An evergreen forest is a forest made up of evergreen trees. They occur across a wide range of climatic zones, and include trees such as conifers and holly in cold climates, eucalyptus, Live oak, acacias, magnolia, and banksia in more temperate zones, and rainforest trees in tropical zones.in the Prithvi Raj prithvi Raj

Species of trees
Coniferous temperate evergreen forests are most frequently dominated by species in the families. The trees include: Pinaceae and Cupressaceae. Broadleaf temperate evergreen forests include those in which Fagaceae, such as oaks and ferns are common, those in which Nothofagaceae predominate, and the eucalyptus forests of the Southern Hemisphere. There also are assorted temperate evergreen forests dominated by other families of trees, such as Lauraceae in laurel forest.

Regions
Temperate evergreen forests, coniferous, broadleaf, and mixed, are found largely in the temperate mid-latitudes of , Siberia, Canada, Australia, Africa, Scandinavia, Indonesia, Malaysia, Amazon and Orinoco basins of South America, Himalayas and western ghats of India and Andaman and the Nicobar Islands. Broadleaf evergreen forests occur in particular in southern China, southeastern Brazil, and parts of southeastern North America. and in countries around the Mediterranean Basin, such as Lebanon and Morocco. Other evergreen forests (or tropical rainforests) are usually found in areas receiving more than 234 cm of rainfall and having a monthly mean temperature of 20 °C or higher in the coldest months. They occupy about seven percent of the Earth's surface and harbour more than half of the planet's terrestrial plants and animals. Tropical evergreen forests are dense, multi-layered, and harbour many types of plants and animals. These forests are found in the areas receiving heavy rainfall (more than 200  cm annual rainfall). They are very dense. Even the sunlight does not reach the ground. Numerous species of trees are found in these forests. In some regions, some types of trees shed their leaves at different times of the year. Therefore, these forests always appear green and are known as evergreen forest.

See also
Deciduous forest
Biomes
Ecoregion
Ecological land classification
List of terrestrial ecoregions (WWF)
 Temperate coniferous forest

References

External links
Tropical Evergreen Forests.

Forests
Habitat
Habitats
Temperate coniferous forests
Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests
Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests
Taiga and boreal forests
Ecoregions
Wildlife

Evergreen forest


The flag of Jamaica was created in 1962 in anticipation of its independence day in August 6. It was agreed by the deciding committee that the flag should include the colours black, yellow, and green. It is currently the only country flag without red, white or blue.

Appearance
It has a gold diagonal cross divides the field into four triangles of green (top and bottom) and black (hoist-side and fly-side).

References

Jamaica
National symbols of Jamaica
1962 establishments in North America
1960s establishments in Jamaica

Flag of Jamaica


A fully qualified domain address (FQDA) is a string forming an Internet e-mail address. It was defined by the Internet Engineering Task Force in RFC 3801 for the use in voice profiles for Internet mail, but has been used on the Internet as early as 1988.

A FQDA is composed of a local part, followed by the symbol  and the fully qualified domain name (FQDN) of the host responsible for a mailbox.

An example of a FQDA is: . The local part usually denotes a username, while the fully qualified domain name is used by mail transfer agents to determine the IP address of the host by querying the Domain Name System.

References

Email

Fully qualified domain address


Overlaying or overlying is the act of accidentally smothering a child to death by rolling over them in sleep.

Alleged instances of overlaying were perceived to be one common way of covering up infanticide in Victorian England. Many wet nurses were accused of this, and in many counties the wet nurse would have to provide a crib out of her own money to ensure that she would not sleep with the child.

The London coroner Athelstan Braxton Hicks noted that "during the last ten months no less than 500 cases had occurred in which children had been suffocated while in bed with their parents, in London alone." He estimated that a third of the allegedly accidental deaths of children were due to suffocations. Overcrowded conditions often led to overlaying and in another case he noted "it was no use reading the father a lesson on sleeping in a crowded room, for he was hard-up and could not pay for large apartments. The jury returned a verdict of "Accidental death," and expressed its opinion that the father had done the best he could in the circumstances."

In researching smothering deaths by black slaves in the American South, which occurred nine times more frequently than in white families, Michael P. Johnson suggests that sudden infant death syndrome was in fact to blame (which, if it happened in white families, would be heavily underreported because of the social stigma attached).

See also
Judgment of Solomon, following an incident of overlaying

References

Infant mortality
Manslaughter

Overlaying


The Extended Groth Strip is an image of a small region between the constellations of Ursa Major and Boötes, based on the results of a series of observations by the Hubble Space Telescope. It covers an area 70 arcminutes across and 10 arcminutes wide, which correlates to a patch of sky roughly the width of a finger stretched at arm's length. The image was assembled from over 500 separate exposures taken with the Space Telescope's Advanced Camera for Surveys at 63 different pointings, spread out over the course of one year from June 2004 to March 2005. The complete image at the highest resolution in JPEG format is nearly 250 megabytes.

The Extended Groth Strip is named for Princeton University physicist Edward Groth. The project is jointly led by Sandra Faber, professor of physics and astronomy at the University of California at Santa Cruz, and Marc Davis, professor of astronomy at the University of California at Berkeley.

There are at least 50,000 galaxies in its view, giving new clues about the universe's youth, from its "preteen" years to young adulthood. The snowstorm of galaxies in the Hubble panorama does not appear evenly spread out. Some galaxies seem to be grouped together. Others are scattered through space. This uneven distribution of galaxies traces the concentration of dark matter, an invisible web-like structure stretching throughout space. Galaxies form in areas rich in dark matter.

In 2011, the All-Wavelength Extended Groth Strip International Survey used several telescopes to study the Extended Groth Strip. In 2022 the James Webb Space Telescope was pointed at the Extended Groth Strip by Cosmic Evolution Early Release Science (CEERS). The CEERS survey obtained novel data about the presence of massive galaxies with high redshift. As of May 2023, explanations for this are currently being debated.

See also
 List of deep fields

References

External links
AEGIS - All-wavelength Extended Groth Strip International Survey, of which this a part
Information and high resolution images on the Hubble site

Hubble Space Telescope images
Physical cosmology
Ursa Major
Boötes
Astronomy image articles
Sky regions
2000s photographs

Extended Groth Strip


A  (German for "master singer") was a member of a German guild for lyric poetry, composition and unaccompanied art song of the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries.  The Meistersingers were drawn from middle class males for the most part.

Guilds
The Meistersinger maintained and developed the traditions of the medieval Minnesingers. They belonged to the artisan and trading classes of the German towns, and regarded as their masters and the founders of their guild twelve poets of the Middle High German period, including Wolfram von Eschenbach, Konrad von Würzburg, Reinmar von Zweter, and Heinrich Frauenlob.  Frauenlob allegedly established the earliest Meistersinger school at Mainz, early in the 14th century.  The schools originated first in the upper Rhine district, then spread elsewhere.  In the 14th century schools operated at Mainz, Strasbourg, Frankfurt, Würzburg, Zurich, and Prague; in the 15th at Augsburg and Nuremberg.  Nuremberg, under the leadership of Hans Sachs, became the most famous school in the 16th century, by which time Meistersinger schools had spread all over Germany and farther north, to Magdeburg, Breslau, Görlitz, and Danzig.

Each guild had various classes of members, ranging from beginners, or Schüler (corresponding to trade apprentices), and Schulfreunde (equivalent to Gesellen or journeymen), to Meister.  Meisters were poets who could both write new verses to existing melodies and invent new melodies.  The poem was technically known as a Bar or Gesetz, the melody as a Ton or Weis. The songs were all sung without accompaniment.

Rules
The rules of the art were set down in the so-called Tabulatur or law-book of the guild. The Tabulatur dealt with three matters: (1) The kinds of poems and the parts of a meistergesang; (2) permissible rhymes; (3) mistakes to be avoided, including errors of delivery, of melody, of structure and of opinion and, especially, errors of rhyme, word choice, or meter. Poetry was to them a mechanical art that could be learned through diligent study, not something dependent on divine inspiration.

Their songs cover a variety of strophic forms corresponding to the many new tunes which the Meistersingers invented and gave complicated names such as  (Little striped saffron flower melody), ,  (Melody of eating much),  (Flowery paradise melody), etc. More attention was paid to fitting the syllables to the melody than to the text's meaning, sentiment, or message. The various songs were divided into three strophes, and each strophe was divided into two  and a discant or . Plate, in "", gives a long list of the various features of rhythm and rhyme in this complicated poetry, in all of which can be observed a singular likeness to the technicalities invented by the lesser, and even by the better, poets two centuries earlier in Southern France.

Meetings
The meetings took place either in the town hall (Rathaus) or, more frequently, on Sundays in the church.  Three times a year, at Easter, Pentecost, and Christmas, special festivals and singing competitions were instituted. At such competitions or Schulsingen, judges (Merker) were appointed to criticize the competitors and note their offences against the rules of the Tabulatur. Prizes were awarded, and those who sang ill were fined. The prize was sometimes money, sometimes a crown, as at Nuremberg in the time of Hans Sachs. Flowers had also an important part in these competitions. Often in the older days one singer would hang up a wreath as a challenge and as a reward for victory. The meistersinger often wore a costume which was not seldom motley and which was often sumptuous.

In Nuremberg, where the master singers flourished particularly, the special festivals were opened with free singing, in which anybody might sing, though not belonging to the corporation. In this the choice of the subjects was left comparatively uncontrolled. Then followed the chief singing, when only those who belonged to the corporation were allowed to sing, and only on scriptural subjects. The judges sat behind a curtain. There were four: one watched whether the song was according to the text of the Bible, which lay open before him; the second whether the prosody was correct; the third criticized the rhymes; the fourth the tunes. Every fault was marked, and he who had fewest received the prize.

