The University of Nebraska–Lincoln (Nebraska or UNL) is a public land-grant research university in Lincoln, Nebraska, United States. Chartered in 1869 by the Nebraska Legislature as part of the Morrill Act of 1862, the school was known as the University of Nebraska until 1968, when it absorbed the Municipal University of Omaha to form the University of Nebraska system. It is the state's oldest university and the flagship institution of the state-wide system. The university has been governed by the Board of Regents since 1871, whose members are elected by district to six-year terms.

The university is organized into nine colleges: Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources, Architecture, Arts and Sciences, Business, Education and Human Sciences, Engineering, Fine and Performing Arts, Journalism and Mass Communications, and Law. UNL offers over two hundred degrees across its undergraduate, graduate, and doctoral programs. The school also offers programs through the University of Nebraska Omaha College of Public Affairs and Community Service, the University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Dentistry and College of Nursing, and the Peter Kiewit Institute, which is managed in partnership with the Kiewit Corporation.

Nebraska is considered to have "very high research activity" based on the Carnegie Classification. According to the National Science Foundation, Nebraska spent $320 million on research and development in 2020. Between its three campus locations (City Campus, East Campus, and Nebraska Innovation Campus) the university has over one hundred classroom buildings and research facilities. The university's enrollment is 19,552 undergraduate students and 4,879 graduate students, with 1,595 full-time or part-time instructional faculty. Undergraduate admission to the school is considered "more selective."

Nebraska's athletic programs, known as the Cornhuskers, compete in NCAA Division I and are a member of the Big Ten Conference. UNL's football team has won forty-six conference championships and claims five national championships, with an additional nine unclaimed. Twenty-five former Cornhuskers have been inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame. A total of 111 former Nebraska student-athletes have combined to win fifty-four Olympic medals, including sixteen gold medals. Among approximately 300,000 Nebraska alumni are three Nobel laureates, four Pulitzer Prize winners, one Turing Award winner, and twenty-two Rhodes Scholars.

History

Rise to Western prominence
The University of Nebraska was created by an act of the Nebraska Legislature in 1869, two years after Nebraska was admitted into the Union as the thirty-seventh state. The law described the new university's aims: "The object of such institution shall be to afford to the inhabitants of the state the means of acquiring a thorough knowledge of the various branches of literature, science, and the arts." The school received an initial federal land grant of about  through the Morrill Act of 1862. Public opinion on the new school was split; many argued the state did not need a university as it did not even have a state-wide high school system, and others suggested any public university should be church-controlled, which was typical of eastern colleges at the time.

Campus construction began in September 1869 when the cornerstone of University Hall was laid at the corner of 11th and S Streets. Though the building was very large, expensive, and ornate, it was made of low-quality materials and required a foundation repair before hosting a single class. By 1871, the university welcomed its inaugural class of twenty collegiate students and 110 preparatory students, and in 1873 offered its first degrees to graduating students. A school newspaper, Monthly Hesperian Student (later The Hesperian, now The Daily Nebraskan), was quickly established and the University of Nebraska State Museum (now Morrill Hall) opened in University Hall. In its early years, the University of Nebraska was modest in terms of enrollment, budget, and stature. The school's development was slowed by a mid-1870s grasshopper swarm that devastated the state's economy and caused UNL's first chancellor, Allen R. Benton, to resign. Benton's successor, Edmund Burke Fairfield, led a contentious tenure highlighted by clashes over the place of religion in higher education. Under Fairfield's watch, the University of Nebraska hired its first female faculty member, Ellen Smith (Smith Hall, built on campus in 1967 as a student residence hall, is named in her honor). Smith's hire highlighted the young university's relatively diverse group of students and faculty; this was done deliberately by the board of regents, which hoped to boost the school's enrollment and the city's population through immigration.

Like University Hall, many early buildings were poorly and cheaply constructed, and not until James Hulme Canfield became chancellor in 1891 were any significant infrastructure upgrades made. The forward-thinking, enthusiastic Canfield was a sharp contrast to the conservative, traditional leaders before him. He began an aggressive remodeling and expansion of many university buildings, often overseeing construction himself. Among these was University Library (now Architecture Hall), which was built in 1895 and is the oldest building on campus. Canfield worked to make the high school-to-college transition as easy as possible for Nebraskans and traversed the state tirelessly to encourage students from all backgrounds to consider higher education. By the time Canfield resigned in July 1895 to return to his native Ohio, enrollment had nearly quadrupled. Shortly after his departure the school established its College of Law and School of Agriculture.

The University of Nebraska's football program played its first game in 1890, but did not have a full-time head coach until hiring Frank Crawford in 1894. Nebraska State Journal (now Lincoln Journal Star) writer Cy Sherman began referring to the team as the Cornhuskers in 1899, and the nickname was officially adopted the following year.

A new century and The Great War

As the twentieth century began, the university attempted to balance its identity as both a pragmatic, frontier establishment and an academic, intellectual institution. In addition to its football team, several noteworthy campus organizations were founded around this time, including a debate team, the school's first fraternities and sororities, and the Society of Innocents (more commonly known as the Innocents Society). Much of this new growth was attributed to the hiring of Brown University president Elisha Andrews; under his guidance Nebraska became the fifth-largest public university in the United States. Andrews ambitiously sought funding for expansion; a 1904 investment from John D. Rockefeller led to the construction of The Temple, which still stands on campus. In total, nine new buildings were constructed during his tenure, including Nebraska Field, and the school nearly doubled in enrollment. Shortly after Andrews retired due to health concerns, a fierce debate ensued over whether to keep the University of Nebraska in downtown Lincoln or to move it out of town. A relocation to the outskirts of Lincoln would allow for cheaper, quicker expansion and provide farmland for the College of Agriculture. New chancellor Samuel Avery favored this relocation, believing it would make alcohol-seeking students less likely to visit downtown Lincoln or nearby Havelock (then a separate city from Lincoln). Ultimately, a statewide vote determined the university would remain in its original location, with funding prioritized for additional buildings on the Farm Campus (now East Campus).

When the United States joined World War I in April 1917, students from Nebraska's extensive Reserve Officers' Training Corps (ROTC) program were called into service. UNL's ROTC was led by John J. Pershing during his time as a professor of military science and tactics in the 1890s; during World War I, Pershing commanded the American Expeditionary Forces and became the only person to hold the rank General of the Armies of the United States during his own lifetime. Because of his chemical expertise, Avery was asked to join the U.S. Chemical Warfare Service in Washington, D.C., and during his absence the Board of Regents conducted "loyalty trials" against twelve faculty members accused of anti-American sentiment (all were exonerated of criminal activity, though a few were forced to resign for conduct detrimental to the university's reputation). Like most colleges across the United States, enrollment at UNL plummeted as a result of the war. Nebraska was put in a particularly difficult position given the state and university's reliance on agriculture, which was slow to recover in the post-war years.

Many at Nebraska wished to construct an on-campus memorial dedicated to those lost in The Great War. UNL built Nebraska Field in 1909, but its wooden construction and limited seating capacity meant that after less than ten years there was significant momentum toward the building of a larger steel-and-concrete stadium. The abrupt departure of highly successful head coach Ewald O. Stiehm temporarily slowed this momentum, but by the early 1920s, with "the present athletic field as inadequate now as the old one was in 1907," the university began plans to build a new stadium on the site of Nebraska Field. The new stadium project was initially conceived as a combination gymnasium-stadium-war museum complex to be called the "Nebraska Soldiers and Sailors Memorial." Due to the slow post-war economy, the scope of the project was decreased to just a football stadium (though the Nebraska Coliseum was completed three years later). When the fundraising target amount of $450,000 had been met, a groundbreaking ceremony was held on April 23, 1923. Construction was completed on the 31,000-seat stadium in just over ninety days, in time for UNL's first home game of the 1923 season, a 24–0 win over Oklahoma on October 13. Memorial Stadium was dedicated the following week to honor Nebraskans who served in the American Civil War, the Spanish–American War, and World War I. Later, the dedication was expanded to honor Nebraskans who died in World War II, the Korean War, and the Vietnam War.

The Great Depression into World War II

Avery retired in 1928 and dean of agriculture Edgar A. Burnett was named chancellor. The following year, the United States plunged into the Great Depression and the Great Plains were struck by the Dust Bowl; an agriculture-dependent state, Nebraska was hit hard in the early 1930s as crop prices fell to all-time lows. By 1932, the University of Nebraska was forced to institute a five-percent cut to maintenance and a ten-percent cut to all faculty salaries, including Burnett. A lengthy, bitter fight for funding between the Board of Regents and Nebraska Legislature lasted most of 1933, with the state initially suggesting an across-the-board budget reduction of over twenty percent, in addition to the cuts that had already been made, to prioritize funding for farmers. The Board of Regents desperately campaigned to alumni and voters for support in the budget fight and was ultimately able to negotiate a more modest set of cuts for the 1933 and 1934 fiscal years. A slight recovery in crop prices before the next round of university funding in 1935 meant the state was willing to raise UNL's budget back to what it was early in the Depression. In response to the lack of available state funds throughout the Depression, the University of Nebraska Foundation was established in 1937 to serve as the school's primary fundraising arm.

The lack of funding, reduction in salaries, and cancellation of many university events caused a sense of general tension between administration, faculty, and students throughout most of the decade. Though he took a salary cut himself, Burnett became distrusted by the faculty, and his reputation never fully recovered. He resigned in 1938, the same year Nebraska's student union opened on the corner of 14th and R Streets.

