His Eminence (abbreviation H.Em. or HE) is a style of reference for high nobility, still in use in various religious contexts.

Catholicism
The style remains in use as the official style or standard form of address in reference to a cardinal of the Catholic Church, reflecting his status as a Prince of the Church.

A longer, and more formal, title is "His (or Your when addressing the cardinal directly) Most Reverend Eminence".

Patriarchs of Eastern Catholic Churches who are also cardinals may be addressed as "His Eminence" or by the style particular to Catholic patriarchs, His Beatitude.

When the Grand Master of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta, the head of state of their sovereign territorial state comprising the island of Malta until 1797, who had already been made a Reichsfürst (i.e., prince of the Holy Roman Empire) in 1607, became (in terms of honorary order of precedence, not in the actual church hierarchy of ordained ministers) the most senior official after the most junior member of the cardinals in 1630, he was also awarded the hybrid style His Most Eminent Highness (abbreviation HMEH) to recognize his status as a type of Prince of the Church.

The Prince and Grand Master of the contemporary Sovereign Military Order of Malta is still styled His Most Eminent Highness. Styles such as "His Grand Eminence" or "His Eminent Grace" amongst others were used as well, some formalized by the pope or other powers, such as monarchs. However, many others were simply the personal preference of the cardinal and by the merit of other earthly offices.

While the term is shunned by many individuals of other faiths or denominations of Christianity, the title is officially maintained in international diplomacy without regard for its doctrinal, philosophical and theological origins.

Eastern Orthodox Church
Archbishops under the Ecumenical Patriarchate and metropolitans in the Eastern Orthodox Church are addressed with the style of "Eminence". Archbishops of independent churches are addressed with the style of "Beatitude". Titular metropolitans are addressed with the style of "Excellency".

The Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople and the Metropolitan Bishop of Thessaloniki are styled "His All-Holiness". The patriarchs of Alexandria, Antiochia and Jerusalem, as well as the Serbian, Bulgarian and Russian patriarchs are referred to as "His Holiness", while Romanian Patriarchs are referred to as "His Beatitude". The patriarch of the Georgian Orthodox Church is a unique exception, being addressed as "His Holiness and Beatitude".

Oriental Orthodoxy
In Oriental Orthodoxy, bishops holding the rank of metropolitan are referred to as "His Eminence".

In Syriac Orthodox Church the Catholicose of India who is also the Maphrian of the East is referred to as "His Beatitude Catholicose".

Other religions
In the Philippine Independent Church, an Independent Catholic and Anglo-Catholic denomination, the supreme bishops, who are the church's head primates, are referred to as "His Eminence" and "Your Eminence" in their official form of address or style.

In Tibetan Buddhism and Bön, His Eminence/Your Eminence is the English translation of several Tibetan titles (e.g., Khentin) which signify associate lineage holders and regents of lineages. If the lineage holder of any particular lineage is referred to in English as His Holiness, then the teachers immediately subordinate will usually be accorded the English title His Eminence. For example, in the Karma Kagyu, His Holiness the 16th Gyalwa Karmapa had 4 principal disciples who held regency until the enthronement of the 17th Karmapa. Each of these 4 high lamas hold/held the title His Eminence. In the Southern Drukpa Kagyu in Bhutan, the Five Lopons of the Zhung Dratshang are styled "Their Eminences".

It is also used, often informally (perhaps as a rendering of an oriental style), in Islam for highly honorable religious leaders. For example, an Ayatollah or Marja' in Shia, Imam of the Sunni Barelwi school of thought, Grand Master of the Murjite Order, Moulana Syed Madani Mia, is often addressed with this title, along with individuals such as Moulana Khushtar Siddiqi of Mauritius, although these titles are, in essence, unofficial. Beyond this, the traditional rulers of the sub-national states of the Fulani, Hausa, Nupe and Kanuri peoples of Nigeria use the style as an alternative to the HRH style that is usually used by the country's royal monarchs, highlighting by so doing their positions as spiritual as well as temporal leaders. The Lord of the Rasulid Order is styled His Most Eminent Royal Highness (abbreviated HMERH).

See also
Ecclesiastical address
, nickname for Italian broadcaster and politician Silvio Berlusconi

References

External links

Ecclesiastical styles
Cardinals (Catholic Church)
Royal styles

Eminence (style)


A term limit is a legal restriction on the number of terms a person may serve in a particular elected office. When term limits are found in presidential and semi-presidential systems they act as a method of curbing the potential for monopoly, where a leader effectively becomes "president for life". This is intended to protect a republic from becoming a de facto dictatorship. Term limits may be a lifetime limit on the number of terms an officeholder may serve, or a limit on the number of consecutive terms.

History

Europe

Term limits date back to Ancient Greece and the Roman Republic, as well as the Republic of Venice. In ancient Athenian democracy, many officeholders were limited to a single term. Council members were allowed a maximum of two terms. The position of Strategos could be held for an indefinite number of terms. In the Roman Republic, a law was passed imposing a limit of a single term on the office of censor. The annual magistrates, including the tribune of the plebs, the aedile, the quaestor, the praetor, and the consul, were forbidden reelection until a number of years had passed. The office of dictator was nearly unrestricted with the exception that it was limited to a single six month term. Successive Roman leaders weakened this restriction until Julius Caesar became a perpetual dictator and ended the republic.

Term limits returned in Medieval Europe through the Novgorod Republic, the Pskov Republic, the Republic of Genoa, and the Republic of Florence.

The first modern constitutional term limit was established in the French First Republic by the Constitution of 1795, which established five-year terms to the French Directory and banned consecutive terms. Napoleon ended the practice of term limits in 1799 in much the same way as Julius Caesar had. The French Constitution of 1848 reestablished term limits, but this was abolished by Napoleon's nephew, Napoleon III.

Many post-Soviet republics established presidential systems with five-year term limits after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. The President of Russia is allowed a maximum of two consecutive terms, but the 2020 amendments to the Constitution of Russia made President Vladimir Putin exempt from this limit. The President of Belarus was limited to two terms, but the limit was abolished in 2004.

United States

A predecessor of modern term limits in the Americas dates back to the 1682 Pennsylvania Charter of Liberties and the colonial frame of government of the same year, authored by William Penn and providing for triennial rotation of the Provincial Council, the upper house of the colonial legislature. Presidents of the United States typically honored an informal tradition of only serving two terms in office, but this limit was not enshrined into law until the 22nd Amendment to the Constitution was ratified in 1951 after Franklin D. Roosevelt was elected to an unprecedented third and fourth terms.

Latin America
As the countries of Latin America modeled presidential republics after the government of the United States in the 19th century, they established term limits for their presidents based on two-term precedent of the United States. In response to presidents overstaying their term, some of these term limits were eventually replaced by a limit of one term without reelection.

In Mexico, Porfirio Díaz evaded term limits, running for eight terms before being forced into exile in 1911. A new constitution in 1917 established a limit to one term. After Álvaro Obregón violated this law and ran for a second term, he was assassinated. Currently, members of the Congress of Mexico cannot be reelected for the next immediate term under article 50 and 59 of the Constitution of Mexico, and the President of Mexico is limited to a single six-year term, called the Sexenio.

The President of Argentina was limited to one consecutive six-year term, but the Constitution of Argentina was amended in 1994, loosening the term limit to a maximum of two consecutive four-year terms.

In 1997, the Constitution of Brazil was amended, loosening the term limit for the President of Brazil from one five-year term to two four-year terms.

In 2004, the term limit for the President of Colombia was increased from one term to two terms.

The 2009 Venezuelan constitutional referendum abolished term limits in Venezuela.

Asia
Following the 1911 Revolution, Prime Minister of the Imperial Cabinet Yuan Shikai became the second President of the Republic of China. He was initially subject to a maximum of two five-year terms, but the term was then lengthened to ten years and the term limit was removed.

In 1948, the Temporary Provisions against the Communist Rebellion abolished the term limit for the President of the Republic of China and established Chiang Kai-shek as the country's military leader. The term limit was restored after the provisions were repealed in 1991.

The President of South Korea was initially permitted to serve a maximum of two four-year terms when the office was created in 1948, but the term limit was removed in 1954 so that Syngman Rhee could run for a third term. After Rhee was elected to a fourth term, the First Republic of Korea was overthrown. The two term limit was restored, but it was expanded to three terms in 1969 and abolished again in 1972. Since 1981, the President of South Korea has been limited to one five year term.

Under the original Constitution of Indonesia the presidential and vice-presidential terms were unlimited but since the first amendment in 1999 holders of both offices are limited to two terms each.

The Philippines established term limits following independence from the United States, but they were abolished by Ferdinand Marcos in the 1970s.

Between 1982 and 2018, the Constitution of China stipulated that the president, vice president, premier, vice premiers could not serve more than two consecutive terms, though there was no term limit for the General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party, who usually represented the paramount leader of China. In March 2018, the National People's Congress passed a set of constitutional amendments including removal of term limits for the president and vice president, as well as enhancing the central role of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), allowing CCP leader Xi Jinping to retain power indefinitely until his death.

The President of Tajikistan was initially limited to one five-year term under the 1994 Constitution of Tajikistan. This was increased to one seven-year term in 1999 and to two seven-year terms in 2003. The term limit was reset for President Emomali Rahmon in 2006, and the term limit was abolished in 2016.

The Prime Minister of Pakistan was limited to one five-year term until the limit was abolished in 2011.

The Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia is subjected to a term limit. Once elected, he is only allowed to serve for a single five-year term and cannot renew for a second term consecutively. This rule makes Malaysia among two constitutional monarchies in the world that is subjected to a term limit, the other country being Andorra.

Term limits were one of the major demands of protesters during the Arab Spring.

Sub-Saharan Africa
Liberia briefly limited its presidents to an eight-year term between 1944 and 1951.  As the countries of sub-Saharan Africa were decolonised in the mid-20th century, most of the new governments established presidential systems, but term limits were rarely established. The Democratic Republic of the Congo, Gabon, Rwanda, and Togo were the only countries to establish them, but they were abolished soon afterward. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, many African countries were freed from Soviet control and established term limits.

The President of Uganda was limited to two five-year terms in 1995. President Yoweri Museveni had previously served two terms, but these were not counted toward the new two term limit. The term limit was abolished in 2005, allowing Museveni to continue as president.

In Kenya, the 2010 constitution limits the president to a maximum of two five-year terms just like county governors. Before the promulgation of the 2010 constitution, term limits did not exist. The first president, Mzee Jomo Kenyatta ruled for 15 years and died in office. His vice president, Daniel Moi took over in 1978 and ruled for 24 years before Mwai Kibaki took over. Kibaki ruled for ten years, in a tenure that was characterized by major political reforms leading to the 2010 constitution. Immediate former President Uhuru Kenyatta was the first president under the new law, a position he served for two terms of 5 years each and was succeeded by his deputy William Ruto in September 2022. A member of President Ruto's United Democratic Alliance party revealed plans to scrap the term limits on 7th November 2022 but the leadership dismissed him saying that was his personal opinion which he was entitled to.