Cultural role
Meistersinger poetry played a large part in German town life of the 15th and 16th century. The tradition often reinforced German burgher values; as such, it was middle-class popular art rather than high art.  The "" culminated in the 16th century and declined shortly thereafter. Meistersinger traditions lingered in southern Germany as late as the 19th century:  a society in Ulm dissolved in 1839; the last school died out at Memmingen in 1875.

Legacy
The plot of Richard Wagner's 1868 opera Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg revolves around the guild of Meistersingers and their singing contest.

Notes

References

External links

Singing
Guilds in Germany
German music history
Medieval performers
Poetry organizations
German words and phrases

Meistersinger


George Warrington Steevens (10 December 1869 – 15 January 1900) was a British journalist and writer.

Life
Steevens was born in Sydenham, and educated at the City of London School and Balliol College, Oxford. He was elected a fellow of Pembroke College, Oxford, in 1893 and also spent some time at Cambridge where he edited a weekly periodical.

As a journalist, he distinguished himself by his clearness of vision and vivid style, and was connected successively with the National Observer,  The Pall Mall Gazette, and, from 1896, the Daily Mail.

He was the most famous war correspondent of his time, before being eclipsed by the daring escape of young Churchill from a Pretoria prison. Steevens utilised the articles which appeared in these and other publications in various books, such as Monologues of the Dead (1895), The Land of the Dollar (America) (1897), With the Conquering Turk (1897), With Kitchener to Khartum, chronicling his attachment to British forces during the Mahdist War in the Sudan, The Tragedy of Dreyfus and his posthumous From Cape Town to Ladysmith. He is also the author of In India, a series of articles on India published in 1899.

He was appointed by the Daily Mail as war correspondent to South Africa during the Second Boer War in 1899. Caught in the siege of Ladysmith, he kept up morale during the early months with his mordant witticisms appearing in Ladysmith Lyre (e.g. "a strange sideway out of Ladysmith" for death by disease or starvation). He died of enteric fever (now more commonly known as typhoid) on 15 January 1900, six weeks before the Natal Field Army of Redvers Buller relieved Ladysmith.

In popular culture
Jack London credited Stevens with inventing the cocktail Abu Hamed in the opening paragraph of "The Inevitable White Man"

References

Sources

External links

The Land of the Dollar, Ayer Publishing, 1971
, An Unfinished Record of the South African War

1869 births
1900 deaths
English atheists
People from Sydenham, London
English war correspondents
British people of the Mahdist War
English male journalists
English non-fiction writers
People educated at the City of London School
Deaths from typhoid fever
Infectious disease deaths in South Africa
Second Boer War casualties
Alumni of Balliol College, Oxford
19th-century British journalists
English male non-fiction writers
Daily Mail journalists
War correspondents of the Second Boer War

G. W. Steevens


Spokil is a constructed language created by the Frenchman Adolphe Nicolas.

During the 1880s, the most popular international auxiliary language was undeniably Volapük. However, after a brief period of overwhelming success, rivalry on the part of the more practical and less complicated Esperanto (published in 1887) led to a rapid decline of the Volapük movement. Many who had previously supported Volapük switched to the Esperanto camp, while others tried their best to improve or reform Volapük itself. Partially due to the inflexible attitude of Johann Martin Schleyer, the creator of Volapük, himself, this led to several schisms in the Volapük movement. As a result, a number of so-called "Volapükids" emerged, most notably Idiom Neutral, first published in 1902, and Spokil.

Spokil was created by Adolphe Charles Antoine Marie Nicolas (1833-?), a French ship's doctor from La Bourboule. A former partisan of Volapük, he started working on Spokil in 1890 (though some sources mention 1887 instead). In 1904, he published a book about it: Spokil. Language internationale. Grammaire, exercise, les deux dictionnaires. At a conference in Paris, held in June 1907, Nicolas was allowed to defend his language in person; among the other languages discussed at the conference were Parla, Bolak (La Langue Bleue), Idiom Neutral, and Esperanto. At the same meeting, Ido was first presented. Spokil never gained much support, however, and nowadays is largely forgotten.

Like Volapük, Spokil is most often qualified as an a priori/a posteriori hybrid. Some authors, including Nicolas himself, consider it a purely a priori language.

Phonology

Consonants

Vowels

Text samples

The Lord's Prayer:
Mael nio, kui vai o les zeal;
Aepseno lezai tio mita.
Veze lezai tio tsaeleda.
Feleno lezai tio bela,
uti o zeal itu o geol.
Demai da ni itu ebilai da gelenelas nio.
E no apidai ni o fismena.
Stu nibai ni le sfail.

Amen.

The numbers 1-10:
ba, ge, di, vo, mu, fa, te, ki, po, nu.

References

Further reading
 Nicolas, Adolphe Charles Antoine Marie, Spokil. Langue internationale. Grammaire, exercises, les deux dictionnaires. Paris: Maloine, 1904 (272+ p.)

External links

 A website about Spokil

International auxiliary languages
Constructed languages introduced in the 1880s
1887 introductions
Constructed languages

Spokil


Kornel Ujejski (; September 12, 1823 in Beremyany, Galicia, Austria - September 19, 1897 in Pavliv near Lviv, Galicia, Austria), also known as Cornelius Ujejski, was a Polish poet, patriot and political writer of the Austrian Empire and Austria-Hungary.

He was named "last of the greatest Polish poets of Romanticism".

Kornel was born in a village on Dniester between Buchach and Tlumach. Ujejski was involved in Poland's struggle for independence after it had been partitioned and erased from the map of Europe by neighbouring countries (Russian Empire, Prussia and Austrian Empire). In 1846, at the instigation of the Austrian Government during the Kraków Uprising, the Galician peasants massacred several thousand of the nobility. Ujejski then gave utterance to the universal feeling of indignation in his powerful poem Choral, which has become one of the notable patriotic Polish songs of that period.

The political situation in partitioned Poland was reflected in his poems and political writing. His writing conveyed patriotic and historic message and was meant to support the Polish people in their fight for independence.

Works
 Maraton (Marathon, 1845)
 Pieśni Salomona (The Songs of Solomon, 1846)
 Skargi Jeremiego (The Complaints of Jeremy, 1847)
 Do Moskali (To the Muscovites, 1862)
 Tłumaczenia Szopena (Translations of Chopin, 1866)

See also
 Polish literature
 List of Polish language poets
 History of Poland

External links
 Dr Marek Adamiec: Kornel Ujejski
 Melnyk, I. ''The most famous Polish poet of Galicia (Найвідоміший польський поет Галичини). Zbruč. 11 September 2013

1823 births
1897 deaths
Writers from Ternopil Oblast
Polish male poets
Polish political writers
19th-century Polish poets
19th-century Polish male writers

Kornel Ujejski


The governor of Florida is the head of state and government of the U.S. state of Florida and the commander-in-chief of the state's military forces. The governor is also the head of the executive branch of the state government and is the chairman of the gubernatorial cabinet.

Ron DeSantis is the 46th and current governor of Florida, in office since January 2019.

History
Florida had been a French and then a Spanish colony. It came under British control and then returned to Spanish control again after the American Revolution. It had many and multiple governors during these colonial periods of time. The British divided the state into East Florida and West Florida, each with its own head of state.

There were also five military governors during the colonial period time such as, William P. Duval, John Eaton, Richard K. Call, Robert R. Reid, and John Branch.

Powers and Duties
The governor has the power to enforce state laws and the duty to either approve or veto bills passed by the Florida Legislature or the Florida Senate to assemble the legislature and grant pardons, except in cases of impeachment.

Eligibility & requirements
Section 5 of the state's constitution states for a person to serve as governor must:

 be at least thirty years old.
 be a permanent resident in Florida for at least seven years.

Election process and gubernatorial terms
The governor is elected by the people through the popular election to a four-year term, along with the lieutenant gubernatorial candidate or the incumbent lieutenant governor of Florida as their running mate. The gubernatorial candidate or incumbent governor must have the majority of the popular vote in order to win the election.

Under Section 5 of the state's constitution forbids anyone from being elected governor more than twice.

Governor-elect of Florida
The governor-elect is the candidate who has won the state's gubernatorial election and is awaiting inauguration to become the governor.

Inauguration
The governor-elect, or incumbent governor immediately began their four-year team on inauguration day every four years in the month of January, along with the incumbent lieutenant governor and lieutenant governor-elect.

Gubernatorial line of succession
If the governor dies, reigns, or is impeached, the lieutenant governor ranks first in the succession will assume the gubernatorial office and duties.

Residence

The Florida Governor's Mansion is the official residence of the governor and the state's first family. it has been the official residence of every governor since Thomas LeRoy Collins in 1956.

List of governors of Florida

 William Dunn Moseley
 Thomas Brown
 James Broome
 Madison Perry
 John Milton
 Abraham Allison
 William Marvin
 David Shelby Walker
 Harrison Reed
 Ossian Hart
 Marcellus Stearns
 George Franklin Drew
 William Bloxham
 Edward Aylsworth Perry
 Francis Philip Fleming
 Henry Mitchell
 William Bloxham
 William Sherman Jennings
 Napoleon Broward
 Albert Waller Gilchrist
 Park Trammell
 Sidney Johnston Catts
 Cary Hardee
 John Wellborn Martin
 Doyle Elam Carlton
 David Sholtz
 Frederick Preston Cone
 Spessard Lindsey Holland
 Millard Fillmore Caldwell
 Fuller Warren
 Daniel Thomas McCarty
 Charley Eugene Johns
 Thomas LeRoy Collins
 Cecil Farris Bryant
 William Haydon Burns
 Claude Roy Kirk
 Reubin Askew
 Daniel Robert Graham
 John Mixson
 Bob Martinez
 Lawton Mainor Chiles
 Kenneth Hood MacKay
 John Ellis Bush
 Charlie Crist
 Rick Scott
 Ron DeSantis

List of living former governors of Florida
Bob Graham
Bob Martinez
Buddy MacKay
Jeb Bush
Charlie Crist
Rick Scott

List of governors of Florida


Conair Corporation is an American company based in Stamford, Connecticut which sells small appliances, personal care products, and health and beauty products for both professionals and consumers.

