This is the first season of 24 (TV Series) and it is called Day 1. The story begins at midnight, lasts 24 hours and ends the following midnight. There are 24 episodes in Season 1 and each corresponds to an hour of narrative time.

Season Overview
Jack Bauer is attempting to stop terrorists, who plan to assassinate Presidential Candidate David Palmer. They abduct Kim Bauer and Teri Bauer in order to use Jack to their advantage. With Jack's wife and daughter, the terrorists have leverage over Jack and try to force him to kill Palmer. At one point, Jack has to choose between the lives of his family and that of the presidential candidate. After Kim and Teri are rescued and the terrorists stopped, a second group of terrorists try to target David Palmer and Jack Bauer. The second terrorists were behind the first. They are seeking revenge for a raid that connects Palmer and Bauer. The goal of the raid was to kill Victor Drazen. Palmer's death is faked to satisfy the terrorists. Viewers learn that Victor Drazen is still alive and that Nina Myers has been working with the terrorists. Senator Palmer realizes he cannot stay married to Sherry and they separate.

Starring

 Kiefer Sutherland as Jack Bauer (24 episodes)
 Leslie Hope as Teri Bauer (24 episodes)
 Sarah Clarke as Nina Myers (24 episodes)
 Elisha Cuthbert as Kim Bauer (24 episodes)
 Dennis Haysbert as Senator David Palmer(24 episodes)
 Carlos Bernard as Tony Almeida (23 episodes)
 Penny Johnson Jerald as Sherry Palmer (22 episodes)
 Richard Burgi as Kevin Carroll (11 episodes)
 Dennis Hopper as Victor Drazen (5 episodes)
 Lou Diamond Phillips as Mark DeSalvo (2 episodes)

Guest Starring

 Daniel Bess as Rick Allen (18 episodes)
 Željko Ivanek as Andre Drazen (15 episodes)
 Xander Berkeley as George Mason (12 episodes)
 Michael Massee as Ira Gaines (12 episodes)
 Vicellous Shannon as Keith Palmer (12 episodes)
 Jude Ciccolella as Mike Novick (11 episodes)
 Karina Arroyave as Jamey Farrell (10 episodes)
 Zach Grenier as Carl Webb (9 episodes)
 Glenn Morshower as Aaron Pierce (9 episodes)
 Tanya Wright as Patty Brooks (8 episodes)
 Eric Balfour as Milo Pressman (8 episodes)
 Misha Collins as Alexis Drazen (7 episodes)
 Matthew Carey as Dan Mounts (6 episodes)
 Megalyn Echikunwoke as Nicole Palmer (6 episodes)
 Jacqui Maxwell as Janet York (6 episodes)
 Silas Weir Mitchell as Eli Stram (6 episodes)
 Navi Rawat as Melanie (6 episodes)
 Tamara Tunie as Alberta Green (6 episodes)
 Rudolf Martin as Jonathon Matijevich/Martin Belkin (4 episodes)
 Vincent Angell as Phil Parslow (4 episodes)
 Henri Lubatti as Jovan Myovic (4 episodes)
 Devika Parikh as Maureen Kingsley (4 episodes)
 Kara Zediker as Elizabeth Nash (4 episodes)
 Edoardo Ballerini as Frank Allard (3 episodes)
 Mia Kirshner as Mandy (3 episodes)
 Paul Schulze as Ryan Chappelle (3 episodes)
 Currie Graham as Ted Cofell (2 episodes)
 John Hawkes as Greg Penticoff (2 episodes)
 Kim Murphy as Bridgit (2 episodes)
 Michael O'Neill as Richard Walsh (2 episodes)
 Wade Andrew Williams as Robert Ellis (2 episodes)
 Pauley Perrette as Tanya (2 episodes)

Reception
The season received positive reviews with 95% on Rotten Tomatoes. Critics said, "Brimming with tension and political intrigue, 24 successfully introduces its unique, high-concept format and a compelling hero worth watching in Kiefer Sutherland's Jack Bauer."

References

Television seasons

24 (season 1)


Roath Park () Cardiff, Wales, is one of Cardiff's most popular parks, owned by Cardiff County Council and managed by the Parks Section. It retains a classic Victorian atmosphere and has many facilities. The park has recently been awarded the prestigious Green Flag award to recognise its high quality and its importance to Cardiff. Roath Park has widely diverse environments across the park.

The park was built on  of reformed bogland, known then as a malarial bog, and includes a  lake  around, formed by the damming of the Nant Fawr stream. It is a popular facility for fishing and rowing. There are four islands within a conservation area, home to many water birds. The main park includes a large playground, floral displays, the glasshouse conservatory and recreational areas.

Roath park occupies a long strip of land stretching from Cyncoed in the north to Roath towards the southeast.  The park is divided into several parts along the Roath Brook (or Nant Fawr/Nant y Lleuchi/Nant y Derwen Deg in Welsh).  From north to south, these divisions are: Wild Gardens, Roath Park Lake, Botanical Gardens, Rose Gardens, Pleasure Gardens, Roath Park Recreation Ground, Roath Brook Gardens, Roath Mill Gardens, Waterloo Gardens and the Sandies Open Space.

Two volunteer 'Friends' groups work with Cardiff Council to cover the full extent of the historic Roath Park. The Friends of Roath Park serve the northern section of the park as far as Penylan Hill. The south-eastern section of the park is served by the Friends of Penylan's Gardens.

History

A new park in the area, with a lake, was proposed in 1886, on land owned by Lord Tredegar. The land was covered with clay pits and also had a watermill which would need removing.

The land for Roath Park was donated to the city in 1887, primarily by the Marquis of Bute. The first section of the park was officially opened to the public in 1894 and it continued to be opened in sections over the following two decades. Work initially focused on creating the lake from an area of marshland. In 1915 a lighthouse was constructed in the lake containing a scale model of the 'Terra Nova' ship to commemorate Captain Scott's ill-fated voyage to the Antarctic from Cardiff in 1910. The park's atmosphere today still retains a Victorian and Edwardian character; the park itself is locally listed, and the surrounding streets are designated across three Conservation Areas to ensure this quality will be conserved. The park itself is listed Grade I on the Cadw/ICOMOS Register of Parks and Gardens of Special Historic Interest in Wales. Waterloo Gardens, Roath Mill Gardens and Roath Brook Gardens have a separate listing at Grade II.

In 2003, the park was used for filming for an episode of the TV series of The Story of Tracy Beaker. In 2019 the BBC reported that the lake had been polluted for several years by unauthorised sewage discharges.

Nature
There is a wide range of habitats in the park, which attracts a diverse variety of wildlife. The lake acts as an important habitat for over-wintering and breeding birds, including mallard, cormorants and herons. Four islands within the lake, which are inaccessible to the public, are safe nesting sites. The lake has a population of about 100 swans and a number of geese. Many wild birds are scared off by the abundance of geese in the lake, and local conservationists actively take measures to control their numbers. There is a wildflower garden included in the park where the area is managed to encourage wildlife and native species.

Trees

The Tree Register of the British Isles, is an organisation which records and measures trees in the UK. The biggest and best of their kind are called Champion Trees; there are twelve of these in Roath Park.

There is a trail with marker posts to identify the following trees:
 Quercus bicolor (Swamp white oak)
 Ginkgo biloba 'Pendula, (Weeping maidenhair)
 Ulmus 'Sapporo autumn gold (Sapporo elm)
 Pterostyrax corymbosa
 Ilex macrocarpa
 Laurus nobilis 'Aurea''', (Golden bay)
 Meliosma parviflora Emmenopterys henryi Quercus x andegavennis Quercus pyrenaica, (Pyrenean oak)
 Malus 'Magdeburgensis, (Magdeburg apple)
 Pyrus calleryana 'Chanticleer (Callery pear)
 Maclura pomifera'', (Osage orange)

Two oak trees predate the establishment of the park and have been calculated to be about  years old.

Recreation

Roath Park Recreation Ground, towards the southern end of the park, contains sports pitches available for many different activities such as football, baseball and rugby union. High quality bowling greens and tennis courts are provided in the central section of the park, the Pleasure Gardens. There are also rowing boats which can be hired out and used on the lake. The lake is also home to a local radio-controlled boat society and is used for coarse fishing throughout the year. There are also two well equipped playgrounds.

There was swimming on the lake from when the lake opened. Unfortunately, the public swim had to stop after concerns about impurity of the water were raised in 1949. The Taff Swim, the Long Distance Swimming Championship of Wales, continued until 1963. However there were water carnivals and water skiing still happening in the 1960s and 1970s.

