Gamma Zeta Alpha Fraternity, Inc. () was founded on December 3, 1987 at California State University, Chico in Chico, California. It is a Latino Interest fraternity that emphasizes Latino culture and the success of Latino males in higher education. Although Gamma Zeta Alpha Fraternity, Inc. is Latino by tradition, membership in the fraternity is open to all college males and includes members from various ethnicities including Black, Asian, Middle Eastern, White, European, and others. Following its founding principles, the fraternity encourages and creates programs that assist disadvantaged and low-income communities. Its goals are to promote scholarship for Latinos in higher education while instilling a sense of pride in Latino heritage.

History
In 1987, fifteen men came together to found what would later become Gamma Zeta Alpha Fraternity, Inc.

Expansion
Since its founding, Gamma Zeta Alpha Fraternity, Inc. has expanded to include chapters at schools throughout California, and most recently in Arizona. It is the only NALFO fraternity that has never had an inactive chapter due to lack of membership.  Gamma Zeta Alpha Fraternity, Inc. strives to ensure the potential for growth for all of its chapters once they are established. By teaching prospective members organizational knowledge and valuable skill sets to run a successful chapter, Gamma Zeta Alpha Fraternity, Inc. sets a foundation that promotes the success of its chapters within the university and surrounding communities.

NALFO
Established in 1998, the National Association of Latino Fraternal Organizations (NALFO) is an umbrella council for 21 Latino Greek letter organizations across the United States. The purpose of NALFO is to promote and foster positive interfraternal relations, communication, and development of all Latino fraternal organizations through mutual respect, leadership, honesty, professionalism and education.

Member requirements
To begin the membership education process of Gamma Zeta Alpha Fraternity, Inc, every prospective member must fulfill the following requirements:
be a full-time undergraduate or graduate student at a four-year college or university.
have a minimum 2.5 cumulative grade point average.

Chapters
Chapters of Gamma Zeta Alpha include:

See also
 List of social fraternities and sororities
 National Association of Latino Fraternal Organizations

References

Student organizations established in 1987
1987 establishments in California
Hispanic and Latino American culture in California
National Association of Latino Fraternal Organizations
Student societies in the United States
Hispanic and Latino American organizations
California State University, Chico

Gamma Zeta Alpha


Mohammad Abdus Salam  (29 January 1926; Santokdas, Sahiwal Punjab – 21 November 1996; Oxford, England) was a Pakistani theoretical physicist. He was awarded the 1979 Nobel Prize in Physics.

He was initially educated at the Government College Lahore and the University of the Punjab, Lahore. For a time also worked at the Government College as a lecturer, adding considerably to its intellectual life. Later he went to Cambridge University, England for PhD studies. In 1951 he returned to Pakistan, but he found that he was cut off from the rest of the scientific world there. In 1953, he again went to England where he started to teach and research, having interest in the Grand Unified Theory.

He believed that if the Creator of the universe was one then the origin of all the forces had to be single also. He then set off to unify the electromagnetic and the weak nuclear force.
According to another scientist, Peter Higgs, a field existed i.e. the Higgs field. Salam successfully showed that weak nuclear forces are not really different from electromagnetic forces, and two could inter-convert. Salam provided a theory that shows the unification of two fundamental forces of nature, weak nuclear forces and the electromagnetic forces, one into another.

References

Other websites

1926 births
1996 deaths
Pakistani physicists
Theoretical physicists

Abdus Salam


Buljol is a salad dish of the cuisine of Trinidad and Tobago. It consists of chopped salted cod, tomatoes and chilies. The name is of French origin. 18th-century colonial power Spain launched the  in 1783, an edict that successfully promoted the settling of French (i.e. likewise Catholic) planters in Trinidad who quickly set the population majority. The name is a combination of the French words  ('burnt') and  ('muzzle'), which was changed into bu'n jaw in Trinidad's 19th century patois and finally morphed into buljol. The name does not relate to the temperature of the dish (it is served cold) but to its spiciness, caused by the added hot pepper.

In colonial times buljol was considered a poor man's food, but nowadays it is used as a breakfast ingredient, being eaten with toast or fried bake. From Trinidad the use of buljol has spread to other Caribbean islands (especially Barbados) and Trinidadian communities in English-speaking countries such as Canada, Great Britain and the United States.

The skin and bones of the salted cod are removed, then it is cooked or repeatedly soused with cooking water to remove as much of the salt as possible. The fish is then shredded and mixed with chopped tomatoes and chilies. Additional ingredients are added to taste with onions, bell peppers and olive oil being prevalent, but also garlic, hard-boiled eggs, lemon juice, lettuce, white wine and various herbs are used. Instead of codfish sometimes pollock or hake are used.

See also

 Bacalhau
List of salads

References

External links
 Illustrated recipe on CaribbeanPot.com
Buljol Recipe on TriniInXisle.com

Trinidad and Tobago cuisine
Salads
Fish dishes

Buljol


is a Japanese TV and radio network affiliated with the Japan News Network (JNN). Its headquarters are located in Miyagi Prefecture, Tōhoku region.

History
Tohoku Shimbun established "Kita Nippon Commercial Broadcasting Co., Ltd." in December 1947, which was the first attempt to establish a private radio station in northeastern Japan. However, the occupied government of the time didn't permit private broadcasters to begin operating, causing the plan to collapse. After the "Three Radio Laws" were passed in 1950, three companies in Miyagi Prefecture, Tohoku Shinpo, Tohoku Broadcasting and Sendai Municipal Broadcasting, applied to establish private radio stations. The latter three companies were integrated into "Radio Sendai Co., Ltd.", and the company name was changed to Sendai Broadcasting on February 22, 1951, and a preliminary license was obtained on April 21.

On December 10, Sendai Broadcasting officially registered as a company, but still used the name "Sendai Radio" when broadcasting. On April 5 of the following year, Sendai Radio began trial broadcasting. On May 1, Radio Sendai officially launched, becoming the first private radio station in the Tohoku region and the 11th private radio station in Japan. In January 1953, Sendai Broadcasting Tohoku the company name to Tohoku Broadcasting. In the same year, Northeast Broadcasting implemented stock dividends for the first time.

Northeast Broadcasting received its preliminary television license on November 22, 1957. In order to prepare for broadcasting television, Northeast Broadcasting began to build a television headquarters in 1958. On March 14, 1959, TBC began its pilot TV service. On April 1, TBC officially started broadcasting TV programs, becoming the first private TV station in Tohoku. Shortly after the broadcast, Tohoku Broadcasting participated in the broadcast of the wedding of Crown Prince Akihito and Masada Michiko. Tohoku Broadcasting joined JNN in the same year as the TV broadcast and was one of the founding members of JNN. On the occasion of its 10th anniversary, Tohoku Broadcasting adopted a new logo designed by Yusaku Kamekura in 1961. The following year, Tohoku Broadcasting donated a fountain to the Sendai City Hall. Tohoku Broadcasting decided to build a new headquarters, Tohoku Broadcasting Hall, in Yagiyama in 1961. This building has 5 floors and is adjacent to the existing TV headquarters. The total floor area is 11,111 square meters. It was completed on May 6, 1963. Starting from August 1 of the same year, the Northeast Broadcasting Department began to operate in the Tohoku Broadcasting Hall.

TBC began broadcasting color TV on October 1, 1964, and was the first private TV station in Tohoku to start broadcasting color TV. Later, Tohoku Broadcasting realized full-color broadcast of the 1964 Tokyo Olympics. In 1967, on the occasion of the 15th anniversary of the launch of the station, Tohoku  Broadcasting went to various parts of the West Coast of the United States to collect footage. It was the first overseas collection of materials since the launch. With the launch of Higashinippon Broadcasting in 1975, Miyagi Prefecture had gained four private television stations. In addition, it coincided with the Japanese economy transitioning from a period of rapid growth to a period of stable growth after the first oil crisis. TBC therefore faces more intense advertising competition. Although Tohoku Broadcasting's turnover continued to grow in the 1970s, its profits continued to decrease from 1973 to 1977. In this regard, Tohoku Broadcasting has developed non-advertising revenue by organizing large-scale events and other methods. In 1970, Northeast Broadcasting held the TBC Housing Comprehensive Exhibition, covering the field of housing industry. From 1976 to 1981, Tohoku Broadcasting ranked first among the four private TV stations in Miyagi Prefecture in all-day and prime-time ratings. In 1980, Tohoku Broadcasting began broadcasting stereo TV programs.

Tohoku Broadcasting introduced a new logo in April 1992. In 2002, Tohoku Broadcasting obtained the weather forecast business license operator qualification from the Japan Meteorological Agency and was able to issue its own weather forecast. In 2004, Tohoku Broadcasting expanded its headquarters and opened the "B-site" building for television news. Sendai Broadcasting began broadcasting digital TV on December 1, 2005 at the same time as NHK Sendai Broadcasting Station, Sendai Broadcasting, and Miyagi TV. Affected by the Great East Japan Earthquake, Iwate, Miyagi, and Fukushima prefectures in the Tohoku region shut down analog TV later than in other parts of Japan, on March 31, 2012. TBC shut down its analog signal on that date. In January 2020, the new headquarters of Tohoku Broadcasting were completed. The building has 5 floors above ground and 1 floor underground, with a total floor area of 9,755 square meters. In May of the same year, the TBC Radio division began broadcasting from the new headquarters. The television division began broadcasting from the new headquarters in June. At the same time as moving into the new headquarters, Northeast Broadcasting carried out a new corporate identity and launched a new logo.

