Adolph Green (December 2, 1914 – October 23, 2002) was an American lyricist and playwright who, with long-time collaborator Betty Comden, penned the screenplays and songs for some of the most beloved musicals on Broadway and in Hollywood. Although they were not a romantic couple, they shared a unique comic genius and sophisticated wit that enabled them to forge a six-decade-long partnership. They received numerous accolades including four Tony Awards and nominations for two Academy Awards and a Grammy Award. Green was inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame in 1980 and American Theatre Hall of Fame in 1981. Comden and Green received the Kennedy Center Honor in 1991.

They started their career alongside Leonard Bernstein on stage where they received the New York Drama Critics' Circle for Best Musical for Wonderful Town (1953). On Broadway they wrote the music and lyrics to musicals such as On the Town (1944), Two on the Aisle (1951), Peter Pan (1954), Bells Are Ringing (1956), and Applause (1970). They won four Tony Awards as composter and lyricist for Hallelujah, Baby! (1967), On the Twentieth Century (1978), and The Will Rogers Follies (1991). As performers they starred in A Party with Betty Comden and Adolph Green (1958).

They gained notoriety in film collaborating with Stanley Donen, Gene Kelly and Vincent Minnelli as part of Arthur Freed's production unit at Metro Goldwyn Mayer. Perhaps their greatest collaboration was for the film Singin' in the Rain (1952), although they received two Academy Award nominations for screenplays for the musicals The Band Wagon (1953), and It's Always Fair Weather (1955). They also wrote the scripts for the classic movie musicals The Barkleys of Broadway (1949), On the Town (1949), Auntie Mame (1958), and Bells Are Ringing (1960).

Early life and education
Green was born in the Bronx to Hungarian Jewish immigrants Helen (née Weiss) and Daniel Green. He was the youngest of three sons and had two older brothers, Louis (circa 1907-?) and William (circa 1910-?). After high school, he worked as a runner on Wall Street while he tried to make it as an actor.

Career

1938–1947

He met Comden through mutual friends in 1938 while she was studying drama at New York University. They formed a troupe called the Revuers, which performed at the Village Vanguard, a club in Greenwich Village. Among the members of the company was a young comedian named Judy Tuvim, who later changed her name to Judy Holliday, and Green's good friend, a young musician named Leonard Bernstein, whom he had met in 1937 at Camp Onota (a summer camp in Pittsfield MA where Bernstein was the music counselor), frequently accompanied them on the piano.
Together, Comden and Green's act earned success and a movie offer. The Revuers traveled west in hopes of finding fame in Greenwich Village, a 1944 movie starring Carmen Miranda and Don Ameche, but their roles were so small they barely were noticed, and they quickly returned to New York. Their first Broadway effort teamed them with Bernstein for On the Town, a musical romp about three sailors on leave in New York City that was an expansion of a ballet entitled Fancy Free on which Bernstein had been working with choreographer Jerome Robbins. Comden and Green wrote the lyrics and book, which included sizeable parts for themselves. Their next two musicals, Billion Dollar Baby (1945) and Bonanza Bound (1947) were not successful, and once again they headed to California, where they immediately found work at MGM.

1948–1969

They wrote the screenplay for Good News (1947), starring June Allyson and Peter Lawford, The Barkleys of Broadway for Ginger Rogers and Fred Astaire, and then adapted On the Town (1949) for Frank Sinatra and Gene Kelly, scrapping much of Bernstein's music at the request of Arthur Freed, who did not care for the Bernstein score. They reunited with Kelly for their most successful project, the classic Singin' in the Rain (1952), about Hollywood in the final days of the silent film era. The film was directed by Gene Kelly and Stanley Donen and starred Kelly, Debbie Reynolds and Donald O'Connor. Together Comden and Green received a nomination for the Writers Guild of America Award for Best Written Musical. Considered by many film historians to be the best movie musical of all time, it ranked No. 10 on the list of the 100 best American movies of the 20th century compiled by the American Film Institute in 1998.

They followed this with another hit, and another musical The Band Wagon (1953), in which the characters of Lester and Lily, a husband-and-wife team that writes the play for the show-within-a-show, were patterned after themselves. The film was directed by Vincente Minnelli and starred Fred Astaire, Cyd Charisse, Nanette Fabray and Oscar Levant. They reunited with Donen and Kelly with another musical It's Always Fair Weather (1955). They were Oscar-nominated twice, for their screenplays for The Band Wagon and It's Always Fair Weather, both of which earned them a Screen Writers Guild Award, as did On the Town. Their stage work during the next few years included the revue Two on the Aisle (1951), starring Bert Lahr and Dolores Gray, Wonderful Town (1953), an adaptation of the comedy hit My Sister Eileen, with Rosalind Russell and Edie Adams as two sisters from Ohio trying to make it in the Big Apple, and Bells Are Ringing (1956), which reunited them with Judy Holliday as an operator at a telephone answering service. The score, including the standards "Just in Time", "Long Before I Knew You," and "The Party's Over" proved to be one of their richest.

Comden and Green returned to films with Morton DaCosta's Auntie Mame (1958) starring Rosalind Russell and Minnelli's Bells Are Ringing (1961) starring Judy Holliday and Dean Martin. In 1958, they appeared on Broadway in A Party with Betty Comden and Adolph Green, a revue that included some of their early sketches. It was a critical and commercial success, and they brought an updated version back to Broadway in 1977. In 1964 they wrote the screenplay for the black comedy What a Way to Go! starring Shirley MacLaine, Paul Newman, Robert Mitchum, Dean Martin, Gene Kelly, and Dick Van Dyke. The film was a commercial success but received mixed reviews.

1970–2002
Among their other credits are the Mary Martin version of Peter Pan for both Broadway and television, a streamlined Die Fledermaus for the Metropolitan Opera, and stage musicals for Carol Burnett, Leslie Uggams, and Lauren Bacall, among others. Their many collaborators included Garson Kanin, Cy Coleman, Jule Styne, and André Previn. The team was not without its failures. In 1982, A Doll's Life, an exploration of what Nora did after she abandoned her husband in Henrik Ibsen's A Doll's House, ran for only five performances, although they received Tony Award nominations for its book and score. In 1980, Green was inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame. And, in 1981, he was inducted into the American Theatre Hall of Fame. The following year Green appeared in the comedy My Favorite Year (1982) starring Peter O'Toole. The next year they wrote the book for the musical Singin' in the Rain for the West End in London in 1983 and then for Broadway in 1985. The production earned two Tony Award nominations including for Best Book of a Musical for Comden and Green.

In 1989 he appeared as Dr. Pangloss in Bernstein's Candide. Comden and Green received Kennedy Center Honors in 1991. Also in 1991 they returned to Broadway in with the musical The Will Rogers Follies. The musical focuses on the life and career of famed humorist and performer Will Rogers, using as a backdrop the Ziegfeld Follies. The production earned six Tony Awards including the Tony Award for Best Musical and the Tony Award for Best Original Score for Comden and Green.

Personal life
Green was married to actress Allyn Ann McLerie from 1945 to 1953.

Green's third wife was actress Phyllis Newman, who had understudied Holliday in Bells Are Ringing. They married in 1960, and remained so until Green's death in 2002. The couple had two children, Adam and Amanda, both of whom are songwriters.

His Broadway memorial, with Lauren Bacall, Kevin Kline, Joel Grey, Kristin Chenoweth, Arthur Laurents, Peter Stone, and Betty Comden in attendance was held at the Shubert Theater on December 4, 2002.

Credits

Broadway
 On the Town (1944)
 Billion Dollar Baby (1945)
 Two on the Aisle (1951)
 Wonderful Town (1953)
 Peter Pan (1954)
 Bells Are Ringing (1956)
 Say, Darling (1958)
 A Party with Betty Comden and Adolph Green (1958)
 Do Re Mi (1960)
 Subways Are for Sleeping (1961)
 Fade Out – Fade In (1964)
 Hallelujah, Baby! (1967)
 Applause (1970)
 Lorelei (1974)
 On the Twentieth Century (1978)
 The Madwoman of Central Park West (1979)
 A Doll's Life (1982)
 Singin' in the Rain (1985)
 The Will Rogers Follies (1991)

Hollywood
 Good News (1947)
 The Barkleys of Broadway (1949)
 On the Town (1949)
 Singin' in the Rain (1952)
 The Band Wagon (1953)
 It's Always Fair Weather (1955)
 Auntie Mame (1958)
 Bells Are Ringing (1960)
 What a Way to Go! (1964)
 My Favorite Year (1982)

Acting credits
 Greenwich Village (1944) as Revuer (uncredited)
 Simon (1980) as Commune Leader
 My Favorite Year (1982) as Leo Silver
 Lily in Love (1984) as Jerry Silber
 Garbo Talks (1984) as himself
 I Want to Go Home (1989) as Joey Wellman
 Candide (1991, TV Movie) as Dr. Pangloss / Martin
 Frasier (1994, TV Series) as Walter (voice)
 The Substance of Fire (1996) as Mr. Musselblatt (final film role)

Awards and nominations

Notes

References
 Off Stage, a memoir by Betty Comden published in 1995

External links

 Adolph Green papers, 1944–2002, held by the Billy Rose Theatre Division, New York Public Library for the Performing Arts
 Comden and Green papers, 1933–2003, held by the Billy Rose Theatre Division, New York Public Library for the Performing Arts
 New York Public Library Blog on Comden and Green's Unproduced Screenplay Wonderland

1914 births
2002 deaths
People from the Bronx
American musical theatre librettists
American musical theatre lyricists
Broadway composers and lyricists
American people of Hungarian-Jewish descent
Grammy Award winners
Jewish American musicians
Jewish American songwriters
Kennedy Center honorees
Tony Award winners
20th-century American dramatists and playwrights
20th-century American musicians
Songwriters from New York (state)
20th-century American Jews
21st-century American Jews

Adolph Green


Reginald Maurice Cram (April 29, 1914 – August 6, 2004) was a United States Air Force officer who served as the adjutant general of the Vermont National Guard.

Early life and education
Cram was born in Northfield, Vermont, on April 29, 1914.  He graduated from Norwich University in 1936, and was Captain of the Corps of Cadets, while also becoming a member of the Theta Chi fraternity, Pegasus Players theater group, Glee Club, Band, and basketball team.  Cram maintained his affiliation with Norwich throughout his life, including serving as the agent for his graduating class and composing the Norwich University Alumni March, "A Soldier's Dream".  He was a trustee from 1971 to 1988, and received the Distinguished Alumni Award.

Career
Cram joined the Vermont National Guard's 172nd Infantry Regiment in 1933. He was commissioned a second lieutenant of Cavalry upon graduating from Norwich, and was assigned to the staff of Vermont's adjutant general.
He attended Boston University Law School from 1937 to 1938.