Special events
There are regular events within the park including guided walks, concerts, exhibitions etc.

Conservatory

There is a glasshouse in Roath Park which was built in the 1970s, replacing two earlier ones from the early 1900s. It contains many unusual species of plants and trees such as palms, banana trees and orchids. A pond and waterfall form a central feature, containing fish, terrapins and whistling ducks. Swan and duck food is on sale for feeding the birds on the lake.

Ornamental gardens
The park boasts exceptional floral displays. These include the flowerbeds along the promenade and the famous rose garden, which included trial beds for the National Rose Society.

Facilities
A café adjacent to the lake is open most of the year and provides refreshments and light meals. A kiosk also serves refreshments
Toilets are provided within the park
The boat house hires rowing boats and other craft that use the lake.
A pavilion is provided for those using the bowling green and tennis courts.
Changing Rooms are provided for the sports pitches.

Nearby
Roath Park is a long, fairly narrow park stretching from Roath into Cyncoed. The nearest district centre is at the southern end of the park on Wellfield Road and Albany Road.
Access is also good to other open spaces:
Nant Fawr Corridor. Lying to the North of the park and forming a 'green' corridor out to the open countryside.
Cathays Cemetery. Has a wealth of listed buildings and tombs.
Heath Park. Another large park, Heath provides numerous sports pitches for different types of sports and is home to several sporting teams.

See also
List of gardens in Wales

References

External links

Tourist attractions in Cardiff
Parks in Cardiff
Gardens in Wales
Rose gardens in Wales
Roath
Registered historic parks and gardens in Cardiff
1894 establishments in Wales

Roath Park


Invented here or not invented there (NIT), an opposite of "not invented here", is a type of argument or attitude that occurs when management of an organisation is uncomfortable with innovation or development conducted in-house. Reasons this might be the case are varied, and range from a lack of confidence in the staff within the organisation to a desire to have a third party to blame in the event that a project fails. One effect of this version of "invented here" may be that detailed knowledge of the innovation or development never passes to permanent employees, possibly resulting in recurring additional expenditure and a less goodwill and bankable experience by employees.

One quotation that sums up the "invented here" attitude is "Gee, it can't be worth much if someone local thought of it first."

See also
 Not invented here – opposite
Commercial off-the-shelf

References

Organizational culture
Appeals to emotion

zh:非我所創#是我所創

Invented here


Pella () is an ancient city located in Central Macedonia. It served as the capital of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon.

Pella was probably founded at the beginning of the 4th century BC by Archelaus I as the new capital of Macedon, supplanting Aigai. The city was the birthplace of Philip II in 382 BC, and of Alexander the Great, his son, in 356 BC. Pella quickly became the largest and richest city in Macedonia and flourished particularly under the rule of Cassander and Antigonus II. In 168 BC the city was sacked by the Romans during the Third Macedonian War and entered a long period of decline, its importance eclipsed by that of the nearby Thessalonica.

Etymology
The name is probably derived from the word pella, (), "stone" which seems to appear in some other toponyms in Greece like Pellene. Julius Pokorny  reconstructs the word from the Proto-Indo-European root peli-s, pel-s, Old Indian: pāsāna, stone (from *pars, *pels), Greek: , , stone, Hesychius (*pelsa), Pashto: parša (*plso), cliff, Germanic : *falisa, German: Fels, Old Norse: fell (*pelso), Illyrian: *pella, *palla. Solders in an essay on Hesychius glossary has referenced  (pella), λίθος (stone) as an ancient Macedonian word. With the prefix "α" it forms the word , apella, "fence, enclosure of stones". Robert Beekes relates the word  with the name of the city, but suggests that it probably has pre-Greek origin.

History

In antiquity, Pella was a strategic port connected to the Thermaic Gulf by a navigable inlet, but the harbour and gulf have since silted up, leaving the site inland.

Pella is first mentioned in relation to Xerxes' campaign and in relation to Macedonian expansion and the war against Sitalces, the king of the Thracians.

It was probably built as the commercial capital of the kingdom of Macedon by Archelaus I, complementing the older palace-city of Aigai although there appears to be some possibility that it may have been created by Amyntas III.

Archelaus invited the painter Zeuxis, the greatest painter of the time, to decorate his palace. He also later hosted the poet Timotheus of Miletus and the Athenian playwright Euripides who finished his days there writing and producing Archelaus. Euripides' Bacchae was first staged here, about 408 BC. According to Xenophon, in the beginning of the 4th century BC Pella was the largest Macedonian city. It was the birthplace and seats of Philip II, in 382 BC and of Alexander the Great, his son, in 356 BC. It was already a walled city in the time of Philip II and he made the city of great international importance.

It became the largest and richest city in Macedonia and flourished particularly under Cassander's rule who redesigned and expanded it. The reign of Antigonus most likely represented the height of the city's prosperity, as this is the period which has left the most archaeological remains. The famous poet Aratus died in Pella c. 240 BC.

Pella is further mentioned by Polybius and Livy as the capital of Philip V and of Perseus during the Macedonian Wars fought against the Roman Republic.

In 168 BC, it was sacked by the Romans, and its treasury transported to Rome. Livy reported how the city looked in 167 BC to Lucius Aemilius Paulus Macedonicus, the Roman who defeated Perseus at the battle of Pydna:
 ...[Paulus] observed that it was not without good reason that it had been chosen as the royal residence. It is situated on the south-west slope of a hill and surrounded by a marsh too deep to be crossed on foot either in summer or winter. The citadel the "Phacus," which is close to the city, stands in the marsh itself, projecting like an island, and is built on a huge substructure which is strong enough to carry a wall and prevent any damage from the infiltration from the water of the lagoon. At a distance it appears to be continuous with the city wall, but it is really separated by a channel which flows between the two walls and is connected with the city by a bridge. Thus it cuts off all means of access from an external foe, and if the king shut anyone up there, there could be no possibility of escape except by the bridge, which could be very easily guarded.

Pella was declared capital of the 3rd administrative division of the Roman province of Macedonia, and was possibly the seat of the Roman governor. Activity continued to be vigorous until the early 1st century BC and, crossed by the Via Egnatia, Pella remained a significant point on the route between Dyrrachium and Thessalonica.

In about 90 BC the city was destroyed by an earthquake; shops and workshops dating from the catastrophe have been found with remains of their merchandise, though the city was eventually rebuilt over its ruins. Cicero stayed there in 58 BC, though by then the provincial seat had already transferred to Thessalonica

Pella was promoted to a Roman Colony sometime between 45 and 30 BC and its currency was marked Colonia Iulia Augusta Pella. Augustus settled peasants there whose land he had usurped to give to his veterans. But, unlike other Macedonian colonies such as Philippi, Dion, and Cassandreia, it never came under the jurisdiction of ius Italicum or Roman law. Four pairs of colonial magistrates (duumvirs quinquennales) are known for this period.

The ruin of the city is described by Dio Chrysostom and Lucian though their accounts may be exaggerated, as the Roman city occupied the west of the original capital and coinage indicates prosperity.

Despite its decline, archaeology has shown that the southern part of the city near the lagoon continued to be occupied until the 4th century.

In about AD 180, Lucian of Samosata could describe it in passing as "now insignificant, with very few inhabitants". It later temporarily bore the name Diocletianopolis.

In the Byzantine period, the Roman site was occupied by a fortified village.

Excavations there by the Greek Archaeological Service begun in 1957 revealed large, well-built houses with colonnaded courts and rooms with mosaic floors portraying such scenes as a lion hunt and Dionysus riding a panther. In modern times it finds itself as the starting point of the Alexander The Great Marathon, in honour of the city's ancient heritage.

Archaeology

The site was explored by 19th-century voyagers including Holand, François Pouqueville, Félix de Beaujour, Cousinéry, Delacoulonche, Hahn, Gustave Glotz and Struck, based on the descriptions provided by Titus Livius. The first excavation was begun by G. Oikonomos in 1914–15. The modern systematic exploration of the site began in 1953 and work has continued since then uncovering significant parts of the extensive city.

In February 2006, a farmer accidentally uncovered the largest tomb ever found in Greece. The names of the noble ancient Macedonian family are still on inscriptions and painted sculptures and walls have survived. The tomb dates to the 2nd or 3rd century BC.
Overall, archaeologists have uncovered 1,000 tombs at Pella since 2000, but these only represent an estimated 5% of those at the site. In 2009 43 graves containing rich and elaborate grave goods were found and in 2010 37 tombs dating from 650 to 280 BC were discovered containing rich ancient Macedonian artifacts ranging from ceramics to precious metals. One of the tombs was the final resting place of a warrior from the 6th century BC with a bronze helmet with a gold mouthplate, weapons and jewellery.