In the Sub-Saharan Africa, only Kenya has experienced smooth transition of power from one president to another after the expiry of term limits. Some countries either scrap the requirement or do not have it in their laws.

Middle East and North Africa
The 2019 Egyptian constitutional referendum expanded the presidential term from four to six years and allowed President Abdel Fattah el-Sisi to serve as President of Egypt for a third term over the constitutional limit of two terms.

Mechanism

Term limits are an element of constitutionalism that serves to limit the negative effects of democracy.

Term limits may take the form of consecutive term limits or lifetime term limits. With consecutive term limits, an officeholder can only serve a certain number of terms before they have to stop running for that office. After a set period of time, the clock resets on the limit, and the officeholder may run for election to their original office and serve up to the limit again. With lifetime limits, once an officeholder has served up to the limit, they may never again run for election to that office. Lifetime limits are much more restrictive than consecutive limits.

Countries that operate a parliamentary system of government are less likely to employ term limits on their leaders. This is because such leaders rarely have a set "term" at all: rather, they serve as long as they have the confidence of the parliament, a period which could potentially last for life. Many parliaments can be dissolved for snap elections which means some parliaments can last for mere months while others can continue until their expiration dates. Nevertheless, such countries may impose term limits on the holders of other offices—in republics, for example, a ceremonial presidency may have a term limit, especially if the office holds reserve powers.

Due in part to a lack of legal term limits in African countries, Mo Ibrahim created the Ibrahim Prize with an associated cash prize to incentivize African leaders to promote human rights and democratic transfer of power.

Violation of term limits

Many presidents have tried to overstay their respective term limits by various methods. Between 1960 and 2010, more than one quarter of term-limited presidents successfully extended or violated their term limits to stay in power, and the enforcement of term limits is recognized as one of the great challenges in democratic development. Term limits typically receive greater domestic and international recognition than other mechanisms of democracy, and attempts to violate term limits are typically met with strong resistance by a country's population and on the world stage. The violation of term limits is strongly correlated with democratic backsliding and the erosion of human rights.

Whether a president seeks to subvert term limits may be affected by how much wealth can be gained from the office, opportunities for acquiring wealth after leaving office, what constraints are in place to enforce term limits, how much control leader has over other branches of government or a political party, precedent in the region, and the likelihood of facing criminal prosecution upon leaving office. Presidents are more likely to be successful in violating term limits if they control the other branches of government, whether through their political parties or through insufficient checks and balances. Though violation of term limits is more common in less democratic countries, political opposition, foreign governments, and the citizenry can still enforce term limits in nondemocratic countries.

A president may attempt to circumvent term limits indirectly by extending their rule without an additional term. This may be done by extending the length of the term or postponing elections. In some cases, a president may circumvent term limits by officially stepping down from office but maintaining de facto control of the government.

See also
 Gerontocracy
 List of political term limits
 Reelection
 Term of office

References

Bibliography

External links
 Real Term Limits: Now More Than Ever, an article by Doug Bandow in favor of term limits
 , term limits information from the National Conference of State Legislatures

Electoral restrictions
Term of office

Term limit


The Missal of Silos is the oldest known document on paper (as opposed to parchment) created in Europe; it dates to before 1080 AD. The manuscript was written on quarto; it comprises 157 folios, of which folios 1 to 37 are on paper and the rest are on parchment. Strictly speaking, it is not a missal: It has been described as a breviary-missal. It can also be described as a Liber Mysticus or Breviarum gothicum.

The missal is "Codex 6" held in the library of the Monastery of Santo Domingo de Silos near Burgos, Spain. It is one of a number of liturgical manuscripts of the Mozarabic rite which have been preserved in the Silos library, despite the suppression of the rite in 1080 by Pope Gregory VII. The codex is named after its current location in Silos, but it was not made at the Silos monastery's scriptorium; it was made at the monastery of Santa María la Real of Nájera. The paper for the missal is believed to have been manufactured in Al-Andalus, even though Nájera was in Christian territory at the time the document was created.

In 2013, the manuscript was inspected by Umberto Eco, who had referred to Silos in his 1980 novel The Name of the Rose. Eco's visit was widely reported in the Spanish press.

References

External links

Missals
11th-century manuscripts
Mozarabic art and architecture
Paper
Province of Burgos
Manuscripts in Latin
Spanish literature

Missal of Silos


मानव अधिकार (अङ्ग्रेजीमा human right, ह्युमन राइट्स) यस्तो अधिकारहरू हो, जुन सबै मान्छेले केबल मानव भएको नाताले पाँउनु पर्दछ। यी अधिकारहरू विश्वव्यापी हुन् त्यसैले प्रत्येक मानिसले पाउनु पर्छ । मान्छेको जात, धर्म, सम्प्रदाय, राष्ट्रियता, उमेर, लिङ्ग, राजनीतिक विचार, ज्ञान, अपाङ्गता, लैङ्गिक झुकाव, लैङ्गिक परिचय, आदि जेसुकै भएपनि फरक पर्दैन । प्रत्येक मानिसले मानव अधिकार पाउनु पर्छ ।
मानव अधिकारको प्रकृति विश्वब्यापी ,अविभाज्य र अहरणीय हुन्छ ।

मानव अधिकारको सूची
सबैजना आधारभुत मानव अधिकारहरू के के हुन भन्नेमा एकमत छैनन्। यो सूचीमा केही अत्याबस्यक मध्येका छन्:
जीवन जिउने अधिकार
आफ्नै निम्ति काम गर्न पाउनु पर्ने अधिकार  (दास हुन नपर्ने)
सम्पति माथिको अधिकार
बोल्ने स्वतन्त्रताको अधिकार
ज्यानको सुरक्षा
कुनै देशको नागरिक हुन पाउनु
मताधिकार
उचित शिक्षाको अधिकार
स्वतन्त्र विचार राख्न पाउने अधिकार
स्वतन्त्र रूपमा विचार व्यक्त गर्न पाउने
रोजगार गर्न पाउने
संयुक्त राष्ट्र सङ्घिय मानवाअधिकार (१९४८सन् )अनुसारका सम्पुर्ण अधिकार/* -जगन्नाथ मरासिनी
 बाबा र आमाको खटाइम नरह्ने
1. We Are All Born Free & Equal. We are all born free. We all have our own thoughts and ideas. We should all be treated in the same way.

2. Don't Discriminate. These rights belong to everybody, whatever our differences.

3. The Right to Life. We all have the right to life, and to live in freedom and safety.

4. No Slavery. Nobody has any right to make us a slave. We cannot make anyone our slave.

5. No Torture. Nobody has any right to hurt us or to torture us.

6. You Have Rights No Matter Where You Go. I am a person just like you!

7. We're All Equal Before the Law. The law is the same for everyone. It must treat us all fairly.

8. Your Human Rights Are Protected by Law. We can all ask for the law to help us when we are not treated fairly.

9. No Unfair Detainment. Nobody has the right to put us in prison without good reason and keep us there, or to send us away from our country.

10. The Right to Trial. If we are put on trial this should be in public. The people who try us should not let anyone tell them what to do.

11. We're Always Innocent Till Proven Guilty. Nobody should be blamed for doing something until it is proven. When people say we did a bad thing we have the right to show it is not true.

12. The Right to Privacy. Nobody should try to harm our good name. Nobody has the right to come into our home, open our letters, or bother us or our family without a good reason.

13. Freedom to Move. We all have the right to go where we want in our own country and to travel as we wish.

14. The Right to Seek a Safe Place to Live. If we are frightened of being badly treated in our own country, we all have the right to run away to another country to be safe. क़

15. Right to a Nationality. We all have the right to belong to a country.

16. Marriage and Family. Every grown-up has the right to marry and have a family if they want to. Men and women have the same rights when they are married, and when they are separated.

17. The Right to Your Own Things. Everyone has the right to own things or share them. Nobody should take our things from us without a good reason.

18. Freedom of Thought. We all have the right to believe in what we want to believe, to have a religion, or to change it if we want.

19. Freedom of Expression. We all have the right to make up our own minds, to think what we like, to say what we think, and to share our ideas with other people.

20. The Right to Public Assembly. We all have the right to meet our friends and to work together in peace to defend our rights. Nobody can make us join a group if we don't want to.

21. The Right to Democracy. We all have the right to take part in the government of our country. Every grown-up should be allowed to choose their own leaders.

22. Social Security. We all have the right to affordable housing, medicine, education, and childcare, enough money to live on and medical help if we are ill or old.

23. Workers' Rights. Every grown-up has the right to do a job, to a fair wage for their work, and to join a trade union.

24. The Right to Play. We all have the right to rest from work and to relax.

25. Food and Shelter for All. We all have the right to a good life. Mothers and children, people who are old, unemployed or disabled, and all people have the right to be cared for.

26. The Right to Education. Education is a right. Primary school should be free. We should learn about the United Nations and how to get on with others. Our parents can choose what we learn.

27. Copyright. Copyright is a special law that protects one's own artistic creations and writings; others cannot make copies without permission. We all have the right to our own way of life and to enjoy the good things that art, science and learning bring.

28. A Fair and Free World. There must be proper order so we can all enjoy rights and freedoms in our own country and all over the world.

29. Responsibility. We have a duty to other people, and we should protect their rights and freedoms.

30. No One Can Take Away Your Human Rights.

मानव अधिकार सम्बन्धी विश्वव्यापी घोषणा पत्र १९४८
मानव अधिकार सम्बन्धी विश्वव्यापी घोषणा पत्र 1948

सन्दर्भ सामग्रीहरू

बाह्य सम्बन्ध

 मानव अधिकार विश्वव्यापी घोषणा नेपाली भाषामा
 मानव अधिकार विश्वव्यापी घोषणा धेरै भाषामा

मानव अधिकारवादी संस्थाहरू
 एम्नेस्टि इन्टरनेसनल
 सिमा नभएका चिकित्सकहरू (Medecins Sans Frontieres)
 मानव अधिकार अवलोकन
 चीनमा मानव अधिकार
 मानव अधिकार अभियान
 दक्षिणी गरीबी कानुन केन्द्र
 अखिल भारतीय मानवाधिकार नागरिक विकल्प

राजनीति
दर्शन
महिला सम्पादनथन २०१५ मा बनाइएका वा सुधारिएका लेखहरू
मानव अधिकार

मानव अधिकार


The USA International Speedway was an oval located near Lakeland, Florida, United States, that opened in 1995. The track was a .75-mile-long concrete paved oval with 14° banked turns. USA International Speedway was closed with the final race on August 2, 2008. In 2010 the track was stripped of its grandstands and control tower. In early 2012 the track was completely demolished, a warehouse now sits on the property. The site lies next to the former site of Lakeland Motorsports Park, on Florida State Road 33 just north of exit 38 on Interstate 4, where an Amazon warehouse now exists.