Network
 Television
 Japan News Network (JNN)
 Radio
 Japan Radio Network (JRN)
 National Radio Network (NRN)

TV channel
 Sendai JOIR-TV 1Ch VIDEO:10 kW AUDIO:2.5 kW

Radio frequency
 Sendai JOIR 1260 kHz 50 kW; 93.5 MHz 5 kW
 Kesennuma JOIO 801 kHz 100 W
 Narugo (Old Call Sign:JOIE) 1557 kHz 100 W
 Shizugawa 1215 kHz 100 W

In the 1990s there was a failed attempt to broadcast in stereo; all radio broadcasts are in mono.

Program

They broadcast all programs shown on TBS and MBS, in addition to some local programming:

TV
 Watching! Miyagi
 Evening News TBC
 TBC POWERFUL BASEBALL (Tohoku Rakuten Golden Eagles)
 Thrilling TV GURAMARASU(end)
 AKB0048 etc...

Radio
 Good Mornin!!
 IKINARI etc...

References

External links
 HOME PAGE

Japan News Network
Television stations in Japan
Radio in Japan
Television channels and stations established in 1959

Tohoku Broadcasting Company


Saint Colluthus is a Coptic saint and martyr of the 3rd century AD said to be from Antinoöpolis.

According to his Hagiography, Colluthus' father was the governor of the Upper Egyptian city of Ansena. His parents were both Christians. He lived a celibate, although his sister was married to Arianus, who became Ansena's governor after the departure of Colluthus' father.

Colluthus was a physician who did not charge money for his services. When Roman emperor Diocletian began his persecutions of Christians, Arianus apostatized in order to keep his position as a governor. When Colluthus rebuked Arianus for persecuting the Christians, Arianus sent him to the governor of Oxyrhynchus who threw him in prison for three years. Colluthus' sister unsuccessfully mediated for his release. After three years, a different governor of Oxyrhynchus took Colluthus out of prison, tortured him, and eventually cut his head off on 25 Pashons.

The emperor Galerius ended the Diocletianic Persecution with the Edict of Serdica in 311. After Christianity was declared one of the Empire's legal religions by the emperor Constantine I, a church was built for Saint Colluthus, where his relics were placed.

Sources
Coptic Synexarion

Saints from Roman Egypt
3rd-century deaths
3rd-century Christian martyrs
Year of birth unknown
Christians martyred during the reign of Diocletian

Saint Colluthus


Men of Crisis: The Harvey Wallinger Story is a short film directed by Woody Allen in 1971. The film was a satirization of the Richard Nixon administration made in mockumentary style.

Allen plays Harvey Wallinger, a thinly disguised version of Henry Kissinger. The short was produced as a television special for PBS and was scheduled to air in February 1972, but it was pulled from the schedule shortly before the airdate. Reportedly, PBS officials feared losing its government support and decided not to air it. Allen, who previously had sworn off doing television work, cited this as an example of why he should "stick to movies". The special never aired and can now be viewed in The Paley Center for Media and is often found on YouTube.

Two of Allen's regular leading ladies, Louise Lasser and Diane Keaton, make appearances, as does the Richard Nixon-lookalike Richard M. Dixon. Actor Reed Hadley narrates. The fictional characters are interspersed with newsreel footage of Hubert Humphrey, Spiro Agnew, and Nixon in embarrassing public moments. Allen would later explore this style again in his 1983 film Zelig.

See also
 List of American films of 1971

References

External links

1971 films
1971 comedy films
1971 short films
American political satire films
American satirical films
American television films
Films directed by Woody Allen
American independent films
American mockumentary films
Films with screenplays by Woody Allen
Unreleased American films
Unaired television shows
Films about Richard Nixon
American comedy short films
1970s English-language films
1970s American films


Live in Japan is the second "Official Bootleg" release by the 21st Century Schizoid Band. It was released on CD and DVD, the DVD containing the extra tracks "Tomorrow's People" and "If I Was", as well as bonus features.

Track listing
 "Schizoid Intro" (Jakko Jakszyk) – 2:00
 "A Man, a City" (Robert Fripp, Greg Lake, Ian McDonald, Michael Giles, Pete Sinfield) – 8:35
 "Cat Food" (Fripp, Sinfield, McDonald) – 4:26
 "Let There Be Light" (McDonald, Sinfield) – 3:26
 "Progress" (M. Giles) – 7:04
 "The Court of the Crimson King" (McDonald, Sinfield) – 7:51
 "Formentera Lady" (Fripp, Sinfield) – 12:07
 "Tomorrow's People" (M. Giles) – 8:04 [DVD only]
 "If I Was" (McDonald, Leray) – 4:51 [DVD only]
 "Ladies of the Road" (Fripp, Sinfield) – 7:46
 "I Talk to the Wind" (McDonald, Sinfield) – 6:25
 "Epitaph" (Fripp, Lake, McDonald, Giles, Sinfield) – 9:30
 "Birdman" (McDonald) – 4:36
 "21st Century Schizoid Man" (Fripp, Lake, McDonald, Giles, Sinfield) – 10:29

Bonus features
Interviews with:
Ian McDonald – 3:58
Mike Giles – 3:45
Peter Giles – 6:36
Jakko Jakszyk – 2:36
Mel Collins – 1:53

In the Studio 22-08-02 – 9:37
Canterbury Fayre 24-08-02 – 12:17
Queen Elizabeth Hall 30-09-02 – 10:19

Personnel
Jakko Jakszyk – guitar, lead vocals, keyboards, flute
Ian McDonald – alto saxophone, backing and lead vocals, flute, keyboards, piano, percussion
Mel Collins – alto, tenor and baritone saxophones, backing vocals, flute, keyboards,
Peter Giles – bass, backing vocals, percussion
Michael Giles – drums, backing and lead vocals, percussion

Song origins
 "A Man, a City" was originally performed live by King Crimson, subsequent to the release of their debut studio album In the Court of the Crimson King.  It became "Pictures of a City", which appeared on the second King Crimson studio album In the Wake of Poseidon.  Live performances of the piece by King Crimson in 1969 were released in 1997, on the compilation Epitaph, and in 2004, on Live at Fillmore East.
 The Court of the Crimson King, I Talk to the Wind, Epitaph, and 21st Century Schizoid Man originally appeared on "In the Court of the Crimson King".
 Cat Food originally appeared on "In the Wake of Poseidon".
 "Let There Be Light" and "If I Was" originally appeared on Ian McDonald's solo studio release, Drivers Eyes.
 "Progress" originally appeared on Michael Giles' solo studio release, Progress.
 "Formentera Lady" and "Ladies of the Road" originally appeared on King Crimson's fourth studio album, Islands.
 "Tomorrow's People" and "Birdman" originally appeared on the 1971 studio album McDonald and Giles.

21st Century Schizoid Band albums
Live video albums
2002 live albums
2002 video albums

Live in Japan (21st Century Schizoid Band album)


Gesta Danorum (Deeds of the Danes) is a chronicle of Danish history. It was written by the 12th century historian Saxo Grammaticus. This work is the most significant for the Danish nation's early history.

Gesta Danorum consists of sixteen books written in Latin.

History books
Norse mythology
12th century in Europe
Danish culture
12th-century books

Gesta Danorum


Guillaume de Donjeon (c. 1140 – 10 January 1209) was a French Roman Catholic prelate who served as the Archbishop of Bourges from 1200 until his death. He served as a canon in Soissons and Paris before he entered the Order of Grandmont. Sometime later he entered the Cistercians. He was known to practice austerities such as abstaining from meat and wearing a hair shirt.

He was also known for his deep devotion to the Blessed Sacrament and for his conversion of sinners.  He oversaw the construction of the new archdiocesan cathedral that his predecessor had authorized and in which he himself would be buried. It had been claimed that he performed eighteen miracles in life and a further eighteen in death.

His canonization was celebrated under Pope Honorius III in 1218 and he was named as the patron saint for the Parisian college.

Life
Guillaume de Donjeon was born about 1140 at the castle of Arthel near Nevers, into the ancient family of the Counts of Nevers. He was one of eight children born to Baudoin de Corbeil and Eustachia de Châtillon. His father planned for him to become a soldier but Guillaume chose the ecclesial path. His siblings were: Baudoin, Regnault (d. 1208), Ferry (d. 1174), Baudoin (d. 1226), Pierre (d. 1222), Guy, and Eustachia.

The Soissons archdeacon Pierre - his maternal uncle - oversaw his education. He became a canon in Soissons and later in Paris. It was sometime later that he resolved to abandon the world and enter into the Order of Grandmont. He was content with this decision and lived amongst them for a period of time while practicing great austerities but in 1167 once he saw the dissensions occurring amongst members of the order, decided to enter the Cistercians. He assumed the habit at Pontigny Abbey in northern France, where he was soon chosen prior. In 1184 he became the abbot of Fontaine-Jean Abbey near Sens and later of Chaalis Abbey near Senlis from 1187 until 1200.

He fostered a deep and special devotion to the Blessed Sacrament and loved to spend much of his time at the foot of the altar contemplating it. In 1200 the Bourges priests gathered and elected him to be the new Archbishop of Bourges. The news quite overwhelmed him with grief but a stern command from his order's general could move him to accept that honor. Even Pope Innocent III prompted him to accept the appointment. He continued his austerities in his episcopal career to the point where he abstained from meat and wore a hair shirt.