Since 2011, much of the palace has been excavated and from 2017 parts of it have been restored.

Many artefacts are displayed in the Archaeological Museum of Pella.

Hippodamian plan

The city proper was located south of and below the palace. Designed on a grid plan as envisaged by Hippodamus, it consists of parallel streets which intersect at right angles and form a grid of eight rows of rectangular blocks. The blocks are of a consistent width—each approximately 45 m—and of a length which varies from 111 m to 152 m, 125 metres being the most common. The streets are from 9 to 10 metres wide, except for the middle East–West arterial, which is up to 15 metres wide. This street is the primary access to the central public agora, which occupied a space of ten blocks. Two North-South streets are also a bit wider than the rest, and serve to connect the city to the port further South. This type of plan dates to the first half of the 4th century BC, and is very close to the ideal in design, though it distinguishes itself by large block size; Olynthus in Chalcidice for example had blocks of 86.3×35 metres. On the other hand, later Hellenistic urban foundations have blocks comparable to those of Pella: 112×58 m in Laodicea ad Mare, or 120×46 m in Aleppo.

Urban area

The city is built on the former island of Phacos, a promontory which dominated the sea to the south in the Hellenistic period. The city wall mentioned by Livy is only partly known. It consists of a rampart of crude bricks (~ 50 cm square) raised on a stone foundation; some of which has been located North of the palace, and some in the South next to the lake. Inside the ramparts, three hills occupy the North.

In pride of place in the centre of the city is the Agora, built in the last quarter of the 4th century BC and an architectural gem, unique in conception and size; it covered ~ 7 hectares or 10 city blocks. Pella is one of the first known cities to have had an extensive piped water supply to individual house and waste water disposal from most of the city.

The agora was surrounded by the shaded colonnades of stoas, and streets of enclosed houses with frescoed walls round inner courtyards. The first trompe-l'œil wall murals imitating perspective views ever seen were on walls at Pella. There were temples to Aphrodite, Cybele and Demeter. Pella's pebble-mosaic floors are famous: some reproduce Greek paintings; one shows a lion-griffin attacking a stag, a familiar motif also of Scythian art, another depicts Dionysus riding a leopard. These mosaics adorned the floors of rich houses, often named after their representations,
particularly the Houses of Helen and Dionysus.

Palace

The palace is situated on a 70 m high hill north of the city, a strategic position commanding the entire area and occupying a vast area of 75,000 m2. It consisted of several large architectural groupings on terraces ascending from south-west to north-east, each with a series of rooms around a central courtyard, generally with porticos. The oldest parts date from the time of Philip II, 350-330 BC, and the palace was further developed over time.

The south facade of the palace, towards the city, consisted of one large (at least 153 metres long) portico, constructed on a 2 m-high foundation. The relationship between the four principal complexes is defined by an interruption in the portico occupied by a triple propylaeum, 15 m high, which gave the palace an imposing monumental air when seen from the city below.

Archaeologists have also identified a palaestra and baths dating from the reign of Cassander.

The size of the complex indicates that, unlike the palace at Vergina, this was not only a royal residence or a grandiose monument but also a place of government which was required to accommodate a significant portion of the administrative apparatus of the kingdom.

Language

The question of what language was spoken in ancient Macedonia has been debated by the scholars. The discovery of the Pella curse tablet in 1986, found in Pella, the ancient capital of Macedon, has given us a text written in a distinct Doric Greek idiom. Ιt contains a curse or magic spell (Greek: κατάδεσμος, katadesmos) inscribed on a lead scroll, dated to the first half of the 4th century BC (c. 375–350 BC). It was published in the Hellenic Dialectology Journal in 1993. It is one of four texts found until today that might represent a local dialectal form of ancient Greek in Macedonia, all of them identifiable as Doric. These confirm that a Doric Greek dialect was spoken in Macedonia, as was previously expected from the West Greek forms of names found in Macedonia. As a result, the Pella curse tablet has been forwarded as a strong argument that the Ancient Macedonian language was a dialect of North-Western Greek, part of the Doric dialects.

See also
 List of ancient Greek cities

References

Bibliography

Despoina Papakonstantinou - Diamantourou, Πέλλα Ι, Ιστορική επισκόπησις και μαρτυρίαι, Βιβλιοθήκη τῆς ἐν Ἀθήναις Ἀρχαιολογικῆς Ἑταιρείας 70 (1971) - (Pella Ι, istoriki episkopisis kai martyriai - in Greek)
Ph. Petsas, Pella. Alexander the Great's Capital, Thessaloniki, 1977.
 F. Papazoglou, Les villes de Macédoine romaine, BCH Suppl. 16, 1988, pp135–139.
 R. Ginouvès, et al., La Macédoine, CNRS Éditions, Paris, 1993, pp90–98.
Ch. J. Makaronas, Pella: Capital of Ancient Macedonia, pp59–65, in Scientific American, Special Issue, "Ancient Cities", c 1994.

External links

Pleiades gazetteer entry for Pella/Diokletianoupolis
Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites (via Perseus)
Macedonian Heritage
Greek Ministry of Culture
Local Newspaper
House of Dionysos in Pella, 3D Architectural Reconstruction

Populated places established in the 4th century BC
1914 archaeological discoveries
Ancient Greek archaeological sites in Central Macedonia
Former populated places in Greece
Cities in ancient Macedonia
Populated places in ancient Macedonia
Ancient Greece
Capitals of former nations
Pella (municipality)

Pella


Spanish philosophy is the philosophical tradition of the people of territories that make up the modern day nation of Spain and of its citizens abroad.  Although Spanish philosophical thought had a profound influence on philosophical traditions throughout Latin America, political turmoil within Spain throughout the 20th century diminished the influence of Spanish philosophy in international contexts.  Within Spain during this period, fictional novels written with philosophical underpinnings were influential, leading to some of the first modernist European novels, such as the works of Miguel de Unamuno and Pío Baroja.

Spanish philosophy reached its peak between the 16th and the 17th century. Francisco Suárez was the most influential Spanish philosopher of the period. His works influenced subsequent thinkers such as Leibniz, Grotius, Samuel Pufendorf, Schopenhauer, and Martin Heidegger. Like Suárez, other notable philosophers at the time who studied at the University of Salamanca were Luis de Molina, Francisco de Vitoria, Domingo de Soto, and Martín de Azpilcueta.

Another school of thought, the School of Madrid, founded by José Ortega y Gasset included thinkers like Manuel García Morente, Joaquim Xirau, Xavier Zubiri, José Luis Aranguren, Francisco Ayala, Pedro Laín Entralgo, Manuel Granell, Antonio Rodríguez Huéscar and their most prominent disciple, Julián Marías.

More recently, Fernando Savater, Gustavo Bueno, and Antonio Escohotado have emerged as prominent philosophers.

Medieval philosophy

Ramon Llull

Ramon Llull was born in Palma de Mallorca in 1232, three years after James I of Aragon had successfully besieged and recaptured Majorca, after more than 300 years of Muslim rule. The king had brought Christian officials, tradesmen, and landowners to the island, among them Llull's father. Llull himself began his career at the king's court managing the royal household. He was married and had two children. His spare time was devoted to writing troubadour poetry. All this we know from Lull himself, because while in Paris in 1311 he dictated the Vita coaetanea, an autobiography modelled on Augustine of Hippo's Confessions. As he describes it there, around the age of 30 he experienced a conversion: while writing a poem to a beautiful lady, he saw the crucified Lord appear on five subsequent evenings. Llull felt that from then on his life had to change, and so he devoted himself to converting the Jews and Muslims, in order to spare them eternal damnation. He strove to write the 'best book in the world to confute their errors' (unum librum, meliorem de mundo, contra errores infidelium; Vita coaetanea 6). Instead of enrolling in one of the newly founded universities, none of which taught what he really wanted to learn, Llull studied Arabic and Islamic philosophy and theology for nine years with an Arab slave. His vast knowledge of Christian theology, on the other hand, seems to have been acquired autodidactically. This accounts for the Neo-Platonic background of his theological writings and for the way his use of Aristotle is mediated by Islamic philosophers such as Al-Ghazali, whom he read in the original Arabic. Though a layman, he founded a monastery where future missionaries could learn Arabic and Hebrew. In 1311, he brought the Council of Vienne to the point of decreeing that lectureships in these oriental languages should be established at several European universities. Llull also took a number of missionary journeys to North Africa. By the time he died in 1316, he had written more than 250 books. In his works, Llull developed a daring vision of one single faith rather than different religions competing with each other. He thought this one and most desirable religion was already embodied in Christianity, or more exactly in its Catholic version, for he was convinced that the Christian belief offered more rational and more plausible explanations than any other belief. To explain this, he started from the attributes of God, for reflecting on them touched upon questions common to all three monotheistic religions in his time. But Llull had to learn that 'infidels do not pay heed to the authorities of the faithful' (infideles non stant ad auctoritates fidelium, et tamen stant ad rationes; Liber de demonstratione per aequiparantiam, prol. 4), such as the Bible, early Christian writers, and the prestigious theologians. Nevertheless, they follow rational arguments. They are guided by the reason God gave to all men and women when he created them. This explains why Llull is not in favour of argument based on authorities but on 'commonsense' reasoning. Even authorities like the Bible do not constitute a reliable common ground in his view. They can be interpreted in different ways, as debates between Christians and Jews, such as the Disputation of Barcelona in 1263, proved. Since Llull leaves the evidence of authority completely aside, he very rarely quotes any text literally, the Bible included. A notable exception is his favourite biblical quotation, Isaiah 7:9 in the Vetus Latina version: 'unless you believe, you will not understand' (nisi credideritis, non intelligetis).