It is majority-owned by private equity firm American Securities, with some minority stakes held by family members of founder Leandro Rizzuto.

History

Founded in 1959 in a garage in Queens, New York, Conair started out by selling hair rollers and then hair dryers. It continued to expand, and became a public company in 1972, but then went private again after a leveraged buyout in 1985. It was owned by the co-founder and chairman Leandro Rizzuto until his death in 2017.

Conair is one of the largest producers of hair care appliances, ranging from hair dryers and styling irons to its innovative hair curlers, Curl Secret and Miracurl Stylers. In 1995, BaByliss was acquired by the Conair Corporation. The BaByliss brand was created by the hairstylists René Lelièvre and Roger Lemoine, working in Paris in the early 1960's. Lelièvre innovated on the early curling tong, and marketed his products for professional hair stylists.

The company also manufactures a wide range of home kitchen appliances under its brands Cuisinart and Waring.

In 2002 Rizzuto pleaded guilty to tax evasion associated with his tenure as Chief Executive Officer of Conair, and was sentenced to a prison term of 20 to 37 months.

Conair acquired Cuisinart in 1989, Waring Products in 1998, and bag manufacturer Allegro in 2007. Pollenex was acquired after Jarden acquired Holmes in 2005, and it was rebranded as Conair Home in 2013.

In 2019, Transom Capital Group announced it has acquired Conair Corporation's professional liquids division, which will be renamed to Beauty Quest Group.

Brands
Representative brands by division include:

Conair Personal Care

Hair and Beauty Accessories
 Scünci
Conair
Allegro

Professional Products
 BaBylissPRO
 Barberology
ConairPRO
 Leandro Limited
 ConairPRO Pet

Cuisinart
 Cuisinart
 Griddler
AirFryer
Cuisinart Elite
Cuisinart Advantage
Chef's Classic
Green Gourmet

Waring Commercial Products
 Waring Commercial
XPrep
Bolt
Café Deco

Conair Hospitality

 Stay by Cuisinart
 Luna by Conair

Subsidiaries
Conair sells products in over 100 countries and has offices and subsidiaries in over 12 countries including Babyliss SARL in Paris, France.

References

External links

American companies established in 1959
Home appliance manufacturers of the United States
Personal care companies
Companies based in Stamford, Connecticut
Manufacturing companies based in Connecticut
Electronics companies established in 1959
1959 establishments in New York City
Privately held companies based in Connecticut

Conair Corporation


Within evolutionary biology, signalling theory is a body of theoretical work examining communication between individuals, both within species and across species. The central question is when organisms with conflicting interests, such as in sexual selection, should be expected to provide honest signals (no presumption being made of conscious intention) rather than cheating. Mathematical models describe how signalling can contribute to an evolutionarily stable strategy.

Signals are given in contexts such as mate selection by females, which subjects the advertising males' signals to selective pressure. Signals thus evolve because they modify the behaviour of the receiver to benefit the signaller. Signals may be honest, conveying information which usefully increases the fitness of the receiver, or dishonest. An individual can cheat by giving a dishonest signal, which might briefly benefit that signaller, at the risk of undermining the signalling system for the whole population.

The question of whether the selection of signals works at the level of the individual organism or gene, or at the level of the group, has been debated by biologists such as Richard Dawkins, arguing that individuals evolve to signal and to receive signals better, including resisting manipulation. Amotz Zahavi suggested that cheating could be controlled by the handicap principle, where the best horse in a handicap race is the one carrying the largest handicap weight. According to Zahavi's theory, signallers such as male peacocks have "tails" that are genuinely handicaps, being costly to produce. The system is evolutionarily stable as the large showy tails are honest signals. Biologists have attempted to verify the handicap principle, but with inconsistent results. The mathematical biologist Ronald Fisher analysed the contribution that having two copies of each gene (diploidy) would make to honest signalling, demonstrating that a runaway effect could occur in sexual selection. The evolutionary equilibrium depends sensitively on the balance of costs and benefits.

The same mechanisms can be expected in humans, where researchers have studied behaviours including risk-taking by young men, hunting of large game animals, and costly religious rituals, finding that these appear to qualify as costly honest signals.

Sexual selection

When animals choose mating partners, traits such as signalling are subject to evolutionary pressure. For example, the male gray tree frog, Hyla versicolor, produces a call to attract females. Once a female chooses a mate, this selects for a specific style of male calling, thus propagating a specific signalling ability. The signal can be the call itself, the intensity of a call, its variation style, its repetition rate, and so on. Various hypotheses seek to explain why females would select for one call over the other. The sensory exploitation hypothesis proposes that pre-existing preferences in female receivers can drive the evolution of signal innovation in male senders, in a similar way to the hidden preference hypothesis which proposes that successful calls are better able to match some 'hidden preference' in the female. Signallers have sometimes evolved multiple sexual ornaments, and receivers have sometimes evolved multiple trait preferences.

Honest signals

In biology, signals are traits, including structures and behaviours, that have evolved specifically because they change the behaviour of receivers in ways that benefit the signaller. Traits or actions that benefit the receiver exclusively are called "cues". For example, when an alert bird deliberately gives a warning call to a stalking predator and the predator gives up the hunt, the sound is a "signal". But when a foraging bird inadvertently makes a rustling sound in the leaves that attracts predators and increases the risk of predation, the sound is not a signal, but a cue.

Signalling systems are shaped by mutual interests between signallers and receivers. An alert bird such as a Eurasian jay warning off a stalking predator is communicating something useful to the predator: that it has been detected by the prey; it might as well quit wasting its time stalking this alerted prey, which it is unlikely to catch. When the predator gives up, the signaller can get back to other tasks such as feeding. Once the stalking predator is detected, the signalling prey and receiving predator thus have a mutual interest in terminating the hunt.

Within species, mutual interests increase with kinship. Kinship is central to models of signalling between relatives, for instance when broods of nestling birds beg and compete for food from their parents.

The term honesty in animal communication is controversial because in non-technical usage it implies intent, to discriminate deception from honesty in human interactions. However, biologists use the phrase "honest signals" in a direct, statistical sense. Biological signals, like warning calls or resplendent tail feathers, are honest if they reliably convey useful information to the receiver. That is, the signal trait tells the receiver about an otherwise unobservable factor. Honest biological signals do not need to be perfectly informative, reducing uncertainty to zero; all they need to be useful is to be correct "on average", so that some behavioural response to the signal is advantageous, statistically, compared to the behaviour that would occur in absence of the signal. Ultimately the value of the signalled information depends on the extent to which it allows the receiver to increase its fitness.

One type of honest signal is the signalling of quality in sexually reproducing animals. In sexually reproducing animals one sex is generally the 'choosing sex' (often females) and the other the 'advertising sex' (often males). The choosing sex achieves the highest fitness by choosing the partner of the highest (genetic) quality. This quality can not be observed directly, so the advertising sex can evolve a signal, which advertises its quality. Examples of these signals include the tail of a peacock and the colouration of male sticklebacks. Such signals only work, i.e. are reliable, if the signal is honest. The link between the quality of the advertising sex and the signal may depend on environmental stressors, with honesty increasing in more challenging environments.

Another type of honest signal is the aposematic warning signal, generally visual, given by poisonous or dangerous animals such as wasps, poison dart frogs, and pufferfish. Warning signals are honest indications of noxious prey, because conspicuousness evolves in tandem with noxiousness (a conspicuous, non-noxious organism gets eaten). Thus, the brighter and more conspicuous the organism, the more toxic it usually is. The most common and effective colours are red, yellow, black and white.

There is an obvious evolutionary advantage to faking a signal like "Don't eat me, I'm poisonous"; the sender scares off predators without the metabolic cost of actually being toxic. Such fake I'm-harmful signals are called Batesian mimicry. There is also an obvious evolutionary advantage to the predator learning to distinguish the real from the fake signal; this sets off an evolutionary arms race, making such fake signals evolutionarily unstable. An "honest signal", on the other hand, cannot be faked by the sender (the feathers can't look resplendent unless the bird is healthy) or can't be faked without a cost that exceeds the benefit (like incessantly giving warning calls). This unfakability is what makes the signal reliable (and thus "honest"). Hence, "honest" signals are evolutionarily stable.

The mathematical biologist John Maynard Smith discusses whether honest signalling must always be costly. He notes that it had been shown that "in some circumstances" a signal is reliable only if it is costly. He states that it had been assumed that parameters such as pay-offs and signalling costs were constant, but that this might be unrealistic. He states that with some restrictions, signals can be cost-free, reliable, and evolutionarily stable. However, if costs and benefits "vary uniformly over the whole range" then indeed honest signals have to be costly.

Dishonest signals

Because there are both mutual and conflicting interests in most animal signalling systems, a central problem in signalling theory is dishonesty or cheating. For example, if foraging birds are safer when they give a warning call, cheats could give false alarms at random, just in case a predator is nearby. But too much cheating could cause the signalling system to collapse. Every dishonest signal weakens the integrity of the signalling system, and so reduces the fitness of the group. An example of dishonest signalling comes from Fiddler crabs such as Uca lactea mjoebergi, which have been shown to bluff (no conscious intention being implied) about their fighting ability. When a claw is lost, a crab occasionally regrows a weaker claw that nevertheless intimidates crabs with smaller but stronger claws. The proportion of dishonest signals is low enough for it not to be worthwhile for crabs to test the honesty of every signal through combat.