The Board of Regents selected West Virginia University president Chauncey Samuel Boucher to replace Burnett. The Depression was still unfolding, and in response to a rising level of failing students at the university, Boucher instituted UNL's first admission standards. At the outset of World War II in Europe, Boucher urged neutrality among students and faculty; even after the United States entered the war, he encouraged the university to "carry on" as normal. However, plummeting enrollment and intense national fervor meant the school could not stay "neutral" for long, and began offering vacant university buildings to the United States Army for training and shelter. Nebraska soon joined the Army Specialized Training Program and the campus became disorganized and chaotic as soldiers "studied very casually while in residence" before being deployed overseas. More than 13,000 soldiers received language, medical, or engineering training before the program was shut down in 1944 to allow for the opening of Love Library, which had been used as a barracks.

Many new classes and programs were offered throughout the 1940s, most of them in the medical and engineering fields. Following the end of the war, the school experienced an enormous influx of students, many of which were returning veterans seeking an education as part of the G.I. Bill, which offered them free tuition and housing assistance. The average soldier was older than the average college student, and thus the rate of drinking on campus (Nebraska remains a dry campus in principle to this day) increased significantly. Many older students were married with children, and the lack of adequate infrastructure on campus (specifically parking) culminated in a student riot in 1948. New chancellor Reuben Gustavson was understanding of the pranks and "tomfoolery" on his campus during the post-war years, and he became well-liked by the students. Gustavson was crucial to a number of post-war developments, including the integration of campus dormitories and the planning of the school's medical center (now the University of Nebraska Medical Center).

A new university system in transition

By the mid-1950s, the University of Nebraska's enrollment surpassed 18,000, nearly triple what it was before the war. New dormitories were constructed and the Nebraska Center for Continuing Education (now Hardin Hall) was established on Farm Campus to provide adequate living accommodations for the growing student body. Around this time, University of Chicago dean of agriculture Clifford M. Hardin was selected as Nebraska's twelfth chancellor; at thirty-eight, Hardin was the youngest university president in the country. Though not an avid fan of the sport himself, Hardin prioritized the re-establishment of Nebraska as a national football power and attempted to hire high-profile head coach Duffy Daugherty from Michigan State. Daugherty declined, but suggested Hardin contact Wyoming head coach Bob Devaney. Over the next forty years, Devaney and his successor Tom Osborne created one of college football's great dynasties, claiming five national championships between them. Hardin later said that after the Depression, he "felt the state needed something to rally around."

University television network NETV (later Nebraska Educational Telecommunications, now Nebraska Public Media) was created in 1954, broadcasting over ninety hours of programming weekly. The station proved so popular, especially among rural towns, that schools and city councils raised money to purchase three new transmitters and boost the broadcast's strength and range. The facilities for the new network were constructed on Farm Campus, which had grown considerably by the 1960s. It was home to more than just agricultural programs, including the College of Law, College of Dentistry, and Center for Hearing and Speech Disorders. To reflect this, it was renamed East Campus, given its location a mile east of the downtown campus.

By the 1950s, the Municipal University of Omaha (now the University of Nebraska Omaha) was run-down and inadequately funded, threatening the existence of the school entirely. The Nebraska Legislature, faced with the prospect of its most-populous city not having a major institute of higher learning of any kind, decided to merge the Municipal University with the larger University of Nebraska to form a state-wide university system and offer the Omaha school additional budget pools to draw from. The University of Nebraska Medical Center, located in Omaha, was separated from the Lincoln school and brought under the direction of the new state-wide system. Hardin was named the first chancellor of the University of Nebraska system in 1968 and served for two years before being named United States Secretary of Agriculture under President Richard Nixon. During his tenure, Hardin was praised among faculty for his dedication to increasing salaries and benefits, as Nebraska faculty were among the most well-compensated in the Midwest. Just as Gustavson before him, Hardin's administration prioritized federal grant money as a way to build UNL's research profile without relying on state funding.

When Hardin took control of the state-wide system, he appointed his longtime colleague Joseph Soshnik to run what had become the University of Nebraska–Lincoln. Soshnik's tenure began in the midst of a transition for the universities of Nebraska, as well as a period of turmoil across many United States campuses as students protested American involvement in the Vietnam War. At Nebraska, this included a student takeover of the ROTC building on May 4, 1970, when a crowd of nearly two thousand protesters and onlookers gathered on campus hours after the Kent State shootings. Administration responded to protests by meeting and negotiating with student leaders, and as a result, no Vietnam War protests at the University of Nebraska–Lincoln became violent or required a National Guard intervention. Student leaders later praised Soshnik and anti-war professor Paul Olson for maintaining communication and allowing students to "vent their frustrations." Minor protests were held in January 1971 when President Richard Nixon visited Lincoln to honor the school's national championship-winning football team. Nebraska won its second consecutive national title the following year, in the process defeating archrival Oklahoma 35–31 in what was dubbed "The Game of the Century".

The university completed several large-scale construction projects throughout the late 1980s. Nebraska's student recreation accommodations were among the worst in the region, and thus a new recreation center attached to the Nebraska Coliseum was funded by the University of Nebraska Foundation; it began construction in 1987 and the third and final phase was completed in 1992. The Honors Program (later expanded to include the Raikes School of Computer Science and Management) was established, and the school's first computer lab was completed in 1985 in the Selleck Quadrangle. The eight-million dollar Lied Center for Performing Arts finished construction in 1990.

Modern stability and move to the Big Ten

When longtime chancellor Martin Massengale was appointed president of the university system in 1991, the Board of Regents named Oregon State University provost Graham Spanier as his successor. Spanier quickly resolved Nebraska's six-million dollar budget shortfall while raising admission standards. Upon the retirement of Bob Devaney as athletic director in 1992, Spanier defied the wishes of Tom Osborne and hired Bill Byrne as Devaney's replacement. Osborne's program, however, was incredibly successful during Spanier's tenure, compiling a record of 45–4 and winning two national championships across four seasons. Shortly after the second of these championships, backup quarterback Brook Berringer was killed in a plane crash days before the NFL Draft, where he was projected to be a mid-round pick. Berringer, a Nebraska native, endeared himself to fans when filling in for injured starter Tommie Frazier in 1994. The university erected a statue of Osborne and Berringer at Memorial Stadium. Osborne won another national championship in 1997, his third as a head coach, before retiring and naming longtime assistant Frank Solich his replacement. Spanier left in 1996 to become president of Pennsylvania State University, where he served until 2011 when he resigned following the Penn State child sex abuse scandal. Spanier was sentenced to two months in prison for his role in the scandal.

In 2008, the state of Nebraska voted to move the Nebraska State Fair from Lincoln, where it had been held since 1950, to Grand Island. The  site was turned over to the university, which began construction of Nebraska Innovation Campus (NIC) in 2012. The goal was for one-third of the development to be operated by UNL, with the remaining two-thirds privately rented; though initial progress was slow, the facility now has over forty full-time tenants.

Nebraska announced on June 11, 2010, it would end its affiliation with the Big 12 Conference and accept an invitation to join the Big Ten. It was the university's first major conference transition since joining the Missouri Valley Intercollegiate Athletic Association (later the Big Eight) in 1921. Shortly after joining the Big Ten, Nebraska constructed or significantly renovated most of its major athletic facilities. A $63.5-million overhaul of East Stadium added six thousand seats and thirty-eight luxury boxes to Memorial Stadium; the Bob Devaney Sports Center, primarily a basketball venue from its opening in 1976 until 2013, was outfitted for use by Nebraska's volleyball program; and Pinnacle Bank Arena was constructed in downtown Lincoln.

In 2011, Nebraska was removed as a member of the Association of American Universities, an organization of research universities of which it had been a member since 1908. Nebraska ranked near the bottom of many AAU criteria due largely to the university's extensive USDA-funded agricultural research, which was not considered by the AAU because it was not awarded by peer-reviewed grants; and because Nebraska's medical center was a separate institution whose research funding was not under the auspices of the Lincoln campus. When the Big Ten expanded in 2010, all of its schools were members, and chancellor Harvey Perlman questioned whether Nebraska would have been invited to the conference were it not an AAU member.

During Perlman's tenure, the school's research expenditures reached $284 million, an all-time high, and enrollment increased by over ten percent. However, Perlman acknowledged that many fans remember him by the failures of Nebraska's previously powerful football program, which did not win a conference title while he was chancellor. In Perlman's sixteen years, Nebraska fired four football head coaches and two athletic directors. He retired to return to teaching at the College of Law in 2016 and Ronnie D. Green was named his successor before retiring on June 30, 2023. Rodney D. Bennett assumed the chancellorship on July 1, 2023.

Organization and administration

Board of Regents
The University of Nebraska system is governed by the board of regents, a twelve-member panel consisting of eight voting members and a non-voting student body president from each campus. Voting members are elected by district to six-year terms; elections are held in even-numbered years. The board of regents meets at Varner Hall on East Campus and supervises the operation, expenditures, and tuition rates of each university in the system.

The board of regents was established by Nebraska State Constitution Article VII-10, which states "The general government of the University of Nebraska shall... be vested in a board of not less than six nor more than eight regents, who shall be elected from and by districts as herein provided and three students of the University of Nebraska who shall serve as nonvoting members." Nebraska is one of four states with public university governing boards elected directly by the people.