Lullism

At his death, Llull left three complete collections of his works (at Genoa, Majorca and Paris), entrusting his disciples with the task of continuing to propagate them. The Parisian centre was associated with the Chartreuse of Vauvert, where a synthesis of his philosophical teaching was made. The Genoese nucleus was linked to the Spinola family, then to the monastery of San Girolamo della Cervara, where the logical aspects of Lullism were particularly explored. At Majorca and in Catalonia generally (and from there to Castile and southern Italy), the Lullist movement had connotations of religious radicalism: it was more diffuse and more in tune with the needs of the new spirituality (as is shown by the great intellectual work performed in favour of the Immaculate Conception, between the 14th and 15th centuries). Particularly well-documented is the case of Valencia, where disciples of Lull and of Arnaldus de Villa Nova seem to have been in agreement. The spread of Lullism was opposed in Catalonia by the Aragonese inquisitor Nicholas Eymerich, a Dominican who managed to obtain a condemnation from Pope Gregory XI in 1376 (annulled only in 1419 by Pope Martin V), and in France by Jean Gerson who, after the condemnation by the University of Paris in 1390, developed more than one attack on Lull culminating in the Contra Raimundum Lullum (Lyon, 1423). Meanwhile, at least from the second half of the 14th century, with the Liber de secretis naturae seu de quinta essentia, a rich pseudoepigraphical tradition of alchemical writings began to flourish around Lull's name, and the idea grew up of a fundamental agreement between his natural philosophy and alchemy. The manuscript tradition of these texts grew, with progressive additions and adaptations, and circulated throughout Europe until the 17th century. This phenomenon was interwoven with legendary motifs, and in the 17th century a union between Hermeticism and Lullism seemed inevitable. The suspicion of Heresy and the spread of pseudo-Lullian literature greatly influenced the character of Lull's reputation, and in a contradictory way. The problem of the relationship between Lull's own doctrine and the "Lullism" that developed in Humanism and the Renaissance, in France, Germany, Italy and the Iberian Peninsula, still remains open. Early and important evidence of Lullism appears at Padua in the early 15th century, with the lectures of Joan Bulons in 1433. From these first episodes, Lullist penetration would become quite strong in Italy, becoming concrete in figures like Giovanni Pico della Mirandola (1463–1494). The phenomenon had analogous aspects in France, with Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples (1455–1536/1537) and Charles de Bovelles (1472–1533). The situation was different in Catalonia where a real Lullist school was established at Barcelona, and in Majorca where as early as c. 1453 Lullism was taught by friar Joan Llobet at Randa. In Germany, there was a more precise convergence of Lull's thought with the philosophical experience of Albertism at Cologne, a convergence that found mature expression in Heymeric de Campo and especially Nicholas of Cusa (1400/1401–1464), who became acquainted with Lullian texts on successive journeys to Italy. Also in Germany would occur the most notable modern reflection on the Lullian philosophy, in the speculative work of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646–1716), and conditions were ripe for a rebirth of Lullian studies through the erudite work of Ivo Salzinger, who published the Opera omnia Raimundi Lulli in the Mainz edition (1721–1742, 8 volumes).

Arnaldus de Villa Nova

Arnaldus' early biography is poorly known. Althoug his date and place of birth are unknown, Arnaldus  called himself a Catalan and from boyhood he lived at Valencia, in the territories recently reconquered by James I. In 1260 he was a student at the University of Montpellier. After 1280, having left Valencia for Barcelona , he became doctor to the royal house of Aragon-Catalonia and frequented the Dominican studium linguarum. In 1282 he translated Galen's De rigore, iectigatione et spasmo, and from 1290 he was a master of medicine at the University of Montpellier. He formed confidential relations with the sons of Peter the Great, in particular James II and Frederick III. It was during a diplomatic mission to Paris for James that he published his De tempore adventus Antichristi (1300). From this time on, his spiritual commitment increased: he had to sustain grave conflicts with the masters of the University, then with the Order of Preachers. Arnold was doctor to Pope Boniface VIII in 1300, then to the royal house of Provence and Pope Clement V, with whom he was connected even before he became pope. Counting on this set of relationships, he tried to assume the role of spiritual and political reformer, but his programme had some application only in Sicily. After his death and with the accession of John XXII, new attacks began on his work, which was condemned by a provincial court at Tarragona in 1316, even though, since the time of Boniface VIII, the pope had reserved the examination of Arnold's writings for himself. Arnold circulated collections of his writings, partly using his own private scriptorium, partly with the help of James II (at the University of Lleida) and Frederick III (at the Sicilian court). These summae were addressed to a wide public and brought together texts in Latin and/or the vernacular. Some of these collections, in accordance with his proposed programme of conversion, were translated into Greek. More occasional was his circulation of lectures and advice for Beguines while his frequent writings defending himself against the ecclesiastical and civil authorities were circulated in the same way as his spiritual works. Much of his theological output was destroyed after the condemnation of 1316, and important works like the Alia informatio beguinorum have survived only through the documentation of notaries. His numerous medical works consist of translations from the Arabic as well as writings on medical training, natural philosophy, clinical practice and hygiene. They were circulated through the traditional channels of the School or dedicated to important persons, and were in great demand until the first years of the 17th century. In some cases medical concerns were joined to spiritual ones. The authenticity of many works is uncertain, including the abundant alchemical output attributed to him, which is probably entirely apocryphal. Arnold's work was the basis of the birth of medicine as a scientific discipline: he studied its epistemological basis and took an active part in organising its study in universities (at Montpellier, in the name of Clement V, he dictated the curricula in 1309). He combined a precise knowledge of the Greek-Arabic scientific tradition with a conscious insistence on experiment. Of great importance was his contribution to medicines and their dosage. His spiritual doctrine was close to that of his radical Franciscan contemporaries: imminent end of the world (1378), coming of an Antichrist, the problem of recognising "true" Christians. These ideas led him to advocate a direct use of the Bible and a radical evangelism, and to give credit to new revelations and visionary experiences, his own and others. Much of his literary output consists of "autohagiography", in which he represents his own experience as evidence of sanctity.

The School of Salamanca

The School of Salamanca was the main theological, philosophical, economic, and juridical school of thought of Renaissance Spain. Its exponents turned to medieval High Scholasticism—personified by Thomas Aquinas—in order to solve philosophical problems with reference to the ancient classics such as Aristotle and in harmony with Church doctrine, and thus to prove the compatibility of reason and Christian faith. The philosophers of the School of Salamanca engaged also the contemporary movements of humanism and the Renaissance, thereby pointing beyond the horizons of Scholastic thought. Even though there are a number of points of contact with the theological disputes of the day, the School of Salamanca is fundamentally distinct from the Counter-Reformation and other sixteenth-century movements in Spanish philosophy, such as mysticism. The School of Salamanca aimed its powers of renewal at the key concepts of the period such as colonization and Reformation that overtaxed medieval intellectual patterns. Not only did internal theoretical difficulties in formulating arguments have to be overcome by reformulating Thomistic positions, but fundamentally new forms of political order also had to be thought out and ethically defensible solutions developed, frequently as a result of a fruitful joining of theological and philosophical ideas (such as mercy and freedom) with concepts from juridical and political practice (such as property and ruling power). Among the leading exponents of the School of Salamanca was the Dominican friar Francisco de Vitoria (c.1492–1546). The school's numbers also included the Dominicans Martín de Azpilcueta (1491–1586), Domingo de Soto ( 1494–1560), Melchor Cano (1509–1560), Diego de Covarrubias y Leyva ( 1512–1577), Fernando Vázquez de Menchaca (1512–1569), Bartolomé de Medina (1527–1580), Domingo Bañez (1528–1604), and Tomás de Mercado (1530–1576), as well as the Franciscan Alfonso de Castro (1495–1558). Other important representatives from the Dominicans were Bartolomé de Las Casas (1484–1566) and Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda (1490–1573).