Richard Dawkins and John Krebs in 1978 considered whether individuals of the same species would act as if attempting to deceive each other. They applied a "selfish gene" view of evolution to animals' threat displays to see if it would be in their genes' interests to give dishonest signals. They criticised previous ethologists, such as Nikolaas Tinbergen and Desmond Morris, for suggesting that such displays were "for the good of the species". They argued that such communication ought to be viewed as an evolutionary arms race in which signallers evolve to become better at manipulating receivers, while receivers evolve to become more resistant to manipulation. The game theoretical model of the war of attrition similarly suggests that threat displays ought not to convey any reliable information about intentions.

Deceptive signals can be used both within and between species. Perhaps the best known example of between species deception is mimicry when individuals of one species mimic the appearance or behaviour of individuals of another species. There is a bewildering variety of mimicry types including Batesian, Müllerian, host mimicry  and 'aggressive' mimicry  (see main article: Mimicry). A very frequent type is ant mimicry: myrmecomorphy  (see main article: Ant mimicry). Deception within species can be bluffing (during contest)  or sexual mimicry  when males or females mimic the patterns and behaviour of the opposite sex. A famous example is the bluegill sunfish  where mimic males look like and behave like females to sneak into the guarded nests of territorial males in order to fertilize some of the eggs.

Sports handicapping metaphor

In 1975, Amotz Zahavi proposed a verbal model for how signal costs could constrain cheating and stabilize an "honest" correlation between observed signals and unobservable qualities, based on an analogy to sports handicapping systems. He called this idea the handicap principle. The purpose of a sports handicapping system is to reduce disparities in performance, making the contest more competitive. In a handicap race, intrinsically faster horses are given heavier weights to carry under their saddles. Similarly, in amateur golf, better golfers have fewer strokes subtracted from their raw scores. This creates correlations between the handicap and unhandicapped performance, if the handicaps work as they are supposed to, between the handicap imposed and the corresponding horse's handicapped performance. If nothing was known about two race horses or two amateur golfers except their handicaps, an observer could infer who is most likely to win: the horse with the bigger weight handicap, and the golfer with the smaller stroke handicap. By analogy, if peacock 'tails' (large tail covert feathers) act as a handicapping system, and a peahen knew nothing about two peacocks except the sizes of their tails, she could "infer" that the peacock with the bigger tail has greater unobservable intrinsic quality. Display costs can include extrinsic social costs, in the form of testing and punishment by rivals, as well as intrinsic production costs. Another example given in textbooks is the extinct Irish elk, Megaloceros giganteus. The male Irish elk's enormous antlers could perhaps have evolved as displays of ability to overcome handicap, though biologists point out that if the handicap is inherited, its genes ought to be selected against.

The essential idea here is intuitive and probably qualifies as folk wisdom. It was articulated by Kurt Vonnegut in his 1961 short story Harrison Bergeron. In Vonnegut's futuristic dystopia, the Handicapper General uses a variety of handicapping mechanisms to reduce inequalities in performance. A spectator at a ballet comments: "it was easy to see that she was the strongest and most graceful of all dancers, for her handicap bags were as big as those worn by two hundred pound men." Zahavi interpreted this analogy to mean that higher quality peacocks with bigger tails are signalling their ability to "waste" more of some resource by trading it off for a bigger tail. This resonates with Thorstein Veblen's idea that conspicuous consumption and extravagant status symbols can signal wealth.

Zahavi's conclusions rest on his verbal interpretation of a metaphor, and initially the handicap principle was not well received by evolutionary biologists. However, in 1984, Nur and Hasson used life history theory to show how differences in signalling costs, in the form of survival-reproduction tradeoffs, could stabilize a signalling system roughly as Zahavi imagined. Genetic models also suggested this was possible. In 1990 Alan Grafen showed that a handicap-like signalling system was evolutionarily stable if higher quality signallers paid lower marginal survival costs for their signals.

In 1982, W. D. Hamilton proposed a specific but widely applicable handicap mechanism, parasite-mediated sexual selection. He argued that in the never-ending co-evolutionary race between hosts and their parasites, sexually selected signals indicate health. This idea was tested in 1994 in barn swallows, a species where males have long tail streamers. Møller found that the males with longer tails, and their offspring, did have fewer bloodsucking mites, whereas fostered young did not. The effect was therefore genetic, confirming Hamilton's theory.

Another example is Lozano's hypothesis that carotenoids have dual but mutually incompatible roles in immune function and signalling. Given that animals cannot synthesize carotenoids de novo, these must be obtained from food. The hypothesis states that animals with carotenoid-depended sexual signals are demonstrating their ability to "waste" carotenoids on sexual signals at the expense of their immune system.

The handicap principle has proven hard to test empirically, partly because of inconsistent interpretations of Zahavi's metaphor and Grafen's marginal fitness model, and partly because of conflicting empirical results: in some studies individuals with bigger signals seem to pay higher costs, in other studies they seem to be paying lower costs. A possible explanation for the inconsistent empirical results is given in a series of papers by Getty, who shows that Grafen's proof of the handicap principle is based on the critical simplifying assumption that signallers trade off costs for benefits in an additive fashion, the way humans invest money to increase income in the same currency. But the assumption that costs and benefits trade off in an additive fashion is true only on a logarithmic scale; for the survival cost – reproduction benefit tradeoff is assumed to mediate the evolution of sexually selected signals. Fitness depends on producing offspring, which is a multiplicative function of reproductive success given an individual is still alive times the probability of still being alive, given investment in signals.

Later models have shown that the popularity of handicap principle relies on the critical misinterpretation of Grafen's model by Grafen himself. Contrary to his claims, his model is not a model of handicap signalling. Grafen's key equations show the necessity of marginal cost and differential marginal cost, nowhere in his paper was Grafen able to show the necessity of wasteful equilibrium cost (a.k.a. handicap). Grafen's model is a model of condition dependent signalling that builds on a traditional life-history trade-off between reproduction and survival. In general, later models have shown that the key condition of honest signalling is the existence of such condition-dependent trade-off and that the cost of signals can be anything at the equilibrium for honest individuals, including zero or even negative. The reason is that deception is prevented by the potential cost of cheating and not by the cost paid by the honest individuals.  This potential cost of cheating (marginal cost) has to be larger than the potential (marginal) benefits for potential cheaters.  In turn this implies that the honest peacock or deer need not be wasteful, it will be efficient. It is the potential cheater that needs to be less efficient. Signal selection is not a selection for waste, as claimed by Zahavi, it is guided by the same mechanism - natural selection - as any other trait in nature.

Costly signalling and Fisherian diploid dynamics

The effort to discover how costs can constrain an "honest" correlation between observable signals and unobservable qualities within signallers is built on strategic models of signalling games, with many simplifying assumptions. These models are most often applied to sexually selected signalling in diploid animals, but they rarely incorporate a fact about diploid sexual reproduction noted by the mathematical biologist Ronald Fisher in the early 20th century: if there are "preference genes" correlated with choosiness in females as well as "signal genes" correlated with display traits in males, choosier females should tend to mate with showier males. Over generations, showier sons should also carry genes associated with choosier daughters, and choosier daughters should also carry genes associated with showier sons. This can cause the evolutionary dynamic known as Fisherian runaway, in which males become ever showier. Russell Lande explored this with a quantitative genetic model, showing that Fisherian diploid dynamics are sensitive to signalling and search costs. Other models incorporate both costly signalling and Fisherian runaway. These models show that if fitness depends on both survival and reproduction, having sexy sons and choosy daughters (in the stereotypical model) can be adaptive, increasing fitness just as much as having healthy sons and daughters.

Models of signalling interactions
Perhaps the most popular tool to investigate signalling interactions is game theory (see main article: Game theory). A typical model investigates an interaction between a signaller and a receiver. Games can be symmetrical or asymmetric. There can be several types of asymmetries including asymmetry in resources or asymmetry of information. In many asymmetric games the receiver is in a possession of a resource that the signaller wants to get (resource asymmetry). Signallers can be a of different types, the type of any given signaller is assumed to be hidden (information asymmetry). Asymmetric games are frequently used to model mate choice (sexual selection) or parent-offspring interactions. Asymmetric games are also used to model interspecific interactions such as predator-prey, host-parasite or plant-pollinator signalling. Symmetric games can be used to model competition for resources, such as animals fighting for food or for a territory.

Examples

Sam Brown and W. D. Hamilton, and Marco Archetti, proposed that autumn leaf colour is a signal from trees to aphids and other pest species that migrate in autumn to the trees. In their theory, bright autumn coloration with pinks and yellows is costly to trees because pigments require energy to synthesize, but the investment may help them to reduce their parasite load.

Stotting, as in Thomson's gazelle, is cited as an example of signalling: the gazelles jump close to a predator instead of escaping, in what could be a signal of strength.

Fecal chemical signaling in Hamilton's frog is an example of honest signaling. The frog's feces signals to others their size and strength warding off predators and other potential competitors.

Human honest signals

Human behaviour may also provide examples of costly signals. In general, these signals provide information about a person's phenotypic quality or cooperative tendencies. Evidence for costly signalling has been found in many areas of human interaction including risk-taking, hunting, and religion.