World War II
Cram joined the Army Air Force for World War II.  He received his rating as an Observer, and flew anti-submarine patrols in the Pacific.  His assignments included temporary duty with both the Navy and Marine Corps.  While on temporary duty with the navy, he served aboard ship with James Roosevelt.

Later military career
Cram returned to the Vermont National Guard after the war, and joined the active air force in 1947.  He was a specialist in long-range planning and international relations, including the creation of policies and programs during the Korean War, and his assignments included: Secretary of the United States-Canada Regional Planning Group, a North Atlantic Treaty Organization entity; director of Plans, Third Air Force; Chief, Air Force Branch, Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe; commander, U.S. Air Force Orientation Group, which provided education on air force initiatives including the space program to U.S. and international civilians and military members; member, Joint Chiefs of Staff Special Study Group; and advisor to the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff for European Plans and Policy.

He received a master's degree in politics and government from the University of Maryland in 1963.  He was also a member of Pi Sigma Alpha, the honor fraternity for those in the political science field.  Cram also graduated from the Army Command and General Staff College, Armed Forces Staff College, and National War College.  He retired as a colonel in 1964.

Adjutant general
When Cram retired from the air force in 1964 he was appointed Deputy Adjutant General of the Vermont National Guard, serving under Adjutant General Francis Billado.  When Billado died suddenly in September 1966, Cram served as acting adjutant general for three months.

In November another officer, Brigadier General Wayne Page, announced that he would be a candidate for the Adjutant General's post.  In December Governor Philip H. Hoff named Page to serve as acting adjutant general. Cram then resigned as deputy and campaigned against Page for a full two-year term.  While both Page and Cram were Republicans and Hoff a Democrat, contemporary press accounts indicate that Hoff selected Page because other National Guard officers had expressed to Hoff their preference for Page, an Army National Guard officer, over Cram, an Air National Guard officer, because the majority of the Vermont National Guard was made up of army units.  (Since the 1860s, Vermont's adjutant general is elected for a two-year term by the Vermont General Assembly.  At the time, elections were held in February of each odd-numbered year, and the term started the following March.)

In February 1967 Cram won an upset victory and ended Page's three-month tenure.  Cram was promoted to major general and served as adjutant general from 1967 until retiring in 1981.

During Cram's time as adjutant general, he oversaw the participation of selected Vermont units and soldiers in the Vietnam War, and he traveled to South Vietnam on visits and inspection tours on more than one occasion. The Vermont National Guard also constructed several new armories to consolidate operations and replace aging facilities.  In addition, he supervised National Guard activities during state emergencies, including a flood in 1973.

He also increased military participation in winter sports, including hosting several biathlon events in Vermont.  These efforts helped create the army's World Class Athlete Program.

In 1980 Cram presided over a muster of the entire Vermont National Guard, which gathered in one location to commemorate the 40th anniversary of the organization's mobilization for World War II.

Later life and death
Cram retired as adjutant general in 1981 and resided in Burlington.  He died in Burlington on August 6, 2004, and was buried in Northfield's Mount Hope Cemetery, adjacent to the Norwich University campus.

Awards and decorations
Cram's awards included:

Air Force Distinguished Service Medal
Legion of Merit
Air Medal
Joint Service Commendation Medal
Army Commendation Medal
Air Force Commendation Medal
Vermont National Guard Distinguished Service Medal
Office of the Secretary of Defense Identification Badge
Joint Chiefs of Staff Identification Badge

Other honors
The mess hall at the National Guard's Camp Ethan Allen Training Site in Jericho, Vermont, is named the Cram Dining Facility.

The entrance road to the Vermont National Guard's Readiness and Regional Technology Center on the Norwich University campus was designated "General Cram Drive" in 2004.

An accomplished biathlete, Cram is a member of the U.S. Biathlon Association Hall of Fame.

Family
Cram married Kathryn Elizabeth "Betty" Mosher in Montpelier, Vermont, on June 29, 1937. She was born in Brattleboro, Vermont, on January 31, 1918, and died in Burlington on October 12, 2011.  They had two daughters, Robin and Jane, and six grandchildren.

References

External links
, retrieved December 12, 2013

1914 births
2004 deaths
People from Northfield, Vermont
People from Burlington, Vermont
Vermont Republicans
Norwich University alumni
University of Maryland, College Park alumni
United States Army Command and General Staff College alumni
Joint Forces Staff College alumni
National War College alumni
United States Army personnel of World War II
United States Army personnel of the Vietnam War
National Guard (United States) generals
United States Air Force generals
Recipients of the Air Force Distinguished Service Medal
Recipients of the Legion of Merit
Recipients of the Air Medal
Burials in Vermont
Vermont National Guard personnel

Reginald M. Cram


Kathleen is a 1941 American comedy-drama film starring Shirley Temple in her first comeback role since "retiring" from the screen a year earlier. It was the only movie she made for Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer.

Plot
Kathleen Davis (Shirley Temple) is a 12-year-old who lives in a big house with a nanny, a butler, maids, and no mother. Her father, John Davis (Herbert Marshall), spends most of his time at work, and has little time to spend with his daughter. She dreams of a traditional family, and tells her friends that she has such a family. Because of this fib, she cannot invite any friends to her home, as they would see the truth.

Kathleen and her nanny, Mrs. Farrell (Nella Walker), have a contentious relationship. Mr. Davis dismisses the nanny, and hires a psychologist named Dr. Angela Kent (Laraine Day) to look after the young girl for the summer. He has begun seeing a woman named Lorraine Bennett (Gail Patrick), whom he considers marrying. But Lorraine and Kathleen dislike each other intensely. Instead, Kathleen envisions Dr. Kent as the perfect mother for her, and wife for her father. When this seems unlikely, Kathleen runs away from home. After a confrontation with Lorraine and Dr. Kent, Mr. Davis decides that he, too, prefers the doctor. The film ends happily, as Kathleen is reunited with her father and his new fiancée, the doctor.

Cast

Reception
The film was not received well by critics. Theodore Strauss of The New York Times wrote that, "MGM, her new sponsors, haven't done right by our Shirley. Out of her indubitable charm they have created a vexatious, pucker-faced little brat full of sugary day dreams to make an audience wince. They have confronted her proven talents as an actress with stilted situations that even a Duse couldn't carry off. Assigned to a vehicle for Mistress Temple, the script writer seems to have become all thumbs." Variety called the film "tedious" and said that Temple "does not tee off auspiciously." John Mosher of The New Yorker wrote, "I must say that they have given the diva a disagreeable kind of vehicle for her resuscitation from private life ... Child psychologists may go to the film in groups and classes, but frivolous types will hope the child is not now, even so near her teens, going to make a specialty of problem pictures." Life wrote that Temple gave "a good performance in a pretty dull story."

References

External links

1941 films
1941 comedy-drama films
American black-and-white films
American comedy-drama films
Films directed by Harold S. Bucquet
Films scored by Franz Waxman
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer films
1940s English-language films
1940s American films
English-language comedy-drama films

Kathleen (film)


An immersive virtual musical instrument, or immersive virtual environment for music and sound, represents sound processes and their parameters as 3D entities of a virtual reality so that they can be perceived not only through auditory feedback but also visually in 3D and possibly through tactile as well as haptic feedback, using 3D interface metaphors consisting of interaction techniques such as navigation, selection and manipulation (NSM). It builds on the trend in electronic musical instruments to develop new ways to control sound and perform music such as explored in conferences like NIME.

State of the art

Florent Berthaut created a variety of 3D reactive widgets involving novel representations of musical events and sound, that required a special 3D input device to interact with them using adapted 3D interaction techniques.

Jared Bott created an environment that used 3D spatial control techniques as used in known musical instruments, with symbolic 2D visual representation of musical events.

Richard Polfreman made a 3D virtual environment for musical composition with visual representations of musical and sound data similar to 2D composition environments but placed in a 3D space.

Leonel Valbom created a 3D immersive virtual environment with visual 3D representations of musical events and audio spatialization with which could be interacted using NSM interaction techniques.

Teemu Mäki-Patola explored interaction metaphors based on existing musical instruments as seen in his Virtual Xylophone, Virtual Membrane, and Virtual Air Guitar implementations.

Sutoolz from su-Studio Barcelona used real time 3D video games technology to allow a live performer to construct and play a fully audio visual immersive environment.

Axel Mulder explored the sculpting interaction metaphor by creating a 3D virtual environment that allowed interaction with abstract deformable shapes, such as a sheet and a sphere, which parameters were mapped to sound effects in innovative ways. The work focused on proving the technical feasibility of 3D virtual musical instruments. Gestural control was based on 3D object manipulation such as a subset of prehension.

Early work was done by Jaron Lanier with his Chromatophoria band and separately by Niko Bolas who developed the Soundsculpt Toolkit, a software interface that allows the world of music to communicate with the graphical elements of virtual reality.

References

External links
 Immersive Virtual Musical Instruments
 Virtual Air Guitar
 Virtual Musical Instruments
 sutoolz 1.0 alpha: 3D software music interface
 SU-TOOLZ Interactive 3D Sound-Scape software

Human–computer interaction
Electronic musical instruments
Virtual reality

Immersive virtual musical instrument


Lauro Severiano Müller (8 November 1863 – 30 July 1926) was a Brazilian politician, diplomat, and military engineer. Responsible for the transition of Santa Catarina from a province to a state, he is also recognised as one of those who helped achieve the Brazilian diplomatic victory over Bolivia through the Treaty of Petrópolis, which allowed for the purchase of Acre and its incorporation into Brazil.

Müller occupied the 34th chair of the Brazilian Academy of Letters from 1912 until his death in 1926.

Biography
Born in Itajaí, Santa Catarina, he was the son of the German immigrants Peter Müller and Anna Michels, originally from the Rhineland. On his mother's side, his first cousin was Filipe Schmidt, who also served two terms as President of Santa Catarina. A passionate follower of Benjamin Constant's positivism in his youth, he embarked on a military career in his native province after a brief stint in a merchant's office.

His political career began in 1889, when the first President of Brazil, Deodoro da Fonseca, made him President of Santa Catarina and charged him with organising the province that had been transformed into a state.

Later, he served as a federal deputy, senator (1899–1926), member of the Academy of Letters (1912–1926), and minister of state. He carried out great reforms while holding the ministerial portfolios of Industry, Transport and Public Works, during the presidency of Rodrigues Alves. As Minister of Foreign Affairs a post he assumed in 1912 upon the untimely death of the Barão do Rio Branco, he pursued economic integration with Argentina and Chile. He was forced to resign in 1917 because Brazil had entered World War I on the side of the Allies, and anti-German sentiment created opposition to him due to his German roots. He was elected President of Santa Catarina again in 1918, but preferred to remain a senator.

During an official visit to the U.S. as Minister of Foreign Affairs, he was offered the title of Doctor Honoris Causa by Harvard University. He was also made an honorary samurai on an official visit to Japan.

