Chavonnes and Pieter Rochus Pasques de Chavonnes.

Career
He trained as a soldier and progressed to lieutenant colonel of the States-General of the Netherlands. Mauritz de Chavonnes was in charge of the infantry regiment in the army of the Dutch Republic during the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1713). After the Treaty of Utrecht which ended the war, he joined the Dutch East India Company, who appointed him as the Cape Governor in 1714, replacing Louis van Assenburgh who had died on 27 December 1712.

Within the first few months after arrival in the Cape he regulated the responsibilities of the garrison and for the first time in the Cape's history allowed the soldiers to wear uniforms and drafted instructions for the use of weapons and ammunition. De Chavonnes also instituted grazing licenses for the Cape stock farmers: in July 1714 he decided that (according to the Politieke Raad) "every person that has the requirement for grazing on any land shall request permission, and for recognition shall pay a semi-annual fee of six or an annual fee of twelve Dutch rijksdaalder to the Company". Furthermore, the farmers had to pay tithes of all their harvests to the Dutch East India Company. He contributed to the development of the Cape and was promoted to Justice of India in 1721.

His military innovations included the organisation of so-called Free Black and Asian citizens in Table Valley into a military unit called Companie Vryswarten (Company Free Blacks) in 1722 under the command of their own officers. This company, together with others, took turns in the night watch of the company's barracks.

He died on 8 September 1724 in the Cape after a day's illness and was buried with military honours on 14 September.

References

Bibliography
 500 Jaar Suid-Afrikaanse Geskiedenis, Prof. CF Muller

1654 births
1724 deaths
Diplomats from The Hague
18th-century Dutch colonial governors
Governors of the Dutch Cape Colony
Dutch emigrants to South Africa

Maurits Pasques de Chavonnes


Gnaeus, also spelled Cnaeus, was a Roman praenomen derived from the Latin naevus, a birthmark.  It was a common name borne by many individuals throughout Roman history, including:

Individuals
Gnaeus Acerronius Proculus, a consul of the Roman Empire in 37 AD
Gnaeus Arrius Antoninus (born 31 AD), member of the Arrius family of consular rank
Gnaeus Aufidius Orestes (died 1st-century BC), Roman politician who was elected consul in 71 BC
Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso (disambiguation)
Gnaeus Claudius Severus (consul 167), a Roman senator and philosopher who lived in the Roman Empire during the 2nd century
Gnaeus Cornelius Cinna Magnus (1st-century BC–1st-century AD), son of suffect consul Lucius Cornelius Cinna
Gnaeus Cornelius Dolabella, a consul of the Roman Republic in 81 BC, with Marcus Tullius Decula
Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Asina, a Roman politician involved in the First Punic War
Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus (3rd-century–211 BC), Roman general and statesman
Gnaeus Domitius Afer (died 59), a Roman orator and advocate
Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus (consul 32 BC) (died 31 BC), general of the 1st century BC
Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus (consul 32) (17 BC–40 AD), relative of emperors of the 1st century AD
Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus (disambiguation), other individuals belonging to the Domitii Ahenobarbi
Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo (7–67 AD), general of the 1st century AD
Gnaeus Egnatius (fl. second century BC), builder of Via Egnatia
Gnaeus Gellius (2nd century BC), the author of a history of Rome from the earliest epoch
Gnaeus Julius Agricola (40–93 AD), Gallo-Roman general responsible for much of the Roman conquest of Britain
Gnaeus Julius Verus, Roman general and senator of the mid-2nd century AD, eventually becoming governor of Britain
Gnaeus Lucretius, a Roman moneyer who minted denarii in Rome c. 136 BCE
Gnaeus Mallius Maximus, a Roman politician and general, consul in 105 BC
Gnaeus Manlius, a Roman Praetor who was involved in the Third Servile War with Gnaeus Tremellius Scrofa
Gnaeus Manlius Cincinnatus (died 5th-century BC), first of the patrician gens Manlia to obtain the consulship
Gnaeus Manlius Vulso (consul 189 BC), a Roman consul for the year 189 BC, together with Marcus Fulvius Nobilior
Gnaeus Marcius Coriolanus (fl. 5th century BC), Roman general
Gnaeus Naevius (264–201 BC), Roman epic poet and dramatist of the Old Latin period
Gnaeus Octavius (consul 87 BC) (died 87 BC), Roman senator elected consul of the Roman Republic in 87 BC alongside Lucius Cornelius Cinna
Gnaeus Papirius Aelianus, a governor of Roman Britain between 145 and 147
Gnaeus Papirius Carbo (c. 130–82 BC), three-time consul of ancient Rome
Gnaeus Pompeius (son of Pompey the Great) (75–45 BC), Roman politician and general from the late Republic (1st century BC)
Gnaeus Pompeius Longinus (died AD 105), Legate of the Judaea in the time of Domitian.
Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, or Pompey the Great, (106–48 BC), military and political leader of the late Roman Republic, consul three times
Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo (135 BC - 87 BC), Roman senator, promagistrate in Sicily, and consul
Gnaeus Pompeius Trogus, 1st-century BC Roman historian of the Celtic tribe of the Vocontii in Gallia Narbonensis
Gnaeus Sentius Saturninus, the name of two Roman senators, father and son
Gnaeus Servilius Caepio (consul 203 BC), a Roman statesman who served as Roman consul in 203 BC
Gnaeus Servilius Geminus (3rd-century–216 BC), Roman consul during the Second Punic War

See also
Gnaeus (praenomen)
Cn (disambiguation)

Gnaeus


In film, a sequence is a series of scenes that form a distinct narrative unit, which is usually connected either by a unity of location or a unity of time. For example, a heist film might include an extended recruitment sequence in which the leader of the gang collects together the conspirators, a robbery sequence, an escape sequence, and so on. Each of these sequences might further contain sub-sequences; for example the robbery sequence might consist of an entry sequence, a safe-cracking sequence, and so on.

The sequence is one of a hierarchy of structural units used to describe the structure of films in varying degrees of granularity. Analysed this way, a film is composed of one or more acts; acts include one or more sequences; sequences are divided into one or more scenes; and scenes may be thought of as being built out of shots (if one is thinking visually) or beats (if one is thinking in narrative terms).

The sequence paradigm of screenwriting was developed by Frank Daniel.

See also
 Act structure
 Sequential art

Film scenes
Film and video terminology
Sequences in time

Sequence (filmmaking)


Newham Grange Country Farm (also known as Newham Grange Leisure Farm) is a farm park and conservation centre located on Wykeham Way in Coulby Newham, Middlesbrough, North Yorkshire, England. It is one of only 16 nationally approved by the Rare Breeds Survival Trust. It is open to the public and has many different breeds, including British White and Beef Shorthorn cattle, Whitefaced Woodland and Wensleydale sheep, Berkshire and Gloucestershire Old Spot pigs and various other farm animals.

Historical exhibits include a reproduction of a 19th-century veterinary surgery and an early 20th-century agricultural merchants shop. The Visitor Centre traces the history of the farm from the 17th century. There are tea rooms, play and picnic areas and an events programme throughout the year.

External links
 Newham Grange Country Farm - official site
 Newham Grange section at Rare Breeds Survival Trust website
 Newham Grange Leisure Farm at About Britain Site
 Farms for school site

References

Middlesbrough
Museums in North Yorkshire
Farm museums in England

Newham Grange Leisure Farm