President

The president of the University of Nebraska system is appointed by and reports to the board of regents. The position was created in 1968 when the Municipal University of Omaha and the University of Nebraska Medical Center were absorbed into the University of Nebraska to create a state-wide system. Clifford M. Hardin was the first president and Ronald Roskens was the longest-tenured. Ted Carter was named Nebraska's eighth full-time president on January 1, 2020.

Chancellor

The chancellor of the University of Nebraska–Lincoln is appointed by the Board of Regents and reports to the president of the University of Nebraska system. The position was created in 1871, shortly after the school was founded. Allen R. Benton was the first chancellor and Samuel Avery was the longest-tenured. Rodney D. Bennett was named as the priority candidate for Nebraska's twenty-first full-time chancellor on May 22, 2023 and underwent a 30-day public vetting period. The board of regents unanimously approved Bennett's appointment on June 22, 2023, and he assumed the role on July 1, 2023.

Student government
The Nebraska student government was established in 1919 as the Student Council, and a constitution was adopted four years later. This constitution was revised in 1965 and the Student Council became the Association of Students of the University of Nebraska (ASUN). ASUN is structured after the United States government, consisting of an executive, legislative, and judicial branch. A president and two vice-presidents are elected each academic year by a popular vote of the general student body; the president serves on the Board of Regents as a non-voting member. At the end of each academic year, the outgoing president appoints seven students to form the student court for the upcoming school year. Thirty-five representatives are elected by department to serve in the student senate. Jake Drake was elected Nebraska's student body  president on March 2, 2022.

ASUN has thirteen committees: the Academic Committee, Appointments Board, Campus and Life Safety Committee, Committee for Fee Allocations, Communications Committee, Diversity and Inclusion Committee, Environmental Leadership Program, Environmental Sustainability Committee, Freshmen Campus Leadership Associates, Government Liaison Committee, Green Fund Selection Committee, Student Services Committee, and Technology Fee Committee. ASUN governs over four hundred student organizations on campus.

Colleges

The university has nine colleges, combining to offer more than 150 undergraduate majors, twenty pre-professional programs, and one hundred graduate programs. UNL offers additional programs at its campus from other University of Nebraska institutions, including the University of Nebraska Omaha College of Public Affairs and Community Service, the University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Dentistry and College of Nursing, and the Peter Kiewit Institute, which is managed in partnership with the Kiewit Corporation.

College of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources

The Board of Regents established the School of Agriculture in 1877 as part of the Industrial College, three years after the university was founded. Agricultural buildings were built on the outskirts of town given the lack of available farmland in downtown Lincoln, and this area came to be known as Farm Campus. The school received a boost when the Second Morrill Act was passed by the United States Congress in 1890, providing annual funds for land-grant research universities to support agricultural departments. In 1909 it was separated from the Industrial College as the College of Agriculture. The department was renamed the College of Agriculture Sciences and Natural Resources (CASNR) in 1990. Farm Campus has since become East Campus and is no longer on the outskirts of Lincoln as the area around it has developed, but is still home to most CASNR buildings. The college maintains rural facilities across the state of Nebraska for research purposes. It offers one of eighteen PGA Golf Management degree programs in the United States.

College of Architecture

Nebraska offered its first architecture course in 1894 and established the Department of Architecture in 1930. The department did not become the College of Agriculture until 1973, by which time the University Library, the oldest building on campus, had become Architecture Hall. In 1987, Architecture Hall was connected to the former Law College building, significantly expanding the space available to the college.

College of Arts and Sciences

The College of Arts and Sciences, established with the university itself in 1869, is the oldest college at Nebraska. It is also the largest, offering sixty degree programs to over five thousand undergraduate students.

College of Business

Nebraska's school of commerce was founded in 1913 and became the College of Business Administration in 1919. The college was one of seventeen charter members of the Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business in 1916 and has since received accreditation in accounting as well. It is one of thirty-six United States business schools affiliated with the CFA Institute. In 2017, the College of Business opened Howard L. Hawks Hall, an $84 million, 240,000-square-foot facility named in honor of Omaha businessman and former UNL Regent Howard Hawks. With over four thousand undergraduate students, it is UNL's second-largest college.

College of Education and Human Sciences

The College of Education and Human Sciences (CEHS) was established in 2003 when the College of Human Resources and Family Sciences was merged with Teachers College. The department offers a degree in Textile History and operates the International Quilt Museum on East Campus, which houses the largest public collection of quilts in the world. In 2020, Mabel Lee Hall was demolished to clear the site for the construction of Carolyn Pope Edwards Hall; upon its completion, scheduled prior to the 2022–23 academic year, the new building will house CEHS.

College of Engineering

The Industrial College was founded in 1872 and began offering engineering classes in 1877. In 1909, it was split into the College of Engineering and the College of Agriculture. The Mechanical Arts Building (later Stout Hall) was completed in 1898 and served as the College of Engineering's primary home for nearly eighty years. What became Nebraska Hall was purchased from the Elgin National Watch Company in 1958 and UNL relocated most of its engineering programs there in 1971. The college absorbed the engineering department from the University of Nebraska Omaha in 1970; though the Omaha campus has its own facilities, its degree programs, faculty, and funding come from Lincoln and its students are considered part of the Lincoln university. In 2019, the college began a $170-million expansion and remodel of most of its Lincoln facilities.

In conjunction with the Kiewit Corporation, the College of Engineering runs the Peter Kiewit Institute (PKI) in Omaha. PKI houses the original Holland Computing Center, which opened a second location in Lincoln in 2007. The college also operates the Midwest Roadside Safety Facility, which researches highway design and safety and in 2002 created the SAFER barrier for use on high-speed racetracks.

Hixson-Lied College of Fine and Performing Arts

The College of Fine and Performing Arts was established in 1993 upon the completion of the Lied Center for Performing Arts. The center, and later the college, are named for donor Christina Hixson and the Lied Foundation Trust.

College of Journalism and Mass Communications

Will Owen Jones, later the editor of the Nebraska State Journal (now Lincoln Journal Star), taught Nebraska's first journalism class in 1894. A School of Journalism was created three decades later. When the university founded NETV (now Nebraska Public Media) in 1954 and KRNU in 1970, the journalism college offered broadcasting classes for opportunities in both television and radio. The college is one of six journalism schools in the United States that participates in the Dow Jones News Fund editing internship program and one of eleven selected for the Carnegie-Knight Initiative on the Future of Journalism Education. Though The Daily Nebraskan and The DailyER are independent of the College of Journalism and Mass Communications, most of the papers' writers are journalism students.

College of Law

The Central Law College was founded as a private entity in 1888 and integrated into the University of Nebraska three years later as the Law College (now the College of Law). Roscoe Pound, one of the foremost proponents of legal realism in the United States and later the dean of Harvard Law School, led the department from 1903 to 1907. It was one of twenty-five charter members of the Association of American Law Schools and is accredited by the American Bar Association.

Graduate College

The University of Nebraska Graduate College is a school-wide program, with the same dean and administration supporting each department.

Campus
The University of Nebraska–Lincoln operates three campuses, which are laid out over a combined .

City Campus

The original University of Nebraska campus was laid out on four city blocks in the northeast corner of the planned downtown Lincoln area, and for fifteen years comprised just one building, the four-story University Hall. The university used its last available allotment of original land to construct the Law College Building in 1911. The first expansion of what became known as City Campus occurred in 1908, when the school acquired land to the west to construct Nebraska Field. Further development of the surrounding area meant that Memorial Stadium, constructed on the site in 1923, had to be oriented east-to-west instead of north-to-south as Nebraska Field was. As enrollment increased following World War II, the university purchased lands owned by the Missouri Pacific Railroad to construct high-rise dormitories.

City Campus is home to the Lied Center for Performing Arts, a performing arts venue used primarily for orchestra concerts and theatre performances. The nearby Mary Riepma Ross Media Arts Center is a two-screen theater featuring primarily arthouse, independent, and documentary films. Since 1928, City Campus has been the headquarters of the National Society of Pershing Rifles, a military fraternal organization for college-level students. John J. Pershing, an 1893 law school graduate and professor of Military Science and Tactics, created "Company A," a competitive drill team, for the University of Nebraska's Cadet Corps in 1891. The team won the National Competitive Drills in 1892 and soon changed its name to the "Pershing Rifles" in honor of Pershing. The Mueller Tower, built in 1949, stands near the Pershing Rifles headquarters on 14th Street.

The school's first student union, called simply the Student Union (now the Nebraska Union), was constructed in 1938 on the corner of 14th and R Streets. It underwent extensive renovation and expansion in 1958, 1969, and 1999; a further $40-million project approved in 2019 was delayed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The Nebraska Union houses the University Bookstore and offices for The Daily Nebraskan and The DailyER, the Association of Students of the University of Nebraska, Greek life, and the Jackie Gaughan Multicultural Center.

East Campus

As much of the land originally allocated to the school was unsuitable for farming, 320 acres to the east of campus was purchased in 1874. Termed Farm Campus (commonly referred to as "The Farm"), it became home to many of Nebraska's agricultural programs. At the beginning of the twentieth century, there was considerable discussion to move the entire university to Farm Campus to allow for greater expansion, and the idea was supported by faculty who felt the "wholesome environment" may be "more conducive to academic pursuits." Ultimately, a state-wide vote approved the purchase of new lands for City Campus. Farm Campus was renamed East Campus in 1964 to reflect its development past a purely agricultural development. East Campus is heavily landscaped, with the grounds functioning as a research mission of the university; they are administered as the UNL Botanical Garden and Arboretum, which handles major plantings at both Cather Garden and Maxwell Arboretum. The headquarters of Nebraska Public Media are located on East Campus, where it was established in 1954 as NETV.