The positions he held in his long political career include:
Member of the Constitutional Assembly
Member of Congress
Governor of the State
Minister of Public Works
General of the Army
Minister of Foreign Affairs
Senator of the Republic

He became popular for his important public works, such as the construction of Rio de Janeiro's Avenida Central, today Avenida Rio Branco, and improvements to that city's port. He died in Rio in 1926.

References

  Brazilian Regional Bio-Bibliographic Dictionary
  Some famous people named Müller

External links

Brazilian diplomats
Foreign ministers of Brazil
Brazilian people of German descent
1863 births
1926 deaths
Governors of Santa Catarina (state)
Members of the Brazilian Academy of Letters
People from Itajaí

Lauro Müller


Pocahontas (1837–1870) was an English Thoroughbred racehorse and the dam of three sires who had a great influence on the breed. Although mares are not generally considered to be as influential as sires, Thoroughbred Heritage refers to Pocahontas as "one of the most influential Thoroughbreds of all time, male or female."

Background
Bred at the Royal Stud at Hampton Court, Pocahontas was by Glencoe, winner of the 2,000 Guineas, Goodwood Cup, Ascot Gold Cup, and The Whip, and later a renowned sire in America. Pocahontas' dam, Marpessa, won the Nursery Stakes at Newmarket as a two-year-old and the Goodwood Stakes as a three-year-old. She was bred to Glencoe in 1836 and produced her first foal, the filly Pocahontas. She later produced Idas (2,000 Guineas winner), Jeremy Diddler, and Boarding School Miss.

After the death of King William IV, the stud at Hampton Court was dispersed. Marpessa and Pocahontas (still a foal) were bought for 230 guineas by Lord Stradbroke. As a yearling, Pocahontas was sold to Mr. Greatorex for 62 guineas. Pocahontas was quite small (maturing only to 14 hands 3 inches  high) but was said to have had good shoulders and hindquarters, with straight legs. However, she was known for her rather difficult temperament and (like her mother) was a roarer.

Racing career
Pocahontas raced once as a two-year-old, finishing third at the Criterion Stakes (after Gibraltar and Crucifix, who won in a dead heat). She raced again as a three-year-old; she was the favorite in the Oaks but finished fourth, partly due to her poor behavior. She finished fifth in the Goodwood Stakes, racing against some of the best males at that time. Pocahontas raced three times as a four-year-old; although she was unplaced in the Goodwood Cup and the Cesarewitch Handicap, she placed second three times during her four- and five-year-old seasons. Between the Goodwood Cup and the Cesarewitch, Pocahontas was sold to Mr. William Theobald (owner of Stockwell Stud). She was winless in her nine starts; this may have been because she was competing against high-quality male horses, or because of her roaring.

As a broodmare

Theobald bred Pocahontas as a five-year-old to his stallion Camel, producing Cambaules (who was said to be a roarer and only placed on the track). In 1845 she bore a colt by Muley Moloch, although he was neither named nor raced and was also said to be a roarer. She was bred to Muley Moloch again, producing the filly Dolly Varden (who won once on the track and did not have a successful breeding career. Bred a third time to Muley Moloch her resulting filly was unimpressive, although the filly bore a few impressive offspring several generations later. Pocahontas' next three years produced her greatest legacy as a broodmare with the births of Stockwell (The "Emperor of Stallions"), Rataplan, and King Tom.

She was bred by Theobald for several years before being sold to the Marquis of Exeter in 1852. The Marquis' horse (Stockwell) was a successful sire at this time and he decided to purchase Pocahontas, Stockwell's 15-year-old dam, for his stud in Newmarket. Before she was moved to the Marquis' stud she produced Strood (a chestnut by Chatham) who was injured when young and never won. At Newmarket she foaled the filly Ayaconora, who won the Hopeful and the Newmarket Column Stakes and produced Chattanooga (winner of the Criterion Stakes and sire of the stallion Wellingtonia) and several great broodmares. She also produced The Knight of Kars, who was fairly successful on the track but more important as a sire of steeplechasers; he sired The Colonel (two-time winner of the Grand National Steeplechase).

Pocahontas' 1858 colt Knight of St. Patrick won four races, despite inheriting his dam's roaring. He later sired 2,000 Guineas winner Moslem. Her 1860 colt Automation won three times, including the Abington Mile, before dying as a three-year-old. In 1861 Auricula was born; the filly became the second classic winner and second St. Leger winner produced by Pocahontas.

Pocahontas' last foal, the filly Araucaria, won the 10-furlong Stamford Plate despite also being a roarer. Araucaria became an excellent broodmare herself. She foaled Camelia (by Macaroni), the winner of the 1,000 Guineas and Oaks; Chamant (by Flageolet), winner of the 2,000 Guineas; Rayon d'Or (by Flageolet), St. Leger winner and an excellent sire in America; and Wellingtonia (by Chattanooga), a leading sire in France.

Although she was bred six more years, Pocahontas never foaled. She was sold after the death of Lord Exeter in 1867, and bought for 10 guineas by the 3rd Marquis of Exeter. She spent the rest of her years at Wothorpe, part of the estate at Burghley Park, and died in 1870 at the age of 33.

The foals

Genetic legacy

Pocahontas was most influential as a broodmare, producing three great sons - Stockwell, Rataplan, and King Tom - and five influential daughters. Stockwell is the most notable of the three, as he appears in the pedigrees of Phalaris, Nearco, and Native Dancer. She produced a total of 15 foals, the last at the age of 25. It has been theorized that (along with her roaring trait which has a proven genetic basis in Thoroughbreds) Pocahontas may have carried the "X-factor", a genetic mutation believed to be responsible for causing an enlarged heart suitable for elite athletic performance. This theory has been dismissed in scientific circles and the proponents of this theory have not produced any peer reviewed data to prove this theory.

Pedigree

Note: b. = Bay, ch. = Chestnut, br. = Brown

* Pocahontas was inbred 4x4 to Whiskey. This means that the stallion appears twice in the fourth generation of her pedigree.

See also
X-factor
Glencoe I
Stockwell (horse)

References

External links
 Pocahontas's racing career
 Pocahontas's progeny
 Full profile of Pocahontas at Thoroughbred Heritage

1837 racehorse births
1870 racehorse deaths
Thoroughbred family 3-n
Racehorses trained in the United Kingdom
Racehorses bred in the United Kingdom
Byerley Turk sire line

Pocahontas (horse)


Mark Vos (born 20 October 1983), also known as 'pokerbok', is a professional poker player from Australia. Vos was born in Cape Town, South Africa, and attended Waldorf High School in Constantia. He excelled at mathematics olympiads while in high school, and represented his province in the interprovincial olympiad. Vos permanently deferred his actuarial studies at Macquarie University, to play poker full-time. Starting out online with limit hold'em in mid-2004, Vos soon turned his attention to no-limit games, and in short time, earned a reputation as being one of the world's top online poker players, such that he can often be found playing in the most expensive cash games and tournaments online. When not travelling the world playing poker, Vos plans to divide his time between Australia and South Africa. In January 2006, Vos finished 8th in the main event of the Crown Australian Poker Championship, winning  A$83,600. As of May 2006, Vos represents the Full Tilt Poker online poker cardroom as a friend of Full Tilt Poker. His name is reflected in red on Full Tilt tables.

In July 2006, Vos won Event 6 at the 2006 World Series of Poker (WSOP), the $2000 no limit hold 'em event. Outlasting a field of 1,919 players, Vos entered heads up action with Nam Le an almost 3:1 chip underdog. On the final hand, Vos raised to $90,000 preflop and Le made the call. The flop came  and Le check-called a $150,000 bet by Vos. The turn was the  and Le check-called for $250,000. The river brought the  to which Le checked and Vos moved all in. Le, suspecting a bluff, made the call with , but Vos turned over  for trips and the win, collecting $803,274 and the gold bracelet, becoming one of the youngest WSOP bracelet winners in history. After his victory, Vos said, "[Winning] does not really change things. I mean, it helps. But I still plan to play poker, then [in five years] I'll relax, settle down and decide what I want to do with the rest of my life." Vos cashed four times at the 2008 World Series of Poker, including finishing in 80th place out of 6,844 entries in the $10,000 buy-in Main Event, earning $77,200.

As of 2023, Vos' total live tournament winnings exceed $1,350,000. His nine cashes at the WSOP account for $977,728 of those winnings.

World Series of Poker

Notes

External links
'Ask Mark Vos' forum at PokerCrack
PokerPages Profile
PokerNetwork Player Page
Speed Poker Player Profile
Aussie Mark Vos Outlasts The Field
FullTiltPoker WSOP Blog Interview
Wise Hand Poker - Act Your Age
PokerListings.com interview
Ace High Wine - The Notorious BOK
Hendon Mob tournament results

1983 births
Living people
People from Cape Town
Australian poker players
South African poker players
World Series of Poker bracelet winners
Waldorf school alumni

Mark Vos


Janice Holt Giles (March 28, 1905 – June 1, 1979) was an American writer who lived near Knifley in Adair County, Kentucky.

Personal life
She was born Janice Meredith Holt on March 28, 1905, in Altus, Arkansas to John Albert Holt and Lucy Elizabeth (née McGraw); both her parents were teachers. She had two younger siblings, Mary Catherine Holt Sullivan (July 9, 1907 - January 8, 1995) and John Albert Holt Jr. (born 1909). Janice Holt worked for a number of years with a number of church-affiliated clerical jobs, first in Oklahoma and then in Kentucky, having moved to Frankfort in 1939 subsequent to her divorce that year from her first husband Otto Moore, whom she had wed in 1927. In 1941 Janice Holt obtained a position as secretary at the Louisville Presbyterian Theological Seminary in Louisville, Kentucky.

In 1945 Janice Holt married Henry Giles, who was eleven years her junior.  After first becoming acquainted on a 40-hour bus trip in 1943, the couple had subsequently courted via letters to and from Europe, where Henry Giles was serving in the military, and were married the same day Henry returned to the United States. The couple lived in Louisville until 1949, when they took up residence in Adair County within two miles of the area where Henry's ancestors had settled in 1803.  They subsequently constructed a house, which took four years to complete, from the logs of four pioneer cabins.  They lived there until Janice died of congestive heart failure in 1979.  Henry Giles died in 1986 and was buried next to Janice in the Caldwell Chapel Separate Baptist Church cemetery in Knifley.