The bishop proved to be instrumental in the ongoing construction of the Gothic Cathedral of Saint Stephen which his predecessor had commenced earlier in 1195. The lower half of the cathedral was completed and around December 1208 the choir was almost finished at which time he was able to celebrate the Christmas Mass. The poor and sick were never forgotten for the bishop visited them on frequent occasions while he also ministered to the imprisoned. He also defended clerical rights against state intervention. He once incurred wrath from King Philip II when the bishop enacted an interdict from Innocent III against him for having divorced his wife.

He began preparations for a mission among the Albigensians when he died just after midnight kneeling at the altar in contemplation and meditation in 1209. In his last will and testament he requested to be buried with his hair shirt and on ashes. There were people who claimed he performed eighteen miracles in his life and that he had performed a further eighteen after his death.

Sainthood
His canonization was celebrated under Pope Honorius III on 17 May 1218; the late bishop is considered to be the patron saint for the University of Paris.

References

External links

 Santi e Beati

1150s births
1209 deaths
13th-century Christian saints
13th-century Roman Catholic archbishops in France
13th-century venerated Christians
Archbishops of Bourges
French Cistercians
French Roman Catholic saints
Medieval French saints
Cistercian saints
People from Nevers
Venerated Catholics

William of Donjeon


God Save the King er tjóðsangur hjá Stóra Bretlandi, Avstralia, Kanada, Jamaika, Bahamaoyggjar, Tuvalu og Nýsælandi.

Tekstur

God save our gracious King ,
Long live our noble King,
God save the King!Send him victorious,
Happy and glorious,
Long to reign over us;
God save the King!

O Lord our God arise,
Scatter his enemies
And make them fall;
Confound their politics,
Frustrate their knavish tricks,
On Thee our hopes we fix,
God save us all!

Thy choicest gifts in store
On his be pleased to pour;
Long may he reign;
May he defend our laws,
And ever give us cause
To sing with heart and voice,
God save the King!

Bretland

God Save the King


Richard A. Brealey is a British economist and author. He is an emeritus professor at the London Business School and a Fellow of the British Academy. He co-authored Principles of Corporate Finance with Stewart C. Myers and Franklin Allen (now in its thirteenth edition).

He was a full-time faculty member of the London Business School from 1968-1998. He has held the posts of Director of the American Finance Association and president of the European Finance Association.  He is a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Applied Corporate Finance, Journal of Empirical Finance, and European Finance Review.

Professor Brealey is a director of the Swiss Helvetia Fund and a former director of HSBC Investor Funds, Sun Life Assurance Company of Canada UK Holdings plc, and Tokai Derivative Products Ltd. He was formerly a special adviser to the Governor of the Bank of England.

He was educated at Exeter College, Oxford, with an M.A. in Philosophy, Politics and Economics.

Selected publications

Books
Principles of Corporate Finance with Stewart C. Myers and Franklin Allen
Fundamentals of Corporate Finance with Stewart Myers and Alan Marcus

Articles and Reports
 "The Cost of Capital for the Nor-Ned Cable," by Richard A. Brealey, Richard Caldwell and Carlos Lapuerta, The Brattle Group, Ltd., June 2004.
 "Personal Taxes and the Time Variation of Stock Returns - Evidence from the UK," by Richard A. Brealey, Journal of Banking and Finance, 1999.
 "The Asian Crisis: Lessons for Crisis Management and Prevention," by Richard A. Brealey, Journal of International Finance, 1999.
 "What is the International Dimension of International Finance?," by Richard A. Brealey, I.A. Cooper, and E. Kaplanis, European Finance Review, 1999.
 "Competitive Position of London's Financial Services," by Richard A. Brealey, City Research Project, Final Report, Corporation of London, 1995.

References

Alumni of Exeter College, Oxford
Academics of London Business School
British economists
Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
Corporate finance theorists

Richard A. Brealey


The American White & American Creme Horse Registry was originally named the American Albino Horse Club and was first established by Caleb Thompson and his wife, Ruth.

In 1917, Caleb and his brother, Hudson, had bought a white stallion, Old King, and bred him with their Morgan mares. The horses' progeny were also white and the Thompsons called their horses 'American Albinos' although they were not true albinos.

After Hudson sold his stake in the business in 1936, Caleb and Ruth set up the registry to register Old King's progeny; the first horse to be registered as Old King's grandson, Snow King. They also registered other, unrelated white horses and the American Albino became a color breed.

The organization was known as the American Albino Association, Inc. and then the International American Albino Association, Inc. before being renamed the American White and American Creme Horse Registry in 1980.

References

Color breeds
Horse breed registries


The menstrual cycle is a process that adult  women can go through. The menstrual cycle for a woman will repeat every 28 days while they are not pregnant. During this time, the women's ovaries create a mature ovum (egg). Then the woman's body prepares for pregnancy by thickening the walls of the uterus. If the woman does not become pregnant during this time, the egg and the lining of the uterus come out of the woman's body during menstruation.

The menstrual cycle process is controlled by four major hormones: FSH (follicle stimulating hormone); LH (luteinising hormone); estrogen; and progesterone. These hormones prepare the uterus to receive a fertilized egg and control its development.

The menstrual cycle has three stages: the Follicular stage, Ovulation, and the Luteal (or premenstrual) stage. The cycle will stop if the woman gets pregnant (if a fertilized egg implants itself into the lining of the uterus).

Follicular Stage
This stage is the start of the menstrual cycle, and is counted as day one of the cycle.  This stage starts when the amount of progesterone and estrogen in a woman's blood drop.  This causes the endometrium - the thick lining of the uterus - to leave the woman's body through menstruation.  It will appear as bleeding from the vagina.  This stage lasts from 4–6 days.

At the start of this stage, the pituitary gland will begin to release more FSH.  This will continue for 3-4 days.  The FSH makes several follicles grow in one of the ovaries.  Each follicle contains an immature ova (egg).  These follicles create estrogen.

Usually, the amount of FSH in the body peaks during the third or fourth day of menstruation.  All but one of the follicles dies off.  The one that is left releases even more estrogen.  Once again, the lining of the uterus thickens.  Near the end of the stage, a woman's estrogen levels peak.  This causes the pituitary gland to release LH, which also peaks at this time.

Ovulation
Ovulation happens roughly every 14 days. This is when the mature egg is released into the oviduct (or fallopian tube) ready for fertilisation.

Ovulation happens if there is both a rise in estrogen and a peak in LH at the end of the follicular stage.  The rising levels of LH make the ovum mature.  The follicle that contains the ovum swells and breaks open.  (In the next stage, the leftover cells of the follicle turn into an important structure called the corpus luteum.)  The ovum is released into the Fallopian tube.

During ovulation, a woman's body temperature is usually about 0.5 degrees Celsius over normal.

Luteal Stage
The follicle cells that used to hold the ovum now release progesterone into the body.  This causes the endometrium to get even thicker.

If an ovum is going to be fertilized, it happens during this step.  A woman becomes pregnant when a man's sperm fertilizes one of her ova, which then plants itself into the lining of the uterus.

If fertilized
If the ovum is fertilized during Ovulation, it will become a zygote.  It will start to copy itself over and over again through mitosis.  It will also move from the ovarian duct into the uterus.  The levels of estrogen and progesterone in the body remain high.  The zygote grows into an embryo and implants itself into the endometrium tissue of the uterus.  This forms a placenta, which starts to mature.

After fertilization, the menstrual cycle stops so the embryo can continue to mature for the next 9 months.  Progesterone and estrogen levels will stay high until the fetus is ready to be birthed.

Eventually, after giving birth, a woman's menstrual cycle will return to the way it was before she got pregnant.

If not fertilized

Until around day 22, estrogen levels increase a little.  However, after day 22, the corpus luteum stops making progesterone, and the levels of both progesterone and estrogen in the body start to drop.  The amount of progesterone and estrogen in the body are at their lowest around the 28th day of the menstrual cycle.

Then, the cycle begins again.

References

Female reproductive system

Menstrual cycle


The  Lauenburg Lakes  Nature Park () was founded in  and lies in the district of Lauenburg in the southeastern part of the German state of  Schleswig-Holstein. It is right on the border with the state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern in the Schleswig-Holstein Uplands, a Young Drift moraine landscape that formed during the Weichselian glaciation of the last ice age.

Location and significance
With an area of over , the nature park is the third largest in Schleswig-Holstein and contains extensive stretches of forest. The Lauenburg Lakes Nature Park, there are 40 lakes in total, borders directly on the Mecklenburg biosphere reserve of Schaalsee and, together, they form a large nature reserve along the former Inner German Border.

The largest lakes in the nature park are the Ratzeburger See and the Schaalsee, which are linked together by the Schaalsee Canal that begins near Salem.

Within the nature park are the district towns of Ratzeburg and Mölln as well as the Hellbach Valley. The Old Salt Road from Lüneburg to Lübeck runs through the nature park – at several places, such as Fredeburg, still as a medieval route - the Alte Salzstraße. The nature park is roughly bordered to the west between Berkenthin and Büchen by the Elbe-Lübeck Canal. The Naturparkweg nature trail runs through the park and links it to the other four nature parks in Schleswig-Holstein.