Almost immediately after the Nebraska Union opened on City Campus, there was momentum among agricultural students to do the same on Farm Campus. A temporary union was established in 1947, with a performance from student Johnny Carson at its grand opening, but a permanent building was not constructed until thirty years later. A $28.5-million renovation of the Nebraska East Union was completed in 2021. The Nebraska East Union is home to the Loft Gallery, used for community and student artwork, as well as a full-size bowling alley that is the home venue and practice facility for Nebraska's bowling team.

Nebraska Innovation Campus

The University of Nebraska–Lincoln's third campus, Nebraska Innovation Campus, was established in 2014 on the  former site of the Nebraska State Fair grounds, just northeast of City Campus. Plans for redevelopment included an $800-million expansion to house agricultural biotechnology and other life science research. Several historic structures formerly used for the state fair were repurposed and modernized for university use. Bordered by several athletic facilities which are technically a part of City Campus, Innovation Campus serves as a research hub for over forty public and private enterprises. As many developments are privately owned or rented, it is the only UNL campus which allows alcohol. The $35-million Scarlet Hotel was opened on Innovation Campus in 2022.

Academics

Admissions

Undergraduate

Admission to the University of Nebraska–Lincoln is rated "more selective" by U.S. News & World Report. Among 17,775 first-year applicants for the 2021–22 academic year, Eighty-eight percent (15,701) were admitted and twenty-seven percent (4,736) enrolled. Among 2,654 transfer applicants for the 2021–22 academic year, sixty-three percent (1,675) were admitted and twenty-sixpercent (685) enrolled.

Of the 85% of enrolled freshmen in 2021 who submitted ACT scores; the middle 50 percent Composite score was between 22 and 28. Of the 8% of the incoming freshman class who submitted SAT scores; the middle 50 percent Composite scores were 1100-1310.

The University of Nebraska–Lincoln is a college-sponsor of the National Merit Scholarship Program and sponsored 37 Merit Scholarship awards in 2020. In the 2020–2021 academic year, 43 freshman students were National Merit Scholars.

Libraries

The university dedicated University Library (now Architecture Hall) on December 10, 1895. Initially, only one of the building's four stories housed library collections, but less than twenty years after its opening the entire facility was needed. An $850,000 gift from former Lincoln mayor Don Lathrop Love facilitated the construction of Don L. Love Memorial Library, completed in 1943. The new building was initially used to house cadets in the Army Specialized Training Program during World War II before opening for university use in 1945. A significant expansion on the north side of the building was completed in 1972 and became known as Love Library North. The $10-million, 30,000-square-foot Adele Coryell Hall Learning Commons were opened in 2016 on the first floor of Love Library North.

The C. Y. Thompson Library was dedicated in 1966 on East Campus as the university's first standalone branch library; it was renamed the Dinsdale Family Learning Commons in 2022 following a significant remodel and serves the Colleges of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources, Dentistry, and Special Education and Communication Disorders. There are six other branch locations on campus: the Architecture Library, Engineering Library, Geology Library, Marvin and Virginia Schmid Law Library, Mathematics Library, and Music Library. The university's libraries combine to offer nearly four million volumes and are the only set of comprehensive research libraries in Nebraska.

Museums and galleries

Originally established in 1871, the University of Nebraska State Museum is located in Morrill Hall on City Campus. It houses collections and exhibits featuring natural history, including its most popular attraction, a set of Mammoth fossils. Because of these fossils and a bronze Columbian mammoth statue in front of the building named Archie, it is popularly known as "Elephant Hall." The State Museum is a member of the American Alliance of Museums and a Smithsonian affiliate.

The Sheldon Museum of Art is home to more than twelve thousand works of American visual art in all media. It has prominent holdings in nineteenth-century landscape and still life, American Impressionism, early modernism, and contemporary art. The museum has the largest collection of twentieth-century North American art in the world and houses works by artists Andy Warhol, Jackson Pollock, and Georgia O'Keeffe. The nearby Great Plains Art Museum is home to the Christlieb Collection and features American western art and Americana.

The International Quilt Museum, home to the largest public collection of quilts in the world, is located in the southwest corner of East Campus. The Lester F. Larsen Tractor Museum, established on East Campus in 1980, houses forty historical tractors, an antique auto, and various farm tools. Along with the Nebraska Tractor Test Laboratory, it documents Nebraska's tractor testing law examination that tests all tractors sold in the state to ensure performance meets advertised specifications. The Robert Hillestad Textiles Gallery, also on East Campus, features exhibitions of historic and contemporary textiles and clothing.

Other university art galleries include the Eisentrager-Howard Gallery, the Kruger Collection, and the student-run MEDICI Gallery in Richards Hall. The Lentz Center for Asian Culture is no longer open to the public, though its collection of Asian ceramics, paintings, prints, sculpture, and textiles has been digitized for online viewing.

Athletics

The Nebraska Cornhuskers (often abbreviated to Huskers) are the intercollegiate athletic teams that represent the University of Nebraska–Lincoln. The university is a member of the Big Ten Conference and competes in NCAA Division I, fielding twenty-two varsity teams (nine men's, thirteen women's) in fifteen sports. Nineteen of these teams participate in the Big Ten, while rifle is a member of the single-sport Patriot Rifle Conference and beach volleyball and bowling compete as independents. The Cornhuskers have two official mascots, Herbie Husker and Lil' Red.

Early nicknames for the university's athletic teams included the Antelopes (later adopted by the University of Nebraska at Kearney), the Old Gold Knights, the Bugeaters, and the Mankilling Mastodons. Cornhuskers first appeared in a school newspaper headline ("We Have Met The Cornhuskers And They Are Ours"), after a 20–18 victory over Iowa in 1893; in this instance, the term referred to Iowa. It was first applied to Nebraska in 1899 by Nebraska State Journal writer Cy Sherman, who would later help originate the AP Poll. The nickname was officially adopted by the school the following year and by the state of Nebraska itself in 1945, when it became known as "The Cornhusker State."

Nebraska was a founding member of the Missouri Valley Intercollegiate Athletic Association in 1907 (later known as the Big Six, Big Seven, and Big Eight Conference) and competed in it for the next eighty-nine years, with a brief hiatus during World War I. In 1996, UNL and the seven other members of the Big Eight merged with four Texas schools from the Southwest Conference to form the Big 12 Conference. Nebraska joined the Big Ten in 2011.

Football

The Nebraska Cornhuskers football team competes as part of the NCAA Division I Football Bowl Subdivision. Nebraska plays its home games at Memorial Stadium, where it has sold out every game since 1962.

Nebraska is among the most storied programs in college football history and has won forty-six conference championships, five national championships, and six other national championships the school does not claim. The program's first extended period of success came just after the turn of the century. Between 1900 and 1916, Nebraska had five undefeated seasons and completed a stretch of thirty-four consecutive games without a loss, still a program record. Despite a span of twenty-one conference championships in thirty-three seasons, the Cornhuskers didn't experience major national success until Bob Devaney was hired in 1962. In eleven seasons as head coach, Devaney won two national championships, eight conference titles, and coached twenty-two All-Americans, but perhaps his most lasting achievement was the hiring of Tom Osborne as offensive coordinator in 1969. Osborne was named Devaney's successor in 1973, and over the next twenty-five years established himself as one of the best coaches in college football history with his trademark I-form offense and revolutionary strength, conditioning, and nutrition programs. Following Osborne's retirement in 1997, Nebraska cycled through five head coaches before hiring Matt Rhule in 2022. Nebraska's Memorial Stadium holds the NCAA record for attendance with the most consecutive sellouts.

Student life

Student body

Seventy-six percent of UNL's undergraduates were classified as "white, non-Hispanic," 8.3 percent were Hispanic or Latino, 3.6 percent were Asian, 2.8 percent were black or African-American, and less than one percent were American Indian, native Alaskan, native Hawaiian, or Pacific Islander. Fifty-one percent of the undergraduate population was male and forty-nine percent was female.

At the outset of the 2021–22 academic year UNL had 1,595 instructional faculty, of which 1,304 were full-time. Fifty-eight percent (919) were male and forty-two percent (676) were female. The school's student-to-faculty ratio was sixteen-to-one. Sixty-nine percent of UNL's students are from Nebraska; the remaining thirty-one percent is made up of students from all forty-nine other states and 114 countries.

Sixty-eight percent of undergraduate students received grants and thirty-nine percent received federal loans.

Residence halls

On-campus students are members of the Residence Hall Association, which serves as the governing body for dormitory living. Approximately forty percent of the student body lives on-campus throughout traditional residence halls, apartment-style halls, and suite-style halls. There are seven traditional residence halls on City Campus: Abel, Harper, Kauffman Academic Residential Center, Sandoz, Schramm, Selleck Quadrangle, and Smith. City Campus has two apartment-style halls (The Courtyards and The Village) and three suite-style halls (Eastside Suites, Knoll Residential Center, and University Suites). East Campus is home to the Massengale Residential Center, which contains both traditional and apartment-style housing, and Love Memorial Hall, an all-female cooperative facility.