In 1977, Lakeland International Speedway hosted Florida Sunfest, a music festival featuring 20 acts, including Jimmy Buffett. It was the largest music festival in Florida history, attracting over 100,000 fans. The event was created and produced by Richard Flanzer, of AtlanticPacific Music.

The USAR Hooters Pro Cup Series had a race at the speedway in early March and the final championship race in mid to late November. There were also several series that tested there, including the ARCA Racing Series, CRA Super Series, and the NASCAR Cup Series.

USA International Speedway hosted three NASCAR Southeast Series events from 1999 until 2001 and five races of ASA National Tour from 2000 until 2004. All the race winners had driven in NASCAR: Gary St. Amant, Mike Garvey, Joey Clanton had one win apiece, and Butch Miller won twice.

The track hosted one ARCA Racing Series event in 2007. The race was won by future NASCAR Camping World Truck Series champion James Buescher.

The speedway also hosted 40 CARS X-1R Pro Cup Series races from 1997 until 2008. Some NASCAR drivers such as Chad Chaffin, Mario Gosselin, Michael Ritch, Scott Wimmer, Bobby Gill, Shane Huffman, Clay Rogers, Benny Gordon, Brian Vickers, and Joey Logano won races at the track.

ARCA Series event
The Construct Corps–Palm Beach Grading 250 was an Automobile Racing Club of America race at USA International Speedway in Florida. It was only held during the 2007 season.

Race was extended from 250 to 253 laps due to a green-white-checker finish.

External links
Official ARCA Website
Official USA International Speedway Website
USA International Speedway race results at Racing-Reference

ARCA Menards Series tracks
ARCA Menards Series races
NASCAR tracks
Motorsport venues in Florida
Sports venues in Lakeland, Florida
Motorsport competitions in Florida
Sports in Lakeland, Florida
Defunct motorsport venues in the United States
1995 establishments in Florida
Sports venues completed in 1995
2008 disestablishments in Florida
Sports venues demolished in 2012
Demolished sports venues in Florida
2007 in American motorsport
2007 in Florida

USA International Speedway


Pabarsa, Commonly known as Baparsa Or Pawarsa is a sub-urban  village near "Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel Agriculture & Technology University, Modipuram (Meerut) having population of 2500 inhabitants. It is located at  approximation of 750 meters from Main University Campus. Urban centre (Modipuram) of Meerut metropolitan city & Daurala nagar panchayat of Meerut district are very near to village  approx 3.5 Kilometres in south east & north east directions respectively.

It is  away from National Highway 58 , popularly known as Delhi Dehradun highway. It is also very close to under construction "Modipuram depot station" of Delhi Meerut RRTS ( Rapid metro). Agriculture is main occupations of villagers , especially farming of Sugar cane , Wheat, Rice & Potato.
Village population have dominance of Jat community (Panwar & Puniya gotra) along with other caste Saini,Dalit,Prjapati,Gadaria,Kahaar, Balmiki & other Hindu castes in low proportions. Jat-Panwars here are the descendants of Royal maulaheri Panwar Dynasty.

Villages in Meerut district

Pabarsa


Kristen Dalton (born Kristen V. Hocking; February 14, 1973) is an American actress who has appeared in television shows, especially USA Network's The Dead Zone.

Life and career
Dalton was born in San Diego County, California. Dalton got her first break when she played a small role in Tango & Cash in 1989. She also played a small role in A Night at the Roxbury in 1998. She appeared as Jack Nicholson's character Frank Costello's girlfriend Gwen in The Departed (2006).

Dalton is perhaps best known for her role as reporter Dana Bright in USA Network's The Dead Zone, starring Anthony Michael Hall.

Dalton's other television appearances include Beverly Hills, 90210, Murder, She Wrote, Diagnosis Murder, Sliders, Stargate SG-1, and CSI: NY. She has also appeared in TV movies, such as Danielle Steel's Family Album, They Nest, Surviving Gilligan's Island (2001) (in which she portrayed actress Tina Louise), Babysitter Wanted and Gleason.

She married fellow actor Darren Jack Dalton on August 8, 1993. They divorced in 2009.

References

External links

1973 births
Living people
20th-century American actresses
21st-century American actresses
Actresses from San Diego
American film actresses
American television actresses

Kristen Dalton (actress)


Sold Out: A Threevening with Kevin Smith is the third film in Kevin Smith's "Evening With" series.

Footage for the release was shot at a Q&A performance on August 2, 2007, Smith's 37th birthday, in front of a sold-out crowd at the Count Basie Theatre in Red Bank, New Jersey. Smith was introduced by his wife Jennifer Schwalbach Smith and his daughter, Harley Quinn Smith.

The film includes 4 hours edited from the original 7 hour performance. Topics included the origin of Kevin's name, Kevin suffering from an anal fissure, as well as stories from acting in the American television series Manchild, Live Free or Die Hard, Catch and Release and shooting Clerks II. It was also revealed that because of his work on Live Free or Die Hard, Bruce Willis contacted him about working together; this eventually led to Cop Out.

The film was released on October 21, 2008.

References

External links

American documentary films
2000s English-language films
Documentary films about film directors and producers
Works by Kevin Smith
View Askew Productions films


Eiko Film was a German film production company of the silent era. It was established in 1912 by the producer Franz Vogel and swiftly became one of Germany's more important companies. Having initially produced its films at the Rex Film studios in Berlin, the company moved to construct the Marienfelde Studios in the suburb of that name. A glasshouse studio, it was part of Germany's growing film infrastructure. During the First World War era, when foreign imports were largely excluded from the German market, the company enjoyed success with its productions. In 1922, the company and its Marienfelde Studios were acquired by Terra Film, although the name Eiko was used by productions released by the rival National Film until later in the decade.

Selected filmography
 Bismarck (1914)
 His Coquettish Wife (1916)
 The Unmarried Woman (1917)
 The Adventures of Captain Hansen (1917)
 The Bracelet (1918)
 Love (1919)
 The Girl and the Men (1919)
 Wibbel the Tailor (1920)
 Sons of the Night (1921)
 The Inheritance (1922)

References

Selected filmography
 Elsaesser, Thomas & Wedel, Michael (ed.). A Second Life: German Cinema's First Decades. Amsterdam University Press, 1996.
 Kreimeier, Klaus. The Ufa Story: A History of Germany's Greatest Film Company, 1918–1945.University of California Press, 1999.

1912 establishments in Germany
Film production companies of Germany
Mass media companies established in 1912

Eiko Film


Twenty-Something Theatre is an independent theatre company in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, led by Artistic Director Sabrina Evertt.

Along with productions of works by playwrights, Twenty-Something Theatre holds an annual Spotlight production series that showcases one emerging Vancouver-area artist (rotating between actor, director, and playwright), and provides them with an opportunity to gain exposure. In 2010, the company developed and staged a workshop production of its first original play: Prodigals by Sean Minogue.

Theatre critic Colin Thomas wrote that "Twenty-Something Theatre performs an important function in Vancouver's cultural ecology".

Chronology of Plays
2006
This is Our Youth by Kenneth Lonergan
2007
The Shape of Things by Neil Labute
2008
The Fever by Wallace Shawn
SubUrbia by Eric Bogosian
2009
Anne Frank is in My Dreams by Lee Cookson
Unidentified Remains and the True Nature of Love by Brad Fraser
2010
Prodigals (workshop production) by Sean Minogue
Blue Surge by Rebecca Gilman
2011
Nocturne by Adam Rapp
Prodigals by Sean Minogue
Tough! by George F. Walker
2012
The Bomb-itty of Errors by Jordan Allen-Dutton, Jason Catalano, Gretogy Qaiyum and Erik Weiner
2013
Us & Everything We Own by Sean Minogue

References

External links
 Twenty-Something Theatre Website

Theatre companies in British Columbia
Theatre in Vancouver

Twenty-Something Theatre


Khan () is a historic Turkic and Mongolic title originating among nomadic tribes in the Central and Eastern Eurasian Steppe to refer to a chief or ruler. It first appears among the Rouran and then the Göktürks as a variant of khagan (sovereign, emperor) and implied a subordinate ruler. In the Seljuk Empire, it was the highest noble title, ranking above malik (king) and emir (prince). In the Mongol Empire it signified the ruler of a horde (ulus), while the ruler of all the Mongols was the khagan or great khan. The title subsequently declined in importance. During the Safavid dynasty it was the title of an army general, and in Mughal India it was a high noble rank restricted to courtiers. After the downfall of the Mughals it was used promiscuously and became a surname. Khan and its female forms occur in many personal names, generally without any nobiliary of political relevance, although it remains a common part of noble names as well.

Etymology
The origin of the term is disputed and unknown, possibly a loanword from the Ruanruan language. According to Vovin (2007, 2010) the term comes from qaγan (meaning emperor or supreme ruler) and was later borrowed and used in several languages, especially in Mongolic and Turkic.

A Turkic and Para-Mongolic origin has been suggested by a number of scholars including Ramstedt, Shiratori, Sinor and Doerfer, and was reportedly first used by the Xianbei.

According to Vovin, the word *qa-qan "great-qan" (*qa- for "great" or "supreme") is of non-Altaic origin, but instead linked to Proto-Yeniseian *qεʔ "big" or "great". The origin of qan itself is harder according to Vovin. He says that the origin for the word qan is not found in any reconstructed proto-language and was used widely by Turkic, Mongolic, Chinese and Korean people with variations from kan, qan, han and hwan. A relation exists possibly to the Proto-Yeniseian words *qij or *qaj meaning "ruler".

It may be impossible to prove the ultimate origin of the title, but Vovin says: "Thus, it seems to be quite likely that the ultimate source of both qaγan and qan can be traced back to Xiong-nu and Yeniseian".

Dybo (2007) suggests that the ultimate etymological root of Khagan/Khan comes from the Middle Iranian *hva-kama- 'self-ruler, emperor', following the view of Benveniste 1966. Savelyev and Jeong 2020 note that both the etymological root for Khagan/Khan and its female equivalent Khatun may be derived from Eastern Iranian languages, specifically from "Early Saka *hvatuñ, cf. the attested Soghdian words xwt'w 'ruler' (< *hva-tāvya-) and xwt'yn 'wife of the ruler' (< *hva-tāvyani)".