Costly signalling in hunting

Large game hunting has been studied extensively as a signal of men's willingness to take physical risks, as well as showcase strength and coordination. Costly signalling theory is a useful tool for understanding food sharing among hunter gatherers because it can be applied to situations in which delayed reciprocity is not a viable explanation. Instances that are particularly inconsistent with the delayed reciprocity hypothesis are those in which a hunter shares his kill indiscriminately with all members of a large group. In these situations, the individuals sharing meat have no control over whether or not their generosity will be reciprocated, and free riding becomes an attractive strategy for those receiving meat. Free riders are people who reap the benefits of group-living without contributing to its maintenance. Costly signalling theory can fill some of the gaps left by the delayed reciprocity hypothesis. Hawkes has suggested that men target large game and publicly share meat to draw social attention or to show off. Such display and the resulting favorable attention can improve a hunter's reputation by providing information about his phenotypic quality. High quality signallers are more successful in acquiring mates and allies. Thus, costly signalling theory can explain apparently wasteful and altruistic behaviour.

In order to be effective, costly signals must fulfill specific criteria. Firstly, signallers must incur different levels of cost and benefit for signalling behaviour. Secondly, costs and benefits must reflect the signallers' phenotypic quality. Thirdly, the information provided by a signal should be directed at and accessible to an audience. A receiver can be anyone who stands to benefit from information the signaller is sending, such as potential mates, allies, or competitors. Honesty is guaranteed when only individuals of high quality can pay the (high) costs of signalling. Hence, costly signals make it impossible for low-quality individuals to fake a signal and fool a receiver.

Bliege Bird et al. observed turtle hunting and spear fishing patterns in a Meriam community in the Torres Strait of Australia, publishing their findings in 2001. Here, only some Meriam men were able to accumulate high caloric gains for the amount of time spent turtle hunting or spear fishing (reaching a threshold measured in kcal/h). Since a daily catch of fish is carried home by hand and turtles are frequently served at large feasts, members of the community know which men most reliably brought them turtle meat and fish. Thus, turtle hunting qualifies as a costly signal. Furthermore, turtle hunting and spear fishing are actually less productive (in kcal/h) than foraging for shellfish, where success depends only on the amount of time dedicated to searching, so shellfish foraging is a poor signal of skill or strength. This suggests that energetic gains are not the primary reason men take part in turtle hunting and spear fishing. A follow-up study found that successful Meriam hunters do experience greater social benefits and reproductive success than less skilled hunters.

The Hadza people of Tanzania also share food, possibly to gain in reputation. Hunters cannot be sharing meat mainly to provision their families or to gain reciprocal benefits, as teenage boys often give away their meat even though they do not yet have wives or children, so costly signalling of their qualities is the likely explanation. These qualities include good eyesight, coordination, strength, knowledge, endurance, or bravery. Hadza hunters more often pair with highly fertile, hard-working wives than non-hunters. A woman benefits from mating with a man who possesses such qualities as her children will most likely inherit qualities that increase fitness and survivorship. She may also benefit from her husband's high social status. Thus, hunting is an honest and costly signal of phenotypic quality. Frank W. Marlowe's The Hadza: Hunter-Gatherers of Tanzania showed that this data confirms that this is also true within the Hadza, based on the documentation on the !Kung, in Megan Biesele's book about !Kung folklore called Women Like Meat.

Among the men of Ifaluk atoll, costly signalling theory can also explain why men torch fish. Torch fishing is a ritualized method of fishing on Ifaluk whereby men use torches made from dried coconut fronds to catch large dog-toothed tuna. Preparation for torch fishing requires significant time investments and involves a great deal of organization. Due to the time and energetic costs of preparation, torch fishing results in net caloric losses for fishers. Therefore, torch fishing is a handicap that serves to signal men's productivity. Torch fishing is the most advertised fishing occupation on Ifaluk. Women and others usually spend time observing the canoes as they sail beyond the reef. Also, local rituals help to broadcast information about which fishers are successful and enhance fishers' reputations during the torch fishing season. Several ritual behaviors and dietary constraints clearly distinguish torch fishers from other men. First, males are only permitted to torch fish if they participate on the first day of the fishing season. The community is well informed as to who participates on this day, and can easily identify the torch fishers. Second, torch fishers receive all of their meals at the canoe house and are prohibited from eating certain foods. People frequently discuss the qualities of torch fishermen. On Ifaluk, women claim that they are looking for hard-working mates. With the distinct sexual division of labor on Ifaluk, industriousness is a highly valued characteristic in males. Torch fishing thus provides women with reliable information on the work ethic of prospective mates, which makes it an honest costly signal.

In many human cases, a strong reputation built through costly signalling enhances a man's social status over the statuses of men who signal less successfully. Among northern Kalahari foraging groups, traditional hunters usually capture a maximum of two or three antelopes per year. It was said of a particularly successful hunter:

"It was said of him that he never returned from a hunt without having killed at least a wildebeest, if not something larger. Hence the people connected with him ate a great deal of meat and his popularity grew."

Although this hunter was sharing meat, he was not doing so in the framework of reciprocity. The general model of costly signalling is not reciprocal; rather, individuals who share acquire more mates and allies. Costly signalling applies to situations in Kalahari foraging groups where giving often goes to recipients who have little to offer in return. A young hunter is motivated to impress community members with daughters so that he can obtain his first wife. Older hunters may wish to attract women interested in an extramarital relationship, or to be a co-wife. In these northern Kalahari groups, the killing of a large animal indicates a man who has mastered the art of hunting and can support a family. Many women seek a man who is a good hunter, has an agreeable character, is generous, and has advantageous social ties. Since hunting ability is a prerequisite for marriage, men who are good hunters enter the marriage market earliest. Costly signalling theory explains seemingly wasteful foraging displays.

Physical risk

Costly signalling can be applied to situations involving physical strain and risk of physical injury or death. Research on physical risk-taking is important because information regarding why people, especially young men, take part in high risk activities can help in the development of prevention programs. Reckless driving is a lethal problem among young men in western societies. A male who takes a physical risk is sending the message that he has enough strength and skill to survive extremely dangerous activities. This signal is directed at peers and potential mates. When those peers are criminals or gang members, sociologists Diego Gambetta and James Densley find that risk-taking signals can help expedite acceptance into the group.

In a study of risk-taking, some types of risk, such as physical or heroic risk for others' benefit, are viewed more favorably than other types of risk, such as taking drugs. Males and females valued different degrees of heroic risk for mates and same-sex friends. Males valued heroic risk-taking by male friends, but preferred less of it in female mates. Females valued heroic risk-taking in male mates and less of it in female friends. Females may be attracted to males inclined to physically defend them and their children. Males may prefer heroic risk-taking by male friends as they could be good allies.

In western societies, voluntary blood donation is a common, yet less extreme, form of risk-taking. Costs associated with these donations include pain and risk of infection. If blood donation is an opportunity to send costly signals, then donors will be perceived by others as generous and physically healthy. In a survey, both donors and non-donors attributed health, generosity, and ability to operate in stressful situations to blood donors.

Religion

Costly religious rituals such as genital modification, food and water deprivation, and snake handling look paradoxical in evolutionary terms. Devout religious beliefs wherein such traditions are practiced appear maladaptive. Religion may have arisen to increase and maintain intragroup cooperation. Cooperation leads to altruistic behaviour, and costly signalling could explain this. All religions may involve costly and elaborate rituals, performed publicly, to demonstrate loyalty to the religious group. In this way, group members increase their allegiance to the group by signalling their investment in group interests. However, as group size increases among humans, the threat of free riders grows. Costly signalling theory accounts for this by proposing that these religious rituals are costly enough to deter free riders.

Irons proposed that costly signalling theory could explain costly religious behaviour. He argued that hard-to-fake religious displays enhanced trust and solidarity in a community, producing emotional and economic benefits. He showed that display signals among the Yomut Turkmen of northern Iran helped to secure trade agreements. These "ostentatious" displays signalled commitment to Islam to strangers and group members. Sosis demonstrated that people in religious communities are four times more likely to live longer than their secular counterparts, and that these longer lifespans were positively correlated with the number of costly requirements demanded from religious community members. However, confounding variables may not have been excluded. Wood found that religion offers a subjective feeling of well-being within a community, where costly signalling protects against free riders and helps to build self-control among committed members. Iannaccone studied the effects of costly signals on religious communities. In a self-reported survey, as the strictness of a church increased, the attendance and contributions to that church increased proportionally. In effect, people were more willing to participate in a church that has more stringent demands on its members. Despite this observation, costly donations and acts conducted in a religious context does not itself establish that membership in these clubs is actually worth the entry costs imposed.

Despite the experimental support for this hypothesis, it remains controversial. A common critique is that devoutness is easy to fake, such as simply by attending a religious service. However, the hypothesis predicts that people are more likely to join and contribute to a religious group when its rituals are costly. Another critique specifically asks: why religion? There is no evolutionary advantage to evolving religion over other signals of commitment such as nationality, as Irons admits. However, the reinforcement of religious rites as well as the intrinsic reward and punishment system found in religion makes it an ideal candidate for increasing intragroup cooperation. Finally, there is insufficient evidence for increase in fitness as a result of religious cooperation. However, Sosis argues for benefits from religion itself, such as increased longevity, improved health, assistance during crises, and greater psychological well-being, although both the supposed benefits from religion and the costly-signaling mechanism have been contested.