Though many Greek houses opened in the 1920s, the first university-operated dormitory was not completed until the female-only Raymond Hall (now Neihardt Residential Hall, though it is not in use) was dedicated in 1932. Nebraska opened what was initially a male-only facility, the Selleck Quadrangle, in 1954, and constructed Cather and Pound Halls in 1963 to house a rapidly expanding student body. Just a few years later it opened Abel and Sandoz Halls, still the largest residency complex on campus. By the 2000s, Cather and Pound Halls were out-of-date and the university began plans to renovate or remove the buildings. After a 2014 study determined it would cost $22.7 million to bring the facility up to code, and millions more to complete a modern renovation, Cather and Pound Halls were imploded on December 22, 2017.

Greek life
Nebraska has a significant Greek population, with about 5,200 students in twenty-seven fraternities (twenty-five chapters and two colonies) and sixteen sororities. In the 2021–22 academic year, twenty-one percent of freshman males joined fraternities and twenty-six percent of freshman females joined sororities. The school's earliest surviving fraternity (Sigma Chi) was established in January 1883; Kappa Kappa Gamma became its first sorority the following year. By 1900 the campus had eleven fraternities and five sororities, and Nebraska established the Intrafraternity Council and Intrasorority Council to govern Greek life on campus.

The Society of Innocents (more commonly known as the Innocents Society) was founded in 1903 as an all-male pep group that led student rallies before football games. It is named after the thirteen popes named Innocent and each year inducts thirteen seniors (now male and female) based on academic achievement and leadership qualities. Historically, the organization has inducted new members by tackling them in a secret ceremony. A similar all-female organization, the Black Masque chapter of Mortar Board, was created in 1918.

Media

The Daily Nebraskan (often referred to as "The D. N.") is Nebraska's student newspaper. It was established in 1871 as the Monthly Hesperian Student and was published every weekday during the fall and spring semesters and weekly during the summer until 2017, when students voted to reduce the paper's funding. The paper now operates mainly online, publishing only a monthly print copy. Novelist Willa Cather served as managing editor of the paper from 1892 to 1895. Though many of its writers are students in the College of Journalism and Mass Communications, The Daily Nebraskan is independent of the college.

In February 2008, the Publications Board recognized The DailyER as an affiliated publication and approved the printing costs of the first three issues of the satirical paper. The paper is published monthly during the fall and spring semesters. Despite its similarity in name, The DailyER is not affiliated with The Daily Nebraskan.

The university established NETV (later Nebraska Educational Telecommunications, now Nebraska Public Media) in 1954 on what was then Farm Campus. Initially a television station broadcasting ninety hours of local programming per week to a thirty-mile radius, the network has expanded to service all of Nebraska and is a member of the Public Broadcasting Service, while its radio stations (established in 1989) are members of National Public Radio. The school operates a Class A FM radio station, KRNU, which broadcasts on 90.3 FM over approximately twenty miles.

Notable people

Since honoring its first graduating class in 1873, the University of Nebraska–Lincoln has issued over 300,000 degrees. Among these graduates are three Nobel laureates, four Pulitzer Prize winners, one Turing Award winner, twenty-two Rhodes Scholars, fifteen state governors, and twenty-three College Football Hall of Famers. Fifteen alumni have been selected as Truman Scholars and in 2010 Nebraska was named a Truman Scholarship Honor Institution.

Literature and popular culture

Films and others
In television series, The Big Bang Theory, the character Leonard Hofstadter is a tenured professor and in  Supernatural, the character Jo Harvelle was an enrolled student at the university. Hollywood films namely Yes Man, Terms of Endearment, About Schmidt, Cheers for Miss Bishop, Tommy Lee Goes to College, Larry the Cable Guy (Tailgate Party) were shot and featured in the university.

Notes

References

Further reading

External links

Land-grant universities and colleges
University of Nebraska-Lincoln
Universities and colleges established in 1869
Education in Lincoln, Nebraska
Buildings and structures in Lincoln, Nebraska
Tourist attractions in Lincoln, Nebraska
Flagship universities in the United States
University
Lincoln
Universities and colleges accredited by the Higher Learning Commission

University of Nebraska–Lincoln


The Tanawha Trail, stretching  from Julian Price Park to Beacon Heights parallels the Blue Ridge Parkway on Grandfather Mountain in North Carolina, in the United States.  Tanawha, the Cherokee word for fabulous hawk or eagle is an appropriate name for this trail that offers hikers views of distant mountains.  Completed in 1993, the Tanawha Trail, like the final section of the Parkway it mirrors, is unique in construction.  The trail traverses a fragile and ancient ecosystem and leads hikers through a surprising range of biological and geological terrains.  Some sections tunnel through thickets of laurel and rhododendron.  Others dip down into remote hardwood coves and then ascend into evergreen glens.  Boulder fields and cascading streams punctuate the landscape.

Sections above the Linn Cove Viaduct and along Rough Ridge are strenuous, but overall the trail is an easy to moderate walk.  The many accesses from the Parkway let hikers choose as long a section as they like.  To preserve this delicate area, hikers are encouraged to stay on designated paths, bridges, and boardwalks.

Most of the Tanawha Trail is also incorporated as a part of North Carolina's Mountains-to-Sea Trail (MST), which transverses the state from the Great Smoky Mountains to the Outer Banks.

History
The Tanawha Trail was completed in 1993, and was explicitly designed to be hiked.

Navigation
Throughout its length, the Tanawha Trail is blazed with a hawk feather printed on small, metal signs.  Most of these signs also display the Mountains-to-Sea Trail's white dot, where the two trails are combined.  Junctions with side and connecting trails are signed; however, the other trails might not be blazed.

Camping
Camping is not permitted on the Tanawha Trail; however, many backpacking opportunities do exist.  The north-eastern trail-head is within Price Park's campground, which is open from May to October.  The south-western trail-head is close to the Pisgah National Forest, which allows dispersed camping along the MST.  The Tanawha Trail also provides the principle access to Grandfather Mountain State Park's eastern trails, which have designated, primitive campsites.

Route
The south-western trail-head is at the parkway's Beacon Heights Overlook.  Shortly past the overlook, the MST joins with the Tanawha Trail, after it ascended Beacon Heights from the Pisgah National Forest.  From there, the combined trails follow wooded lands alongside the Blue Ridge Parkway to the Linn Cove Visitor Center.

From the visitor center, the Tanawha Trail passes underneath the Linn Cove Viaduct and ascends steeply up stone steps past an enormous boulder wall.  The trail levels off and enters a shady glen thick with birch and beech trees.  Beyond the cascading water of Wilson Creek, the trail crosses a clearing filled with huge rock formations.  The trail here, accented with flat rocks, is like a flagstone path.

The trail then climbs sharply to Rough Ridge and over a  long boardwalk.  Here the view into the Piedmont is unobstructed because of the unusual low-growing and fragile mountain-heather ecosystems.  It also offers an outstanding glimpse of the Linn Cove Viaduct and several mountains, Grandmother Mountain, Hawksbill and Table Rock.

The trail continues on through a stately spruce and hemlock forest into a wooded glen reminiscent of New England.  Its rocky landscape is filled with poplars, yellow birch, and oak.

Past Raven Rock, the trail tunnels through mountain laurel and rhododendron.  This sheltered section then gives way to a more open area with a rock garden where large ferns cascade out of immense boulders.

More thickets of rhododendron lead to the junction of the Daniel Boone Scout Trail, one of Grandfather Mountain State Park's many trails.  Not much further away, is the junction with Nuwati Trail, another state park trail.  Hiking or camping on Grandfather Mountain requires a permit.

The Tanawha Trail passes several small cascades and crosses Boone Fork Creek.  Around the creek are junctions with the Asutsi Trail and the Upper Boone Fork Trail.  Also, a self-registration, permit box for Grandfather Mountain is located near the Asutsi Trail junction.  The trail winds in and out of rhododendron and laurel thickets, joins with an old logging road, and passes through a hardwood forest.

In the last section leading to Price Park, the trail breaks out of the woods into open fields.  Here, it parallels and crosses Holloway Mountain Road, passes apple orchards, an old grave site, and pasture land, which in spring, is blanketed with numerous wild-flowers. The pasture land is active, and features cattle which are not separated from hikers. Although docile and avoidant of humans, there have been incidents where injuries have resulted from conflicts with livestock, and signs along the trail entrance near this area warn of the cattle and what to do around them. They may typically be seen grazing or resting in the shade provided by mountain laurel plants. in Finally, the trail briefly joins the Boone Fork Trail and departs with the MST, before ending with a short walk into Price Park's campground.

See also
 Blue Ridge Parkway
 Grandfather Mountain State Park
 Julian Price Memorial Park
 Linn Cove Viaduct
 Mountains-to-Sea Trail

References

External links

 Friends of the Mountains to Sea Trail

Blue Ridge Parkway
Hiking trails in North Carolina
Protected areas of Watauga County, North Carolina
Protected areas of Avery County, North Carolina

Tanawha Trail


A takht, or taḵẖat (), literally means a throne or seat of authority and is a spiritual and temporal centre of Sikhism. There are five takhts (), which are five gurudwaras that have a very special significance for the Sikh community. Three are located in Punjab whilst the remaining two are located outside of it.

The first and the most important takht was established by Guru Hargobind in 1609: Akal Takht (the Throne of the Timeless God), located just opposite the gate of Harmandir Sahib (The Golden Temple), in Amritsar. While the Harmandir Sahib, or Golden Temple, represents Sikh spiritual guidance, the Akal Takht symbolizes the dispensing of justice and temporal activity. It is the highest seat of temporal authority of the Khalsa and the seat of the Sikh religion's earthly authority. There, the Guru held his court and decided matters of military strategy and political policy. Later on, the Sikh Nation (Sarbat Khalsa) took decisions here on matters of peace and war and settled disputes between the various Sikh groups. The Sarangi singers sung the ballads of the Sikh Gurus and warriors at the place and robes of honour (saropas) were awarded to persons who rendered distinguished services of the community of men in general.