The watershed between the North and Baltic Seas also runs through the nature park.

See also
Other lakes in the nature park: Behlendorfer See | Garrensee | Pinnsee
 List of nature parks in Germany

References

External links

 Lauenburg Lakes Nature Park

Nature parks in Schleswig-Holstein
Herzogtum Lauenburg
1961 establishments in West Germany
Protected areas established in 1961

Lauenburg Lakes Nature Park


A partial discharge (PD) is an electric discharge that breaks through a small portion of the insulation between two conductors. A discharge is when electrical charge that has accumulated is suddenly released (like a spark). A partial discharge does not completely cross the insulation between the two conductors, only a small portion of it in one area. It may happen under the stress of high voltage. It is caused by a small opening (void) inside the insulating material. The insulating material can be either solid or fluid. The charge passing through this insulation is called electrical breakdown.

Electricity

Partial discharge


The Atari Portfolio (Atari PC Folio) is an IBM PC-compatible palmtop PC, released by Atari Corporation in June 1989. This makes it the world's first palmtop computer.

History
DIP Research Ltd. based in Guildford, Surrey, UK released a product in the UK called the DIP Pocket PC in 1989. Soon after its release, DIP licensed this product to Atari for sale as the Portfolio in the UK and US. In Italy, Spain and Germany, it was originally marketed as PC Folio instead. DIP officially stood for "Distributed Information Processing", although secretly it actually stood for "David, Ian and Peter", the three founding members of the company who were former employees of Psion. The original founder of the company (first called "Crushproof Software") was Ian H. S. Cullimore, and the other two David Frodsham and Peter Baldwin. Cullimore was involved in designing the early Organiser products at Psion before the DIP Pocket PC project. The technologic successor of the Portfolio was the also DIP-developed Sharp PC-3000/3100. DIP Research was later acquired by Phoenix Technologies in 1994.

Technology

The Portfolio uses an Intel 80C88 CPU running at 4.9152 MHz and runs "DIP Operating System 2.11" (DIP DOS), an operating system mostly compatible to MS-DOS 2.11, but with some DOS 2.xx functionality lacking and some internal data structures more compatible with DOS 3.xx. It has 128 KB of RAM and 256 KB of ROM which contains the OS and built-in applications. The on-board RAM is divided between system memory and local storage (the C: drive). The LCD is monochrome without backlight and has  pixels or 40 characters × 8 lines.

The sound is handled by a small Dual-Tone Multi-Frequency speaker capable of outputting tones between 622 and 2,489Hz, the same range as touch tone telephones, so users could not only use the address book app to  store phone numbers, but actually speed dial them too by holding the device up to a telephone handset.

Power is supplied by three AA size removable alkaline batteries. The computer's memory is preserved during battery changes. There is also an optional AC adapter (120V: HPC-401, 230V: HPC-402).

There is an expansion port on the right side of the computer for parallel (HPC-101), serial (HPC-102), modem or MIDI expansion modules. It uses a Bee Card expansion port for removable memory (aka Credit Card Memory or CCM), which is not compatible with PC card as it predated that standard. Expansion cards were available in sizes of 32 KB (HPC-201), 64 KB (HPC-202), and 128 KB (HPC-203) initially, and later were available in capacities up to 4 MB. The expansion cards were backed up by a replaceable battery, which last approximately two years. Built-in applications include a text editor, spreadsheet (Lotus 1-2-3 compatible), phone book and time manager. Expansion cards contain programs such as a chess game (HPC-750), a file manager (HPC-704), and a finance manager (HPC-702). Most text-based DOS applications can run on the Portfolio as long as they did not directly access the hardware and could fit into the small memory.

Other expansion modules include a floppy drive, and a memory expansion unit (HPC-104). The memory expansion unit gives the Portfolio an additional 256 KB of RAM, which can be partitioned into several drives. It also features a pass-through expansion connector, allowing the use of more than one expansion unit. In theory, multiple memory expanders can be attached, increasing the available storage to over 640 KB.

A card reader (HPC-301) connects to a desktop PC to read and write to the expansion cards. The kit contains an ISA card, a special cable, the card reader, and software distributed on floppy disk.

A modem expansion module converts the portfolio into a miniature computer terminal. The modem is powered from the portfolio and came with an acoustic coupler consisting of two round shells that could be mounted over both ends of a handset with the aid of velcro strips. A direct connection to a telephone with a standard telephone lead is also possible. The complete terminal and coupler are portable, weighing only a few hundred grams.

Also, using the parallel port expansion module (HPC-101), a standard parallel cable and the software supplied (DOS based), the Portfolio can be connected to a PC for transferring files to and from the unit.

Credits for the development of the product can be found in an easter egg if one selects Setup, then Help, and then presses + ("Alt" plus "left square bracket").

Versions
 Atari Portfolio HPC-003: ROM version 1.052
 Atari Portfolio HPC-004: ROM version 1.056
 Atari Portfolio HPC-005: ROM version 1.130
 Atari Portfolio HPC-006: ROM version 1.072
 Atari Portfolio HPC-007: ROM version 1.130
 Atari PC Folio HPC-008: ROM version 1.130
 Atari Portfolio HPC-009: ROM version 1.130?
 Atari Portfolio HPC-010: ROM version 1.130?
 Atari Portfolio HPC-011: ROM version 1.130?, 512 KB

Accessories
 Atari HPC-101 Smart parallel interface
 Atari HPC-102 Serial interface
 Atari HPC-103 Memory expansion
 Atari HPC-104 Memory expander+
 Atari HPC-201 Memory card 32 KB
 Atari HPC-202 Memory card 64 KB
 Atari HPC-203 Memory card 128 KB
 Atari HPC-204 OTPROM card 512 KBit
 Atari HPC-205 OTPROM card 1 MBit
 Atari HPC-301 PC Card drive for PC ISA bus
 Atari HPC-401 Mains adapter 110 V
 Atari HPC-402 Mains adapter 220 V
 Atari HPC-406 Parallel cable
 Atari HPC-407 Serial cable
 Atari HPC-408 Parallel printer cable
 Atari HPC-409 Null modem cable
 Atari HPC-501 OTPROM adapter 512 KBit
 Atari HPC-502 OTPROM adapter 1 MBit
 Atari HPC-701 ROM card "Utility"
 Atari HPC-702 ROM card "Finance"
 Atari HPC-703 ROM card "Science"
 Atari HPC-704 ROM card "File Manager"
 Atari HPC-705 ROM card "Power BASIC"
 Atari HPC-709 ROM card "Instant Spell"
 Atari HPC-711 ROM card "U.S. Traveller's Guide)"
 Atari HPC-713 ROM card "Hyperlist"
 Atari HPC-715 ROM card "Language Translator"
 Atari HPC-724 ROM card "Bridge Baron"
 Atari HPC-725 ROM card "Wine Companion"
 Atari HPC-726 ROM card "Diet / Cholesterol Counter"
 Atari HPC-728 ROM card "Astrologer"
 Atari HPC-729 ROM card "Stock Tracker"
 Atari HPC-750 ROM card "Chess"
 Atari HPC-803 Portfolio system case

In popular culture
The Atari Portfolio was used by the character John Connor to crack PINs in two scenes in the 1991 film Terminator 2: Judgment Day.

Gallery

See also
Poqet PC
Poqet PC Prime
Poqet PC Plus
HP 95LX
HP 100LX
HP 200LX
HP 1000CX
HP OmniGo 700LX
Toshiba Libretto
Sharp PC-3000

ZEOS Pocket PC

References

External links

Unofficial Atari Portfolio site
Portfolio FAQ
Scanned Atari Portfolio Technical Reference Guide

The Atari Portfolio, Resources, The Concealed College
User's web page Photos, programmation, peripherals

Atari hardware
Personal digital assistants
Handheld personal computers
Products introduced in 1989
IBM PC compatibles

Atari Portfolio


Beer is manufactured by more than 7,000 breweries in the United States, which range in size from industry giants to brew pubs and microbreweries. The United States produced 196 million barrels () of beer in 2012, and consumes roughly  of beer per capita annually. In 2011, the United States was ranked fifteenth in the world in per capita consumption, while total consumption was second only to China.

Although beer was a part of colonial life in the United States, the passing of the Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1919 resulted in the prohibition of alcoholic beverage sales, forcing nearly all American breweries to close or switch to producing non-alcoholic products. After the repeal of Prohibition, the industry consolidated into a small number of large-scale breweries. Many of the big breweries that returned to producing beer after Prohibition, today largely owned by international conglomerates like Anheuser-Busch InBev, still retain their dominance of the market in the 21st century. However, the majority of the new breweries that have opened in the U.S. over the past three decades have been small breweries and brewpubs, referred to as "craft breweries" to differentiate them from the larger and older breweries. Breweries are growing rapidly around the United States. People travel all over the world just to try out different breweries. Different types of beers that craft breweries normally produce are wheats, sours, IPA, pale ales, and lagers. Many craft beer drinkers select beer based on the ABV and IBU percentage, in order to determine the hops and the alcohol percentage.

The most common style of beer produced by the big breweries is American lager, a form of pale lager; small breweries, most of which were founded since the 1980s, produce a range of styles. Beer styles indigenous in the United States include amber ale, cream ale, and California common.  More recent craft styles include American Pale Ale, American IPA, India Pale Lager, Black IPA, and the American "Double" or "Imperial" IPA.