Language
Some scholars view the emergence of language as the consequence of some kind of social transformation that, by generating unprecedented levels of public trust, liberated a genetic potential for linguistic creativity that had previously lain dormant. "Ritual/speech coevolution theory" views rituals as costly signals that ensures honesty and reliability of language communication. Scholars in this intellectual camp point to the fact that even chimpanzees and bonobos have latent symbolic capacities that they rarely—if ever—use in the wild. Objecting to the sudden mutation idea, these authors argue that even if a chance mutation were to install a language organ in an evolving bipedal primate, it would be adaptively useless under all known primate social conditions. A very specific social structure—one capable of upholding unusually high levels of public accountability and trust—must have evolved before or concurrently with language to make reliance on "cheap signals" (words) an evolutionarily stable strategy. The animistic nature of early humans language could serve as the handicap-like cost that helped to ensure the reliability of communication. The attribution of spiritual essence to everything surrounding early humans served as a built-in hard-to-fake mechanism that provided instant verification and ensured
the inviolability of one's speech.

See also

 Alarm signal
 Conspicuous consumption
 Dramaturgy (sociology)
 Game theory
 Green-beard effect
 Knowledge falsification
 Origin of language
 Signalling (economics)
 Virtue signalling
 Zoosemiotics

Notes

References

Sources

Further reading

External links
 Animal behavior online: Deceit

Animal communication
Evolutionary biology
Sexual selection

Signalling theory


Neds (also known as Non-Educated Delinquents, stylised as NEDS) is a 2010 coming-of-age drama film directed and written by Peter Mullan. Set in Scotland, the film centres on John McGill (Conor McCarron), a teenager growing up in 1970s Glasgow. John's story follows his involvement with the city's youth culture and its impact on his development as a teenager.

The title is from the word Ned which is a derogatory term applied in Scotland to hooligans, louts or petty criminals. The film has received critical acclaim.

Plot

Neds follows the story of John McGill, a young boy growing up in 1970s Glasgow. While a brilliant pupil who excels in his studies at school, his studious nature causes conflicts with his working-class family and the wider, gang-riddled neighbourhood.

John's immediate family consists of his mother, a part-time hospital worker; his father, an abusive, alcoholic, tool-maker; and his older brother, Benny, leader of a neighbourhood gang called the Young Car-D. On a visit from New York, his Auntie Beth encourages John to leave Scotland when he is older to pursue opportunities there.

The film opens with a leaving ceremony marking John's transition from primary to secondary school. On his final day, John is accosted by Canta, a local bully and member of the Hardridge Puka Pie Gang, or young balti as they were known  who intimidates him, threatening to beat him up when he moves to secondary school. John relays the details of the encounter to his brother who enlists the help of his fellow gang members to track down and assault Canta as punishment.

Once John begins secondary school, apart from not being in the top class, everything goes well. Informed by the headmaster that he will be moved up to the appropriate level by Christmas time by proving he is different from his brother, who assaulted two teachers and was expelled, he successfully progresses. However, he finds himself socially isolated and his teacher advises him to attend a summer camp for children with disabilities. There, he becomes friendly with a middle class boy called Julian. One day, he accidentally breaks one of Julian's father's LP records and is forbidden from seeing Julian again.

While walking home, a group of Young Car-D gang members threaten to mug him until they realize whose brother he is. They stop harassing him, ask him to join them and offer John vodka and cigarettes which he accepts, marking the start of his downward spiral.

When the school year recommences, John has changed his ways for the worse: drawing graffiti on desks, being impolite to teachers and smoking cigarettes in the toilets at break time. At one point he is caught up in a fight between two gangs and obtains a knife which has been kicked under the door of the toilet cubicle in which he is hiding.

In revenge for the rejection by Julian's family, John throws a pair of football boots full of fireworks through the dining room window while they are eating. He then visits a social club, where members of the Car-D gang eject two members of rival gang The Krew. Returning, they hurl a bicycle through the function room window, urging the Car-D to give chase up to the edge of their territory where they escape via a walkway. John gives chase, running into an ambush and is in turn chased by The Krew and pursued by their leader. Escaping by pushing his way into an Irish woman's home, John evades the rival gang. It emerges later that she is the mother of the boy who hurled the bicycle.

John becomes more deeply involved in gang feuds taking place between 1972 and 1974. He slits a boy's throat in a gang fight and hides the blade. On a walk with Claire, one of the girls from the gang, John spots his one-time tormentor Canta, now an isolated and slightly pathetic character. John confronts him about the bullying incident years earlier, and agrees to move past it, but Canta makes a snide remark as he turns away. Enraged, John first knocks him to the floor, then drops a stone slab on his head, causing permanent brain damage.

Returning home he finds that the police are there and hides from them. Upon their departure, John learns that his brother has been arrested as a suspect in the stabbing. The next day he finds that his brother's bail has been set at £15 by the Sheriff court. He robs a bus driver at knife point to raise the money, but fails to pay the sum in time.

John becomes increasingly confrontational, throwing a glass bottle at a passing police officer, as he hangs out with the Young Car-D in a park, which results in them ostracizing him for attracting police attention.

His father is drunkenly abusive to his mother so John later beats him about the head with a frying pan. His mother orders John out of the house and he is forced to take refuge in the machine room in a block of high rise flats, living on deliveries of bread and  milk stolen from tenants. Returning to his refuge he finds the room locked and, after sniffing glue, wanders the streets, stripped to the waist. Seeing a statue of Jesus, who John jokingly urges to come down, he has a glue-fuelled vision that Christ accepts the offer but then challenges him on his poor life choices.

The next morning, his sober dad finds John and tells him to come home. His father asks him to put him out of his misery and end his life. John goes to his room, taking two knives which he tightly straps to both hands. He goes downstairs and finds his father urinating in a bottle. He asks John to wait until he is asleep, so John wanders the streets. When he encounters members of the rival gang, he attacks one, leaving him grievously injured. Pursued by the other gang members, John is himself badly beaten. Members of Young Car-D then spot John and fight off his attackers, only to have the enraged John turn on them. Injured, he returns home to the room where his father is asleep but is unable to go through with killing him. Falling asleep, he collapses on top of him.

He chooses to change his ways and returns to school, attending a remedial class, wanting no further involvement with the gang. The class goes on a field trip to a safari park and their minibus breaks down. Thinking the teachers have abandoned him with the brain-damaged Brown (Canta), John decides to leave the van. The film closes with John and Brown walking hand-in-hand into the distance through a pride of lions, who ignore them.

Cast
Conor McCarron - John McGill
Gregg Forrest - Young John
Martin Bell - Julian
Marianna Palka - Aunt Beth
Steven Robertson - Mr Bonetti
Gary Lewis - Mr Russell
Khai Nugent - Tam
Joe Szula - Benny
Mhairi Anderson - Elizabeth
Gary Milligan - Canta Brown
John Joe Hay - Fergie
Christopher Wallace - Wee T
Richard Mack - Gerr
Ryan Walker - Sparra
Lee Fanning - Minty
Ross Greig - Fifey
Greg McCreadie - Tora
Scott Ingram - Casper
Cameron Fulton - Crystal
Craig Kerr - Rebel
Kat Murphy - Claire
Stefanie Szula - Linda
Annie Watson - Agnes
Zoë Halliday - Mandy
Sara MacCallum - Shelagh
Louis McLaughlin - Robert
David O'Brien - Bernard
Ross Weston - Danny
Claire Gordon - Louise
Marcus Nash - Patrick
Peter Mullan - Mr McGill

Reception
The film was well received by critics, with a 94% approval rating based on 33 reviews at aggregator site Rotten Tomatoes.

Awards
At the 2011 British Academy Scotland Awards, Peter Mullan won best director and best writer for film or television for Neds; it was shortlisted for best film and Conor McCarron was shortlisted for best actor.

Neds won the Golden Shell (Best Film) at the San Sebastian Film Festival in September 2010.

See also
Glasgow gangs
 List of hood films

References

External links

2010 films
2010s coming-of-age drama films
French coming-of-age drama films
Italian coming-of-age drama films
Scottish films
British coming-of-age drama films
Films set in Glasgow
English-language French films
English-language Italian films
English-language Scottish films
Scots-language films
Film4 Productions films
Films directed by Peter Mullan
Films scored by Craig Armstrong (composer)
2010s gang films
2010 drama films
Films set in the 1970s
2010s English-language films
2010s British films
2010s French films
Films produced by Olivier Delbosc
Films produced by Marc Missonnier

Neds (film)


It Started in Naples is a 1960 American romantic comedy film directed by Melville Shavelson and produced by Jack Rose from a screenplay by Suso Cecchi d'Amico, based on the story by Michael Pertwee and Jack Davies. The Technicolor cinematography was directed by Robert Surtees. The film stars Clark Gable, Sophia Loren, Vittorio De Sica and an Italian cast. This was Gable's final film to be released within his lifetime and his last film in color.

Hal Pereira, Roland Anderson, Samuel M. Comer and Arrigo Breschi were nominated for an Oscar for its art direction

The film was released by Paramount Pictures on August 7, 1960.

Plot

Only a few days before his wedding, Michael Hamilton, a Philadelphia lawyer, travels to Naples in southern Italy to settle the estate of his late brother, Joseph, with Italian lawyer Vitale. In the opening narration, he states that he "was here before with the 5th US Army" in World War II. In Naples, Michael discovers that his brother had a son, eight-year-old Nando, who is being cared for by his maternal aunt Lucia, a cabaret singer. Joseph never married Nando's mother but drowned with her in a boating accident. Joseph's actual wife, whom he had left in 1950, is alive in Philadelphia. Michael discovers to his dismay that his brother spent a fortune on fireworks. After seeing Nando handing out racy photos of Lucia at 2 a.m., Michael wants to enroll Nando in the American School at Rome, but Lucia wins custody of the boy. Despite the age difference, romance soon blossoms between Michael and Lucia, and he decides to stay in Italy.