In December 2010, the Deccan Odyssey train, taken on charter from the Government of Maharashtra, started with the aim to have a journey across four Sikh takhts, with a flight by devout and sightseers to the fifth takht (Takht Sri Patna Sahib). A special train for the pilgrimage to the five takhts, named Panj Takht Special Train, began service on 16 February 2014.

Akal Takht

Akal Takhat Sahib means Eternal Throne. It is also part of the Golden Temple complex in Amritsar. Its foundation was laid by Guru Hargobind, the sixth Sikh guru. The Akal Takhat is situated opposite to Harmandir Sahib and is connected by a passage. The building of the Akal Takht opposite the Golden Temple has a special meaning. While the Golden Temple stands for spiritual guidance the Akal Takhat symbolizes the dispensing of justice and temporal activity.  In earlier days all Sikh warriors sought blessings here before going to battle fields. During the 18th century while Sikhs were fighting a guerrilla war in the forests they used to gather at the Akal Takht on special occasions such as Vaisakhi. Here the community used to have general meetings and approve resolutions. The Akal Takht is the oldest of the Five Takhats.

Takht Keshgarh Sahib

Takht Sri Keshgarh Sahib is situated at Anandpur Sahib. It is the birthplace of the Khalsa, which was founded here by Guru Gobind Singh in 1699. Some of the weapons of Guru Gobind Singh are displayed here.

Takht Damdama Sahib

Takht Sri Damdama Sahib (Talwandi Sabo) is situated in the village of Talwandi Sabo near Bathinda. Guru Gobind Singh stayed here for about a year and compiled the final edition of Guru Granth Sahib also known as the Damdama Sahib Bir in 1705. Damdama Sahib was proclaimed the fifth takht on November 18, 1966.

Takht Patna Sahib

Takht Sri Patna Sahib is situated in Patna city which is also the capital of Bihar state. Guru Gobind Singh was born here in 1666 and He spent His early childhood here before moving to Sri Anandpur Sahib. Besides being the birthplace of Guru Gobind Singh, Patna was also visited by Guru Nanak and Guru Tegh Bahadur at different points of time. Here also stayed Guru Gobind Singh's mother, Mata Gujri and it was house of Salis Rai Johri.

Takht Hazur Sahib

Takht Sri Hazur Sahib is situated in Nanded in Maharashtra state. In 1708, Guru Gobind Singh (the tenth spiritual leader of the Sikhs) came to Nanded, permanent abode. It was he who preached amongst the Sikhs that there need not be any Human Guru for them after Him and they should take Guru Granth Sahib as their living Guru and there will be no difference between Him and the Guru Granth Sahib. A monument has been constructed at the place where Guru Gobind Singh left his body to merge with the omnipresent, known as the Angitha Sahib (funeral pyre). The Takht has been constructed around the Angitha Sahib, and is collectively known as Takht Sachkand Sri Hazoor Sri Abchal Nagar Sahib.

Others

Contested

Takht Budha Dal
According to the Budha Dal organization of Nihangs, the Budha Dal is the fifth takht. They state that the Guru proclaimed them the fifth takht and the SGPC removed them as the fifth takht. Although no historical source mentions Budha Dal as a takht.

Potential

Gurudwara Janam Asthan

A proposal for a sixth Sikh takht at Guru Nanak Dev's birth place in Nankana Sahib in Pakistan has sparked a debate in the Sikh community, and among historians and scholars.

Shiromani Akali Dal (Delhi) president and former president of Delhi Sikh Gurdwara Management Committee (DSMGC) Paramjit Singh Sarna has stirred a controversy by demanding that Gurdwara Janamasthan Nankana Sahib in Pakistan be declared the sixth takht (seat of authority) of Sikhs. Acting jathedar of Akal Takht, Giani Harpreet Singh was the first to censure the demand, saying: "This is a baseless demand which belittles the concept of Panch Pardhani (significance of five) in Sikhism like five articles of faith, five beloved ones (Panj Payaras) and five bania." The proposal was ignored afterwards.

References

External links
Official Website - HOLY TAKHATS

Gurdwaras
Sikh places

Panj Takht


Rudolf Baranik (September 10, 1920 – March 6, 1998) was an artist, educator, and writer.

Born in Lithuania, he immigrated to the United States in 1938, when his family sent him to live with a relative in Chicago. His parents were secular Jewish socialists and were killed by the Nazis during the Second World War. Baranik was well known in the art world for his political advocacy, and was one of the first artists to organize protests against the war in Vietnam.  Some of his best known works are the Napalm Elegies, a series of 30 antiwar paintings created between 1967 and 1974. His art was inspired by his sense of the gross inequities around the world, and he led virtually every progressive political movement within the New York art world from the 1960s to the mid-1990s.
Significant exhibitions and awards include:1981 Guggenheim Fellowship in Fine Arts, 1982 "Art Couples 1: May Stevens and Rudolf Baranik," P.S. 1, New York, NY, and 1966 Peace Tower. Baranik's art is included in many collections, including the Museum of Modern Art in New York, the Whitney Museum of American Art and the Hirshhorn Museum.

Baranik died in Eldorado, New Mexico in 1998.

The paintings of Rudolf Baranik are increasingly thought to be among the most important works of the New York School painting of the 1960s and 1970s, with the late paintings in particular considered by American art critic, Donald Kuspit, "the true climax of fifty years of Western abstract painting."

References

1920 births
1998 deaths
20th-century American painters
American male painters
Lithuanian emigrants to the United States
Political artists
20th-century American male artists

Rudolf Baranik


The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to sharks:

Sharks (superorder Selachimorpha) are a type of fish with a full cartilaginous skeleton and a highly streamlined body. The earliest known sharks date from more than 440 million years ago, before the time of the dinosaurs.

Fields that study sharks
Ichthyology – branch of zoology devoted to fish (including sharks)
Meristics – branch of ichthyology that relates to counting features of fish, such as the number of fins or scales

Description
A shark, also called a "selachimorph", can be described as all of the following:

 Animal – multicellular, eukaryotic organism of the kingdom Animalia or Metazoa. An animal's body plan eventually becomes fixed as it develops, although some types of animal undergo a process of metamorphosis later on in their life. Most kinds of animal are motile, meaning they can move spontaneously and independently.
 Chordate – Chordates (phylum Chordata) are animals which are either vertebrates or one of several closely related invertebrates.
 Fish – gill-bearing aquatic vertebrate (or craniate) animal that lacks limbs with digits.
 Chondrichthye (cartilaginous fish) – jawed fish with paired fins, paired nares, scales, two-chambered hearts, and skeletons made of cartilage rather than bone.
 Elasmobranch – member of the subclass Elasmobranchii, which includes sharks, rays, and skates.
 Predator – organism that attacks and feeds on prey (the organism that is attacked).
 Apex predator – some shark species are apex predators, that is, predators with no predators of their own, residing at the top of their food chain.

Biological classification

 Kingdom: Animalia
 Phylum: Chordata
 Class: Chondrichthyes
 Subclass: Elasmobranchii
 Superorder: Selachimorpha

Types of sharks

List of sharks
Subdivisions of the biological classification Selachimorpha include:
 Carcharhiniformes – ground sharks
 Heterodontiformes – bullhead sharks
 Hexanchiformes – the five extant species of the most primitive types of sharks
 Lamniformes – mackerel sharks
 Orectolobiformes – includes carpet sharks, including zebra sharks, nurse sharks, wobbegongs, and the whale shark
 Pristiophoriformes – includes sawsharks
 Squaliformes – includes gulper sharks, bramble sharks, lantern sharks, rough sharks, sleeper sharks and dogfish sharks
 Squatiniformes – angel sharks
 † Cladoselachiformes
 † Hybodontiformes
 † Symmoriida
 † Xenacanthida (Xenacantiformes)

Shark behavior

 Predation
 Apex predator
 Shark threat display – Behaviour shown by some sharks when threatened
 Spy hopping – Raising the head out of the water

Shark attacks

Shark attack
 International Shark Attack File
 List of fatal, unprovoked shark attacks in the United States
 Jersey Shore shark attacks of 1916 – series of shark attacks along the coast of New Jersey between July 1 and July 12, 1916
 Summer of the Shark – the name given to the summer of 2001 by American media outlets capitalizing on a bull shark attack and subsequent shark attacks

Range and habitats of sharks

Range
 Bodies of water in which sharks can be found include:
 Seas: all
 Freshwater – some species of shark can live both in seawater and freshwater, and include:
 Bull shark
 River shark
 Sandbar shark
 Depths: from the surface down to depths of .