Writing
Giles began her writing career with an entry to a fiction contest in 1949 while still working at the Presbyterian Seminary in Louisville. Between 1950 and 1975 Giles wrote twenty-four books which were published.  Noted primarily for her historical novels set in Kentucky - beginning with her debut novel The Enduring Hills - or on the Western frontier, she also wrote contemporary fiction set in the Kentucky hills, as well as autobiographical and nonfiction works, some of them co-authored with Henry. Her works include the Piney Woods trilogy, consisting of The Enduring Hills (1950), Miss Willie (1951), and Tara's Healing (1952), and the Kentucky trilogy, consisting of The Kentuckians (1953), Hannah Fowler (1956), and The Believers (1957).  The Janice Holt Giles and Henry Giles Society was established in 1996 to preserve the literary legacy of Janice Holt Giles and Henry Giles and to restore their log home.

Giles's historical fiction works form a study of early American pioneer life in Virginia, Tennessee, Kentucky, Arkansas, Oklahoma, Texas and New Mexico among other states.  Her accounts are accurate geographically and historically and are tied together by the fictitious Cooper, Fowler and Cartwright families.  Real historical figures from Giles's novels include Ben Logan, Daniel Boone, James Harrod, William Whitley, James Wilkinson, Gen. Matthew Arbuckle, and Sam Houston.  She also provides a realistic historical perspective of the relationships between Native Americans, White Settlers and African Americans.  The interested reader can gain a solid understanding of the early process of national (United States) expansion by reading the listed volumes in the following order.

Books
(approximate period covered; primary geographical settings)
 The Kentuckians (1775–1778; VA, KY, TN)
 Hannah Fowler (1778–1781; KY, TN, OH)
 The Land Beyond the Mountains (1781–1792; KY, PA, IN)
 The Believers (1795–1805; KY)
 Johnny Osage (1821; OK, AR)
 The Voyage to Santa Fe (1823; OK, TX, NM)
 Savanna (1829–1834; OK, AR)
 The Great Adventure (1834; CO, NM,)
 Run Me a River (September 1861; KY, IN)
 Six Horse Hitch (1859-1869; NE, CO).
 The Damned Engineers (1944 Europe)

References

Western Kentucky University Libraries manuscript collection
Dianne Watkins Stuart, Janice Holt Giles:  A Writer's Life (1998),

1905 births
1979 deaths
Novelists from Kentucky
Writers from Louisville, Kentucky
American historical novelists
People from Adair County, Kentucky
American women novelists
20th-century American novelists
20th-century American women writers
Women historical novelists
Kentucky women writers

Janice Holt Giles


Colesville is a census-designated place and an unincorporated area in Montgomery County, Maryland, United States. It had a population of 15,421 as of the 2020 census.

Geography
As an unincorporated area, Colesville's boundaries are not officially defined. Many residents consider the town to be one of the many neighborhoods of Silver Spring. Colesville is recognized by USPS as an acceptable city name in two northeastern Montgomery County ZIP codes, with Silver Spring being the preferred city name. It is also recognized by the United States Census Bureau as a census-designated place, and by the United States Geological Survey as a populated place, located at  (39.079695, −77.003263).

According to the United States Census Bureau, the place has a total area of , all land.

Colesville's generally accepted boundaries extend between the Northwest and Paint Branches of the Anacostia River. Its northern and southern boundaries are not as well-defined, but are usually assumed to run from Springbrook High School in the south to Cloverly in the north.

History
The first land was purchased in Colesville from the Lords Baltimore in 1714, when Archibald Edmonston patented "Easy Purchase", a  tract that extended from Meadowood south to near present-day Route 29.  In 1715, "Easy Purchase" was bought by James Beall Sr., who that year also patented "Drumeldry", a  tract from the Northwest Branch across Notley Road to Shannon Drive.  In 1718, his nephew William Beall patented "Wolf's Den", a  tract that straddled today's Bonifant Road and ran from Notley Road to Pebblestone Drive, and then southwest across the Northwest Branch.

However, none of these early landowners actually resided in Colesville.  Robert Lazenby, thought to be the son of Henry Lazenby, High Sheriff of Anne Arundel County, purchased  of the southern part of "Wolf's Den" from William Beall in 1723, and became the first resident farmer in Colesville.

In 1747, James Odell, grandson of James Beall Sr., was deeded  of a tract known as "Beal Christie" from his parents, and took to farming it. It was located east of today's New Hampshire Avenue near where it crosses Randolph Road.

In the 1790s, Peter Kemp built a saw and grist mill on Paint Branch where it is crossed by today's Randolph Road.  The mill was rebuilt twice, and what is seen today in Valley Mill Park is the 1879 mill built by Franklin Pilling, which ceased to operate by 1930.

The earliest recorded use of the "Colesville" name was on January 25, 1806, when the General Assembly of Maryland changed the place of holding elections of the Fourth Election District of Montgomery County to "Edward Berry's, commonly called Coale's-Ville". It is unknown where this name came from, but it may have come from the maiden name of Elizabeth (Coale) Snowden, wife of Richard Snowden who was the owner of "Snowden's Manor" in nearby Sandy Spring and began living there in 1728. By 1824 the name was generally known as "Coalsville", and was sometimes referred to as such even as late as 1906.

The oldest standing house in Colesville is "Milimar" at 410 Randolph Road, which is in the National Register of Historic Places and was built around 1790.  It is also known as "The Old Lazanby Home", but was probably built by Samuel and Mary Peach, who purchased the  tract it is on known as "Peaches Lot" from Evan Thomas shortly after he freed his slaves.

The New York Times reported that President Franklin Pierce purchased a farm of  in Colesville in 1855.

Joseph F. Burr started purchasing Colesville-area land in 1869. By 1872, he had amassed nearly  and lived in a beautiful mansion on the property known as Valley View. The mansion was located on the north side of today's Randolph Road, on the site of today's Holy Family Seminary. Burr was a friend of President Grover Cleveland, who visited Valley View frequently.

An old house built in 1850 is still standing at 13910 Notley Road. It was used as a school by a Miss Laxbenny in the late 1800s and was known as "Drumeldra".

In 1927, the Smithville Colored School was founded in Colesville.  It was one of sixteen schools for African Americans constructed in the county with financial assistance from the Julius Rosenwald Fund.  It was closed in 1952 when all Montgomery County schools for "colored" children were consolidated.

Colesville United Methodist Church is located in Colesville, Maryland.

The Holy Family Seminary, headquarters of the American Delegation of the catholic order of the Sons of the Holy Family, is also located in Colesville, since 1946.

Colesville hosted the Strawberry Festival every May for over 25 years, ending in 2011. The festival was located at the corner of Hobbes Drive and New Hampshire Avenue. Vendors sold strawberries and ice cream, and volunteers organized carnival games for kids.

On February 6, 2010, Colesville had a record regional snowfall of .

Demographics

As of the 2010 United States Census, Colesville's population was 44.8% White, 28.3% African-American, 0.3% American Indian or Alaska Native, 16.1% Asian, 0.0% Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander, 6.6% from some other race and 3.9% from two or more races. 14.9% of the population was Hispanic or Latino (of any race). White Hispanics/Latinos and Hispanics/Latinos from some other race comprised 6.6% and 6.1% of Colesville's population, respectively. 38.2% of Colesville's residents are non-Hispanic White Americans, 27.7% are non-Hispanic African Americans and 16% are non-Hispanic Asian Americans.

As of 2010, Colesville's Hispanic and Latino population was 46% Central American, 35% being of Salvadoran descent and 6% being of Guatemalan descent. 21% of Colesville's Hispanic/Latino population was of South American descent (6% were Peruvian), 8% were of Mexican descent, 6% were of Peruvian descent, 5% were of Puerto Rican descent, 4% were of Cuban descent, 3% were of Dominican descent, and 3% were of Spaniard descent.

As of the US census of 2000, there were 19,810 people, 6,525 households, and 5,526 families residing in the area. The population density was . There were 6,615 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the area was 55.33% White, 22.25% African American, 0.23% Native American, 17.93% Asian, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 1.52% from other races, and 2.72% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 4.79% of the population. 9% of Colesville's residents were German, 9% Irish, 8% English, 5% Korean, 4% Indian, 4% Italian, 4% Chinese, 4% Polish, 3% Russian, 2% Subsaharan African, 2% West Indian and 2% Vietnamese. People of Greek, Filipino, Scottish, Scotch-Irish, Arab, Swedish, French, Central American, Nigerian, South American, Dutch, Jamaican, Salvadoran, Iranian, Pakistani, Norwegian and Cambodian descent each comprise 1% of the population.

There were 6,525 households, out of which 37.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 73.1% were married couples living together, 9.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 15.3% were non-families. 12.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 5.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.02 and the average family size was 3.28.

In the area the population was spread out, with 25.1% under the age of 18, 6.7% from 18 to 24, 23.0% from 25 to 44, 31.5% from 45 to 64, and 13.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 42 years. For every 100 females, there were 94.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.7 males.

The median income for a household (2016) in the immediate area (one mile radius of Randolph Rd & New Hampshire Ave is $135,397 (pop. 9149) and $115,604 for a three-mile radius from town center (pop.90,801).

References

External links

Census-designated places in Maryland
Census-designated places in Montgomery County, Maryland

Colesville, Maryland


Lester Leroy Short (born May 29, 1933) is an American ornithologist. His main research field is the order Piciformes.

Biography
Short was born in Port Chester, New York. In 1955 he received a PHD from Cornell University. After a study of vertebrate zoology at Charles Sibley in the Cornell University he wrote his dissertation with the title Hybridization in the Flickers (Colaptes) of North America in 1959. From 1960 to 1962 he was assistant professor at the Adelphi University. From 1963 to 1966 he worked for the United States Fish and Wildlife Service. From 1966 until his retirement in 1997 he was Lamont curator of birds at the American Museum of Natural History. In that position he made expeditions to South America, Africa, Asia, Australia and the Pacific islands. In 1972 Short took part on a survey to study the Okinawa woodpecker. After the results of this expedition were published in the Wilson Bulletin in 1973 the American public became aware of the threats which brought the Okinawa woodpecker to the verge of extinction. A planned project to build United States Marine Corps facilities in the Yambaru forest in the northern Okinawa was stopped to protect the woodpecker. In 1986 and 1987 Short was among the members of a Cuban-American-Expedition which were able to observe the thought to be extinct Cuban ivory-billed woodpecker (Campephilus principalis bairdii) for a short while. This was the last reliable sighting of this subspecies.

Short is the author of Woodpeckers of the World (1982), a comprehensive account on the order Piciformes, and of more than 250 scientific articles including descriptions of the Kaempfer's woodpecker and the pale-eyed blackbird. In 1978 he married the Kenyan ornithologist and bioacoustican Jennifer F. M. Horne who died in 2008.