History

Beginnings
The earliest record of brewing dates from 1587, and the first commercial brewery in the United States was built by the Dutch West India Company in 1632 in Lower Manhattan on Brewers (later Stone) Street. On February 5, 1663, Nicholas Varlett obtained from Peter Stuyvesant a patent for a brewery on Castle Point in Hoboken, New Jersey.

The brewing traditions of England and the Netherlands (as brought to New York) ensured that colonial drinking would be dominated by beer rather than wine. Until the middle of the 19th century, British-style ales dominated American brewing. This changed when the longer shelf-life lager styles brought by German immigrants turned out to be more profitable for large-scale manufacturing and shipping. The hops in lager had preservative qualities, while non-hopped local ales of the time quickly turned sour and were a perceived risk to drink.

The lager brewed by these companies was originally based on several different styles of Central Europe, but the Pilsener style, using mild Czech hops, pale, lightly roasted six-row barley and often adjuncts such as rice and corn, gradually won out.

Steam beer, the first uniquely American beer style, evolved in the San Francisco area during the 19th century. It was born out of the desire to produce lager beer without the use of refrigeration. After prohibition ended, the Anchor Brewing Company was left as the sole producer of steam beer. The company was near closure in 1965, whereupon Fritz Maytag, great-grandson of the Maytag Corporation founder, rescued the brewery and with it the steam beer style. Anchor has since trademarked the term "Steam Beer" and all subsequent renditions of the style are now termed California common.

D.G. Yuengling & Son, commonly called Yuengling, is the oldest operating brewing company in the United States, having been established in 1829 by David Yuengling, and is one of the largest breweries by volume in the country. Headquartered in Pottsville, Pennsylvania, it is currently the largest American-owned brewery.

One of the earliest large-scale brewers was Best Brewing (later renamed Pabst Brewing Company), a Milwaukee brewery built by German immigrant Phillip Best in the 1840s. Other successful breweries of the era begun by German immigrants in Milwaukee included Valentin Blatz Brewing Company, Joseph Schlitz Brewing Company, and Miller Brewing Company.

Pabst began shipping its beer to Chicago and St. Louis the following decade, first by ferry and eventually by rail, establishing an early trans-market beer brand in the United States. Railroad transportation of beer in refrigerated cars (originally ice-cooled) became common in the last half of the 19th century.

Missouri's Weston Brewing Company was first established in 1842 by German immigrant John Georgian. Georgian brought the tradition of lager brewing with him when he settled in Weston. The brewery was designed to utilize ice from the Missouri River during winter and lagering cellars dug deep into the ground to create ideal conditions for his beer which needed to be stored below 60 degrees for more than six weeks. In creating the brewery, the Weston Brewing Company became one of the first lager breweries in the United States.

In St. Louis, a prosperous German soap maker, Eberhard Anheuser, purchased a struggling brewery in 1860. His daughter married a brewery supplier, Adolphus Busch, who took over the company after his father-in-law's death, and renamed it Anheuser-Busch. Busch soon toured Europe, discovering the success of Bohemian lager, and introduced Budweiser beer (named after a beer brewed in the city of České Budějovice in Bohemia, known as Budweis in German) in 1876. Anheuser-Busch, and its Budweiser beer, would go on to be the largest brewery and beer brand in the world. The company innovated the use of refrigeration in rail cars to transport its beers, which helped make bottled Budweiser the first national beer brand in the United States.

A massive increase in immigration to the United States from Central and Eastern Europe led to an increase in beer consumption between 1880 and 1920 despite an overall decline in per capita alcohol consumption.

In 1912, the use of brown bottles began to be used by Joseph Schlitz Brewing Company of Milwaukee, Wisconsin. This innovation has since been accepted worldwide and prevents harmful rays from destroying the quality and stability of beer.

Prohibition

On January 16, 1919, the Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution was enacted into law, inaugurating the Prohibition era, wherein the production, sale and transportation of alcoholic beverages was made illegal. All legal American brewing came to a halt when prohibition was imposed, though the earlier temperance movement had already reduced the number of breweries significantly. Only a few breweries, mainly the largest, were able to stay in business by manufacturing near beer, malt syrup, or other non-alcohol grain products, in addition to soft drinks such as colas and root beers. Production and shipping of alcohol was largely confined to illegal operations that could deliver compact distilled beverages—smuggled rum and domestic moonshine—more efficiently and reliably than bulkier products such as beer.

American prohibition was repealed by degrees. First, the Volstead Act defining "intoxicating liquors", was amended in April 1933 by the Cullen–Harrison Act to provide that beer with a strength of up to 3.2% alcohol was not "intoxicating", and thus not prohibited (The "3.2 %" referred to is a measurement by weight and would be roughly equivalent to 4% if measured by volume, as is now common). Within 24 hours of legalization, as much as 1.5 million barrels of 3.2% ABW beer was sold, causing some to predict a "beer famine". Soon thereafter, in December of the same year, the Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution repealed prohibition in general, but left the production of alcoholic beverages heavily regulated by federal, state, and local authorities. Included in these regulations was the imposition of a three-tier distribution system, in which a manufacturer of alcoholic beverages must go through a wholesale distributor to sell its product, rather than selling to retailers directly.

Post Prohibition
Although the Twenty-first Amendment allowed brewers to legally resume practicing their craft, many "dry" counties remained and many states failed to ratify altogether, which slowed the resurgence of the brewing industry. In addition, the many prohibitionists of the temperance movement were still quite vocal and were able to retain a large following despite the repealing of the eighteenth amendment. Before the American beer industry could attempt to re-establish itself, World War II began. This further inhibited the re-emergence of smaller breweries because much of the grain supply was rationed due to the war, forcing the breweries to use adjuncts such as corn and rice alongside the barley traditionally used in brewing. The prohibitionists saw a tantalizing opportunity to quell the efforts of the remaining breweries, insisting that the commercial brewing of beer squandered manpower, grain, fuel, and cargo space that should have gone towards the war effort overseas. Brewers responded to these accusations by extolling the benefits that brewer's yeast have on human health, namely their high vitamin B content. It was argued that the increase in thiamine in the diets of the soldiers and factory workers would improve performance on the battlefield as well as in the factory and that this increase sufficiently justified the need for beer. The American government decided that the benefits of the vitamin B in brewer's yeast, alongside the taxes coming in from beer sales, were enough to justify a request for fifteen percent of beer production for servicemen.

Although America's breweries had the backing of their government, they still needed to capture the hearts and the wallets of the American people. In order to accomplish this, the major breweries banded together and launched the "Morale is a Lot of Little Things" advertising campaign.  The campaign can be well summarized from the following 1942 magazine advertisement:

"If you're a man, it's a shine on your shoes ... the sweet feel of a fly rod in your hand ... If you're a woman, it's a tricky new hair-do maybe ... or a change of lipstick. Morale is a lot of little things like that. People can take the big bad things ... the bitter news, the bombings even ... if only a few of the little, familiar, comforting good things are left."

From the time America entered the war in 1941 until it ended in 1945, the overall production of beer increased by over 40% despite the small number of active breweries. This wartime growth allowed the large breweries such as Anheuser-Busch to dominate the American market for over fifty years. During this period they produced beers more noted for their uniformity than for any particular flavor. Beers such as those made by Anheuser-Busch and Coors Brewing Company followed a restricted pilsner style, with large-scale industrial processes and the use of low-cost ingredients like corn or ingredients such as rice that provided starch for alcohol production while contributing minimal flavor to the finished product. The dominance of the so-called "macrobrew" led to an international stereotype of "American beer" as poor in quality and flavor.

Emergence of small breweries
By the 1970s, consolidation and dominance by the country's major brewers led to the fewest breweries in the country's modern history. Despite this, the period also saw the beginnings of the country's current craft beer movement. In 1976, optical engineer and homebrewer Jack McAuliffe founded New Albion Brewing Company in Sonoma County, California, becoming the nation's first microbrewery since Prohibition. Influenced by Fritz Maytag's recent turnaround of the Anchor Brewing Company and an earlier military stationing in Scotland, McAuliffe's brewery offered bottle-conditioned porter, stout, and pale ale to a public more accustomed to lightly flavored lagers. Despite only staying in business for seven years, New Albion ignited an interest in craft beer and set a precedent for a generation of craft brewers, including Ken Grossman and the owners of Mendocino Brewing Company, the nation's first brewpub.

On October 14, 1978, H.R. 1337 was signed into law, which legalized the homebrewing, home production of a small amount of beer or wine for personal consumption. Since then, the United States has witnessed a resurgence of brewing culture and the widespread proliferation of small breweries. By March 1986, five brewpubs had opened in the United States. The total number of breweries rose from 42 in 1978 to over 2,750 in 2012, reaching or exceeding the number of breweries estimated to have existed during the colonial period. Virtually all of this growth is attributable to small, independent breweries.

Economy
Beer is the most popular alcoholic beverage in America and accounts for about 85% of the volume of alcoholic beverages sold in the United States each year. As of 2016, the top three beer companies in the US were Anheuser-Busch, MillerCoors, and Pabst Brewing Company. As of 2009, the top beer brands by market share were Bud Light (28.3%), Budweiser (11.9%) and Coors Light (9.9%). Corona Extra is the No. 1 imported beer, followed by Heineken.
2009 figures show an overall decline in beer consumption from previous years, with only craft beer sales rising at a rate of 7–10%. Overall U.S. beer consumption was calculated at 205.8 million barrels. Light beer constitutes a 52.8% share of US beer sales.