Habitats
 White Shark Cafe – remote mid-Pacific Ocean area noted as a winter and spring habitat of otherwise coastal great white sharks

Sharks in captivity

Sharks in captivity
 Shark tank
 Shark tunnel – underwater tunnel that passes through an aquarium that keeps sharks

Shark anatomy

 Physical characteristics of sharks – shark skeleton, respiration and skin
 Dermal denticle – small outgrowths which cover the skin of sharks
 Ampullae of Lorenzini – sensing organ that helps sharks and fish to sense electric fields
 Electroreception – the biological ability to perceive electrical impulses (see also Ampullae of Lorenzini)
 Lateral line – sense organ that detects movement and vibration in the surrounding water
 Shark cartilage – material that a sharks' skeleton is composed of
 Shark teeth
 Spiracle – pumps water across gills
 Clasper – the anatomical structure that male sharks use for mating
 Fish anatomy – generic description of fish anatomy

Protective equipment

 Drum lines
 Shark net – submerged net placed around beaches to reduce shark attacks on swimmers
 Shark proof cage – cage from which a SCUBA diver can examine sharks more safely
 Shark repellent – method of driving sharks from an area, object, person, or animal
 Magnetic shark repellent – use of permanent magnets to repel sharks
 Protective oceanic device – first successful electronic shark repellent
 Shark suit

Shark fishing

 Drivers of the shark trade
 Land-based shark fishing – fishing for sharks from land such as a beach, shoreline, jetty, pier, or bridge
 Shark finning – the removal of shark fins for commercial purposes

Shark conservation

 1992 Cageless shark-diving expedition – first publicized cageless dive with great white sharks which contributed to changing public opinions about the supposed "killing machine"
 Shark Alliance – coalition of nongovernmental organizations dedicated to restoring and conserving shark populations by improving European fishing policy
 Shark Conservation Act – proposed US law to protect sharks
 Shark sanctuary – Palau's first-ever attempt to prohibit taking sharks within its territorial waters
 Shark tourism – form of ecotourism showcasing sharks
 Shark Trust – A UK organisation for conservation of sharks

Notable sharks
 Stronsay Beast – large, dead creature washed ashore on Stronsay, in the Orkney Islands, after a storm in 1808, later presumed to be a basking shark

Notable researchers and people

 Peter Benchley – author of the novel Jaws, later worked for shark conservation
 Eugenie Clark – American ichthyologist researching poisonous fish and the behavior of sharks; popularly known as The Shark Lady
 Leonard Compagno – international authority on shark taxonomy, best known for 1984 catalog of shark species (FAO)
 Jacques-Yves Cousteau – French naval officer, explorer, ecologist, filmmaker, innovator, scientist, photographer, author and researcher who studied the sea and all forms of life in water including sharks
 Ben Cropp – Australian former shark hunter, who stopped in 1962 to produce some 150 wildlife documentaries
 Richard Ellis – American marine biologist, author, and illustrator.
 Rodney Fox – Australian film maker, conservationist, survivor of great white shark attack and one of the world's foremost authorities on them
 Andre Hartman – South African diving guide best known for free-diving unprotected with great white sharks
 Hans Hass – diving pioneer, known for shark documentaries
 Mike Rutzen – great white shark expert and outspoken champion of shark conservation; known for free diving unprotected with great white sharks
 Ron & Valerie Taylor – ex-spearfishing champions who switched from killing to filming underwater documentaries
 Rob Stewart (filmmaker) – Canadian photographer, filmmaker and conservationist. He was best known for making and directing the documentary film Sharkwater

See also

 List of ichthyology terms
 List of megamouth shark specimens and sightings
 List of prehistoric cartilaginous fish genera
 List of sharks in the Red Sea

References

External links

 Taxonomy of sharks and rays

sharks
sharks

Sharks

Outline of sharks


Broomfield Camp (which is also known as Higher Castles enclosure) is a univallate Iron Age hill fort in the Taunton Deane district of Somerset, England. The hill fort is situated approximately  south-east from the village of Broomfield. Broomfield Camp dates from late prehistoric or Roman times. The camp was searched in 1968 and the result uncovered a trench through a bank and ditch which produced Iron Age pottery.

Background

Hill forts developed in the Late Bronze and Early Iron Age, roughly the start of the first millennium BC. The reason for their emergence in Britain, and their purpose, has been a subject of debate. It has been argued that they could have been military sites constructed in response to invasion from continental Europe, sites built by invaders, or a military reaction to social tensions caused by an increasing population and consequent pressure on agriculture. The dominant view since the 1960s has been that the increasing use of iron led to social changes in Britain. Deposits of iron ore were located in different places to the tin and copper ore necessary to make bronze, and as a result trading patterns shifted and the old elites lost their economic and social status. Power passed into the hands of a new group of people. Archaeologist Barry Cunliffe believes that population increase still played a role and has stated "[the forts] provided defensive possibilities for the community at those times when the stress [of an increasing population] burst out into open warfare. But I wouldn't see them as having been built because there was a state of war. They would be functional as defensive strongholds when there were tensions and undoubtedly some of them were attacked and destroyed, but this was not the only, or even the most significant, factor in their construction".

See also
List of hill forts and ancient settlements in Somerset

References

History of Somerset
Hill forts in Somerset
Iron Age sites in Somerset
Scheduled monuments in Taunton Dene

Broomfield Camp


Songhai was a world music collaboration between the Spanish flamenco group Ketama, Malian kora player Toumani Diabaté, and English bass player Danny Thompson. They released two albums, Songhai (1988) and Songhai 2 (1994), both co-produced by Joe Boyd.

In October 1987, Ketama played five concerts in London, where they met Toumani Diabaté and musicologist and record producer Lucy Durán, who encouraged them to work together.  After the group jammed with Diabaté, they performed together at a London club and agreed to record an album for Boyd's Hannibal label.  The album was recorded in Madrid in April 1988, with a core line-up consisting of Diabaté, the four members of Ketama - Juan Carmona (guitar), José Soto (vocals, guitar), Antonio Carmona (percussion, vocals), and José Miguel Carmona (percussion, vocals) - and Danny Thompson (bass), with additional backing vocals by Diaw Kouyate and Djanka Diabate of Mory Kanté's band.

The album was well received as a successful fusion of different but related styles of music, but a follow-up was delayed for six years.  The core line-up which reunited for Songhai 2 in 1994 was essentially the same as for the first album, although by that time Soto was working as a solo artist rather than as a member of Ketama, and Thompson only featured on three of the tracks.  The album also featured bassist Javier Colina, and Malian musicians Kassemady (vocals), Kélétigui Diabaté (balafon), and Basekou Kouyate (ngoni).

Discography
Albums
Songhai (1988, Nuevos Medios)
Songhai 2 (1994, Nuevos Medios)

Contributing artist
 The Rough Guide to Flamenco (1997, World Music Network)

References

External links

World music groups

Songhai (musical collaboration)


WINP-TV (channel 16) is a television station in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States, airing programming from the Ion Television network. Owned and operated by Ion Media, the station maintains transmitter facilities in Pittsburgh's Oakland neighborhood.

History

Prior use of channel 16 in Pittsburgh

Channel 16 was initially activated August 29, 1953, as WENS, Pittsburgh's second UHF television station in the span of a month, with a primary ABC affiliation and secondary clearance of CBS network programs. In a market that was dominated by DuMont O&O WDTV (now KDKA-TV)—indeed, two former WDTV sales managers started the station—it initially broke ground and provided Pittsburgh shows that had previously not been seen in the market. In 1955, a tower collapse led to an emergency 46-day channel-sharing operation with WQED channel 13, Pittsburgh's educational television station, in a first-of-its-kind arrangement.

However, as with other UHF television stations, WENS struggled for acceptance by viewers and sponsors, even in a market that had just one local commercial VHF television station. After having fought the award of a second commercial VHF outlet to Pittsburgh, the station reached a settlement with WIIC-TV (now WPXI) in early 1957 and ceased operations on August 31 of that year, one day before WIIC began broadcasting. The construction permit remained active through 1970 (being shifted to channel 22), but no station ever materialized.

WQEX
Immediately after the directors of WENS met on August 27, 1957 and decided to shutter the station, a delegation contacted WQED and offered the facilities to channel 13.

WQED purchased the WENS physical plant in 1958. Channel 22 was assigned to Pittsburgh from Clarksburg, West Virginia, in 1958, allowing for the re-designation of channel 16 as noncommercial.

WQED filed for a new construction permit, which was awarded in November 1958, and restarted the station, renamed WQEX, on March 23, 1959. WQED and WQEX formed the first legal television duopoly—at the time permitted only among noncommercial television stations—in the country. In order to allow schools to receive WQEX programs, WQED sent out a public plea soliciting donations of unused UHF converters owned by the public.

WQEX went dark again in November 1961 but returned to the air over a year later, in January 1963, after technical repairs were made. For much of its early years, owing to its educational status and the first-generation UHF equipment it inherited from WENS, the station was plagued by a weak signal, operating at 171 kilowatts visual, and 34.2 kilowatts aural by 1971, resulting in a Grade B signal over most of Pittsburgh. Viewers in the city's outlying suburbs that were unable to receive the station clearly on cable received a spotty-to-non-existent signal. In effect, the station was perceived by the general public as an afterthought.

WQEX was the last station in Pittsburgh, and probably the last in North America, to convert to color. For decades, the station had broadcast with WENS's black-and-white transmitter. However, on March 10, 1985, the transmitter broke down completely, and the parts required to fix it were no longer available. WQED decided to take the station completely silent, and channel 13 launched a pledge drive to raise the $4.5 million necessary to reconstruct the channel 16 facility.

The new WQEX was set up as an almost autonomous station within the WQED organization. A new, more powerful NEC color transmitter was installed for testing over the summer of 1986 at an authorized power increase to 660 kW visual, and 66 kW aural. WQEX took over Studio C in the WQED premises and built its entire studio, offices and technical space within the 28-by-32-foot area. It took six months from April 1, 1986 until launch on October 16, 1986 to build the station, train the personnel and organize the programming, all of this under the direction of Kenneth Tiven as general manager. The result was a station unlike any other in the PBS system, technically and in programming.