History
"Khan" is first encountered as a title in the Xianbei confederation for their chief between 283 and 289. The Rourans may have been the first people who used the titles khagan and khan for their emperors. However, Russian linguist Alexander Vovin (2007) believes that the term qaγan originated among the Xiongnu people, who were Yeniseian-speaking (according to Vovin), and then it diffused across language families. Subsequently, the Göktürks adopted the title and brought it to the rest of Asia. In the middle of the sixth century the Iranians knew of a "Kagan – King of the Turks".

Various Mongolic and Turkic peoples from Central Asia gave the title new prominence after period of the Mongol Empire (1206–1368) in the Old World and later brought the title "khan" into Northern Asia, where locals later adopted it. Khagan is rendered as Khan of Khans. It was the title of Chinese Emperor Emperor Taizong of Tang (Heavenly Khagan, reigned 626 to 649) and Genghis Khan's successors selected to rule the Mongol Empire starting from 1229. Genghis Khan himself was referred as qa'an (khagan) only posthumously. For instance Möngke Khan (reigned 1251–1259) and Ogedei Khan (reigned 1229–1241) would be "Khagans" but not Chagatai Khan, who was not proclaimed ruler of the Mongol Empire by the Kurultai.

Khanate rulers and dynasties

Ruling khans
Originally khans headed only relatively minor tribal entities, generally in or near the vast Mongolian and North Chinese steppe, the scene of an almost endless procession of nomadic people riding out into the history of the neighbouring sedentary regions. Some managed to establish principalities of some importance for a while, as their military might repeatedly proved a serious threat to empires in the Central Plain and Central Asia.

One of the earliest notable examples of such principalities in Europe was Danube Bulgaria (presumably also Old Great Bulgaria), ruled by a khan or a kan at least from the 7th to the 9th century. The title "khan" is not attested directly in inscriptions and texts referring to Bulgar rulers – the only similar title found so far, Kanasubigi, has been found solely in the inscriptions of three consecutive Bulgarian rulers, namely Krum, Omurtag and Malamir (a grandfather, son and grandson). Starting from the compound, non-ruler titles that were attested among Bulgarian noble class such as kavkhan (vicekhan), tarkhan, and boritarkhan, scholars derive the title khan or kan for the early Bulgarian leader – if there was a vicekhan (kavkhan) there was probably a "full" khan, too. Compare also the rendition of the name of early Bulgarian ruler Pagan as  (Kampaganos), likely resulting from a misinterpretation of "Kan Pagan", in Patriarch Nicephorus's so-called Breviarium. In general, however, the inscriptions as well as other sources designate the supreme ruler of Danube Bulgaria with titles that exist in the language in which they are written – archontes, meaning 'commander or magistrate' in Greek, and knyaz, meaning "duke" or "prince" in Slavic. Among the best known Bulgar khans were: Khan Kubrat, founder of Great Bulgaria; Khan Asparukh, founder of Danubian Bulgaria (today's Bulgaria); Khan Tervel, who defeated the Arab invaders in 718 Siege of Constantinople (718), thus stopped the Arab invasion in Southeast Europe; Khan Krum, "the Fearsome". "Khan" was the official title of the ruler until 864 AD, when Knyaz Boris (known also as Tsar Boris I) adopted the Eastern Orthodox faith.

The title Khan rose to unprecedented prominence with the Mongol Temüjin's creation of the Mongol empire, the largest contiguous empire in history, which he ruled as Genghis Khan. Before 1229 the title was used to designate leaders of important tribes as well as tribal confederations (the Mongol Empire considered the largest one), and rulers of non-Mongol countries. Shortly before the death of the Genghis Khan, his sons became khans in different dominions (ulus) and the title apparently became unsuitable for the supreme ruler of the empire, needing a more exalted one. Being under Uighur cultural influence, Mongols adopted the title of khagan starting with Ögedei Khan in 1229.

Emperors of the Ming dynasty also used the term Xan to denote brave warriors and rulers. The title Khan was used to designate the greatest rulers of the Jurchens, who, later when known as the Manchus, founded the Qing dynasty.

Once more, there would be numerous khanates in the steppe in and around Central Asia, often more of a people than a territorial state, e.g.:
 in present Kazakhstan, of the Kazakhs (founded 1465; since 1601 divided into three geographical Jüz or Hordes, each under a mirza, bey, or subordinate khan); it was briefly united by rulers like Abu'l-Khair Muhammed and Tauke Muhammed, but after 1748 it split into three different khanates again; it was eliminated by the Russian Empire in 1847.
 in present Kyrgyzstan, the  was established by Ormon Khan in 1842, collapsing after his death in 1854.
 in present Uzbekistan, the main khanate, named after its capital Bukhara, was founded in 1500 and restyled emirate in 1753 (after three Persian governors since 1747); the Ferghana (valley's) khanate broke way from it by 1694 and became known as the Khanate of Kokand after its capital Kokand from its establishment in 1732; the khanate of Khwarezm, dating from c.1500, became the Khanate of Khiva in 1804 but fell soon under Russian protectorate; Karakalpakstan had its own rulers (khans?) since c. 1600.

While most Afghan principalities were styled emirate, there was a khanate of ethnic Uzbeks in Badakhshan since 1697.

Khan was also the title of the rulers of various break-away states and principalities later in Persia, e.g. 1747–1808 Khanate of Ardabil (in northwestern Iran east of Sarab and west of the southwest corner of the Caspian Sea), 1747–1813 Khanate of Khoy (northwestern Iran, north of Lake Urmia, between Tabriz and Lake Van), 1747–1829 Khanate of Maku (in extreme northwestern Iran, northwest of Khoy, and 60 miles south of Yerevan, Armenia), 1747–1790s Khanate of Sarab (northwestern Iran east of Tabriz), 1747 – c.1800 Khanate of Tabriz (capital of Iranian Azerbaijan).

There were various small khanates in and near Transcaucasia and Ciscaucasia established by the Safavids, or their successive Afsharid and Qajar dynasties outside their territories of Persia proper. For example, in present Armenia and nearby territories to the left and right, there was the khanate of Erivan (sole incumbent 1807–1827 Hosein Quli Khan Qajar). Diverse khanates existed in Dagestan (now part of Russia), Azerbaijan, including Baku (present capital), Ganja, Jawad, Quba (Kuba), Salyan, Shakki (Sheki, ruler style Bashchi since 1743) and Shirvan=Shamakha (1748–1786 temporarily split into Khoja Shamakha and Yeni Shamakha), Talysh (1747–1814); Nakhichevan and (Nagorno) Karabakh.

As hinted above, the title Khan was also common in some of the polities of the various – generally Islamic – peoples in the territories of the Mongol Golden Horde and its successor states, which, like the Mongols in general, were commonly called Ta(r)tars by Europeans and Russians, and were all eventually subdued by Muscovia which became the Russian Empire. The most important of these states were:
 Khanate of Kazan (the Mongol term khan became active since Genghizide dynasty was settled in Kazan Duchy in 1430s).
 Sibir Khanate (giving its name to Siberia as the first significant conquest during Russia's great eastern expansion across the Ural range)
 Astrakhan Khanate
 Crimean Khanate.

Further east, in Xinjiang flank:
 Khanate of Kashgaria founded in 1514; 17th century divided into several minor khanates without importance, real power going to the so-called Khwaja, Arabic Islamic religious leaders; title changed to Amir Khan in 1873, annexed by the Qing dynasty in 1877.

Compound and derived princely titles

The higher, rather imperial title Khaqan ("Khan of Khans") applies to probably the most famous rulers known as Khan: the Mongol imperial dynasty of Genghis Khan (his name was Temüjin, Genghis Khan a never fully understood unique title), and his successors, especially grandson Kublai Khan: the former founded the Mongol Empire and the latter founded the Yuan Dynasty in China.  The ruling descendants of the main branch of Genghis Khan's dynasty are referred to as the Great Khans.

The title Khan of Khans was among numerous titles used by the Sultans of the Ottoman empire as well as the rulers of the Golden Horde and its descendant states. The title Khan was also used in the Seljuk Turk dynasties of the near-east to designate a head of multiple tribes, clans or nations, who was below an Atabeg in rank. Jurchen and Manchu rulers also used the title Khan (Han in Manchu); for example, Nurhaci was called Genggiyen Han. Rulers of the Göktürks, Avars and Khazars used the higher title Kaghan, as rulers of distinct nations.
 Gur Khan, meaning supreme or universal Khan, was the ruler of the Khitan Kara-Kitai, and has occasionally been used by the Mongols as well
 Ilkhan, both a generic term for a 'provincial Khan' and traditional royal style for one of the four khanates in Genghis's succession, based in Persia. See the main article for more details.
 Khan-i-Khanan (, "Lord of Lords") was a title given to the commander-in-chief of the army of the Mughals, an example being Abdul Rahim Khan-I-Khana of the great Mughal emperor, Akbar's (and later his son Jahangir's) army.
 Khan Sahib Shri Babi was the complex title of the ruler of the Indian princely state of Bantva-Manavadar (state founded 1760; September 1947 acceded to Pakistan, but 15 February 1948 forced to rescind accession to Pakistan, to accede to India after Khan Sahib's arrest).
 In southern Korean states, the word Han or Gan, meaning "leader", could be origin of word khan according to Turkic history textbook. Geoseogan or Geoseulhan, the title of Hyeokgeose of Silla means "leader of leaders" and "king" in language of Jinhan confederacy. He was leader of Saro State, one of the chiefdoms of the Jinhan confederacy in 37 BC. After Silla, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, totally united them under a now hereditary king, titled Maripgan, meaning the 'head of kings' (e.g. King Naemul Maripgan).
 Khatun, or Khatan () – a title of Iranian Sogdian origin  – is roughly equal to a King's queen in Mongolic and Turkic languages, as by this title a ruling Khan's Queen-consort (wife) is designated with similar respect after their proclamation as Khan and Khatun. Also used in Khazar (instead of Khanum). Famous Khatuns include:
 Töregene Khatun
 Habba Khatun
 Khanum  (; ; ) is another female derivation of Khan, notably in Turkic languages, for a Khan's Queen-consort, or in some traditions extended as a courtesy title (a bit like Lady for women not married to a Lord, which is the situation modern Turkish) to the wives of holders of various other (lower) titles; in Afghanistan, for example, it ended up as the common term for 'Miss', any unmarried woman. In the modern Kazakh language, Khatun is a derogatory term for women, while Khanum has a respectful meaning.
Khan Bahadur (title) - a compound of khan (leader) and Bahadur (Brave) - was a formal title of respect and honour, which was conferred exclusively on Muslim subjects of the British Indian Empire.[1] It was a title one degree higher than the title of Khan Sahib.
 The compound Galin Khanum – literally, "lady bride" – was the title accorded to the principal noble wife of a Qajar
 Khanzada () is a title conferred to princes of the dynasties of certain princely states of India.  The word also transliterates to "prince" in the Uzbek and Kazakh languages and was used by these Central Asian peoples to honor their princes.
 Sardargarh-Bantva (Muslim Babi dynasty, fifth class state in Kathiawar, Gujarat) in front of the personal name, Shri in between; the ruler replaces Khanzada by khan.
 Kanasubigi or Kana subigi, as it is written in Bulgarian Greek inscriptions, was a title of the Bulgars. Among the proposed translations for the phrase kanasubigi as a whole are lord of the army, from the reconstructed Turkic phrase *sü begi, paralleling the attested Old Turkic sü baši, and, more recently, "(ruler) from God", from the Indo-European *su- and  baga-, i.e. *su-baga (an equivalent of the Greek phrase , ho ek Theou archon, which is common in Bulgar inscriptions)
 Kavhan or Kaukhan was one of the most important officials in the First Bulgarian Empire. According to the generally accepted opinion, he was the second most important person in the state after the Bulgarian ruler. Owais Khan was also believed a Great Khan but no evidences about him are founded.
 Beg Khan (a concatenation of Baig and Khan) is a title used by some Mughals and Mongols.