Nearly eighty percent of convenience stores sell beer, about 93 percent of which is sold cold. The U.S. convenience store industry sells more than  of beer a year; roughly one-third of all the beer purchased in the United States. Of the twenty percent of convenience stores that do not sell beer, the majority of those are in Pennsylvania—the nation's sixth-largest state by population—due to limitations on alcohol sales in the state, which make it illegal to sell in convenience stores and restrict sales inside supermarkets. Legislation is currently pending in the Pennsylvania General Assembly to legalize alcohol sales in convenience stores and loosen restrictions on supermarkets.

In 2007, U.S. consumption was .
Beer sales in the premium market are increasing, while sales in the standard and economy section are decreasing. The major beer producers merged to strengthen their position – Anheuser-Busch merged with InBev to form Anheuser-Busch InBev, and Molson Coors formed a joint venture with Miller Brewing Company to form MillerCoors. Despite legal challenges, the country's three-tiered distribution system remains in place.

Craft beer

Today, there are over 4,000 craft breweries in the United States and the craft beer industry employs over 100,000 individuals brewing 15.6 million barrels of beer per year. According to an article by the Associated Press, published in 2016, craft beer is a $22 billion industry in the United States and sales were up 13% year over year.

The Brewers Association, a trade group of American brewers, defines a brewery as "craft" if it: 1. is largely independent of outside corporate ownership, 2. produces fewer than six million barrels per year, and 3. uses traditional ingredients such as malted barley, or innovative ingredients to enhance flavor.

According to the Brewers Association, the five largest craft breweries in order of sales volume for 2021 were:
 D. G. Yuengling & Son of Pottsville, Pennsylvania (Philadelphia),
 Boston Beer Company of Boston, Massachusetts (which produces Samuel Adams beers),
 Sierra Nevada Brewing Company of Chico, California,
 Duvel Moortgat USA of Paso Robles, California, Kansas City, Missouri, and Cooperstown, New York
 Gambrinus Company of San Antonio, Texas (which owns the Shiner, Texas-based Spoetzl Brewery and produces Shiner Beer).

The relative success of the commercial craft brewing industry has led some beverage giants such as AB Inbev to invest in smaller breweries such as Widmer Brothers and Goose Island, and to develop more complex beers of their own. Despite growth of the craft and microbrewing industry, however, craft beer still only accounts for 11% of total beer sales by volume in the United States, although that number is expected to rise in coming decades.

While the rise of craft beer in the United States has not been defined by any single geographic area, regions of the country associated with a strong craft brewing culture include the Midwest, Mountain West, and the Pacific Northwest, where the majority of American hop varietals are grown. Overall, the West Coast has the most craft breweries and the Deep South has the fewest. Portland, Oregon is currently home to 58 breweries, more than any other city in the world. Vermont, Montana, Oregon, Alaska and Colorado have the highest number of breweries per million inhabitants in the nation. California, Pennsylvania, Colorado, Ohio and Oregon have the highest total craft output, respectively. Until recently, legal restrictions have prevented craft breweries from flourishing in the South, such as limitations on the alcohol content of beer and the questionable legal status of homebrewing in many Southern states. In recent years, however, Mississippi has raised the limit on the alcohol content of beer from 5% to 10% ABV and has fully legalized homebrewing.

Craft Beer has a rising Craft Non-Alcoholic category rising in popularity with breweries like Surreal Brewing Company in California solely dedicated to creating non-alcoholic beer.

Beer styles

Pre-Prohibition styles
Historical beer styles indigenous to the United States include California common beer or "steam beer", Kentucky Common Beer, amber ale, blonde ale and cream ale.

Contemporary craft styles
Numerous beer styles have emerged in the United States since the beginnings of the craft beer movement in the 1970s, ranging from variations on traditional European styles to much more experimental ales and lagers.  American craft beers frequently employ newer American hop varietals such as Cascade, Citra, Simcoe, Willamette, or Warrior. These hops, developed by private growers and universities since the 1970s, contribute to the distinctiveness of many American craft beers but are especially important to the flavor of American Pale Ale (APA) and American India Pale Ale. These beers can deviate considerably from the traditional English styles they were adapted from and are often robustly bitter, resinous, or fruity.

The American "double" or "imperial" IPA, a popular style credited to Russian River Brewing Company brewmaster Vinny Cilurzo, can be extremely hoppy and strong, ranging from 7–14% ABV with bitterness ratings routinely topping 90 IBUs. Similarly, American stout beer, inspired by Russian Imperial Stout, may be hoppy and high in ABV, such as Deschutes Abyss or Goose Island's Bourbon County Stout, which is fermented to 15% ABV and conditioned in bourbon barrels. An emerging style associated with the Pacific Northwest is Cascadian Dark Ale, alternatively known as Black IPA, a heavily hopped beer with dark, roasted malts. Other adapted styles with distinct American variations include Irish red ale, brown ale,  Scotch ale, wheat beer, rye beer and barleywine. Some breweries, such as Off Color Brewing in Chicago, focus on resurrecting styles that have been essentially extinct since the advent of Reinheitsgebot in Germany.

Belgian beer styles have also been adapted by American breweries, including saison, dubbel, tripel, and Belgian strong ale. The lighter of these (saison, golden strong ale and tripel) beers have soft malt flavors and mild to strong "spicy" characteristics that come from yeast or the addition of spices. The darker of these beers (dubbel and dark strong ale) may have flavors of dried fruit that derives from the malts, yeast and sugar used to make them. All of these beers are high in carbonation and low in hop character. Witbier, a style nearly extinct until reintroduced by Belgian brewer Pierre Celis in the 1960s, is one of the top-selling craft beer styles in the United States. Brewery Ommegang, Jolly Pumpkin, and The Bruery are other examples of breweries that produce Belgian-inspired beers. In 2014, Spencer Brewery, opened by the monks of St. Joseph's Abbey in Spencer, Massachusetts, became the first certified Trappist brewery outside of Europe.

Pale lager and malt liquor
While craft brewing companies with myriad style offerings continue to gain market share, the best-selling style of beer made in the U.S. is still pale lager, most often made by most large-scale brewers, including Anheuser-Busch InBev and MillerCoors. These large-scale brewers also produce other popular styles, often relatively light in body, flavor and calories. Light beer, which was introduced on a large scale by Miller Brewing Company in the early 1970s, is a beer made with reduced alcohol and carbohydrate content, and has grown to eclipse many of the original pale lager brands in sales. Bud Light, brewed by Anheuser-Busch InBev, was the top-selling beer in the United States. Ice beer is an example which has been partially freeze-distilled with the intention of concentrating flavor and alcohol. The technique is based on that used to make Eisbock, but the two styles share no stylistic similarities (apart from both being lagers) otherwise. Dry beer, a Japanese style based on pale lager, is also brewed by some American companies. In dry beer, the yeast is encouraged to consume more fermentables, resulting in a crisper finish and an unusually subtle hop flavor.

Malt liquor is a high-ABV pale lager. It has often incited controversy due to its alcohol content, larger-sized containers, low prices, and advertising that frequently targets inner city neighborhoods.

Distribution
Beer distribution in America is divided into manufacturers, wholesalers, and retailers. The middle man in this arrangement is a requirement of the laws in most states in order for more efficient taxation and regulation of the industry. Before Prohibition, beer was sold to the American people almost exclusively through saloons. Patrons either drank their beverage in the bar or in some cases used "growlers" (large tin pails) to bring beer home from the saloon. The vast majority of saloons in America at this time were owned or controlled by breweries.  After the end of Prohibition in 1933, states passed laws regulating the sale of alcohol, inserting an intermediary between the brewer and retailer that did not exist before, known as the distributor, supplier, or wholesaler. Breweries produce the beer, distributors transport and sell it to retailers, and retailers sell it to the public. To ensure that the incentives that resulted in over-serving and corruption before Prohibition did not exist, states adopted provisions to ensure independence of manufacturing, wholesaling, and retailing in the beer industry. Delaware's Code of law states that "It shall be unlawful for a manufacturer or supplier…to own or be interested in any manner in any establishment licensed by the Commissioner to sell alcoholic liquors". This system gives the states more control over alcohol sales than before because now market participants at each of the three steps need state license to do business.

Under the three-tier system taxes could be levied at three levels of the beer distribution process. Breweries pay a federal excise tax. Distributors are taxed by the states (usually on a per volume basis), and then retailers have to pay a sales tax. While this adds much to the price of beer, it was believed higher beer prices would lead to temperance. Small breweries like this system because it ensures that large breweries cannot control the distributors and block them from the market. Tax rates vary from state to state; Tennessee taxes wholesalers on volume ($4.21 per barrel) and on sales (17% of the wholesale selling price).  A Standard and Poor analysis estimated that all the taxes levied during the manufacture, distribution, and retailing of beer adds up to 44% of the retail price.