Bibliography (selected)
Hybridization in the Flickers (Colaptes) of North America, 1959
Aves nuevas o poco comunes Corrientes, Republica Argentina, 1971
Birds of the World, 1975
Woodpeckers of the World, 1982
The Birdwatcher's Book of Lists: Lists for Recreation and Recordkeeping, 1987
Annotated Check-list of the Birds of East Africa, 1990
The Birdwatcher's Book of Lists: Western Region, 1992
The Birdwatcher's Book of Lists: Eastern Region, 1992
The Lives of Birds: Birds of the World and Their Behavior, 1993
Toucans, Barbets and Honeyguides: Ramphastidae, Capitonidae and Indicatoridae (Bird Families of the World), 2001
del Hoyo, J.; Elliot, A. & Sargatal, J. (editors). (2002). Handbook of the Birds of the World. Volume 7: Jacamars to Woodpeckers. Lynx Edicions.  (Chapter about the Toucans, Barbets and Honeyguides together with Jennifer Horne)

External links
Biography

American ornithologists
Cornell University alumni
1933 births
Living people
People from Port Chester, New York
Scientists from New York (state)

Lester L. Short


The spinal cord is a long, thin, tubular structure made up of nervous tissue that extends from the medulla oblongata in the brainstem to the lumbar region of the vertebral column (backbone) of vertebrate animals. The center of the spinal cord is hollow and contains a structure called central canal, which contains cerebrospinal fluid. The spinal cord is also covered by meninges and enclosed by the neural arches. Together, the brain and spinal cord make up the central nervous system (CNS).

In humans, the spinal cord is a continuation of the brainstem and anatomically begins at the occipital bone, passing out of the foramen magnum and then enters the spinal canal at the beginning of the cervical vertebrae. The spinal cord extends down to between the first and second lumbar vertebrae, where it tapers to become the caudal equina. The enclosing bony vertebral column protects the relatively shorter spinal cord. It is around  long in adult men and around  long in adult women. The diameter of the spinal cord ranges from  in the cervical and lumbar regions to  in the thoracic area.

The spinal cord functions primarily in the transmission of nerve signals from the motor cortex to the body, and from the afferent fibers of the sensory neurons to the sensory cortex.  It is also a center for coordinating many reflexes and contains reflex arcs that can independently control reflexes. It is also the location of groups of spinal interneurons that make up the neural circuits known as central pattern generators.  These circuits are responsible for controlling motor instructions for rhythmic movements such as walking.

Structure

The spinal cord is the main pathway for information connecting the brain and peripheral nervous system. Much shorter than its protecting spinal column, the human spinal cord originates in the brainstem, passes through the foramen magnum, and continues through to the conus medullaris near the second lumbar vertebra before terminating in a fibrous extension known as the filum terminale.

It is about  long in males and about  in females, ovoid-shaped, and is enlarged in the cervical and lumbar regions. The cervical enlargement, stretching from the C5 to T1 vertebrae, is where sensory input comes from and motor output goes to the arms and trunk. The lumbar enlargement, located between L1 and S3, handles sensory input and motor output coming from and going to the legs.

The spinal cord is continuous with the caudal portion of the medulla, running from the base of the skull to the body of the first lumbar vertebra. It does not run the full length of the vertebral column in adults. It is made of 31 segments from which branch one pair of sensory nerve roots and one pair of motor nerve roots. The nerve roots then merge into bilaterally symmetrical pairs of spinal nerves. The peripheral nervous system is made up of these spinal roots, nerves, and ganglia.

The dorsal roots are afferent fascicles, receiving sensory information from the skin, muscles, and visceral organs to be relayed to the brain. The roots terminate in dorsal root ganglia, which are composed of the cell bodies of the corresponding neurons. Ventral roots consist of efferent fibers that arise from motor neurons whose cell bodies are found in the ventral (or anterior) gray horns of the spinal cord.

The spinal cord (and brain) are protected by three layers of tissue or membranes called meninges, that surround the canal. The dura mater is the outermost layer, and it forms a tough protective coating. Between the dura mater and the surrounding bone of the vertebrae is a space called the epidural space. The epidural space is filled with adipose tissue, and it contains a network of blood vessels. The arachnoid mater, the middle protective layer, is named for its open, spiderweb-like appearance. The space between the arachnoid and the underlying pia mater is called the subarachnoid space. The subarachnoid space contains cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), which can be sampled with a lumbar puncture, or "spinal tap" procedure. The delicate pia mater, the innermost protective layer, is tightly associated with the surface of the spinal cord. The cord is stabilized within the dura mater by the connecting denticulate ligaments, which extend from the enveloping pia mater laterally between the dorsal and ventral roots. The dural sac ends at the vertebral level of the second sacral vertebra.

In cross-section, the peripheral region of the cord contains neuronal white matter tracts containing sensory and motor axons. Internal to this peripheral region is the grey matter, which contains the nerve cell bodies arranged in the three grey columns that give the region its butterfly-shape. This central region surrounds the central canal, which is an extension of the fourth ventricle and contains cerebrospinal fluid.

The spinal cord is elliptical in cross section, being compressed dorsolaterally. Two prominent grooves, or sulci, run along its length. The posterior median sulcus is the groove in the dorsal side, and the anterior median fissure is the groove in the ventral side.

Segments

The human spinal cord is divided into segments where pairs of spinal nerves (mixed; sensory and motor) form. Six to eight motor nerve rootlets branch out of right and left ventralateral sulci in a very orderly manner.  Nerve rootlets combine to form nerve roots. Likewise, sensory nerve rootlets form off right and left dorsal lateral sulci and form sensory nerve roots. The ventral (motor) and dorsal (sensory) roots combine to form spinal nerves (mixed; motor and sensory), one on each side of the spinal cord.  Spinal nerves, with the exception of C1 and C2, form inside the intervertebral foramen (IVF).  These rootlets form the demarcation between the central and peripheral nervous systems.

 Generally, the spinal cord segments do not correspond to bony vertebra levels. As the spinal cord terminates at the L1-L2 level, other segments of the spinal cord would be positioned superior to their corresponding bony vertebral body. For example, the T11 spinal segment is located higher than the T11 bony vertebra, and the sacral spinal cord segment is higher than the L1 vertebral body.

The grey column, (as three regions of grey columns) in the center of the cord, is shaped like a butterfly and consists of cell bodies of interneurons, motor neurons, neuroglia cells and unmyelinated axons. The anterior and posterior grey column present as projections of the grey matter and are also known as the horns of the spinal cord. Together, the grey columns and the grey commissure form the "grey H."

The white matter is located outside of the grey matter and consists almost totally of myelinated motor and sensory axons. "Columns" of white matter carry information either up or down the spinal cord.

The spinal cord proper terminates in a region called the conus medullaris, while the pia mater continues as an extension called the filum terminale, which anchors the spinal cord to the coccyx. The cauda equina ("horse's tail") is a collection of nerves inferior to the conus medullaris that continue to travel through the vertebral column to the coccyx. The cauda equina forms because the spinal cord stops growing in length at about age four, even though the vertebral column continues to lengthen until adulthood. This results in sacral spinal nerves originating in the upper lumbar region. For that reason, the spinal cord occupies only two-thirds of the vertebral canal. The inferior part of the vertebral canal is filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and the space is called the lumbar cistern.

Within the Central Nervous System (CNS), nerve cell bodies are generally organized into functional clusters, called nuclei. Axons within the CNS are grouped into tracts.

There are 31 spinal cord nerve segments in a human spinal cord:
 8 cervical segments forming 8 pairs of cervical nerves (C1 spinal nerves exit the spinal column between the foramen magnum and the C1 vertebra; C2 nerves exit between the posterior arch of the C1 vertebra and the lamina of C2; C3–C8 spinal nerves pass through the IVF above their corresponding cervical vertebrae, with the exception of the C8 pair which exit between the C7 and T1 vertebrae)
 12 thoracic segments forming 12 pairs of thoracic nerves
 5 lumbar segments forming 5 pairs of lumbar nerves
 5 sacral segments forming 5 pairs of sacral nerves
 1 coccygeal segment

In the fetus, vertebral segments correspond with spinal cord segments.  However, because the vertebral column grows longer than the spinal cord, spinal cord segments do not correspond to vertebral segments in the adult, particularly in the lower spinal cord. For example, lumbar and sacral spinal cord segments are found between vertebral levels T9 and L2, and the spinal cord ends around the L1/L2 vertebral level, forming a structure known as the conus medullaris.

Although the spinal cord cell bodies end around the L1/L2 vertebral level, the spinal nerves for each segment exit at the level of the corresponding vertebra. For the nerves of the lower spinal cord, this means that they exit the vertebral column much lower (more caudally) than their roots. As these nerves travel from their respective roots to their point of exit from the vertebral column, the nerves of the lower spinal segments form a bundle called the cauda equina.

There are two regions where the spinal cord enlarges:

 Cervical enlargement – corresponds roughly to the brachial plexus nerves, which innervate the upper limb. It includes spinal cord segments from about C4 to T1. The vertebral levels of the enlargement are roughly the same (C4 to T1).
 Lumbar enlargement – corresponds to the lumbosacral plexus nerves, which innervate the lower limb. It comprises the spinal cord segments from L2 to S3 and is found about the vertebral levels of T9 to T12.

Development

The spinal cord is made from part of the neural tube during development. There are four stages of the spinal cord that arises from the neural tube: The neural plate, neural fold, neural tube, and the spinal cord. Neural differentiation occurs within the spinal cord portion of the tube. As the neural tube begins to develop, the notochord begins to secrete a factor known as Sonic hedgehog (SHH). As a result, the floor plate then also begins to secrete SHH, and this will induce the basal plate to develop motor neurons. During the maturation of the neural tube, its lateral walls thicken and form a longitudinal groove called the sulcus limitans. This extends the length of the spinal cord into dorsal and ventral portions as well. Meanwhile, the overlying ectoderm secretes bone morphogenetic protein (BMP). This induces the roof plate to begin to secrete BMP, which will induce the alar plate to develop sensory neurons.  Opposing gradients of such morphogens as BMP and SHH form different domains of dividing cells along the dorsal ventral axis. Dorsal root ganglion neurons differentiate from neural crest progenitors. As the dorsal and ventral column cells proliferate, the lumen of the neural tube narrows to form the small central canal of the spinal cord.  The alar plate and the basal plate are separated by the sulcus limitans.
Additionally, the floor plate also secretes netrins. The netrins act as chemoattractants to decussation of pain and temperature sensory neurons in the alar plate across the anterior white commissure, where they then ascend towards the thalamus. Following the closure of the caudal neuropore and formation of the brain's ventricles that contain the choroid plexus tissue, the central canal of the caudal spinal cord is filled with cerebrospinal fluid.

Earlier findings by Viktor Hamburger and Rita Levi-Montalcini in the chick embryo have been confirmed by more recent studies which have demonstrated that the elimination of neuronal cells by programmed cell death (PCD) is necessary for the correct assembly of the nervous system.

Overall, spontaneous embryonic activity has been shown to play a role in neuron and muscle development but is probably not involved in the initial formation of connections between spinal neurons.