Cast
 Clark Gable as Michael Hamilton
 Sophia Loren as Lucia Curcio
 Vittorio De Sica as Mario Vitale
 Carlo Angeletti ("Marietto") as Nando Hamilton
 Paolo Carlini as Renzo
 Giovanni Filidoro as Gennariello
 Claudio Ermelli as Luigi
 Bob Cunningham as Don Mc Guire (train passenger)
 Marco Tulli
 Carlo Rizzo
 Yvonne Monlaur

Production
Loren performs a tongue-in-cheek musical number, "Tu vuò fà l'americano" ("You Want to Be American"), written by famed Neapolitan composer Renato Carosone.

Angeletti did not speak English and learned his lines phonetically, which he had also done in his previous film, in which he mouthed German lines without knowing how to speak German.

On the second day of filming of a courtroom scene, an actor portraying one of the judges seen in the first day's footage was unavailable because he had plans to take his family to the beach. The actor sent his brother in his place, who did not resemble him.

It was filmed on location in Rome, Naples and Capri.

Reception
Writing in The New York Times, critic Bosley Crowther called the film a "featherweight, obvious romance" but praised Loren: "Among the scenic attractions ... is an eyeful named Sophia Loren. ... And the Bay of Naples, the Blue Grotto, the port of Capri and numerous vistas on the Mediterranean are scarcely as stunning as she.", and that even Clark Gable "lets himself be exposed throughout the picture as a sort of sourpuss in the shadow of the girl." Variety said that the script and Shavelson's direction "try too hard to make the film up-roariously funny and risque. When the wit flows naturally, it is a delight; when it strains, it pains." However, Gable and Loren are "a surprisingly effective and compatible comedy pair", and that above all, Loren offered "a vigorous and amusing performance". Conversely, film critic Leonard Maltin said that the star duo "never clicks as love match, but they do their best".

French newspaper Le Monde wrote that It Started in Naples, "even more than the world of comics, evokes that of the easy picturesque postcards in favor of foreign tourists. This film, imbued with a sentimentality of charming songs, is helmed by an American, Melville Shavelson, who has hired, no doubt for the purposes of the co-production, Sophia Loren and Clark Gable. Both lack conviction, and we cannot blame them. It is however not unpleasant to look at Sophia Loren who, in spite of some added grimaces, remained superb of casualness, of health. Clark Gable bears his role with despondency, and over his marked face passes a kind of weary tension, as if it already foreshadows the illness that would suddenly take him away." (The review was written in February 1961, three months after Gable's death the previous November.)

For the German Lexikon des internationalen Films ("Lexicon of International Films"), It Began in Naples is a "star comedy" that could come up with "many whimsical punchlines" and was "amiably entertaining". German film magazine Cinema thought it was "gorgeous how the fiery Loren is allowed to sing, dance and above all rant wildly to her heart's content", while saying that the romance portrayed between her and Clark Gable is convincing "but at most is on paper." German supplement Prisma said that the "thoroughbred woman Sophia Loren is in her element", and that in the film she is "as we know her and like to see her best."

Home media
It was released to DVD in North America in 2005.

See also
 List of American films of 1960

References

External links

1960 films
1960s English-language films
Paramount Pictures films
1960 romantic comedy films
Films directed by Melville Shavelson
Films set in Naples
American romantic comedy films
Films with screenplays by Suso Cecchi d'Amico
Films scored by Carlo Savina
Films set in Capri, Campania
Films scored by Alessandro Cicognini
1960s American films

It Started in Naples


Captain Klutz is a comic strip character created in 1967 by Don Martin.  He is a parody of superhero characters. The character originally saw print in a series of original paperback books done for the Mad magazine paperback line, not the magazine itself.

Backstory
The protagonist, Ringo Fonebone, is a hopelessly inept man utterly absorbed in reading comic books to the point that he was kicked out of his parents' house, a vocational school he tried to attend and a flophouse (the last expulsion left him in nothing but a set of red long johns and dotted boxer shorts). Attempting to commit suicide by hanging himself, the towel he used as a rope broke, inadvertently acquiring a mask (originally a woman's hat being thrown out by her irate husband), and finally crash-landed in the middle of a robbery, in long-johns, his "mask" and towel "cape", distracting the robber long enough for the police to capture him.  The robber's angry exclamation, "Why, you klutz!," was taken by the dazed (and temporarily amnesiac) Ringo as his name, and he responded to the officers' questions regarding his identity with: "I'm...a klutz, captain."  The police thought he had said he was "Captain Klutz".

Adventures
Captain Klutz did not lead a luxurious life, being reduced to homelessness at various times. (In one adventure, "my new airy apartment" was a park bench; in another, he hoped an invention would give him super-speed, so he could get a pizza delivery job.) He was also utterly inept at crime-fighting (apparent clumsiness), being poor at deduction, easily misled, and naive. (An alleged "kung fu master" easily conned Klutz for phony "training" in martial arts.) He usually succeeded in capturing the bad guy in spite of himself.

His main ally was Police Chief O'Freenbean, and he fought a variety of enemies, including:
 Sissyman (a villainous mama's boy whose secret headquarters was in his mother's house; his weapons included an ice-cream gun)
 Comrade Stupidska
 Mervin the Mad Bomber (Captain Klutz tries to lure Mervin out of hiding by calling on a bevy of his loved ones, including family, friends, and the entire Norman Luboff Choir)
 Gorgonzola (a giant mechanical spider; Klutz defeats him by grabbing a leg and sticking it into an electrical socket)
 The Cackling Cockroach

Creators
Don Martin illustrated all the Captain Klutz stories.  Numerous writers were credited for the stories.  A listing of the stories, as well as the credited writers, follows.

The MAD Adventures of Captain Klutz (1967)
Stories below uncredited; credited writers Dick DeBartolo, Phil Hahn, Jack Hanrahan, Don Martin
 Prologue/Origin
The genesis of Captain Klutz.
 "Sissyman"
No master of disguise, Klutz wears a rabbit costume while undercover as a high school football player.
 "The Message"
Klutz writes to Chief O'Freenbean in invisible ink.
 "Chicken Soup"
A scheming matron builds an army of zombies, by drugging the food at her soup kitchen.
 "On The Elevator"
 "Gorgonzola"
A story of man versus spider.
 "Mervin the Mad Bomber"
Klutz learns to think twice, before calling out the bomb squad.

MAD's Don Martin Carries On (1973)
 "The Man of 1,000 Faces (Give or Take 900)" written by Dick DeBartolo

MAD's Don Martin Steps Further Out (1975)
 "Kung Fu To You, Too!" written by Dick DeBartolo

MAD's Don Martin Forges Ahead (1977)
 "The Barfing Affair" written by Don Edwing

MAD's Don Martin Digs Deeper (1979)
 "The Gravest Show on Earth" written by Dick DeBartolo

MAD's Don Martin Grinds Ahead (1981)
 "The Cackling Cockroach" written by Don Martin

MAD's Don Martin Presents Captain Klutz II (1983)
 "To Brusha with Love" written by Don Edwing
 "The Klutz File", uncredited
 "Hollywood Whodunnit", written by Dick DeBartolo
 "The Sounds of Captain Klutz" and "The Klutz File", uncredited
 "Theme Song from Captain Klutz – The Book" written by Don Martin and Nick Meglin, music by Norm Blagman
 "The Klutz File", "Captain Klutz's Agendum for Secret Messages" and "Crimefighter's Corner" uncredited
 "The Major Catastrophe" written by Don Edwing
Additional writers: John Gibbons, Norma Martin, and Dick DeBartolo

MAD's Don Martin Sails Ahead (1986)
 "Klutzenstein" written by Don Edwing

Appearances
Captain Klutz's adventures were featured in the following volumes:
 The MAD Adventures of Captain Klutz (Signet, 1967)
 MAD's Don Martin Presents Captain Klutz II (Warner Books, 1983)

Captain Klutz stories also appeared in the following Don Martin anthologies:
 MAD's Don Martin Carries On (Warner Books, 1973)
 MAD's Don Martin Steps Further Out (Warner Books, 1975)
 MAD's Don Martin Forges Ahead (Warner Books, 1977)
 MAD's Don Martin Digs Deeper (Warner Books, 1979)
 MAD's Don Martin Grinds Ahead (Warner Books, 1981)
 MAD's Don Martin Sails Ahead (Warner Books, 1986)

References

External links
 Captain Klutz at Don Markstein's Toonopedia. Archived from the original on April 9, 2012.

Mad (magazine)
Parody superheroes
1967 comics debuts
Comics characters introduced in 1967
1986 comics endings
American comics characters
Male characters in comics
American superheroes
Humor comics
Parody comics

Captain Klutz


The handstand push-up (press-up) - also called the vertical push-up (press-up) or the inverted push-up (press-up) also called "commandos"- is a type of push-up exercise where the body is positioned in a handstand. For a true handstand, the exercise is performed free-standing, held in the air. To prepare the strength until one has built adequate balance, the feet are often placed against a wall, held by a partner, or secured in some other way from falling. Handstand pushups require significant strength, as well as balance and control if performed free-standing.

Similar exercises
The movement can be considered a bodyweight exercise similar to the military press, while the regular push-up is similar to the bench press.

Muscles
The primary muscles used in the handstand push-up are the anterior deltoid, middle deltoid, posterior deltoid, pectoralis major, upper trapezius, and triceps brachii.

Ability
The handstand push-up is measured in the Men's Gymnastics Functional Measurement Tool (MGFMT). According to one test on competitive male gymnasts in the United States, those competing at Level 4 averaged 3.0 handstand push-ups while those at Level 10 averaged 15.7.

References

External links

 - broken link

Bodyweight exercises
Weight training exercises

Handstand push-up


The McCulloch J-2 was a small, two-seat autogyro with an enclosed cabin, one of only three designs of this type of aircraft to receive a type certificate in the United States. It was built by McCulloch Aircraft Corporation.