Another issue is the deterioration of independence between the breweries and distributors. Most distributors even label themselves as "Anheuser-Busch" or "MillerCoors" distributors, and recently Anheuser-Busch InBev has strengthened incentives in its exclusivity program. While they lack the same degree of control as Pre-Prohibition times, manufacturers can still have substantial influence over what beers make it to shelves. In fact, one of the reasons InBev recently bought Anheuser-Busch was to gain access to its distribution channels. This lack of independence is especially threatening to small breweries, who claim that wholesaler independence is critical to making sure the success or failure of beer depends on consumer demand, not barriers to distribution. They would also like to see the ban lifted on contracts between brewers and wholesales, especially when they feel that incentive programs from the larger manufacturers have been getting around this ban for years.

Those pushing for a more open system of beer distribution often point to recent changes in the laws concerning wine sales. All but 11 states now allow wineries to ship directly to the consumer, cutting out the wholesale middle man. The reasoning behind these laws is that because of high shipping costs, only enthusiasts looking for high end, expensive wines are taking advantage of this method, eliminating the need for temperance-inducing increased costs. Proposals to open up laws in the remaining 11 states are opposed by distributors and retailers who claim it would hurt small business, but supported by small breweries who hope the changes may spread to the beer industry as well.

See also
 List of breweries in the United States
 List of defunct breweries in the United States
 National Beer Day (United States)

References

Bibliography

External links
 A Concise History of America's Brewing Industry, EH.Net
 Library of beer history from BeerHistory.com
 History of American Beer from Beeradvocate.com.
 Beer Judge Certification Program (BJCP) style guidelines

Beer in the United States


Marc Blank is an American game developer and software engineer.  He is best known as part of the team that created one of the first commercially successful text adventure computer games, Zork.

Career
Blank first encountered Don Woods and Will Crowther's Adventure game while he was studying at MIT in the mid-1970s, where the game was played on mainframe computers.

Blank was frustrated by the computer's tiny vocabulary; when it parsed user inputs very few words were recognized. After thinking about the problem during his undergraduate years, he started work on his own adventure game using MDL, a computer language invented at MIT. Blank and a handful of friends wrote the original version of Zork on a PDP-10 while he was attending medical school at Albert Einstein College of Medicine in New York City (he received his MD degree in 1979).

Blank graduated from medical school in 1979 but elected to continue with Zork. He and several friends spent the next year developing a specialized computer language that they could use to program text adventures like Zork on then-new microcomputers (with far less capabilities than the PDP-10). They founded the new company, Infocom, to publish the game and more like it. Aside from Zork I, II, and III, he designed Deadline, Enchanter, Fooblitzky, Border Zone, and Journey: The Quest Begins

In 1993 he founded Blank, Berlyn and Co. with former Infocom writer Michael Berlyn. The company's name was later changed to Eidetic after former Apple Employee [Russ Wetmore] joined as the third partner, to help program Notion, for the Apple Newton. Eidetic initially published productivity software for the Apple Newton. Eidetic's Notion: The Newton List Manager became a hit and was ultimately bundled in all Newtons.

Blank returned to text adventures in 1997 when Activision producer Eddie Dombrower asked Blank and Berlyn to create a small promotional game, Zork: The Undiscovered Underground, to promote the release of Activision's graphical game Zork: Grand Inquisitor.

As Newton sales slowed, Eidetic changed gears to focus on PC and PlayStation games, producing Bubsy 3D in 1996 and Syphon Filter in 1999. In 2000 Sony acquired Eidetic for an undisclosed sum.

Blank left Sony in 2004, where he focused on his email client for the Treo smartphone, ChatterEmail. On February 22, 2007, Blank announced he would no longer be "actively" working on ChatterEmail. Blank subsequently joined Palm, Inc. (who acquired ChatterEmail) and led the design and implementation of the Palm Pre's Email application. He worked in the Android group at Google from 2010 to 2012, and as a Principal Engineer at Lab126 (Amazon.com) from 2012 to 2018.

In 2013 Blank and Dave Lebling were awarded the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences Pioneer Award for their work on Zork.

References

External links
Marc Blank profile at MobyGames
Footage from interview with Blank for the documentary Get Lamp
"Decoupling Object-Oriented Languages from Wide-Area Networks in Lamport Clocks", Blank's most recent scholarly paper

1954 births
Amazon (company) people
American video game designers
American video game programmers
Google employees
Interactive fiction writers
Living people
Infocom
Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences Pioneer Award recipients

Marc Blank


Apomixis is reproduction where only one parent passes genes to the offspring. Apomictically produced offspring are genetically identical to the parent (clones).

The method is most seen in plants, especially flowering plants. Brambles (blackberry) are apomictic. Some authorities give "reproduction by special tissues without fertilisation", or "asexual formation of a seed from the maternal tissues of the ovule, avoiding meiosis and fertilization, leading to embryo development".

Apomixis includes some methods which are more common in animals, such as parthenogenesis.

In botany, apomixis was defined by Hans Winkler as the replacement of the normal sexual reproduction by asexual reproduction, without fertilization.

Horticulture methods, such as propagation from cuttings or leaves, is not apomixis. Natural replacement of the seed by an asexual method is apomixis.

References

Genetics
Methods of reproduction

Apomixis


Aidonia (born Sheldon Lawrence, 6 April 1981) is a Jamaican dancehall and reggae artist from Kingston, Jamaica. He became active in early 2004, and has released albums on the record labels, VP Records and Jag One Productions.

Aidonia has also released in the mixtape "Bolt Action", in collaboration with Federation Sound, Equiknoxx Music/Jerusalem Music and Business Class. The mixtape utilizes classic hip-hop instrumentals with Aidonia's lyrical melodies overlaying and features artistes Chino, Lil Joe, and fellow JOP label-mate, Govana (formerly Deablo)

Life and career

Born Sheldon Aitana Ricardo Lawrence in Kingston, Jamaica, Aidonia is the second of four children for his mother, who was a teacher, and his father, an ex-soldier. He took his stage name from the first two letters in his middle name 'Aitana', and 'Donia', a name which he earned while playing football.

Aidonia attended Mona Heights Primary, then Meadowbrook High. After watching a tape of Sting 1993 with the clash between Beenie Man, and his icon Bounty Killer, Aidonia decided to become a deejay.

He began re-enacting the clash for classmates and friends, writing his own lyrics and formed the JAG1 (Jah A Guide)(JOP) crew with friends.

After being expelled, he relocated to the United States with his father and worked at FedEx. For the next three years, he visited Jamaica regularly and did a few 'minor' things on the dancehall scene in New York. While in New York, he was encouraged by some to return to Jamaica in order to get his career going.

He met Mr. G (then known as Goofy) and recorded his first single 'Many a Dem' in October 2003 on Goofy's Young Blood label. Soon after, he began working with Rod Pinnock of Orizen Entertainment, and in early 2004, he became a performer at a weekly event called "Battle Thursdays".

In the latter part of 2004, Aidonia was approached by Cordell "Skatta"' Burrell who invited him to record at his studio. Two months later, Aidonia had his first hit, the song "Lolly" which was done on Skatta's Irish Dance riddim. In October 2005 "Lolly" was included on VP Records' annual Strictly The Best (Volume 33) compilation.

In 2011 Artiste Aidonia has recently started pushing forward his J.O.P members Govana, Shokryme, Jayds, Tanso, Size 10. The group has had a few hit collabs such as "All 14", and "Run Road.

In 2013 Aidonia had a son with fiancé Kimberly Megan and the two married in September 2016.

On his birthday on April 6, 2020 Aidonia released his Dats a Trap mixtape featuring 17 tracks.

References

1981 births
Living people
Musicians from Kingston, Jamaica
21st-century Jamaican male singers
Jamaican reggae musicians
Reggae fusion artists
Jamaican male songwriters
Jamaican record producers
Converts to the Rastafari movement

Aidonia


Anderson Ruffin Abbott (7 April 1837 – 29 December 1913)  was the first Black Canadian to be licensed as a physician. His career included participation in the American Civil War. Significant roles included coroner of Kent County, Ontario, and surgeon-in-chief.

Early life
Anderson Abbott was born on 7 April 1837 in Toronto to Wilson Ruffin and Mary Ellen Toyer Abbott.  His parents were Americans of African ancestry. The Abbotts were a prominent Black family in Toronto, who had left Alabama—as free people of colour—after receiving a warning that their store was to be ransacked.  After first living a short time in New York, they settled in Upper Canada in 1835 or 1836.  Wilson Abbott soon began to purchase real estate, in and around Toronto, where he owned 48 properties by 1871.  The senior Abbott also became active in politics.

The family's prosperity allowed Anderson Abbott to receive an excellent education.  He attended both private and public schools, including William King's school, in the black Elgin settlement (now North Buxton, Ontario).  He was an honour student at the Toronto Academy and later attended Oberlin College in Ohio.  He returned to Canada and in 1857, entered University College in Toronto and in 1858, became a medical student at the Toronto School of Medicine. He studied under Alexander Thomas Augusta, a black physician who was born in the U.S. Although he did not graduate, Abbott received a licence to practise from the Medical Board of Upper Canada, in 1861, thus becoming the first Canadian-born Black physician.

Dr. Abbott was part of the medical team that tended the fatally wounded American president Abraham Lincoln on the night of April 14–15, 1865. He kept a detailed record of Lincoln's deteriorating condition and eventual death.