Blood supply
The spinal cord is supplied with blood by three arteries that run along its length starting in the brain, and many arteries that approach it through the sides of the spinal column. The three longitudinal arteries are the anterior spinal artery, and the right and left posterior spinal arteries. These travel in the subarachnoid space and send branches into the spinal cord. They form anastomoses (connections) via the anterior and posterior segmental medullary arteries, which enter the spinal cord at various points along its length. The actual blood flow caudally through these arteries, derived from the posterior cerebral circulation, is inadequate to maintain the spinal cord beyond the cervical segments.

The major contribution to the arterial blood supply of the spinal cord below the cervical region comes from the radially arranged posterior and anterior radicular arteries, which run into the spinal cord alongside the dorsal and ventral nerve roots, but with one exception do not connect directly with any of the three longitudinal arteries.  These intercostal and lumbar radicular arteries arise from the aorta, provide major anastomoses and supplement the blood flow to the spinal cord. In humans the largest of the anterior radicular arteries is known as the artery of Adamkiewicz, or anterior radicularis magna (ARM) artery, which usually arises between L1 and L2, but can arise anywhere from T9 to L5. Impaired blood flow through these critical radicular arteries, especially during surgical procedures that involve abrupt disruption of blood flow through the aorta for example during aortic aneurysm repair, can result in spinal cord infarction and paraplegia.

Function

Somatosensory organization

In the dorsal column-medial lemniscus tract, a primary neuron's axon enters the spinal cord and then enters the dorsal column. Here the dorsal column connects to the axon of the nerve cell. If the primary axon enters below spinal level T6, the axon travels in the gracile fasciculus, the medial part of the column. If the axon enters above level T6, then it travels in the cuneate fasciculus, which is lateral to the fasciculus gracilis. Either way, the primary axon ascends to the lower medulla, where it leaves its fasciculus and synapses with a secondary neuron in one of the dorsal column nuclei: either the nucleus gracilis or the nucleus cuneatus, depending on the pathway it took. At this point, the secondary axon leaves its nucleus and passes anteriorly and medially. The collection of secondary axons that do this are known as internal arcuate fibers. The internal arcuate fibers decussate and continue ascending as the contralateral medial lemniscus. Secondary axons from the medial lemniscus finally terminate in the ventral posterolateral nucleus (VPLN) of the thalamus, where they synapse with tertiary neurons. From there, tertiary neurons ascend via the posterior limb of the internal capsule and end in the primary sensory cortex.

The proprioception of the lower limbs differs from the upper limbs and upper trunk. There is a four-neuron pathway for lower limb proprioception. This pathway initially follows the dorsal spino-cerebellar pathway. It is arranged as follows: proprioceptive receptors of lower limb → peripheral process → dorsal root ganglion → central process → Clarke's column → 2nd order neuron → spinocerebellar tract →cerebellum.

The anterolateral system works somewhat differently. Its primary neurons axons enter the spinal cord and then ascend one to two levels before synapsing in the substantia gelatinosa. The tract that ascends before synapsing is known as Lissauer's tract. After synapsing, secondary axons decussate and ascend in the anterior lateral portion of the spinal cord as the spinothalamic tract. This tract ascends all the way to the VPLN, where it synapses on tertiary neurons. Tertiary neuronal axons then travel to the primary sensory cortex via the posterior limb of the internal capsule.

Some of the "pain fibers" in the ALS deviate from their pathway towards the VPLN. In one such deviation, axons travel towards the reticular formation in the midbrain. The reticular formation then projects to a number of places including the hippocampus (to create memories about the pain), the centromedian nucleus (to cause diffuse, non-specific pain) and various parts of the cortex. Additionally, some ALS axons project to the periaqueductal gray in the pons, and the axons forming the periaqueductal gray then project to the nucleus raphes magnus, which projects back down to where the pain signal is coming from and inhibits it. This helps control the sensation of pain to some degree..

Motor organization

The corticospinal tract serves as the motor pathway for upper motor neuronal signals coming from the cerebral cortex and from primitive brainstem motor nuclei.

Cortical upper motor neurons originate from Brodmann areas 1, 2, 3, 4, and 6 and then descend in the posterior limb of the internal capsule, through the crus cerebri, down through the pons, and to the medullary pyramids, where about 90% of the axons cross to the contralateral side at the decussation of the pyramids. They then descend as the lateral corticospinal tract. These axons synapse with lower motor neurons in the ventral horns of all levels of the spinal cord. The remaining 10% of axons descend on the ipsilateral side as the ventral corticospinal tract. These axons also synapse with lower motor neurons in the ventral horns. Most of them will cross to the contralateral side of the cord (via the anterior white commissure) right before synapsing.

The midbrain nuclei include four motor tracts that send upper motor neuronal axons down the spinal cord to lower motor neurons. These are the rubrospinal tract, the vestibulospinal tract, the tectospinal tract and the reticulospinal tract. The rubrospinal tract descends with the lateral corticospinal tract, and the remaining three descend with the anterior corticospinal tract.

The function of lower motor neurons can be divided into two different groups: the lateral corticospinal tract and the anterior cortical spinal tract. The lateral tract contains upper motor neuronal axons which synapse on dorsal lateral (DL) lower motor neurons. The DL neurons are involved in distal limb control. Therefore, these DL neurons are found specifically only in the cervical and lumbosacral enlargements within the spinal cord. There is no decussation in the lateral corticospinal tract after the decussation at the medullary pyramids.

The anterior corticospinal tract descends ipsilaterally in the anterior column, where the axons emerge and either synapse on lower ventromedial (VM) motor neurons in the ventral horn ipsilaterally or descussate at the anterior white commissure where they synapse on VM lower motor neurons contralaterally . The tectospinal, vestibulospinal and reticulospinal descend ipsilaterally in the anterior column but do not synapse across the anterior white commissure. Rather, they only synapse on VM lower motor neurons ipsilaterally. The VM lower motor neurons control the large, postural muscles of the axial skeleton. These lower motor neurons, unlike those of the DL, are located in the ventral horn all the way throughout the spinal cord.

Spinocerebellar tracts
Proprioceptive information in the body travels up the spinal cord via three tracks. Below L2, the proprioceptive information travels up the spinal cord in the ventral spinocerebellar tract. Also known as the anterior spinocerebellar tract, sensory receptors take in the information and travel into the spinal cord. The cell bodies of these primary neurons are located in the dorsal root ganglia. In the spinal cord, the axons synapse and the secondary neuronal axons decussates and then travel up to the superior cerebellar peduncle where they decussate again. From here, the information is brought to deep nuclei of the cerebellum including the fastigial and interposed nuclei.

From the levels of L2 to T1, proprioceptive information enters the spinal cord and ascends ipsilaterally, where it synapses in Clarke's nucleus. The secondary neuronal axons continue to ascend ipsilaterally and then pass into the cerebellum via the inferior cerebellar peduncle. This tract is known as the dorsal spinocerebellar tract.

From above T1, proprioceptive primary axons enter the spinal cord and ascend ipsilaterally until reaching the accessory cuneate nucleus, where they synapse. The secondary axons pass into the cerebellum via the inferior cerebellar peduncle where again, these axons synapse on cerebellar deep nuclei. This tract is known as the cuneocerebellar tract.

Motor information travels from the brain down the spinal cord via descending spinal cord tracts.  Descending tracts involve two neurons: the upper motor neuron (UMN) and lower motor neuron (LMN).  A nerve signal travels down the upper motor neuron until it synapses with the lower motor neuron in the spinal cord.  Then, the lower motor neuron conducts the nerve signal to the spinal root where efferent nerve fibers carry the motor signal toward the target muscle.  The descending tracts are composed of white matter.  There are several descending tracts serving different functions.  The corticospinal tracts (lateral and anterior) are responsible for coordinated limb movements.

Clinical significance
A congenital disorder is diastematomyelia in which part of the spinal cord is split usually at the level of the upper lumbar vertebrae. Sometimes the split can be along the length of the spinal cord.

Injury

Spinal cord injuries can be caused by trauma to the spinal column (stretching, bruising, applying pressure, severing, laceration, etc.).  The vertebral bones or intervertebral disks can shatter, causing the spinal cord to be punctured by a sharp fragment of bone. Usually, victims of spinal cord injuries will suffer loss of feeling in certain parts of their body. In milder cases, a victim might only suffer loss of hand or foot function. More severe injuries may result in paraplegia, tetraplegia (also known as quadriplegia), or full body paralysis below the site of injury to the spinal cord.

Damage to upper motor neuron axons in the spinal cord results in a characteristic pattern of ipsilateral deficits. These include hyperreflexia, hypertonia and muscle weakness. Lower motor neuronal damage results in its own characteristic pattern of deficits. Rather than an entire side of deficits, there is a pattern relating to the myotome affected by the damage. Additionally, lower motor neurons are characterized by muscle weakness, hypotonia, hyporeflexia and muscle atrophy.

Spinal shock and neurogenic shock can occur from a spinal injury. Spinal shock is usually temporary, lasting only for 24–48 hours, and is a temporary absence of sensory and motor functions.  Neurogenic shock lasts for weeks and can lead to a loss of muscle tone due to disuse of the muscles below the injured site.

The two areas of the spinal cord most commonly injured are the cervical spine (C1–C7) and the lumbar spine (L1–L5). (The notation C1, C7, L1, L5 refer to the location of a specific vertebra in either the cervical, thoracic, or lumbar region of the spine.)  Spinal cord injury can also be non-traumatic and caused by disease (transverse myelitis, polio, spina bifida, Friedreich's ataxia, spinal cord tumor, spinal stenosis etc.)

Globally, it is expected there are around 40 to 80 cases of spinal cord injury per million population, and approximately 90% of these cases result from traumatic events.

Real or suspected spinal cord injuries need immediate immobilisation including that of the head. Scans will be needed to assess the injury.  A steroid, methylprednisolone, can be of help as can physical therapy and possibly antioxidants. Treatments need to focus on limiting post-injury cell death, promoting cell regeneration, and replacing lost cells. Regeneration is facilitated by maintaining electric transmission in neural elements.

Stenosis

Spinal stenosis at the lumbar region are usually due to disc herniation, hypertrophy of the facet joint and ligamentum flavum, osteophyte,  and spondylolisthesis. An uncommon cause of lumbar spinal stenosis is spinal epidural lipomatosis, a condition where there is excessive deposit of fat in the epidural space, causing compression of nerve root and spinal cord. The epidural fat can be seen as low density on CT scan and high intensity on T2-weighted fast spin echo MRI images.

Tumours

Spinal tumours can occur in the spinal cord and these can be either inside (intradural) or outside (extradural) the dura mater.