Francisco De Vitoria

Francisco De Vitoria was born in Burgos of a father who had assumed the name of his native city and of a mother descended from converted Jews. The young Vitoria arrived in Paris in 1507 to study at the Dominican studium of Saint-Jacques. There the Flemish nominalist-turned-Thomist Peter Crockaert was effecting the revival of Thomistic Scholasticism and entrusted Vitoria in 1512 with editing the Secunda secundae of Thomas Aquinas's Summa Theologica. Vitoria edited other works of moral and spiritual theology in Paris, where he received a doctorate in the Faculty of Theology in 1522 and taught in 1522/23. Assigned to teach at the Dominican studium in Valladolid in 1523, he was elected in 1526 by the students of the University of Salamanca to the "prima" chair in theology, which he held until his death on 12 August 1546. In his third year at Salamanca, Vitoria abandoned the centuries-long tradition of teaching from the Sentences of Peter Lombard and began to comment instead on the works of Thomas. This innovation was widely imitated in Spain and elsewhere and had important consequences for the future teaching of theology in Catholic faculties and for the theological approaches of the Council of Trent. Among his many pupils were Domingo de Soto, Melchor Cano, Bartolomé de Medina, Tomás de Chaves, and Domingo Báñez. Vitoria's political thought strongly influenced the work of Robert Bellarmine and Francisco Suárez. Although Vitoria published nothing during his tenure at Salamanca, his students undertook this work after his death. A manual of sacramental theology based on his notes was reprinted over eighty times before 1612. His Relectiones theologicae appeared posthumously in 1557 in Lyon and were reprinted eight times in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries in Spain, Italy, Germany, and the Low Countries. The Relección was an annual formal lecture to the whole university in which Vitoria summed up his lectures given the previous year. He treated such questions as civil and ecclesiastical authority, homicide, charity, marriage, magic, usury, and the authority of popes and general councils. In 1539 and 1540 he turned his attention to the moral and legal problems posed by the Spanish colonization of the Americas. His treatises De Indis recenter inventis and De iure belli Hispanorum in barbaros influenced subsequent imperial legislation, especially the "New Law for the Indies" in 1542, which sought to reduce the brutality of exploitation of the American native peoples. In De Indis Vitoria upheld the natural rights of the aborigines as legal possessors of their property and governors of their lands. But he allowed that a more enlightened state, especially a Christian one like Spain, might assume government of a backward people—as the "Indians" appeared to be—provided this government was for the welfare of the latter and not merely for the profit of the former. The rights of missionaries to preach the gospel were to take precedence, and the emperor's duties to protect converts was paramount. Thus, while Vitoria's teaching broke new ground in the matter of native rights, it failed to block possible avenues of abuse. His doctrine is thus more ambivalent than that of his fellow Dominican Bartolomé de Las Casas, who is the more thoroughgoing champion of the aborigines. Vitoria's use of Thomas Aquinas, who had drawn on the political thought of Aristotle, presumed the natural rights of the state. Although God is its ultimate cause, the state enjoys full power and authority over the things necessary to its continuance and to the well-being of its citizens, who alone may determine the mode of power and its delegation to individuals. The same natural law likewise governs international relations: the world as a whole (totus orbis) is analogous to a single state and can thus create a supranational authority to determine laws appropriate to and binding on all nations. In the twentieth century these theories have earned Vitoria the title "Father of International Law" and have made him the patron of several national and international associations. Vitoria maintained a correspondence with several humanists. Juan Luis Vives assured Erasmus of Vitoria's admiration. During the inquisition into Erasmus's works held at Valladolid (1527), however, Vitoria took a middle position, opposing a general censure of Erasmus but holding that some of his positions were dangerous and even heretical.

Domingo de Soto

Domingo de Soto studied at the universities of Alcalá and Paris, and in 1524 entered the Dominican Order. In 1532 he became professor of theology at Salamanca. In 1545 he was sent at the behest of Charles V to the Council of Trent, and he subsequently served as the emperor's confessor. In 1552 he succeeded Melchor Cano as the principal theologian at Salamanca. His most important work was De iustitia et de iure (1553/54), in which he proposed that reason (rationis ordinatio) was the mechanism by which laws should be evaluated. He also took the view that international law (jus gentium) was a part of the law of specific communities (later termed positive law) rather than a moral or natural law. Soto's erudition, which was distinguished even by the standards of those in attendance at the Council of Trent, ranged far beyond theology and law. In his commentaries on Aristotle (1545) he outlined a theory of the trajectory of missiles that anticipated (and may have influenced) Galileo's Law of Fall.

Melchor Cano

Melchor Cano studied at the University of Salamanca (1527–1531) and became the favorite disciple of Francisco de Vitoria. Cano taught at the Dominican college of Saint Gregory in Valladolid (1533–1542), held the principal chair of theology at the University of Alcalá (1542–1546), and succeeded his mentor Vitoria at the University of Salamanca (1546–1552). At Trent, he led the council away from compromise with Protestantism and toward its reaffirmation of the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist, transubstantiation, the sacrificial dimension of the Mass, and private auricular confession. Cano's conservatism also led him to distrust the new order founded by Ignatius of Loyola (1491–1556), the Society of Jesus, which he considered a sectarian movement with heretical leanings. Ever faithful to his mentor, Vitoria—who was one of the principal defenders of the rights of the indigenous peoples of the Americas against their Spanish conquerors—Cano became a formidable opponent of those who considered the Indians inferior beings and "natural" slaves. Cano's chief opponent in this controversy was Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda, chaplain and official chronicler to Emperor Charles V. When Sepúlveda defended the right of Charles to wage war upon and enslave the Indians in Democrates secundus sive de justis causis belli apud Indos (1544), Cano ensured the book's condemnation by the faculties of Salamanca and Alcalá. Moreover, Sepúlveda's defeat at the hands of Cano and other Dominicans in a debate held in Valladolid in 1550 led to the enactment of laws protecting the rights of native peoples in the New World. Awarded the bishopric of the Canary Islands in 1552, he resigned from teaching at Salamanca. Nonetheless, Cano's close involvement with the royal court prevented him from taking up residence there; unwilling to serve as an absentee bishop, he resigned this post in 1554 . His final years were filled with controversy. In 1556 King Philip II went to war against Pope Paul IV—who had allied himself with France—and Cano defended Philip's right to contend against the pope as a temporal ruler. At Rome, Cano was accused of challenging pontifical authority, and though he was twice elected provincial of Castile by his fellow Dominicans, Pope Paul IV refused to confirm him. Cano's most enduring legacy is his contribution to theological methodology. Cano and other representatives of the School of Salamanca sought to enlarge the scope of theology by turning away from the abstract dialectics of Scholasticism and by placing a greater emphasis on ethical concerns. Like all Thomists, Cano defended the capacity of humans to understand or even intuit the truths revealed by God, and he engaged in an exegesis of the ius naturale, or law of nature. Cano's De Locis Theologicis (published posthumously in 1563) owes much to Rodolphus Agricola's De Inventione Dialectica (1548), as interpreted by Francisco de Vitoria. This opus outlines ten sources, or loci, of theology. Aimed squarely against the paradigm of sola scriptura, Cano's theological method sought religious truth in a variety of sources, which included not just the Bible but also oral tradition; the pronouncements of councils, bishops, and popes; the writings of the Fathers; and even the teachings of pagan philosophers and the testimony of human history as interpreted by natural reason. Cano's method was enthusiastically embraced by post-Tridentine theologians, and was taken to greater heights by some of his Jesuit followers in the School of Salamanca; four centuries later such influential thinkers as Joseph Maréchal and Karl Rahner continued to build on its foundations. The spirit of this positive or fundamental theology, as it came to be known, was neatly summarized by Cano in his De Locis: "Whoever constructs a theology unlinked to reason, and measures dogmas through Scripture alone, does nothing for theology, or for the faith, or for humanity."