Other khans

Noble and honorary titles
In imperial Persia, Khan (female form Khanum in Persia) was the title of a nobleman, higher than Beg (or bey) and usually used after the given name. At the Qajar court, precedence for those not belonging to the dynasty was mainly structured in eight classes, each being granted an honorary rank title, the fourth of which was Khan, or in this context synonymously Amir, granted to commanders of armed forces, provincial tribal leaders; in descending order.
In neighboring Ottoman Turkey and subsequently the Republic of Turkey, the term Khanum was and is still written as Hanım in Turkish/Ottoman Turkish language. The Ottoman title of Hanımefendi (lit translated; lady of the master), is also a derivative of this.

The titles Khan and Khan Bahadur (from the Altaic root baghatur), related to the Turkic batyr or batur and Mongolian baatar ("brave, hero"); were also bestowed in feudal India by the Mughals, who although Muslims were of Turkic origin upon Muslims and awarded this title to Hindus generals in army particularly in Gaud or Bengal region during Muslim rulers, and later by the British Raj, as an honor akin to the ranks of nobility, often for loyalty to the crown. Khan Sahib was another title of honour.

In the major Indian Muslim state of Hyderabad, Khan was the lowest of the aristocratic titles bestowed by the ruling Nizam upon Muslim retainers, ranking under Khan Bahadur, Nawab (homonymous with a high Muslim ruler's title), Jang, Daula, Mulk, Umara, Jah. The equivalent for the courts Hindu retainers was Rai.  In Swat, a Pakistani Frontier State, it was the title of the secular elite, who together with the Mullahs (Muslim clerics), proceeded to elect a new Amir-i-Shariyat in 1914.  It seems unclear whether the series of titles known from the Bengal sultanate are merely honorific or perhaps relate to a military hierarchy.

Other uses

Like many titles, the meaning of the term has also extended southwards into South Asian countries, and Central Asian nations, where it has become a common surname.

Khan and its female forms occur in many personal names, generally without any nobiliary of political relevance, although it remains a common part of noble names as well. Notably in South Asia it has become a part of many South Asian Muslim names, especially when Pashtun (also known as Afghan) descent is claimed. It is also used by many Muslim Rajputs of Indian subcontinent who were awarded this surname by Turkic Mughals for their bravery. and it's widely used by Baloch and Awan tribes.

Khan-related terms
 Khanzadeh () – a prince, khan's son
 Khanbikeh () – a queen, khan's wife
 Khanbaliq (or Dadu) – Yuan capital which later developed into modern Beijing.
 Il khan
 Bogda Khan
 Khatun, Khanum – female equivalent of Khan or title of women of the Khan's family

See also

 Kaan (name)
 Khanate
 Turco-Mongol
 List of Mongol rulers
 Aga Khan
 Azmatkhan
 Ejen
 Jirga
 Khagan
 Chanyu
 Archon
 King
 Bey
 Beg Khan
 Elteber
 Tsar
 Kaiser
 Crimean Khanate
 Khong Tayiji
 Khan (surname)

Notes

References

Citations

Sources

 Etymology OnLine

External links

Monarchy
Feudalism
Heads of state
Military ranks
Royal titles
Noble titles
Chinese royal titles
Titles in Afghanistan
Titles in Bangladesh
Titles in India
Titles in Pakistan
Titles in Azerbaijan
Titles in Iran
Turkish titles
Titles of national or ethnic leadership
Turkic words and phrases
Men's social titles
Mongolian nobility
Ottoman titles

Khan (title)


Len Brown (born ) was the 1st mayor of Auckland in New Zealand and a lawyer. He was elected mayor of Manukau in October 2007, the second time he ran for that office. He won the 2010 Auckland mayoral election on 9 October 2010 and was sworn in as mayor of Auckland on 1 November 2010. His term ended in 2016.

Early years
He was born in Taumarunui, and his family moved to Otara in Auckland when he was seven years old. He attended Mayfield Primary School, Papatoetoe Intermediate School and De La Salle College. He has fond memories of his early life, saying "they were generous, generous days". His life growing up has been described as centred on family, church, school and community, while parents Tom and Ngaire were described as strong believers in social equity and social justice as well as active in the community life. While he did not grow up in Auckland, his family often travelled to see relatives there, because his parents had moved to Taumarunui from South Auckland.

Brown worked as a lawyer. He was a partner at law firm Wynyard Wood, and co-founded the Howick Free Legal Service.

Political career
He was first elected to the Manukau City council in 1992, and continued as councillor until 2004 when he did not run for re-election. He  was also the chairperson of the Counties Manukau Health Council from 1998. Brown first ran for mayor of Manukau in 2004, and narrowly lost to long serving mayor Sir Barry Curtis; he lost by fewer than 600 votes. Brown had considered requesting a re-count due to the closeness of the vote, but decided that he had not been close enough to warrant it. Despite his affiliation with the New Zealand Labour Party since age 17, Brown did not run for election in the 2005 General Election, and instead returned to working for Wynyard Wood.

Mayor of Manukau
Brown announced that he was running to be the Mayor of Manukau in 2006. Barry Curtis announced that he would not be running for re-election, and Brown's main opposition were former Olympic runner Dick Quax and radio host Willie Jackson. Brown resigned from Wynard Wood in 2007 to focus on his candidacy full time. In August 2007, both Quax and Brown were polling "neck and neck". Brown's campaign was based on several policies, including; capping rates at the cost of inflation, increasing public transport, and working with youth in the region.

Brown won the election in October 2007 with more than 32,000 votes; his next closest rival Dick Quax had less than 18,000, and the election was jokingly called a 'Lenslide' by some. He was officially sworn in on 26 October 2007 at the Manukau City Council hall.

On 31 May 2008 he suffered a heart attack while at a music awards ceremony, and was admitted to Auckland Hospital. He had a congenital heart problem that had not been diagnosed before. Brown had successful heart bypass surgery two days later and made a full recovery, returning to his duties after a few months. His wife acknowledged that the attack was not stress-related, but rather a family issue, with Len's mother having died from a heart attack at 47.

Mayor of Auckland campaign
In August 2009, Brown stated he would run for the mayoralty of the combined Auckland "super-city" in the Auckland mayoral election, 2010. Brown announced his candidacy in front of more than 300 supporters at Sorrento in the Park, One Tree Hill, Maungakiekie. His campaign speech focused on delivering public transport, public ownership of the region's public assets, environmental protection, economic and social development. He won the position by 60,000 votes over main rival candidate, Auckland City mayor John Banks, on 9 October 2010.

Credit card and expense issues
In June 2010, Brown came under media attention for matters relating to his spending on his council credit card and other council expense claims, which included items of a personal nature like toys, groceries and insect repellent. His later explanations for these purchases were also examined at a council meeting, where Brown repeatedly slapped his face and got emotional. An advisor later explained that Brown's emotional behaviour was caused by his use of a Maori tradition, which Brown said was not true.

Another council expense claim included an $810 dinner at a restaurant, but Brown refused to say who was there. He said that the event was a fundraiser for a local singer for which the Council bought a table, an explanation later supported by the artist.

Private life
Brown is married to Shirley Anne Inglis, and has three children. They live in the Totara Park suburb of Manukau.

References

1956 births
Living people
New Zealand lawyers
New Zealand mayors
Politicians from North Island

Len Brown


Nicola Marozzo (born 1 March 1965) is a former Italian racing driver from Zumpano, near Cosenza. Gaining initial experience in Italian Formula Three from 1984 to 1986, he won an American Indycar Series event in Willow Springs in 1991 besting Robby Unser and Johnny Unser. Then he competed in 3 CART Indy Car World Series races for Euromotorsport in 1991 and 1992. He failed to finish any of his 3 races and scored no championship points. He attempted two more races in 1992 but failed to start in one and failed to qualify for another. In 1996, Nicola Marozzo was considered by the team of Bill Tempero to contest the first season of Indy Racing League starting from the 1996 Indy 200 at Walt Disney World, but ultimately the car was driven by Dave Kudrave.  He also participated in the 1988 24 Hours of Le Mans.
He won different races in Italy, on two and four wheels (with bike and car). In 2000, he won Rally of Sila for Campionato Italiano Terra (Gravel Rally) with a Mitsubishi Lancer Evo VI. Then he founded Zero Racing in Castrovillari with fellow racer Natalino Scarpelli, specializing on preparation of Mitsubishi Lancer E1, Renault Megane Trophy and more recently Wolf GB 08 Thunder. Between Zero Racing drivers there were "P.Buck", Carlo Curti, Federico Curti and Andrea Mosca.

External links

1965 births
Italian racing drivers
Italian Formula Three Championship drivers
Champ Car drivers
Living people
24 Hours of Le Mans drivers
World Sportscar Championship drivers

EuroInternational drivers

Nicola Marozzo


Medan Hokkien is a local variety of Hokkien spoken amongst Chinese Indonesians in Medan, North Sumatra, Indonesia. It is the lingua franca in Medan as well as the surrounding cities in the state of North Sumatra. It is also spoken in some Medan Chinese migrant communities such as in Jakarta. Medan Hokkien is a subdialect of the Zhangzhou (漳州) Hokkien, particularly of Haicheng (海澄) subdialect. It borrows heavily from Teochew, Deli Malay and Indonesian.