The new WQEX was then one of the most automated stations in the world. It adopted the Betacart player for airing all of its programs—even programs longer than the 30-minute recording limit of the format; the programs were spread across overlapping tapes. Local programming by its competitors had been delivered on film, reel videotape and U-matic videocassettes. The Betacam professional format produced a high-quality picture with crisp on-air resolution. In addition, the station used a database system for program playout, which controlled the Betacart machine.

In its return to the air, WQEX's schedule resembled that of a commercial independent station, with themed nights, reruns, movies and British situation comedies (often called "Britcoms"), reflecting a move then by some PBS stations to adopt a more "middlebrow" image appealing to a larger audience than those of cultural and educational-minded viewers (and thus potentially generating more donor income). The station even had on-camera hosts.

From 1986 through 1990, the station's idiosyncratic persona stayed intact. It produced a 10 p.m. news program from Monday through Friday, in conjunction with the reporting staff of the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette newspaper; reporters were debriefed about their stories, and these video clips were then played back in the Betacart automation system as a complete program. This innovation, called "modular production," later became the keystone of several television news channels, including the now-defunct Orange County Newschannel (OCN), which Tiven departed WQEX to start in 1990.

When funding became tight in the mid-1990s due to economic and political changes from the early years of public broadcasting, WQED began using WQEX to simulcast its own programming as of November 1, 1997 to cut expenses; some of the programming formerly exclusive to WQEX was consolidated into the WQED lineup at that time.

Financial troubles and transition to commercial license
Due to a combination of high costs of continuing national programming production, bloated payroll expenses, and what the station's critics identified as a top-heavy management structure and a long history of mismanagement, WQED's total liabilities at one point had mounted beyond $10 million. Station debts were being paid four months behind schedule and approximately 100 of the 220 staff jobs at WQED were abruptly eliminated. A station once respected for having originated programming such as Mister Rogers' Neighborhood and National Geographic specials was quickly finding itself relegated to the role of a primarily-local producer of educational programming.

WQED began to seek a removal of the non-commercial educational status which restricted the WQEX license as early as 1996, with the intention of selling the secondary UHF station outright in the hope that an infusion of cash would solve some of the financial woes of the main station. WQED's initial application to take WQEX commercial was rejected outright by the Federal Communications Commission, leaving it to pursue an alternate plan by which the station was almost sold to religious broadcaster Cornerstone Television in 1999. The original plan was to move WPCB-TV from channel 40 (a commercial license) to channel 16 (non-commercial educational WQEX), with Paxson Communications buying channel 40 and converting it to a Pax TV affiliate with the call letters WKPX-TV. This move, which would have led to a $35 million payout being split equally between Cornerstone and WQED, was approved conditionally by the FCC in 2000, allegedly after lobbying by Republican Senator John McCain on behalf of Pax president Lowell Paxson, an intervention which Senator McCain would later deny having made. However, in response to vociferous concerns from members of the Pittsburgh local community, the FCC did impose one condition on the sale: half of Cornerstone's programming needed to be of educational value, effectively respecting the non-commercial educational condition of WQEX's existing license.

Cornerstone flatly refused, abruptly backing out of the proposed deal. Religious programming does not qualify as educational if it is "primarily devoted to religious exhortation, proselytizing or statements of personally held religious views or beliefs," according to the FCC's ruling conditionally allowing religious broadcaster Cornerstone Television to take over WQEX and add educational content to the station. Cornerstone objected to those restrictions, insisting that its religious doctrine required proselytization on most if not all of its programming. Although the FCC abruptly reversed its position less than a month later removing the condition in response to intense political and legislative pressure (mainly from Republican sympathizers with the Religious Right), Cornerstone withdrew its application and the sale was cancelled, keeping WQEX as a WQED simulcast.

In July 2002, the FCC abandoned its long-held position on instructional content, removing WQEX's non-commercial educational status outright in response to continued claims of economic hardship by WQED – hardships which the station has long blamed not on its own past management practices, but on the local economic situation and the long-term decline of Pittsburgh's industrial base, situations that were plausible in the 1980s and 1990s but had largely subsided by the 2000s.

From 2004 to March 2007, WQEX brokered much of its airtime to America's Store, a discount shopping channel from the Home Shopping Network, along with repeats of WQED's news magazine, OnQ, on Monday mornings. This was an attempt to use the frequency to generate income for WQED instead of being a redundant facility, in effect making WQEX a for-profit operation. In January 2007, America's Store announced it would cease operations on April 3 of that year; WQEX switched its programming to ShopNBC on March 26. Rumors and actual proposals of a sale of WQEX came up from time to time, the most noteworthy of which was a proposed 2002 sale to Shooting Star Broadcasting, a company headed up by Pittsburgh native and former Shamrock Broadcasting president Diane Sutter, that was never consummated.

Sale to Ion Media
On November 8, 2010, WQED entered into a deal with Ion Media (the former Paxson Communications) to sell WQEX to Ion for $3 million. The sale was finalized (after FCC approval) on May 2, 2011, at which time the station's call sign changed from WQEX to WINP-TV, making it the first Ion-owned station without the Pax-era "PX" in its call sign (the calls stand for "Ion Pittsburgh" or, to note one news article on the sale, "Win Pittsburgh Over"). WINP-TV continued to carry ShopNBC programming to fill the WQEX contractual obligations; however, on October 1, 2011, it began carrying Ion Television on its main channel, with Ion Life and Qubo on subchannels. This is the network's first over-the-air presence in Pittsburgh, the largest media market in which Ion and its predecessors had never had an over-the-air signal (Pittsburgh was the 24th largest television market in the U.S. during 2010–2011, according to AC Nielsen).

After Sinclair Broadcast Group, owner of Fox affiliate WPGH-TV, announced their attempted $3.9 billion purchase of Tribune Media in May 2017, reports emerged of Fox Television Stations negotiating with Ion Media to create a joint venture that could potentially turn WINP-TV and other Ion-owned stations into replacement Fox affiliates. The negotiations were rendered moot by October 2017 after Ion elected its stations to have must-carry status over cable instead of through retransmission consent.

Sale to Scripps
On September 24, 2020, the Cincinnati-based E. W. Scripps Company announced it would purchase Ion Media Networks for $2.65 billion, with financing from Berkshire Hathaway. With this purchase, Scripps divested 23 Ion-owned stations. The divestitures allowed the merged company to fully comply with the FCC local and national ownership regulations. The sale was completed on January 7, 2021.

Ultimately, Scripps decided to keep WINP-TV, marking one of Scripps' first broadcasting properties in Pennsylvania (alongside existing sister stations WPPX-TV in Philadelphia and WQPX-TV in Wilkes-Barre–Scranton), as well as a return to the Pittsburgh market after a near-30-year absence when Scripps sold the publication rights to The Pittsburgh Press to Block Communications (owners of the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette) during a publication strike that ultimately saw the Press shut down completely.

In October 2021, Scripps notified the FCC it had closed local facilities for WINP-TV and other Ion Media stations (with those in duopoly markets having their operations consolidated with existing Scripps stations), and consolidated the regulatory 'studios' for all of the stations at Scripps Center in Cincinnati where Scripps and WCPO-TV are headquartered. The network's operations remain based out of West Palm Beach.

Technical information

Subchannels
The station's digital signal is multiplexed:

Under WQED ownership, channel 16 only broadcast on its main signal, only adding digital subchannels after the sale to Ion. After the sale to Ion, WINP-TV's digital channels matched that of other Ion stations.

Following Scripps' acquisition of Ion, Scripps announced it would shut down Ion Plus, Qubo, and Ion Shop and replace it with channels owned by Scripps subsidiary Katz Broadcasting as part of the synergies between Ion and Katz.

Two Katz networks are currently airing on other channels: Laff on WPXI 11.3 and Grit on WPKD-TV 19.3; those networks are expected to move to WINP-TV once their affiliation contracts expire. The three channels that started airing on WINP-TV from Katz following the Scripps deal (Bounce TV, Court TV and Ion Mystery) previously aired on various low-powered stations in the market, giving them full market access over-the-air and on pay TV providers via their digital tier for the first time.

Analog-to-digital conversion
WINP (as WQEX) shut down its analog signal, over UHF channel 16, on February 17, 2009, the original target date on which full-power television stations in the United States were to transition from analog to digital broadcasts under federal mandate; the deadline had later been extended to June 12.

Sometime between April 1 and the new June 12 deadline, the station moved its digital signal from its pre-transition UHF channel 26 to channel 38; channel 38 was used for the digital signal of now-former sister station WQED until April 1 after the end of its annual PBS pledge drive in March. The early signoff for WQED gave the station time to move its own digital signal to channel 13. Through the use of PSIP, digital television receivers display the station's virtual channel as its former UHF analog channel 16. WQEX was one of three stations in the Pittsburgh market to shut down their analog signals on the original transition date, alongside the Sinclair Broadcast Group duopoly of WPGH-TV and WPMY.

References

External links

Television stations in Pittsburgh
Television channels and stations established in 1959
1959 establishments in Pennsylvania
Ion Television affiliates
Bounce TV affiliates
Court TV affiliates
Ion Mystery affiliates
E. W. Scripps Company television stations
Defy TV affiliates
Scripps News affiliates

WINP-TV