Luis de Molina

Born in Cuenca in Castile, Molina was received into the Society of Jesus at Alcalá in 1553. In Portugal, after studies at Coimbra, he taught theology at Évora from 1568 until 1583, when he was freed from teaching to prepare his lecture materials for publication. Molina began a commentary on part I of Thomas Aquinas's Summa theologiae, but his manuscript was so extensive on questions concerning divine foreknowledge, providence, and predestination, all in relation to free choice, that he lifted his treatment of these and brought out a separate work, the Concordia liberi arbitrii cum Gratiæ donis, divina præscientia, providentia, prædestinatione et reprobatione (1588). His two-volume commentary on part 1 of the Summa treated natural knowledge of God, the Trinity, creation, and the angels (1592). But his main project after 1590 was De iustitia et iure, treating the major questions of personal and socioeconomic morality. He oversaw the publication of the first three volumes, while four others came out posthumously (1609). In 1600 he was called to teach moral theology in Madrid, but he died there shortly after arriving. Molina was criticized, especially by Dominicans, for making the graced free decisions of the will a cause or precondition of divine predestination to eternal salvation. Molina distinguished in God various types of foreknowledge, by one of which, called scientia media, God knows the outcome of human choices in the hypothesis of the creation of a certain order of reality. God's decree predestining some persons to salvation is then logically subsequent to their foreseen meritorious actions. Against this view, the Thomists of Salamanca, headed by Domingo Báñez, denied such intermediate divine knowledge and held that predestination is prior to foreseen human meritorious actions. The dispute was argued but not resolved before a papal tribunal from 1597 to 1607, with both theories in the end being permitted.

Francisco Suárez

Francisco Suárez was born at Granada, Spain; his father, a successful lawyer, early destined him for the priesthood. He entered the Jesuits in 1564. After a weak beginning, he soon became a brilliant student at the University of Salamanca, which was then a center of revived Thomism. Upon completing his Jesuit training, he taught philosophy briefly at Segovia (1571–1574); he then devoted six years to teaching theology at various Jesuit colleges. The lecture notes from these courses became a quarry for his later publications. In 1580 he was called to teach theology at the prestigious Jesuit Roman College, where he lectured on the Summa Theologiae of Thomas Aquinas, but because of failing health he returned to Spain and occupied a chair of theology at Alcalá (1585–1593). His last years at Alcalá de Henares were marked by a bitter rivalry with his fellow Jesuit, the more flamboyant Gabriel Vázquez, so Suárez was happy to move to Salamanca, where he taught and wrote until 1597. He spent the last period of his life (1597–1617) at the University of Coimbra, at the behest of Philip II, who wanted to enhance the prestige of the Portuguese university. Suárez's personal life was that of a pious priest and largely uneventful. His health was never robust, and his teaching duties cut into the time he would have preferred to devote to preparing his manuscripts for publication. Many were left only partially revised at his death and were published posthumously; others, most notably his commentaries on Aristotle, were never published. The 1856 Paris edition of his works ran to twenty-eight volumes. Suárez's main philosophical works were his treatise on the soul (Lyon, 1621) and especially his Disputationes metaphysicae (Salamanca, 1597), which enjoyed great popularity (eighteen editions in the century after its publication) not only in Catholic countries but also in Protestant Germany, where it contributed to the renewed scholastic reshaping of philosophy and theology during the age of Protestant orthodoxy. While working within the regnant Aristotelian tradition, Suárez's philosophical works develop their own order of presentation. Written in humanistic Latin, his works are systematic and clear but often prolix; they draw on a wide reading in philosophers from Plato to his own day. His book on metaphysics is noteworthy for rejecting the Thomistic real distinction between essence and existence. The most important of Suárez's theological works were his extensive commentaries on the Summa theologiae of Thomas Aquinas, especially the tracts De Deo Uno et Trino (Lisbon, 1606), De Angelis (Lyon, 1620), De Opere sex Dierum (Lyon, 1621), and De Legibus (Coimbra, 1612). The last of these tracts has been much studied in the twentieth century, and along with the works of Francisco de Vitoria and Hugo Grotius it laid the intellectual foundations of international law. In choosing to write on the Summa rather than Peter Lombard's Sententiae, Suárez was following the precedent set a half century earlier by Francisco de Vitoria at Salamanca and thereby contributed to making Thomism central to revived scholasticism, even though he often departed from the teachings of Thomas on particular issues. Suárez's Opuscula sex (Madrid, 1599) contain his teaching on grace, human freedom, and God's foreknowledge—a set of questions then under bitter dispute by Jesuits and Dominicans. Suárez does not go so far as his fellow Jesuit Luis de Molina in stressing human freedom in the process of salvation. At the request of the Jesuit general Claudio Acquaviva, Suárez wrote a four-volume study of religious orders, De virtute et statu religionis (Coimbra, 1608–1625); much of it was devoted to a defense of the innovations begun by the Jesuits and by other new orders of the Counter-Reformation. His main contribution to anti-Protestant polemics was his long Defensio Fidei catholicae et Apostolicae adversus Anglicanae sectae errores (Coimbra, 1613, partial English translation in 1944), which was largely directed against the oath that King James I demanded from his Catholic subjects. James I had it burned at Saint Paul's in London and arranged for refutations. Its statements about papal power also led to its being burned by the Parlement of Paris, and it provided Gallicans with ammunition against the Jesuits. Suárez was the culmination of the scholastic revival in Counter-Reformation Spain and the greatest and most systematic theologian among the early Jesuits. Few of his works have been translated into English, but a distinctive Suárezian school flourished among Spanish Jesuits into the twentieth century.

Gabriel Vázquez

Gabriel Vázquez was born in Belmonte de Miranda in 1549. He entered the Jesuit Order in 1569, and taught moral theology at the Jesuit colleges of Madrid, Ocaña, and Alcalá de Henares. He held a chair of Theology at the Roman College from 1585 to 1591, and then returned to Alcalá de Henares, where he taught for the rest of his life. Vázquez was a scholar of immense learning, and had a remarkable command of patristic scholarship. His most important work is his Commentarii ac disputationes, a huge commentary on the Summa Theologica of Thomas Aquinas (8 vols., 1598–1615). He was a passionate controversialist in the debate on the nature of Grace. An immensely influential philosopher, Vázquez was the probable source of Descartes's mind-body dualism and of Immanuel Kant's argument from morality.

Baroque Scholasticism

Antonio Pérez
Antonio Pérez Valiende de Navas was one of the most important Spanish theologians of the first half of the seventeenth century. He was born at Puente de la Reina (Navarre) in 1599 and entered the Society of Jesus in 1613. He studied philosophy and theology at the colleges of Medina del Campo and Salamanca, under the authority of Pedro Hurtado de Mendoza and Benito de Robles (1571–1616), an influential teacher of illustrious philosophers such as Arriaga. He then embarked on a brilliant teaching career: first at the Jesuit colleges of Valladolid and Salamanca, and then at the prestigious Roman College, where he succeeded to another major figure of Jesuit theology, John de Lugo, who had just been elevated to the rank of cardinal. After six years of teaching, he was suddenly fired and sent back to Spain, officially because his theories on God and the Trinity were judged 'unheard of' and his lectures 'obscure' and 'incomprehensible'. He died of a sudden illness on the road, in the small town of Corral de Almaguer. Pérez had not yet published a single book, but his reputation as a difficult, demanding, and highly original teacher was already made way beyond the classrooms of Salamanca and Rome. Some of his pupils would do their best to publish a couple of posthumous volumes. Everybody referred to him as the 'extraordinary theologian' (theologus mirabilis), even the wily Francesco Sforza Pallavicino, his Italian colleague and rival. Despite Pérez's importance, his work has received very little attention, for two reasons. First, because the second grand generation of the Jesuits keeps being overshadowed by the first powerful generation of authors such as Robert Bellarmine, Francisco Suárez, or Luis de Molina, and historians do not sufficiently acknowledge the strong difference between both. Second, due to his untimely death, Pérez's work has been insufficiently printed, and still subsists mainly in the form of thousands of manuscript pages scattered in various Spanish and Roman libraries, even though these manuscripts enjoyed wide circulation in the seventeenth century.