It is predominantly a spoken dialect: Vernacular Hokkien, including Medan Hokkien, is traditionally passed down orally and is rarely transcribed in written Hokkien. Moreover, Indonesia's New Order Era imposed martial laws to supress and ban display of Chinese characters and Chinese tradition in public. However, with the rise of social media, Medan Hokkien is often transcribed in EYD, ignoring tone markings altogether.

When comparing Medan Hokkien to other Hokkien dialects spoken in countries such as Malaysia and Singapore, Medan Hokkien can be relatively intelligible. It is, however, most similar to Penang Hokkien. Both are strikingly similar that it could be difficult to tell the difference between the two if a Medan Hokkien speaker does not heavily mix Deli Malay and Indonesian borrowings in their conversation.

History
Medan Hokkien's origin could be linguistically traced back to Penang Hokkien and its Kedahan roots.  Early presence of Chinese in Medan could be found in Pulau Kampai and Kota China, with archaeological discoveries pointing out the presence of Chinese traders as far back as 12th century CE. When John Anderson was sent for a diplomatic mission to eastern coasts of Sumatra in 1823, he recounted the presence very few Chinese in what was known as Deli, and around 50 to 100 Chinese in Asahan. Trade between eastern coasts of Sumatra and Penang and Malacca was already very much established by then.

The rise of Deli as a major exporter of Tobacco brought in great influx of Chinese Coolies (indentured labourers) from Penang. By 1890, Chinese Coolies in East Sumatra rose up to 53,806. The significance of Penang's role in Deli's economy and the influence of Penang's elite Babanyonya and the Five Big Kongsi cannot be denied. Cheah Choo Yew (1841-1931) was one of the founding fathers of Cheah Kongsi was native to Langkat, East Sumatra. Khoo Cheow Teong (1840-1916) was the great grandson of Koh Lay Huan (Penang's first Kapitan China) and grandson of Khoo Wat Seng (founding father of Khoo Kongsi). He was the Kapitan Cina of Asahan for 26 years. Penang's famous Cheong Fatt Tze was also related to Medan's Kapitan Cina Tjong A Fie and Tjong Yong Hian, and the three of them monopolised major commodities in East Sumatra. The cultural link between Penang and Medan was beyond mere proximity. One could even find strong similarities in rituals such as worship of Datuk and in mutually shared Peranakan dishes.

Russell Jones, in his article 'The Chiangchew Hokkiens, the true pioneers in Nanyang' took the effort to confirm the early presence of Zhangzhou Hokkiens, not only in Penang, but also in Malacca, Batavia and the rest of the archipelago. In addition, the uncanny similarity of the Malay loanwords (batu, mana, binatang, tapi), 'Hokkien-ised' Malay terms (lokun, sukak) and as well as Kedahan dialect (gatai) in Penang Hokkien that has become canonic to Medan Hokkien vocabularies is evident of its lineage.

Medan Hokkien also had substantial influence from Teochew dialect, due to the dominant presence of Teochew coolies during the Tobacco boom. The events of Japanese invasion, East Sumatra revolution and New Order regime sundered the cross-strait cultural kinship between the two cities. The two dialects ever since diverged and evolved separately, where Penang Hokkien became more Anglicised and Mandarinised, while Medan Hokkien became more Indonesianised.

See also
 Penang Hokkien
 Hoklo people
 Hokkien culture
 Hokkien architecture
 Written Hokkien
 Hokkien media
 Taiwanese Hokkien
 Singapore Hokkien
 Southern Malaysia Hokkien
 Philippine Hokkien
 Holopedia
 Speak Hokkien Campaign

Notes

References

External links
Medan & Penang Hokkien Podcast

Languages of Indonesia
Hokkien-language dialects

Medan Hokkien


Sergey Nikolayevich Terpigorev (; May 24, 1841 – June 25, 1895) was a Russian Empire writer.

Biography
Terpigorev was born on May 24, 1841, in the village of Nikolsky in the Usmansky Uyezd of Tambov Governorate (now Dobrinsky District, Lipetsk Oblast) into an impoverished noble family. He attended grammar school, and in 1861-62, studied at Saint Petersburg State University. For his involvement in student unrest he was exiled and sent to the family estate of his mother, where he lived for five years under police surveillance.

During this period he decided to gather material for essays on social topics. He sent them to the magazine Russian Word (Russkoye Slovo) and the St. Petersburg newspaper The Voice (Golos). These essays denounced fraud and embezzlement, and showed the hard life of the common people.

In 1867, when his term of exile ended, Terpigorev again went to St. Petersburg. He published a series of essays on life in the steppe in the popular magazine Notes of the Fatherland, which he signed with the pseudonym "Sergey Atava". In these essays he commented on the poor state of affairs after the Emancipation reform of 1861.

In January 1880 he published a series of essays about poverty in Notes of the Fatherland. He then published Disturbed Shadows, a collection of essays which brought him literary fame. Subsequent collections included The Yellow Book (Uzorochnaya Pestryad) and Historical Stories and Memories.

In his later years he worked on his novel The Ice Broke, but was unable to finish it. He died in St. Petersburg on June 25, 1895.

1841 births
1895 deaths
People from Dobrinsky District
People from Usmansky Uyezd
Russian untitled nobility
Short story writers from the Russian Empire
Essayists from the Russian Empire
Novelists from the Russian Empire
19th-century essayists
Internal exiles from the Russian Empire
Saint Petersburg State University alumni

Sergey Terpigorev


The New England Emigrant Aid Company (est.1854), originally the Massachusetts Emigrant Aid Company, was a transportation company in Boston, Massachusetts. It was created to bring immigrants to the Kansas Territory. This was done to make sure Kansas would become a free state. The company was created by Eli Thayer, a member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives, over a month before the Kansas-Nebraska Act was passed in 1854. This act allowed the population of Kansas Territory to choose for themselves whether or not slavery would be legal. The concept was called popular sovereignty.

The company was chartered in Massachusetts and started with a capital of $5 million. Thayer's plan was to play on antislavery sentiment in the Northern United States. At the time there was a very delicate balance between slave states and free states. The Company send settlers to Kansas to buy land and build houses, shops and mills. The settlers could then sell the land at a significant profit and send the money back to Thayer and his investors. Because several investors found the idea of profiting from the antislavery cause unpleasant, the company's model was shifted to that of a benevolent society. The name was changed to the New England Emigrant Aid Company in 1855. The Company never made a profit or made a significant impact on the population of Kansas. But, it caused Border Ruffians from nearby Missouri, where slavery was legal, to move to Kansas in order to ensure its admission to the Union as a slave state. This in turn further galvanized Free-Staters and abolitionists to act. To protect the settlers they sent, the Company secretly sent armed men and Sharps rifles to Kansas. The rifles were sent in crates marked "books" and "Bibles". This played a part in what would become Bleeding Kansas.

References

History of Kansas
Bleeding Kansas
1854 establishments in the United States
19th-century establishments in Massachusetts

New England Emigrant Aid Company


Horst Siebert (20 March 1938 – 2 June 2009) was a German economist. He was a member of the German Council of Economic Experts from 1990 to 2003. Siebert also served as a member of both the Group of Economic Analysis (GEA) and the Group of Economic Policy Analysis (GEPA), a number of "European economists who advise the European Commission's president." From 2002 to 2004, as a member of GEA, he advised EU President Romano Prodi. From 2005 to 2007, as a member of GEPA, he advised EU President Jose Manuel Barroso Siebert spent most of his academic career at the University of Kiel, where he held the chair for economic theory from 1989 to 2003.

A native of Neuwied, Rhineland-Palatinate, Siebert studied economics at the University of Cologne (1959–1963), while also studying, and undertaking research in, economics at Wesleyan University (1960–1961). He earned his doctorate degree in economics from the University of Münster in 1965.

Siebert was appointed to the chair of economics and foreign trade at the University of Mannheim in 1969. He left in 1984 for the chair of economic relations at the University of Konstanz. Five years later, Siebert was appointed to the chair of economic theory at the University of Kiel. He was awarded the Ludwig-Erhard Prize in 1999, the Bundesverdienstkreuz in 2004, the Hayek Prize for excellence in economic writing in 2007.

In his book entitled Der Kobra-Effekt. Wie man Irrwege der Wirtschaftspolitik vermeidet, he illustrated the causes of perverse incentives in economy and politics in referring to the so-called cobra effect. His other publications include: The German Economy, Beyond the Social Market (2005); The World Economy. A Global Analysis (2007, 3rd edition); Einführung in die Volkswirtschaftslehre, co-author (2007); Economics of the Environment: Theory and Policy (2008, 7th revised edition; 2001 in Chinese); Rules for the Global Economy (2009). Siebert reportedly was a frequent contributor to academic journals and other publications. His seminal book, World Economics (1999, reprinted in 2000, 2nd edition 2002), "offered a new global perspective on international economic structures and processes."

He was a visiting scholar at The Australian National University, European University Institute, Harvard University, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), New York University, and the University of California, among other institutions. He held the Heinz Nixdorf Chair in European Integration and Economic Policy at Johns Hopkins University's Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies, Bologna Center. Siebert also served as President of the Kiel Institute for World Economics from 1989 to 2003.

References

1938 births
2009 deaths
German economists
University of Cologne alumni
Wesleyan University alumni
University of Münster alumni
Academic staff of the University of Kiel
Academic staff of the University of Mannheim
Academic staff of the University of Konstanz
People from Neuwied
Officers Crosses of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Members of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts
People from the Rhine Province

Horst Siebert


Greta Gynt (born Margrethe Woxholt; 15 November 1916 – 2 April 2000) was a Norwegian dancer and actress. She is remembered for her starring roles in the British classic films The Dark Eyes of London, Mr. Emmanuel, Take My Life, Dear Murderer and The Ringer.

She played lead roles in minor British films in the 1930s and early 40s, and by the late 40s she appeared in major films. The Rank Organisation tried to market her as the British Jean Harlow. She also attempted a career in the US, starring in MGM's Soldiers Three (1951) before returning to Britain.

Her most famous films are the 1939 Bela Lugosi film The Dark Eyes of London as the tough heroine, heroic as an underground leader in Tomorrow We Live (1943), touching as Jewish Elsie Silver in Mr. Emmanuel (1944), forceful as loyal wife proving her husband's innocence in the thriller Take My Life, a promiscuous murderess in Dear Murderer, both in 1947, and as a nightclub singer singing "The Shady Lady Spiv" in Easy Money (1948).

Biography

Early life
Greta Gynt was born Margrethe Woxholt in Oslo, Norway. As a child, she moved with her parents to Britain and started dancing lessons at the age of 5. Eventually, they moved back to Norway. At age 12, she started as a dancer at the Chat Noir shows in Oslo.