Design and development
It was designed by Drago Jovanovich and first flew in June 1962. McCulloch acquired the design in 1969 and put it into production, building 83 aircraft over the next three years. They were reported to sell for US$15,900.

The design featured a belt clutch and a transmission which could be engaged to spin the rotor blades to high speed before take-off to produce short takeoff runs.  A lever on the rear cockpit wall would select the drive position for the transmission.  A single "spin-up lever" on the cockpit left side would then be pressed downward, operating as a collective pitch control to put the blades into flat pitch while simultaneously tensioning the belt clutch.  The rotor could be spun to over 500 rpm before takeoff, well above the normal flight range (typically 425 rpm).  Release of the spin-up lever would disengage both the clutch and the transmission, while placing the blades into flight pitch.  After a very brief takeoff run (typically 25 to 200 feet, depending upon load and winds) adequate flight airspeed would be attained, while the rotor speed decayed to the normal flight range.  The rotor was not engine-driven in flight.  A strong spring resisted accidental depressing of the spin-up lever while airborne.  Dual controls were provided for all functions except the spin-up lever, which was accessible only from the left seat.  The aircraft enjoyed nimble handling with light control forces, but suffered from a shallow climb gradient.

Early versions were equipped with a two-bladed wooden Sensenich propeller.  A later "Super J-2" variant employed a three-bladed Hartzell controllable-pitch propeller, accompanied by an increase in allowable gross weight.  Baggage of up to 95 pounds, to the extent permitted by gross weight considerations, could be carried in a large bay under the seat.  Fuel was carried in tanks in the stub wings.  A total of 24 U.S. gallons could be carried, 12 on each side, but only 20 were usable through normal flight attitudes.  At a typical fuel burn rate of about eight gallons per hour and economy cruise at about 85 mph, with a need for a safety reserve, this limited the aircraft's range.

The rotor system (hub and blades) is very similar to that found on the early versions of the Hughes 269 / Schweizer 300 series helicopters.  The primary difference is in the twist of the blades (or lack thereof), optimized for autorotation in the case of the J-2.

Most examples of the J-2 were sold to pilot owners in the United States but at least one example was exported to the United Kingdom.

In 1974, the rights were bought by Aero Resources, who planned to return the Super J-2 to production, but could not find a market for the aircraft and no more were built.

Variants
Jovanovich Jov-2
The initial prototype as designed by Drago Jovanovich.
McCulloch J-2 and Super J-2
Production versions built by McCulloch from 1971 to 1974. 83 built.
Aero Resources Super J-2
Further planned production by Aero resources, powered by a  Lycoming O-360-A2D. None built.

Specifications (Super J-2)

See also
 Robert P. McCulloch
 Twin-boom aircraft

References

 Aerofiles

http://www.gyroplane.co/gyro_article_2003.html

1960s United States civil utility aircraft
Single-engined pusher autogyros
Aircraft first flown in 1962
Twin-boom aircraft

McCulloch J-2


A tornado emergency is a stronger wording of tornado warnings used by the National Weather Service in the United States. It is used when a large, powerful tornado is in an area with a lot of people. It means that a very large amount of damage and a high possibility of a lot of deaths are expected.

The term was first used on May 3, 1999 when an F5 tornado hit just south of Oklahoma City in Moore. Between 5:30 and 6:00 PM, a large, powerful tornado was heading for Oklahoma City, leading to the first tornado emergency.

Tornado safety
If people are in a tornado's path, they should follow these safety tips:
 Go underground.
 If there is no floor beneath your house, go to the nearest storm shelter, safe room, or go to the center of the house and stay away from windows and doors.
 If you are outside, get into a pit or somewhere low, cover your head and neck.
 Bring a disaster preparedness kit which includes:
 water, a gallon per person per day
 food, non-perishable and can opener
 battery or hand crank radio
 flashlight and batteries
 whistle
 dust mask for every person
 moist hand wipes and garbage bags
 prescription medication and glasses
 infant formula and diapers
 pet food, extra water, collar and leash
 first aid kit and first aid book
 important documents such as identification, insurance policies and bank information
 cash and coins
 fire extinguisher
 hygiene items and feminine supplies
 blankets for each individual
 change of clothing for each individual and sturdy shoes
 paper and writing utensil
 books, games and stuffed animals for children

Tornado emergency example

 SEVERE WEATHER STATEMENT
 NATIONAL WEATHER SERVICE JACKSON MS
 1203 PM CDT SAT APR 24 2010

 ...A TORNADO WARNING REMAINS IN EFFECT UNTIL 1230 PM CDT FOR CENTRAL
 YAZOO COUNTY...

 ...THIS IS A TORNADO EMERGENCY FOR THE WARNED AREA...

 AT 1203 PM CDT...NATIONAL WEATHER SERVICE METEOROLOGISTS AND STORM
 SPOTTERS WERE TRACKING A LARGE AND EXTREMELY DANGEROUS WEDGE
 TORNADO.  THIS TORNADO WAS LOCATED 6 MILES NORTH OF SATARTIA MOVING
 NORTHEAST AT 60 MPH.

 THE TORNADO WILL BE NEAR...
   YAZOO CITY AND LITTLE YAZOO BY 1210 PM CDT...
   MYRLEVILLE BY 1215 PM CDT...
   BENTON AND EDEN BY 1220 PM CDT...
   MIDWAY BY 1225 PM CDT...

 PRECAUTIONARY/PREPAREDNESS ACTIONS...

 A TORNADO WARNING MEANS THAT A TORNADO IS OCCURRING OR IMMINENT. YOU
 SHOULD ACTIVATE YOUR TORNADO ACTION PLAN AND TAKE PROTECTIVE ACTION
 NOW. SIGNIFICANT DAMAGE HAS OCCURRED WITH THIS SIGNIFICANT TORNADO!

 THIS IS AN EXTREMELY DANGEROUS AND SERIOUS LIFE THREATENING
 SITUATION. THIS STORM IS CAPABLE OF PRODUCING STRONG TO VIOLENT
 TORNADOES. IF YOU ARE IN THE PATH OF THIS TORNADO...TAKE COVER
 IMMEDIATELY!

 A TORNADO WATCH REMAINS IN EFFECT UNTIL 800 PM CDT SATURDAY EVENING
 FOR MISSISSIPPI.

References

Tornadoes

Tornado emergency


The Buena Vista Park Historic District in Tulsa, Oklahoma is a  historic district that was listed on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) in 2007.  Its 24 contributing buildings include Late 19th and 20th Century Revivals and Late 19th and Early 20th Century American Movements architecture, specifically Colonial Revival architecture, Prairie School, and Bungalow/Craftsman architecture. The period of significance is 1913-1933.

It comprises three blocks of the Buena Vista Park Addition, an area platted out in 1908. District boundaries are East 18th Street on the north, the rear lot lines of properties on the east side of South Cheyenne Avenue on the east, East 21st Street on the south and Riverside Drive/Carson Drive on the west.

It includes the James Alexander Veasey House at 1802 South Cheyenne Avenue West, which was already NRHP-listed "for its architectural significance as a local landmark example of the Colonial Revival style."

It was listed on the NRHP for its architecture.

It is near the Arkansas River.

See also
Brady Heights Historic District, also NRHP-listed in Tulsa

References

External links

U.S. Route 66 in Oklahoma
National Register of Historic Places in Tulsa, Oklahoma
Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Oklahoma
Buildings and structures completed in 1903
Residential buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in Oklahoma
Colonial Revival architecture in Oklahoma
Prairie School architecture in Oklahoma
American Craftsman architecture in Oklahoma
Bungalow architecture in Oklahoma
Geography of Tulsa, Oklahoma

Buena Vista Park Historic District


The Protocol for the Reconstruction of Austria was an agreement concluded on 4 October 1922 between the government of Austria and the governments of Great Britain, France, Italy and Czechoslovakia, providing for a gradual reconstruction of Austrian economy under League of Nations supervision. It was registered in League of Nations Treaty Series on the same day. The Spanish government acceded to the protocol on 3 November 1922.

Terms
The Protocol consisted of three declarations, all issued on the same date. In Declaration No. 1, the signatory parties undertook not to violate Austrian territorial or economic independence. Declaration No. 2 regulated the foreign loans to be granted to the Austrian government and established a Committee of Control to consist of the other signatory parties to overlook the allocations of funds during reconstruction. Declaration No. 3 granted the Austrian government the time required to arrange internal legislation to conform to Declaration No. 2 as well as the right to appeal certain decisions made by the Committee of Control.

Aftermath
The 1922 protocol was supplemented by the "Austrian Protocol" signed on 15 July 1932, under which the governments of Belgium, Britain, France, Italy and the Netherlands undertook to lend the Austrian government 300,000,000 Austrian Schillings for a period of 20 years.

See also
 Protocol for the reconstruction of Hungary

Sources
 Text of the Protocol
 An article about the protocol
 Another explanation
 New York Times report about the conclusion of the Protocol

Further reading
 Marcus, Nathan. Austrian Reconstruction and the Collapse of Global Finance, 1921–1931 (Harvard University Press, 2018).
 Salter, Arthur. "The reconstruction of Austria." Foreign Affairs 2.4 (1924): 630–643. online

Notes

Aftermath of World War I in Austria
League of Nations treaties
Treaties of the First Austrian Republic
Treaties concluded in 1922
Treaties of the French Third Republic
Treaties of the United Kingdom (1801–1922)
Treaties of the Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)
Treaties of Czechoslovakia
Interwar-period treaties
1922 in Switzerland
1922 in Austria

Protocol for the reconstruction of Austria