Pérez took over from his master Benito de Robles the general project of 'staying close to Augustine in metaphysical matters' (rebus metaphysicis proximum fuisse Augustino; In primam 87a). This is a strong statement: in early modern scholasticism at large, Augustine was a source for almost every aspect of theology, but never for metaphysics. This shows the originality of Pérez's project: he wanted to develop in scholastic fashion a truly neo-Augustinian conception of being and God, his attributes and relationship to world. The problems that had kept entire generations of theologians busy before him—namely the problems of grace and free will—appear only secondary to Pérez, although he strongly emphasized the role of grace in our acts of knowledge or faith, refuting thereby the naturalism of previous generations. But his lifelong project was to read Augustine as a metaphysician. In the Aristotelian tradition, the object of metaphysics is being qua being. Pérez was of course schooled in that Aristotelian scholastic tradition, but he undermines it with insights taken from Augustine. Pérez believes that the major shortcoming of classical Aristotelian metaphysics was the idea that only 'being' can be known: but what about our knowledge of lacks, of wants, of fictions, of desires, i.e. of things that do not have reality? The paradigm case was the problem of the not-yet present future in relation to God's knowledge. Pérez was dissatisfied with all the classical medieval and early modern solutions, which had tried to solve the problem of God's knowledge of the non-existing future by modifying (and enhancing) God's ways of knowing. Pérez and his school advocated a new ontological solution: one has to grant to non-existent beings a form of 'being', in the same way that lacks, shadows, or wants have 'presence'. His inspiration was Augustine's idea that for the beauty of the world, obscurity is as necessary as light, or that for the beauty of language, silence is as necessary as sound (cf. De natura boni, ch. 16). Pérez however refrained from the tendency of some of his contemporaries to grant a complete positive ontological status to negative objects. He did not want to admit a realm of 'eternal negations', distinct from God, which he rejects as entia abusiva ('superfluous entities'). This would indeed amount to a form of metaphysical Manichaeism, which he obviously rejects on Augustinian grounds. His solution is therefore to admit that negative states of affairs exist only insofar as their presence would be 'incompatible' or 'incompossible' with the presence of some other states of affairs. The negative being of obscurity means therefore that where light is posited, obscurity is incompossible. An entire school of thought called 'Incompatibilism' (Incompossibilistae) emerged from Pérez's insights and led to numerous discussions in Spanish and also Central European colleges. Pérez dedicated some of the most speculative pages of his works to a new philosophical description of God, or more exactly of the 'Deity' (deitas), as he calls it. He gave a new interpretation of Augustine's classical theory of the relation between God and Platonic ideas. According to Pérez, Augustine's teaching meant that God was himself the idea of the world, and that no distinction could therefore be established between God and his attributes, as the scholastics usually did by differentiating God's essence from God's acts of knowledge (and arguing about the conceptual status of divine ideas). As early as 1630, Pérez taught that the Deity must be considered in pure simplicity and as the perfect idea of the world, without any distinctions among his attributes. Following again Augustine (and his master Pedro Hurtado de Mendoza), he underlined that God must be considered both as the creator of essences and existences in the world (auctor essentiarum). He strongly criticized the essentialist tendencies of most previous Jesuit theologians (such as Suárez or Gabriel Vázquez) who claimed that the objects of divine knowledge were actually possible or true in themselves, without any relation to the divine attributes of power or science. Pérez on the contrary wants to give to God a total supremacy over both possibles and impossibles, which he expresses in a formula that would become recurrent among neo-Augustinian Jesuit metaphysicians of the second half of the seventeenth century, namely that God is 'the possibility of possibles and impossibility of impossibles' (possibilitas possibilium et impossibilitas impossibilium). In the last stance, this also means that any statement about the order of the world is actually a statement about God himself.

Pérez's main originality lies in the way he tried to express classical insights of Augustine in the highly sophisticated language of early modern Aristotelian scholasticism. He tried to found Augustine's conception of 'true religion' (vera religio) on solid metaphysical grounds, leaving no room for heresy. Pérez had a huge influence on subsequent generations of Spanish philosophers. It was from Pérez's teaching onwards that Jesuit moral philosophy would also take the turn towards rigorism, fostered by other Navarrese Jesuits such as Martín de Esparza (1606–89) and Miguel de Elizalde (1617–78), and consumed during the generalate of Thyrsus González de Santalla (1624–1711, General from 1687), himself an almost orthodox 'Pérezian' in metaphysical and speculative matters. It also meant the progressive abandoning of the rationalist and naturalistic conceptions of faith developed by John de Lugo and a victory of a new form of fideism which could again fully claim Augustine's authority.

Sebastián Izquierdo
Sebastián Izquierdo was born  in 1601 at Alcaraz, in the Castilian province of Albacete. He joined the Jesuits on November 17, 1623 and studied at the Jesuit college in Alcalá de Henares and the prestigious Colegio Imperial de Madrid. He taught Philosophy and Theology at Alcalá, Murcia and Madrid. He became Rector of the colleges of Murcia and Madrid and was present at the eleventh General Congregation of the Society of Jesus at Rome, at which time he was named assistant to the Superior General for Spain and the West Indies. In Rome he befriended among others the well-known German polymath Athanasius Kircher. In 1659, he published in Lyon his monumental philosophical work Pharus scientiarum (The Lighthouse of Sciences). He died at Rome on 20 February 1681.

Although Izquierdo is virtually forgotten nowadays, he was an important figure 17th-century philosophy. Izquierdo was a follower of the Spanish medieval philosopher Ramon Llull. He was also strongly influenced by Bacon's empiricism. In his Pharus scientiarum he emphasized the need for a universal science that could be valid for all human knowledge (scientia de scientia or arte general del saber). It would be akin to the manner in which the Lullian Ars Magna was applicable to the entire ladder of creation. At the same time, Izquierdo advocated mathematizing the ars lulliana, and in the course of his exposition illustrates how Llull's letter combinations could be replaced by number combinations. The German Jesuit Athanasius Kircher, inflenced by the Pharus scientiarum, wrote his immense Ars magna sciendi an attempt to make the Lullian Ars a "science of science" suitable for the preparation of an encyclopedia of all human knowledge.

Historians of mathematics remember Izquierdo especially in connection with combinatorics, to which he devoted Disputation 29 (De Combinatione). He was the first to discuss the number of k-combinations from a given set of n elements. Izquierdo influenced several contemporary philosophers, such as the Spanish Juan Caramuel and Tomás Vicente Tosca and the German Gaspar Knittel and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz; the latter, in particular, quoted the Disputatio de Combinatione, in his De Arte Combinatoria (1666). The Disputatio 29 «De Combinatione», was rescued from oblivion and studied in depth by the Jesuit historian of philosophy Ramón Ceñal, who not only translated it from Latin but also carried out an exhaustive study of it published by the Instituto de España.

Juan Caramuel y Lobkowitz

Juan Caramuel y Lobkowitz was born in 1606 in Madrid, to parents of Luxembourgish, German, and Bohemian ancestry. He was educated at the universities of Alcalá and Salamanca, mainly by orthodox Thomists such as the Dominicans John of St. Thomas (João Poinsot, 1589–1644) and Francisco de Araujo (1580–1664) as well as the Cistercian Pedro de Lorca (1521–1621). He probably also attended the last classes of Agustín Antolínez (1554–1626), in that time the major theologian of the Augustinian Order in Salamanca. In 1625 he became a novice in the Cistercian Order. After several years spent in monasteries in Spain, he was dispatched to the University of Louvain. There he took part in numerous controversies, fuelled by the presence of the Jansenist party, the Jesuit theologians, and the Franciscans. In 1638, he obtained his doctorate of theology, but failed to gain a chair at the university. Through intercession of the King of Spain, Philip IV, and of Fabio Chigi (1599–1667), he was sent to southern Germany and became engaged in Catholic–Protestant controversies. Having become close to the Emperor Ferdinand III (1637–57), Caramuel was then appointed to the post of abbot of the Benedictine monastery of Montserrat in Counter-Reformation Prague. He left the Bohemian capital in 1655, the year his old friend Chigi was elevated to the papacy as Alexander VII. After two confused years in Rome, he was appointed, for still unclear reasons, to the poor and remote bishopric of Campagna-Satriano. Fifteen years later, in 1673, he moved to his final destination, the more comfortable see of Vigevano, where he died on 7 September 1682.

Caramuel was the perfect incarnation of the Baroque polymath and most biographers refer to him only with superlatives. A restless writer, he published 'a volume of books equal to the years of his life', as his epitaph says. His interests ranged from grammar and natural languages to architecture, astronomy, and music. A substantial part of his publications was dedicated to philosophy and theology. Caramuel was the first to coin the expression 'fundamental theology': he believed that theology as a science must be based upon axioms (fundamenta), both speculative and practical, from which one could deduce various consequences. The speculative axioms are those which confer certainty on the human mind: among these, we find human liberty, God and his revelation as first truth, the certainty and infallibility of the Roman Church, the truthfulness of the pope, the congregations, and the rota, and also the definitions of the major universities and scholars, down the authority of demons, sense perception, and probable opinions. The practical axioms are founded in divine and human authority, and Caramuel treats them according to the Aristotelian table of categories (discussing for instance the quality and quantity of law). Although educated in the Thomist tradition, Caramuel firmly believed in the humanist ideal of nullius addictus iurare in verba magistri ('not to swear slavishly by the words of any master'). He refused to be enrolled in a specific school of thought and felt free to choose among all the authorities that would best suit his project of constructing a renovated Christian philosophy.