Legacy
In 1866, Abbott resigned from service to the Union Army and returned to Canada.  He attended primary medical classes at the University of Toronto the following year.  While he did not graduate, he established a medical practice and was admitted to the College of Physicians and Surgeons of Ontario in 1871.  In an Anglican wedding ceremony in Toronto on 9 August 1871, he married Mary Ann Casey, the 18-year-old daughter of a successful Black barber.  Abbott and his wife moved to Chatham where he resumed his medical practice.  They eventually had three daughters and two sons.

Like his father, Abbott soon became an important member of the Black community in Toronto.  From 1873 to 1880, he fought against racially segregated schools as president of the Wilberforce Educational Institute and was appointed coroner for Kent County, Ontario, in 1874, the first Black man to hold that office.  Abbott contributed to  a local newspaper, the Chatham Planet, and was associate editor of the Missionary Messenger, the journal of the local British Methodist Episcopal Church.  Abbott was made president of both the Chatham Literary and Debating Society and the Chatham Medical Society in 1878.  Abbott moved his medical practice to Dundas, Ontario, in 1881 where he also served in some important community roles including trustee of that community's high school and chairman of the town's internal management committee  from 1885 to 1889.  He also worked as an administrator for the Dundas Mechanics' Institute.

The family moved to Oakville, Ontario in 1889 but returned to Toronto the following year.  He was elected a member of the local post of the Grand Army of the Republic and one of 273 Civil War veterans in Toronto to wear the badge of that fraternity.  He was then known as "Captain Abbott", a rank which might reflect his office within the Grand Army of the Republic rather than his actual rank during the American Civil War. In November 1892, Abbott was appointed aide-de-camp on the Staff of the Commanding Officers Dept. of New York. A source of great pride for Abbott and his family, this was the highest military honour ever bestowed on a Black person in Canada or the United States.

In 1894, Abbott was appointed surgeon-in-chief at Provident Hospital in Chicago, the first training hospital for Black nurses in the United States.  He became the hospital's medical superintendent In 1896 but resigned the following year.  Returning to Toronto, Abbott resumed his private practice and became more involved with writing for various publications including The Colored American Magazine of Boston and New York, the Anglo-American Magazine of London  (for which he wrote "Some recollections of Lincoln's assassination"), and New York Age.  Medicine, Black history, the Civil War, Darwinism, biology, and poetry were among his topics.

Later life
At the turn of the century Abbott became embroiled in the debate between W. E. B. Du Bois and Booker T. Washington over social change.  Siding with Du Bois, Abbott believed that Black access to higher education was essential and should not be compromised.  Believing that blacks would be culturally assimilated, Abbott wrote: "It is just as natural for two races living together on the same soil to blend as it is for the waters of two river tributaries to mingle."  With Canada's black population on the decline, he thought this was especially true in his own country and wrote "by the process of absorption and expatriation the colour line will eventually fade out in Canada".

Death
Anderson Ruffin Abbott died in 1913, at the age of 76, in the Toronto home of his son-in-law, Frederick Langdon Hubbard, (Toronto Transportation Commission Chairman from 1929 to 1930, and son of his long-time friend William Peyton Hubbard).  He is buried in the Toronto Necropolis. Anderson Ruffin Abbott's archival fonds was donated to the Toronto Public Library by his daughter Grace (Abbott) Hubbard in 1963. A portion of it has been digitized and is available online through the Toronto Public Library, while the rest can be found as part of the Baldwin Collection of Canadiana at Toronto Reference Library.

Abbott's home at 119 Dowling Avenue, also known as Dr. Anderson Ruffin Abbott House, was where he lived from 1890 to 1903.

References

Further reading

Slaney, Catherine (2002). Family secrets: crossing the colour line . Toronto, ON: Dundurn Press.

External links

 Anderson Ruffin Abbott archival papers held at the Toronto Reference Library Baldwin Collection of Canadiana Manuscripts

1837 births
1913 deaths
Union Army surgeons
People associated with the assassination of Abraham Lincoln
Black Canadian scientists
Canadian military doctors
Canadian people of the American Civil War
Canadian people of African-American descent
Canadian people of American descent
Canadian people of Ulster-Scottish descent
Oberlin College alumni
People from Old Toronto
Pre-Confederation Ontario people
University of Toronto alumni
Canadian coroners
Grand Army of the Republic officials
Burials at Toronto Necropolis

Anderson Ruffin Abbott


Chandrani Mukherjee is a former Bollywood playback singer, she is a sister-in-law of Bappi Lahiri from West Bengal and a Filmfare nominee.

Chandrani began her career in Bollywood with the film Aag Aur Toofan in 1975. Thereafter she sang in a couple of films until her swan song in Aaj Kie Aurat (1993).  She was nominated for the Filmfare Best Female Playback Award thrice though she never won it.

Notable songs
 Paisa Do Paisa [Album: Hamaara Sansaar];
 Aankhon Se Girana Na [Album: Suhaagan];
 Solah Shukrawar Bidhi Anusar - 2 [Album: Solah Shukrawar];
 Yeh Kaisa Suraj Hai [Album: Solah Shukrawar];
 Mil Jaye Jo Tu [Album: Yeh Preet Na Hogi Kam];
 Dil Mila Le O Abdulla [Album: Jaan-E-Bahaar];
 Jai Jai Ho Teri Jai Jai Ho Maa [Album: Hare Krishna];
 Chori Chori Kahan Chala [Album: Nain Mile Chain Kahan];
 O Re Sajanwa.... [Album: Pyasi Nadi]
 Bahut Kala Savera Hai [Album: Faqeer Badshah];
 Bapuji Bapuji [Album: Kasam];
 Dil Toot Gaya Hai Apna [Album: Anokha Insaan];
 Shankar Bhole-Bhale [Album: Shiv Shakti];
 Pehchan To Thi Pehchana Nahin [Album: Griha Pravesh];
 Jai Jagdambe Mata [Album: Bharat Ki Santan];
 Mummy Daddy Ka Pyar [Album: Kanoon Meri Mutthi Mein];
 Nain Teri Jyoti [Album: Dushmano Ka Dushman]
 Bhoola Dete Agar [Album: Bandhan Pheron Ke];
 How Are You Munni Bai [Album: Laalach]
 Jhoothe Ber Khane Shabri [Album: Poster];
 Uthe Huonko Zamaane Mein Sab Uthaate Hain [Meri Izzat Bachao];
 Ujad Gaya Ghar Ek Nirdhan Ka [Meri Izzat Bachao];
 Tu Man Ki Ati Bhori O Maiya Mori Tu Man [Gopal Krishna];
 Sun Sun Sun O Mere Manmeet Ho [Atyachar];
 Pyaar Ki Pyaasi Zulm Ki Maari [Main Khilona Nahin];
 Nazar Aati Nahin Manzil Tadapne Se Bhi Kya Haasil [Kaanch Aur Heera];
 Na Samjha Hai Koi Na Samjhega Yaaron [Yeh Kaisa Nasha Hai];
 Mere Mehboob Shaayad Aaj Kuchh Naaraaz Hain Mujhse [Kitne Paas Kitne Door];
 Main Aankhen Moond Ke So Jaaoon [Kamana]
 Lutate Dekho Na Are Dekhnewaalo Mujhko [Bistar];
 Logon Ka Kya Hai Woh Yoohi Jalenge [Yeh Kaisa Nasha Hai];
 Kaleja Thaam Ke Kar Rahe [Main Khilona Nahin];
 Kaise Bataaun Main Tujhko Achchha Lage Piya Mujhko Tera Saath [Yeh Kaisa Nasha Hai];
 Jisne Bachaayi Meri Laaj [Jai Baba Amarnath];
 Jehi Vidhi Raakhe Raam Tohi Vidhi Rahiye [Shiksha];
 Jaan Le Pe Jab Tu Aamaad Ho Gaya, "Is Ishq Mohabbat Ki" [Zulm Ki Pukar];
 Hain Vaadiyaan Dilnashi Har Tamanna Hai Jawaan [Dimple];
 Geet Hai Yeh Zindagi Gun Gunaate Aur Gaate Chale Chalo [Jivan Rekha];
 Ganga Jee Ki Lahron Pe Diyaara Bahe [Payal Ki Zankar];
 Dil Aaj Bahut Khush Hai Dildaar Tujhe Pa Ke [Aag Aur Toofan];
 Dekho Sar Pe Hain Do Shing [HumKadam];
 Chaahnewaala Jise Tere Jaisa Mila Jaaye Meri Jaan Kehke Loge [Pyasi Nadi];
 Bhar De Ae Mere Maula Jholi Hai Khaali [Meri Izzat Bachao];
 Aap Agar Aap Na Hote To Bhala Kya Hote [Grih Pravesh];
 Koi bhi dil main naa aaya tha [Laparwah]
 Aankhon Mein Hain Aansooon Hothon Par Hansi [Tere Pyar Mein]; and,
 Aaja Ki Teri Raah Mein Palke Bichha Ke Ham [Lalach]

Award and nominations

|-
| 1981
| "Pehchan To Thi" (Griha Pravesh)
| rowspan="3"|Filmfare Award for Best Female Playback Singer.
|
|-
| 1982
| "Mohabbat Rang Layegi" (Poonam)
|
|-
| 1984
| "Aaja Ki Teri Raahon Mein" (Lal Chunariya)
|
|}

References

Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
Bollywood playback singers
Indian women playback singers
Singers from West Bengal
Women musicians from West Bengal
20th-century Indian singers
20th-century Indian women singers

Chandrani Mukherjee