After the Swedish film The Song to Her (1934), her mother, costume designer Kirsten Woxholt, felt Gynt would have better luck in Britain. She got a letter of recommendation from Fox Film and moved back to the UK.

Move to the UK
Gynt had a minor role in It Happened in Paris (1935) and a larger one in Boys Will Be Girls (1937) and The Last Curtain (1938). She was in Second Best Bed (1938), a Tom Walls farce; The Last Barricade (1938); Sexton Blake and the Hooded Terror (1938) with Tod Slaughter; Too Dangerous to Live (1939); and She Couldn't Say No (1939).

Gynt had the female lead in The Arsenal Stadium Mystery (1939); The Dark Eyes of London (1939) with Bela Lugosi; Bulldog Sees It Through (1940) and The Middle Watch (1940) with Jack Buchanan; Two for Danger (1940) with Barry K. Barnes; Room for Two (1940) with Vic Oliver; and Crook's Tour (1940) with Basil Radford and Naunton Wayne.

She continued with leading roles in The Common Touch (1941); Tomorrow We Live (1943); It's That Man Again (1944) with Tommy Handley; and Mr. Emmanuel (1944) with Felix Aylmer.

Gynt supported Sid Field in London Town (1946), a notorious big budget flop.

Stardom
Gynt was given star parts in the crime films Dear Murderer (1947), and Take My Life (1947). She was top billed in the comedy Easy Money (1948), and in the drama The Calendar (1948).

For a time she was under personal contract to Robert Siodmak.

Gynt had a secondary but key role in the school story Mr. Perrin and Mr. Traill (1949), appearing alongside her co-star in Take My Life Marius Goring. After Shadow of the Eagle (1950), she successfully sued the makers of the latter for money owed. She supported George Raft in I'll Get You for This (1951), partly shot in Italy.

Her British films started to be regularly played on American television. This led to her receiving an offer from MGM to star in Soldiers Three (1951).

Back in Britain, Gynt returned to "B" movies: Whispering Smith Hits London (1952), The Ringer (1952), I'm a Stranger (1953), Three Steps in the Dark (1954), Forbidden Cargo (1954), Devil's Point (1954), See How They Run (1955), The Blue Peter (1955) and My Wife's Family (1956). She also appeared as a glamorous Saxon aristocrat in the 1956 episode "The Friar's Pilgrimage" of the British TV series The Adventures of Robin Hood.

In 1957, Gynt had a support part in Fortune Is a Woman and took the lead in Morning Call. She starred in episode "Shadow on the Screen" of the 1958 TV series The Invisible Man. In 1959, she took the lead in The Crowning Touch and had a support role in Bluebeard's Ten Honeymoons.

In 1963, her last film was The Runaway (released by Columbia Pictures in 1966), in which she played the lead.

Personal life
Reportedly, she adopted the name Gynt after she heard a pianist playing Edvard Grieg's Peer Gynt Suite in a hotel in London in the late 1930s. In her 1938 radio interview with NRK she states her husband exclaimed "What's this?" and her name was born.

Gynt was married four times. Her last husband was Frederick Moore, a plastic surgeon, who died in 1983. She semi-retired after marrying him and was out of the public spotlight by the mid-1960s. She was the sister of second unit photographer Egil "Gil" Woxholt (1926–1991), who photographed scenes in the 1965 film The Heroes of Telemark, On Her Majesty's Secret Service, A View to a Kill, and many others.

Filmography

 The Song to Her (1934) (as Greta Woxholt)
 It Happened in Paris (1935)
 Boys Will Be Girls (1937)
 The Last Curtain (1937)
 Second Best Bed (1938)
 The Last Barricade (1938)
 Sexton Blake and the Hooded Terror (1938)
 Too Dangerous to Live (1939)
 She Couldn't Say No (1939)
 The Arsenal Stadium Mystery (1939)
 The Dark Eyes of London (1939)
 Bulldog Sees It Through (1939)
 The Middle Watch (1940)
 Two for Danger (1940)
 Room for Two (1940)
 Crook's Tour (1941)
 The Common Touch (1941)
 Tomorrow We Live (1943)
 It's That Man Again (1943)
 Mr. Emmanuel (1944)
 London Town (1946)
 Dear Murderer (1947)
 Take My Life (1947)
 Easy Money (1948)
 The Calendar (1948)
 Mr. Perrin and Mr. Traill (1948)
 Shadow of the Eagle (1950)
 I'll Get You for This (1951)
 The Rival of the Empress (1951)
 Soldiers Three (1951)
 Whispering Smith Hits London (1952)
 The Ringer (1952)
 I'm a Stranger (1952)
 Three Steps in the Dark (1953)
 Destination Milan (1954)
 Forbidden Cargo (1954)
 Devil's Point (1954)
 Born for Trouble (1955)
 See How They Run (1955)
 The Blue Peter (1955)
 My Wife's Family (1956)
 Fortune Is a Woman (1957)
 Morning Call (1957)
 The Crowning Touch (1959)
 The Witness (1959)
 Bluebeard's Ten Honeymoons (1960)
 The Runaway (1963)

References

 http://www.encyclopedia.com/women/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/gynt-greta-1916-2000

External links
 Obituary in The Guardian

1916 births
2000 deaths
Norwegian film actresses
Norwegian female dancers
Norwegian dancers
Musicians from Oslo
Norwegian expatriates in the United Kingdom
20th-century Norwegian actresses
20th-century Norwegian women singers
20th-century Norwegian singers

Greta Gynt


Francesco "Nino" Castelnuovo (28 October 1936 – 6 September 2021) was an Italian actor. His best known role was as Guy Foucher in the musical movie The Umbrellas of Cherbourg (1964). He was born in Lecco, Italy. His career began in 1957. Other of his best known movies were Rocco and His Brothers (1960), Camille 2000 (1969), L'emmerdeur (1973), Il prato macchiato di rosso (1973),  Massacre Time (1966), The Five Man Army (1969), and The English Patient (1996).

Castelnuovo died on 6 September 2021 in Rome, Italy from a long-illness, aged 84.

References

Other websites

1936 births
2021 deaths
Italian movie actors
Italian television actors
Italian stage actors
Italian voice actors
Disease-related deaths in Rome

Nino Castelnuovo


The Order of Pope Pius IX (), also referred as the Pian Order (, ), is a papal order of knighthood originally founded by Pope Pius IV in 1560. Currently, it is the highest honor conferred by the Holy See (being the Order of Christ and the Order of the Golden Spur currently dormant).The awarding of the order fell into disuse and was re-instituted by Pope Pius IX as a continuation on 17 June 1847.

The highest rank awarded by the Pope is the Collar of the Order, usually to Catholic heads of state on the occasion of official visits to the Holy See. The Grand Cross is the highest Papal award given to lay men and women, ordinarily given to resident Ambassadors accredited to the Holy See after two years in post and rarely to exceptional Catholics in the wider world for particular services, mainly in the international field and for outstanding deeds for Church and society.

The rank of Knight is almost never awarded, and when it happens, it is given in recognition of high-profile services rendered to the Holy See or directly to the person of the Pontiff, by Catholic faithful of distinguished status, almost always belonging to ancient European noble families.

The other two ranks (Commander and Commander with Star) are granted sparingly to lay Catholics, usually in diplomatic roles, for extraordinary merit or deeds for the Church and society. The order is awarded to Catholics and, on occasion and only for diplomatic reasons, to non-Catholics and non-Christians as well.

History of the Order

The Order was founded on 17 June 1847, by Pope Pius IX with the decree Romanis Pontificibus, placing it as the continuation of the ancient order established by Pope Pius IV with the bull Pii patris amplissimi on March 1559. These noble knights formed the lay court of the Roman Pontiff, being defined participants, since they "participated" in the life of the Pontiff, offering him an escort and often residing in the Apostolic Palace; they often shared the table with the Pontiff and accompanied him during his daily tasks.

The subsequent decree Cum Hominum Mentes of 17 June 1849, confirmed the ancient privilege of personal nobility through membership in the Pian Order, thus creating it the only ennobler of the Holy Apostolic See. With another decree dated 11 November 1856, the Roman Pontiff himself divided the Order into three classes: Knight Grand Cross, Commander, and Knight.

Pope Pius X reformed the Pontifical orders with the decree Multum ad excitandos of 7 February 1905, the new class of Commander with star (correspondent to the class of Grand Officer) was created.

The Pian Order was then reformed again by Pope Pius XII, with a Bull dated 11 November 1939, which suppressed the privilege of nobility. From the historical point of view, the Knighthood of the Grand Cross of the Pian Order has held the role that was of the Militia Aurata before the reform of Gregory XVI,  namely that of title of rank and ennobling of the Holy See from the sixteenth century to 1841.

Order of Classes

The Order comprises five classes:

Knight with the Collar: who wear a gold chain around their shoulders which is decorated with the papal tiara and two doves, and on the breast a large star. It is the highest active papal decoration, and is reserved for heads of state.
Knight / Dame Grand Cross (GCPO): who wear a wide dark blue silk ribbon (sash) bordered with red which extends saltire-wise from the left shoulder to the right side where the insignia of the order is suspended by a rosette, and on the breast a large diamond-studded star. It is commonly awarded to the ambassadors accredited to the Holy See.
Knight / Dame Commander with Star (KC*PO / DC*PO): who in addition to the badge wear a star of smaller design than that of Knights of the Grand Cross on the breast.
Knight / Dame Commander (KCPO / DCPO): who wear the decoration at the neck.
Knight / Dame (KPO / DPO): who wear the star on the left breast.

Insignia and uniform
The decoration is a regular octagram made of blue enamel, the spaces between the rays filled with gold flames. On the white medallion in the center the name of the founder surrounded by the words Virtuti et Merito ("Virtue and Merit") is engraved.  The reverse side is the same save for the substitution of Anno 1847 for Pius IX. The rarely worn official uniform consists of an elaborately embroidered dark blue evening coat with golden epaulettes, white trousers, and a white-plumed bicorne.