Procedures
The spinal cord ends at the level of vertebrae L1–L2, while the subarachnoid space —the compartment that contains cerebrospinal fluid— extends down to the lower border of S2. Lumbar punctures in adults are usually performed between L3–L5 (cauda equina level) in order to avoid damage to the spinal cord.  In the fetus, the spinal cord extends the full length of the spine and regresses as the body grows.

Additional images

See also

Brown-Séquard syndrome
Hereditary spastic paraplegia (HSP, or familial spastic paraplegia – FSP, Strümpell–Lorrain syndrome)
Myelomere
Neutral spine
Poliomyelitis
Post-polio syndrome
Redlich–Obersteiner's zone
Subacute combined degeneration of spinal cord
Tethered spinal cord syndrome
Upper-limb surgery in tetraplegia

References

External links
 Spinal Cord Histology – A multitude of great images from the University of Cincinnati

 eMedicine: Spinal Cord, Topographical and Functional Anatomy
 WebMD. May 17, 2005. Spina Bifida – Topic Overview Information about spina bifida in fetuses and throughout adulthood. WebMD children's health. Retrieved March 19, 2007.
  Potential for spinal injury repair  Retrieved February 6, 2008.
 4000 sets of digital images, showing spatial expression patterns for various genes in adult and juvenile mouse spinal cords from the Allen Institute for Brain Science
Spinal cord photomicrographs

Sensory systems
Motor system
Bones of the vertebral column
Skeletal system

Spinal cord


Henry John FitzRoy Somerset, 12th Duke of Beaufort (born 22 May 1952), styled Marquess of Worcester between 1984 and 2017, also known as Harry Beaufort or Bunter Beaufort, previously as Bunter Worcester, is an English peer and landowner with estates in Gloucestershire and Wiltshire based at Badminton House.

Biography
Beaufort is the son of the 11th Duke of Beaufort and his wife, Lady Caroline Jane Thynne (1928–1995), a daughter of the 6th Marquess of Bath. He and his family are descended in the male line from the House of Plantagenet, through an illegitimate line, although this descent has been questioned after the University of Leicester analysis of the Y chromosomal DNA of Richard III found most living male heirs of the 5th Duke of Beaufort carried a relatively common Y chromosome type different from the rare lineage found in Richard III's remains.

Beaufort was educated at Hawtreys, Eton College, and the Royal Agricultural College.

He is a singer and songwriter with the rock group The Listening Device. This was a support act at the Highclere Rocks concert in 2006, which also featured Bryan Ferry, Eric Clapton, and Roger Waters.

Since the death of his father, Beaufort is also master of the Duke of Beaufort's Hunt.

Personal life
His first wife was the environmentalist and former actress Tracy Louise Ward (a sister of Rachel Ward and a granddaughter of William Ward, 3rd Earl of Dudley). They were married on 13 June 1987 at Cornwell, in Oxfordshire, but later separated, and were divorced in 2018. The marriage produced three children:

 Henry Robert FitzRoy Somerset, Marquess of Worcester, formerly known as Earl of Glamorgan (b. 20 January 1989); married Lucy Eleanor Yorke-Long (b. 23 June 1986), in August 2020. They have one son: Henry, Earl of Glamorgan (b. 28 May 2021)
 Lady Isabella Elsa Somerset (b. 3 August 1992)
 Lord Alexander Lorne Somerset (b. 19 November 1993)

On 30 April 2018, Beaufort married secondly Georgia Powell (born 18 February 1969), a granddaughter of the novelist Anthony Powell.

Family tree

Arms

Notes

External links
 The Listening Device Official Website

1952 births
Living people
Masters of foxhounds in England
People educated at Eton College
English socialites
People educated at Hawtreys
Henry John Fitzroy
111

Henry Somerset, 12th Duke of Beaufort


Anthony Taylor (October 11, 1837 – May 21, 1894) was a Medal of Honor Recipient in the American Civil War.

Biography
Anthony Taylor was born in Burlington County, New Jersey, on October 11, 1837, the son of Dr. Robert Taylor and Elizabeth Ash Jones. He was educated at the Episcopal Academy in Philadelphia.

Taylor entered service at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in Company A, 15th Pennsylvania Cavalry as a Private on August 22, 1861. He was promoted from Private to Sergeant, October 20, 1862; to 1st Sergeant, March 1, 1863; to 1st Lt., May 8, 1863. Shortly after enlisting, Taylor was in the Battle of Antietam. He then followed his regiment West to join the Army of the Cumberland at Nashville, where he participated in the Battle of Stones River. After being commissioned First Lieutenant in 1863 he was in command of Company A. He served on the battlefield at Chickamauga where he was in charge of the couriers at the headquarters of General William Rosecrans. As a First Lieutenant, Taylor was awarded the Medal of Honor for his bravery at the Battle of Chickamauga, Georgia, on September 20, 1863. Date of issue: December 4, 1893.

Taylor later took part in the Siege of Knoxville, and at Sevierville, Dandridge and the battle of Mossy Creek. On March 13, 1865, he was detailed acting Aide-de-Camp on the staff of Brevet Brigadier General William J. Palmer. He participated in the long campaign and cavalry raid from Knoxville, through North Carolina and Virginia, and south through North and South Carolina, Georgia and Alabama. Anthony Taylor carried the dispatch from General Palmer that led to the capture of Jefferson Davis, President of the Confederacy. Commissioned Captain on June 1, 1865, Taylor was mustered out along with the regiment on June 21, 1865.

After leaving the Army, Taylor became actively involved in the coal business, working under the name of "Anthony Taylor and Company." He was also a member of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States. Taylor married Caroline Fletcher Johnson, daughter of Lawrence and Mary Winder Johnson, in Philadelphia on February 1, 1871. They were the parents of two children: Mary Lawrence Taylor, born January 5, 1872, and Elizabeth Elmslie Taylor, born September 23, 1893. Anthony Taylor died in Philadelphia on May 21, 1894. His wife died on December 19, 1919, in Devon, Pennsylvania. Both are interred in the churchyard of the Church of St. James the Less in Philadelphia.

Medal of Honor citation

Rank and Organization:

First Lieutenant, Company A, 15th Pennsylvania Cavalry. Place and date: At Chickamauga, Ga., September 20, 1863. Entered service at: Philadelphia, Pa. Born: October 11, 1837, Burlington, N.J. Date of issue: December 4, 1893.

Citation:

Held out to the last with a small force against the advance of superior numbers of the enemy.

See also

List of Medal of Honor recipients
List of American Civil War Medal of Honor recipients: T–Z

References

External links

United States Army Medal of Honor recipients
United States Army officers
People from Burlington, New Jersey
People of New Jersey in the American Civil War
1837 births
1894 deaths
Burials at the Church of St. James the Less
American Civil War recipients of the Medal of Honor
Military personnel from Philadelphia
People from Burlington County, New Jersey

Anthony Taylor (Medal of Honor)


Hiram Kinsman Evans (March 17, 1863 – July 9, 1941) served part of one term as a Republican U.S. Representative from Iowa's 8th congressional district.

Born in Walnut Township, Wayne County, Iowa, Evans attended the country schools and Seymour and Allerton (Iowa) High Schools.  He graduated from the University of Iowa College of Law at Iowa City, Iowa in 1886.  He was admitted to the bar that year, and commenced practice in Holdrege, Nebraska.  He moved to Seymour, Iowa in 1887, and to Corydon, Iowa in 1889 and continued the practice of law.  He served as prosecuting attorney for Wayne County, Iowa from 1891 to 1895.

He was elected to one two-year term as member of the Iowa House of Representatives in 1896 and 1897.  He was appointed as a member of the board of regents of the University of Iowa, serving from 1897 to 1904.  He was elected mayor of Corydon, serving from 1901 to 1903.  He was a judge of the third judicial district of Iowa from 1904 until 1923, when he resigned.

In 1923, Horace M. Towner resigned his seat representing Iowa's 8th congressional district in the U.S. House, soon after his sixth term began, when President Warren G. Harding appointed him Governor of Puerto Rico. In a special election, Evans was elected as a Republican to serve out the remainder of Towner's term in the Sixty-eighth Congress. He declined to be a candidate for renomination in 1924. In all, Evans served from June 4, 1923, to March 3, 1925.

After returning from Washington, Evans resumed the practice of law in Corydon.  He was appointed by the Governor of Iowa  as a member of the State Board of Parole on July 1, 1927, and served to July 1, 1933.
He died in Corydon on July 9, 1941, and was interred in Corydon Cemetery.

References

Iowa state court judges
University of Iowa College of Law alumni
Republican Party members of the Iowa House of Representatives
1863 births
1941 deaths
People from Wayne County, Iowa
Nebraska lawyers
Mayors of places in Iowa
Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Iowa
People from Corydon, Iowa
Republican Party (Puerto Rico) politicians

Hiram K. Evans


The Battle of Brouwershaven was fought on 13 January 1426 in Brouwershaven, Zeeland.  The battle was part of the Hook and Cod wars waged over control of the Low Countries and resulted in a significant victory for Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy.

Factions
The origins of the conflict lay in a succession dispute between Jacqueline of Hainaut and John III, Duke of Bavaria over the Counties of Hainaut, Holland and Zeeland following the death of Count William VI in 1417. Jaqueline had originally been married to John IV, Duke of Brabant but in complex circumstances, had had this marriage set aside and, in 1422, married Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, brother of Henry V. Jaqueline's second marriage left Hainaut in the hands of John of Brabant, who had reached a rapprochement with John of Bavaria. John had made Philip of Burgundy his heir and this led him to take a role in the dispute.

In 1424, Jaqueline and Humphrey had landed with English forces and quickly overrun Hainaut. The death of John of Bavaria in January 1425 led to short campaign by Burgundian forces in pursuit of Philip's claim and the English were ousted. Jaqueline had ended the war in the custody of Philip but in September 1425 escaped to Gouda, where she again asserted her rights. As leader of the Hooks, she drew most of her support from the petty nobility and small towns. Her opponents, the Cods, were drawn largely from the burghers of the cities, including Rotterdam and Dordrecht.

Events leading to the battle
Jaqueline requested support from her husband Humphrey, who was in England, and he set about raising a force of 1500 English troops to reinforce her, led by Walter FitzWalter, 7th Baron FitzWalter. In the meantime, Jaqueline's army had defeated a Burgundian force of city militia at the Battle of Alphen on 22 October 1425. Duke Philip had plenty of notice of the assembly of the English force and raised a fleet to intercept them at sea. Although he did succeed in catching a small part of the English force, consisting of 300 men, most of the English force made landfall at the port of Brouwershaven, where they rendezvoused with their Zeeland allies.

Composition of the armies
The Duke of Burgundy personally led the Burgundian army landed at Brouwershaven, consisting of his own feudal retainers and municipal militia from Dordrecht, The Hague, and Delft. The force consisted of about 4000 combatants, including gunners from Dordrecht and over 1000 militia crossbowmen.

The Zeelanders, led by the Lord of Haamstede, numbered about 3000 men, reinforced by the English, who were reduced to about 1200 men.

Battle
The Zeelander forces allowed their opponents to land unopposed from boats, perhaps hoping for an Agincourt-like triumph with the aid of their English allies.

However, when the Burgundians were still disembarking, the English led an attack, advancing in good order, giving a great shout and blowing trumpets. The English troops were bombarded with a cannonade and a volley of arbalest bolts from the militia. The well-disciplined English longbowmen held firm and then shot back with their longbows, quickly scattering the crossbowmen in disarray. The well-armored and equally disciplined Burgundian knights then advanced and came to grips with the English men-at-arms. Unable to withstand the fierce attack of the knights, the English men-at-arms and archers were driven onto a dike and were virtually wiped out. The Chronyk en Historie van Zeeland of Janus Reygersberg records that three thousand of the Zeeland army were killed, and many captured. Duke Philip himself noted 200 Englishmen were captured. A number of the local nobility are also recorded to have been killed in the battle, though the Lord of Heemstede was captured and Lord Fitzwalter escaped.

Aftermath
The loss was devastating to Jacqueline's cause. Duke Humphrey was increasingly preoccupied with politics at home, and had become infatuated with Eleanor Cobham, one of Jacqueline's ladies-in-waiting. In 1428, he married Eleanor after the pope annulled his marriage with Jacqueline. Without foreign support, Jacqueline was unable to resist the full strength of Burgundy, and she was compelled to surrender the administration of her territories to Philip.

Citations

References

Conflicts in 1426
1426 in Europe
Battles of the Middle Ages
Battles involving Burgundy
Battles involving Holland
History of Zeeland
Battle
Hook and Cod wars

Battle of Brouwershaven


Platelet-activating factor, also known as PAF, PAF-acether or AGEPC (acetyl-glyceryl-ether-phosphorylcholine), is a potent phospholipid activator and mediator of many leukocyte functions, platelet aggregation and degranulation, inflammation, and anaphylaxis. It is also involved in changes to vascular permeability, the oxidative burst, chemotaxis of leukocytes, as well as augmentation of arachidonic acid metabolism in phagocytes.

PAF is produced by a variety of cells, but especially those involved in host defense, such as platelets, endothelial cells, neutrophils, monocytes, and macrophages. PAF is continuously produced by these cells but in low quantities and production is controlled by the activity of PAF acetylhydrolases. It is produced in larger quantities by inflammatory cells in response to specific stimuli.

History

PAF was discovered by French immunologist Jacques Benveniste in the early 1970s. PAF was the first phospholipid known to have messenger functions. Benveniste made significant contributions in the role and characteristics of PAF and its importance in inflammatory response and mediation. Using lab rats and mice, he found that ionophore A23187 (a mobile ion carrier that allows the passage of Mn2+, Ca2+ and Mg2+ and has antibiotic properties against bacteria and fungi)  caused the release of PAF. These developments led to the finding that macrophages produce PAF and that macrophages play an important function in aggregation of platelets and liberation of their inflammatory and vasoactive substances.

Further studies on PAF were conducted by Constantinos A. Demopoulos in 1979. Demopoulos found that PAF plays a crucial role in heart disease and strokes. His experiment's data found that atherosclerosis (the accumulation of lipid-rich lesions in the endothelium of the arteries) can be attributed to PAF and PAF-like lipids, and identified biologically active compounds in the polar lipid fractions of olive oil, honey, milk and yoghurt, mackerel, and wine that have PAF-antagonistic properties and inhibit the development of atherosclerosis in animal models. During the course of his studies, he also determined the chemical structure of the compound.

Evolution
PAF can be found in protozoans, yeasts, plants, bacteria, and mammals. PAF has regulatory role in protozoans. The regulatory role is thought to diverge from that point and be maintained as living organisms started to evolve. During evolution, functions of PAF in the cell have been changing and enlarging.

PAF has been found in plants but its function has not yet been determined.

Fungal PAF

The antifungal protein PAF from Penicillium chrysogenum exhibits growth-inhibitory activity against a broad range of filamentous fungi. Evidence suggests that disruption of  signaling/homeostasis plays an important role in the mechanistic basis of PAF as a growth inhibitor.

PAF also elicits hyperpolarization of the plasma membrane and the activation of ion channels, followed by an increase in reactive oxygen species in the cell and the induction of an apoptosis-like phenotype

Cumulative evidence reveals that diabetes is a condition in which cell  homeostasis is impaired. Defects in cell  regulation were found in erythrocytes, cardiac muscle, platelets, skeletal muscle, kidney, aorta, adipocytes, liver, osteoblasts, arteries, lens, peripheral nerves, brain synaptosomes, retinal tissue, and pancreatic beta cells, confirming that this defect in cell  metabolism is a basic pathology associated with the diabetic state.

The defects identified in the mechanical activity of the hearts from type 1 diabetic animals include alteration of  signaling via changes in critical processes.

Function

PAF is used to transmit signals between neighboring cells and acts as a hormone, cytokines, and other signaling molecules. The PAF signaling system can trigger inflammatory and thrombotic cascades, amplify these cascades when acting with other mediators, and mediate molecular and cellular interactions (cross talk) between inflammation and thrombosis.  Unregulated PAF signaling can cause pathological inflammation and has been found to be a cause in sepsis, shock, and traumatic injury. PAF can be used as a local signaling molecule and travel over very short distances or it can be circulated throughout the body and act via endocrine.

PAF initiates an inflammatory response in allergic reactions.  This has been demonstrated in the skin of humans and in the paws and skin of lab rabbits and rodents. The inflammatory response is enhanced by the use of vasodilators, including prostaglandin E1 (PGE,) and PGE2 and inhibited by vasoconstrictors.

PAF also induces apoptosis in a different way that is independent of the PAF receptor. The pathway to apoptosis can be inhibited by negative feedback from PAF acetylhydrolase (PAF-AH), an enzyme that catabolizes platelet-activating factor.

It is an important mediator of bronchoconstriction.

It causes platelets to aggregate and blood vessels to dilate. Thus, it is important to the process of hemostasis. At a concentration of 10−12 mol/L, PAF causes life-threatening inflammation of the airways to induce asthma like symptoms.

Toxins such as fragments of destroyed bacteria induce the synthesis of PAF, which causes a drop in blood pressure and reduced volume of blood pumped by the heart, which leads to shock and possibly death.

Structure

Several molecular species of platelet-activating factor that vary in the length of the O-alkyl side-chain have been identified.
 Its alkyl group is connected by an ether linkage at the C1 carbon to a 16-carbon chain.
 The acyl group at the C2 carbon is an acetate unit (as opposed to a fatty acid) whose short length increases the solubility of PAF allowing it to function as a soluble signal messenger.
 The C3 has a phosphocholine head group, just like standard phosphatidylcholine.

Studies found that PAF could not be modified without losing its biological activity. Thus, small changes in the structure of PAF could render its signaling abilities inert. Investigation led to the understanding that platelet and blood pressure response were dependent on the sn-2 propionyl analog. If the sn-1 was removed then PAF lacked any sort of biological activity. Finally, the sn-3 position of PAF was experimented with by removing methyl groups sequentially. As more and more methyl groups were removed, biological activity diminished until it was eventually inactive.

Biochemistry

Biosynthesis

PAF is produced by stimulated basophils, monocytes, polymorphonuclear neutrophils, platelets, and endothelial cells primarily through lipid remodeling. A variety of stimuli can initiate the synthesis of PAF. These stimuli could be macrophages going through phagocytosis or endothelium cells uptake of thrombin.

There are two different pathways in which PAF can be synthesized: de novo pathway and remodeling. The remodeling pathway is activated by inflammatory agents and it is thought to be the primary source of PAF under pathological conditions. The de novo pathway is used to maintain PAF levels during normal cellular function.

The most common pathway taken to produce PAF is remodeling. The precursor to the remodeling pathway is a phospholipid, which is typically phosphatidylcholine (PC).  The fatty acid is removed from the sn-2 position of the three-carbon backbone of the phospholipid by phospholipase A2 (PLA2) to produce the intermediate lyso-PC (LPC). An acetyl group is then added by LPC acetyltransferase (LPCAT) to produce PAF.

Using the de novo pathway, PAF is produced from 1-O-alkyl-2-acetyl-sn-glycerol (AAG). Fatty acids are joined on the sn-1 position with 1-O-hexadecyl being the best for PAF activity. Phosphocholine is then added to the sn-3 site on AAG creating PAF.

Regulation

The concentration of PAF is controlled by the synthesis of the compound and by the actions of PAF acetylhydrolases (PAF-AH).  PAF-AH are a family of enzymes that have the ability to catabolize and degrade PAF and turn it into an inactive compound.  The enzymes within this family are lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2, cytoplasmic platelet-activating factor acetylhydrolase 2, and platelet-activating factor acetylhydrolase 1b.

Cations are one form of regulation in the production of PAF. Calcium plays a large role in the inhibition of enzymes that produce PAF in the denovo pathway of PAF biosynthesis.

The regulation of PAF is still not completely understood. Enzymes that are associated with the production of PAF are controlled by metal ions, thiol compounds, fatty acids, pH, compartmentalization, and phosphorylation and dephosphorylation. These controls on these PAF producing enzymes are believed to work in conjunction to control it, but the overall pathway and reasoning is not well understood.

Pharmacology

Inhibition

PAF antagonists do not provoke an inflammatory response upon binding, but block or lessen the effect of PAF. Examples of PAF antagonists are:
 CV-3988 is a PAF antagonist that blocks signaling events correlated to the expression and binding of PAF to the PAF Receptor.
 SM-12502 is a PAF antagonist, which is metabolized in the liver by the enzyme CYP2A6.
 Rupatadine is an antihistamine and PAF antagonist used to treat allergies.
 Etizolam is a benzodiazepine analog and PAF antagonist used to treat anxiety and panic attacks.
 Apafant
 Lexipafant (Zacutex) for treatment of pancreatitis.
 Modipafant
 A full list in a review:

Clinical significance

High PAF levels are associated with a variety of medical conditions. Some of these conditions include:

•Allergic reactions
•Stroke
•Sepsis
•Myocardial infarction
•Colitis, inflammation of the large intestine
•Multiple sclerosis

While the effects that PAF has on inflammatory response and cardiovascular conditions are well understood, PAF is still a subject for discussion. Over the past 23 years, papers written on PAF have almost doubled from approximately 7,500 in 1997 to 14,500 in 2020. Research into PAF is ongoing.

See also
 Platelet-activating factor receptor
 Platelet-derived growth factor

References

External links
 Srf1 is Essential to Buffer Toxic Effects of Platelet Activating Factor
 Pharmacorama - PAF (Platelet Activating Factor)

Hematology
Phosphatidylcholines

Platelet-activating factor