Knights with the Collar wear a gold decorated chain around the neck, and a star on the left side of the breast; Knights Grand Cross wear a sash and a star on the left side of the breast; Commanders wear a cross around the neck; and Knights wear a smaller cross on the left breast of the uniform:

Notable members

Royal houses and nobility
Juan Carlos I, former King of Spain, first and honorary canon of the Basilica of Saint Mary Major, with Collar
Fra Andrew Bertie, 78th Prince and Grand Master of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta, with Collar
Henri, Grand Duke of Luxembourg, with Collar
Albert II, King of the Belgians, with Collar
Carl XVI Gustaf, King of Sweden, with Collar
Franz Joseph II, Prince of Liechtenstein, with Collar
Haile Selassie I, Emperor of Ethiopia
Mwambutsa IV, King of Burundi
Bhumibol Adulyadej, King of Thailand, with Collar
Gabriel García Moreno y Morán de Butrón, former President of Ecuador, with Collar
Miles Stapleton Fitzalan-Howard, 17th Duke of Norfolk, Earl Marshal, Premier Duke of England
Count Herman van Rompuy, former Prime minister of Belgium
Count Charles de Broqueville, former Prime minister of Belgium.
Count Paul de Smet de Naeyer, former Prime minister of Belgium
Count Charles Woeste, Belgian Minister

Heads of State and Politicians

 Sergio Mattarella, current President of Italy
 Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa, current President of Portugal
 Nicos Anastasiades, former President of Cyprus
 Giorgio Napolitano, former President of Italy
 Carlo Azeglio Ciampi, former President of Italy
 Oscar Luigi Scalfaro, former President of Italy
 Francesco Cossiga, former President of Italy
 Jacques Chirac, former President of France
 Marco Fidel Suárez, former President of Colombia
 Konstantinos Stephanopoulos, former President of Greece
 Diosdado Macapagal, former President of the Philippines
 Juscelino Kubitschek, former President of Brazil
 Carlos Menem, former President of Argentina
 Demetris Christofias, former President of Cyprus
 Urho Kekkonen, former President of Finland
 Saitō Makoto, former Prime Minister of Japan
 Władysław Grabski, former Prime Minister of Poland
 George Papandreou, former Prime Minister of Greece
 Franz Von Papen, former Vice-Chancellor of Germany
 Juan Vicente Gómez, former President of Venezuela
 Sukarno, former President of Indonesia
 W.T. Cosgrave, former President of the Executive Council of the Irish Free State
 Sean T. O'Kelly, former President of Ireland
 Sarit Thanarat, former Prime Minister of Thailand
 Nikol Pashinyan, current Prime Minister of Armenia

Diplomats to the Holy See
 Callista Gingrich, former United States Ambassador to the Holy See
 Mercedes Arrastia Tuason, former Philippine Ambassador to the Holy See
 William A. Wilson, former United States Ambassador to the Holy See
 Frank Shakespeare, former United States Ambassador to the Holy See
 Thomas Patrick Melady, former United States Ambassador to the Holy See
 Raymond Flynn, former Mayor of Boston, Massachusetts, former Ambassador to the Holy See
 Lindy Boggs, former Member of Congress, former Ambassador to the Holy See
 Khétévane Bagration de Moukhrani, former Georgian Ambassador to the Holy See
 Tim Fischer, former Australian Deputy Prime Minister and former Australian Ambassador to the Holy See

Other notable members

Jean-Pierre Mazery, Grand Chancellor of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta
 Virgil C. Dechant, former vice-president for the Vatican Bank & Supreme Knight of the Knights of Columbus

See also
Papal Orders of Knighthood

References

External links

Association of Papal Orders in Great Britain
Association of Papal Orders in Great Britain of Pius IX, Saint Gregory and Saint Sylvester: The Pontifical Order of Pius IX
The Knights of Christ's Mercy: Order of Pius IX
National Association of Papal Honorees: Roll of US Members of the Order of Pius IX

Awards established in 1847
1847 establishments in the Papal States

Order of Pope Pius IX


Xiexiemaster or simply Xiexie is a strong xiangqi (Chinese chess) program created by Pascal Tang in 1998. At the beginning, as the program was located in France, it was very hard to find Chinese chess high class players. Finally, some European top players accepted to challenge the software (Hua Say Ty, Woo Wei Cheung, Dang Thanh Trung). The author was so grateful that he called the program "Xiexie" which comes from the same Chinese word which means "Thank you".  "Eugenio Castillo has joined the Xiexie development team in 1999. Before 2001, there were a few Chinese chess programs and they were fairly mediocre. The program Xiexie became famous by beating the Chinese delegation of Chinese chess international Masters and Grand Masters in 2001 (Lu Qin, Jin Hai Ying ...) who came for a show in Paris. This victory marked the beginning of the recognition of Chinese chess software by top players.

Since then, the evaluation function was further improved by Pascal Tang. From 2005, Jih-tung Pai added support of a DTC (Distance To Conversion) Endgame Tablebase. Thanks to Jih-tung Pai, Xiexie had the largest Chinese chess endgame tablebase of the World (350 GB).

Rewards
Xiexiemaster won tournaments on the internet (on site www.clubxianqi.com example with pseudo Patang or www.movesky.net between 2000 and 2005).

Xiexiemaster was several time medalist at the Computer Olympiads.(Silver medal in 2016).

Xiexiemaster finally won the World Championship of Computer Chinese chess in 2004 in Tainan (Taipei). Nowadays, Xiexie is still a reference in the programming world of Chinese chess.

External links
 Official site of Xiexie
 Online Chinese chess game server
 Online Chinese chess game server

Chess software
Xiangqi

Xiexiemaster


Léonce Cohen (12 February 1829 – 26 February 1901) was a 19th-century French composer.

Biography
Cohen was born in Paris from an Alsatian merchant family. His father inherited a china shop in Paris, , and later was the first director of the  in  the 12th arrondissement of Paris. His mother, Merline Weil (1805–1875), was the sister of the writer Godcheaux Weil, known as Ben-Levy, a cousin of Adolphe Crémieux, and the great-aunt of Henri Bergson and Marcel Proust.

Aged thirteen, Cohen began his training at the Conservatoire de Paris where he specialised in the violin. Additionally, he also followed the organ class of François Benoist and studied musical composition with Aimé Leborne. He won the Prix de Rome in 1852 with the cantata Le Retour du Virginie (libretto after Bailly du Rollet), beating out Camille Saint-Saëns that year.

During his studies, Cohen was violinist at the Comédie Italienne in Paris. After his stay in Rome he wrote a solemn mass, applauded by Fromental Halévy. On his return to Paris in 1855, he joined the Comédie Italienne but also the Théâtre du Vaudeville as violinist. From 1875, he worked as violist in the Orchestre de la Société des Concerts du Conservatoire.

In 1858, his operetta Mam'zelle Jeanne was created at the Théâtre des Bouffes-Parisiens, followed in 1866 by Bettina. In 1862, he published his École du musicien, ou solfège théorique et pratique, avec accompagnement de piano, which he dedicated to Ambroise Thomas.

He died in Paris.

External links

 File of léonce Cohen on Geni.com

1829 births
1901 deaths
19th-century classical composers
19th-century French composers
Conservatoire de Paris alumni
19th-century French Jews
French operetta composers
French Romantic composers
Composers from Paris
Prix de Rome for composition
Pupils of François Benoist

Léonce Cohen


The Wallace Oak was an oak tree that stood in Elderslie, Renfrewshire. It is reputed to have seeded around 1100 and by the late 13th-century grew on the estate of Scottish independence leader William Wallace's father. Wallace is reputed to have hidden himself within the tree to escape from English soldiers. The tree was damaged by the removal of wood to make souvenirs in the 19th-century and it fell during a storm in 1856.

Association with Wallace
The oak is described as being at least 700 years old in a book of 1838, giving an approximate seeding date of 1100 AD.  The tree stood at the west end of the village of Elderslie in Renfrewshire, to the north of the turnpike road.  By the late 13th-century the tree came into the ownership of the father of Scottish independence leader William Wallace.  William Wallace himself is said to have been born on the estate associated with the oak.

In legend, Wallace is said to have used the branches of the tree to hide from an English patrol.  This legend later became more outlandish, with it being stated that the tree hid 300 of Wallace's men.  Its canopy has been variously described as covering  and a Scottish acre ().

The tree was well known by the 14th century and the Wallace Yew later grew next to it.

19th century
In 1825 the trunk was measured at  in circumference at ground level, reducing to  at a height of  from the ground. It measured  in height with branches extending up to  to give a canopy covering 19 English square poles of land ().

After this time the tree declined, partly due to age and partly due to parts of it being removed as souvenirs.  By the mid 19th-century it had become common for Scottish men to own a snuff box that incorporated a fragment of the Wallace Oak together with part of a tree said to have been planted by Mary, Queen of Scots at Holyrood Palace, part of another tree under which she is said to have watched the Battle of Langside and a portion of the rafters of Alloway Auld Kirk (made famous by Robert Burns).

By 1851, Jacob George Strutt drew it for his Sylva Britannica, many of its branches had been removed and it was described as "a melancholy torso, bald and frail, with its limbs hacked off by relic hunters, like Wallace's by the hangman". The tree fell during a storm in 1856. Its timber was reputedly used to make two regency-style tables.  John McAdam commissioned an elaborate frame made from the oak in 1867 which he intended to be used to contain letters about Wallace at the National Wallace Monument.

References

Individual trees in Scotland
Individual oak trees
William Wallace
1850s individual tree deaths

Wallace Oak (Elderslie)


In Greek mythology, Asia () may refer to these deities:
 Asia, one of the 3,000 Oceanides, daughter of the Titans Oceanus and Tethys.
 Asia, one of the 50 Nereids, sea-nymph daughters of the 'Old Man of the Sea' Nereus and the Oceanid Doris. She was counted in the train of Cyrene and may be the same to the above Asia.
Asia, a surname of Athena in Colchis. Her worship was believed to have been brought from thence by Castor and Polydeuces to Laconia, where a temple was built to her at Las.

Notes

References
 Apollodorus, The Library with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. ISBN 0-674-99135-4. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Greek text available from the same website.
 Bell, Robert E., Women of Classical Mythology: A Biographical Dictionary. ABC-Clio. 1991. .
Gaius Julius Hyginus, Fabulae from The Myths of Hyginus translated and edited by Mary Grant. University of Kansas Publications in Humanistic Studies. Online version at the Topos Text Project.
Pausanias, Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. . Online version at the Perseus Digital Library
Pausanias, Graeciae Descriptio. 3 vols. Leipzig, Teubner. 1903.  Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.
 Publius Vergilius Maro, Bucolics, Aeneid, and Georgics of Vergil. J. B. Greenough. Boston. Ginn & Co. 1900. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.

Nereids

Asia (Greek myth)


The Bible: In the Beginning is a 1966 Italian American epic religious drama movie directed by John Houston (who also stars) and was based on the first 22 chapters of The Bible. Also starring Michael Parks, Ava Gardener, Peter O'Toole, Richard Harris, George C. Scott, Franco Nero, Stephen Boyd, Ulla Bergryd, Claudie Lange, Anna Orso, Pupella Maggio and was distributed by 20th Century Fox. It was nominated for an Academy Award in 1967.

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1966 drama movies
1960s epic movies
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Movies directed by John Huston
20th Century Fox movies
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The Bible: In the Beginning