The counterrevolutionary school

Juan Donoso Cortés

Juan Donoso Cortés (1809-1853) belonged to the first romantic generation in Spain. He became a prominent liberal conservative politician in the 1830s and 1840s and was Spanish ambassador to Paris and Berlin. Partially as a consequence of the revolutions of 1848, he abjured his liberalism in the Spanish Cortes on January 4, 1849, in a famous speech which was widely distributed and elicited responses from many. Alexander Herzen made one such response in Pierre-Joseph Proudhon's publication Voix du Peuple, and this answer caused the denunciation of the newspaper and its closing. Donoso's most famous book, Ensayo sobre el catolicismo, el liberalismo, y el socialismo, was published in Spanish and French in 1851; it became a bestseller and had as apocalyptic a success as Oswald Spengler's The Decline of the West had later. His reputation was spread by Montalembert, and he influenced Schelling, Ranke, Metternich, Bismarck, and Frederick William IV of Prussia. Donoso was condemned by his enemies as a reactionary, but in the 20th century he has been reevaluated in Spain, Germany, and France as an accurate observer whose prophecies came true in many cases, in particular his awareness of socialism and of the future political role of Russia. According to Karl Löwith, Donoso
Donoso saw the choice facing Europe after the 1848 revolutions as either the dictatorship of government or the dictatorship of revolution. He incorporates into his thought the dialectic of revolution and counterrevolution which from 1789 to 1848 offers several stages: the French Revolution and the counterrevolutionary reaction, the attempt at a liberal synthesis, and the rise of socialism as an extreme form of revolution. Donoso experienced the liberal attempt at synthesis and reacted against it and against upcoming socialism by returning to the response of the first counterrevolutionaries, especially that of Louis de Bonald and Joseph de Maistre, which he applied to a new phenomenon, that of the third stage of the dialectic, the rise of socialism in the 1840s.

See also
 Lullism
 School of Salamanca
 Hispanidad

References

Bibliography

Spanish literature
Cultural history of Spain
Culture of Spain

Spanish philosophy


Social responsibility  is an ethical framework in which a person works and cooperates with other people and organizations for the benefit of the community.

An organization can demonstrate social responsibility in several ways, for instance, by donating, encouraging volunteerism, using ethical hiring procedures, and making changes that benefit the environment.

Social responsibility is an individual responsibility that involves a balance between the economy and the ecosystem one lives within, and possible trade-offs between economic development, and the welfare of society and the environment. Social responsibility pertains not only to business organizations but also to everyone whose actions impact the environment.

History
Writers in the classical Western philosophical tradition acknowledged the importance of social responsibility for human thriving.

Aristotle
Aristotle determined that "Man is by nature a political animal."

He saw ethics and politics as mutually-reinforcing: a citizen develops the virtues in large part so that they can contribute to making the  an excellent and stable one. And the purpose of that was so that the  would be fertile soil in which a thriving, virtuous citizenry could grow (and in order that there could be an appropriate political context in which one could successfully practice virtues like justice which require a political context).

He believed that the  is meant to be "a community of equals for the sake of a life which is potentially the best." Some of the virtues in his scheme of virtue ethics, like magnificence and justice were inseparable from a sense of social responsibility.

Ancient Rome
Cicero believed that "In no other realm does human excellence approach so closely the paths of the gods as it does in the founding of new and in the preservation of already founded communities."

In the Meditations of Marcus Aurelius, he wrote that "That which isn't good for the hive isn't good for the bee."

Modern times

In 1953, the book "Social responsibility of the businessman" published by the American economist Howard Bowen was one of the first to address the issue of social responsibility as it relates to business activity.

Individual social responsibility

One can be socially responsible passively, by avoiding engaging in socially harmful acts, or actively, by performing activities that advance social goals. Social responsibility has an intergenerational aspect, since the actions of one generation have consequences for their posterity, and also can be more or less respectful for their ancestors.

Social responsibility can require a degree of boldness or courage. Alexander Solzhenitsyn, for example, believed that "we have gotten used to regarding as valor only valor in war (or the kind that's needed for flying in outer space), the kind which jingle-jangles with medals. We have forgotten another concept of valor—civil valor. And that's all our society needs, just that, just that, just that!"

Another way to be socially responsible is by being careful not to spread information that you have not diligently vetted for its truth. In the modern information environment, "the stakes of credulity are simply too high," says Francisco Mejia Uribe. Socially responsible people have "the moral obligation to believe only what we have diligently investigated." And a socially responsible person "in her capacity as communicator of belief… has the moral responsibility not to pollute the well of collective knowledge and instead to strive to sustain its integrity."

Scientists and engineers

Are scientists and engineers morally responsible for the negative consequences that result from applications of their knowledge and inventions? If scientists and engineers take pride in the positive achievements of science and technology, shouldn't they also accept responsibility for the negative consequences related to the use or abuse of scientific knowledge and technological innovations? Scientists and engineers have a collective responsibility to examine the values embedded in the research problems they choose and the ethics of how they share their findings with the public.

Committees of scientists and engineers are often involved in planning governmental and corporate research programs, including those devoted to the development of military technologies and weaponry. Many professional societies and national organizations, such as the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in the United States, have ethical guidelines (see Engineering ethics and Research ethics for the conduct of scientific research and engineering). Scientists and engineers, individually and collectively, have a special and greater responsibility than average citizens with respect to the generation and use of scientific knowledge.

Some argue that because of the complexity of social responsibility in research, scientists and engineers should not be blamed for all the evils created by new scientific knowledge and technological innovations. First, there is fragmentation and diffusion of responsibility: Because of the intellectual and physical division of labor, the resulting fragmentation of knowledge, the high degree of specialization, and the complex and hierarchical decision-making process within corporations and government research laboratories, it is exceedingly difficult for individual scientists and engineers to control the applications of their innovations. This fragmentation of work and decision-making results in fragmented moral accountability, often to the point where "everybody involved was responsible but none could be held responsible."

Another problem is ignorance. The scientists and engineers cannot predict how their newly generated knowledge and technological innovations may be abused or misused. The excuse of ignorance is stronger for scientists involved in very basic and fundamental research where potential applications cannot be even envisioned, than for scientists and engineers involved in applied scientific research and technological innovation since in such work objectives are well-known. For example, most corporations conduct research on specific products or services that promise to yield profit for share-holders. Similarly, most of the research funded by governments is mission-oriented, such as protecting the environment, developing new drugs, or designing more lethal weapons. In cases where the application of scientific knowledge and technological innovation is well-known a priori, a scientist or engineer cannot escape responsibility for research and technological innovation that is morally dubious. As John Forge writes in Moral Responsibility and the Ignorant Scientist: "Ignorance is not an excuse precisely because scientists can be blamed for being ignorant."

Another point of view is that responsibility falls on those who provide the funding for the research and technological developments (in most cases corporations and government agencies). Because taxpayers provide the funds for government-sponsored research, they and the politicians that represent them should perhaps be held accountable for the uses and abuses of science. In times past scientists could often conduct research independently, but today's experimental research requires expensive laboratories and instrumentation, making scientists dependent on those who pay for their studies.

Quasi-legal instruments, or soft law, has received some normative status in relation to private and public corporations in the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Universal Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights developed by the UNESCO International Bioethics Committee particularly in relation to child and maternal welfare. The International Organization for Standardization will "encourage voluntary commitment to social responsibility and will lead to common guidance on concepts, definitions and methods of evaluation."

Corporate social responsibility

Ethical decision-making by businesses can prevent costly government intervention in those businesses. For instance, if a company follows the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) guidelines for emissions of dangerous pollutants and goes further to involve the community and address concerns the public might have, they might be less likely to have the EPA investigate them. According to some experts, most rules and regulations are formed due to public outcry, which threatens profit maximization and therefore the well-being of shareholders; if there is no outcry, this limits regulation.

Some critics argue that corporate social responsibility (CSR) distracts from the fundamental economic role of businesses; others argue that it is nothing more than superficial window-dressing, such as "greenwashing"; others argue that it is an attempt to pre-empt the role of governments as a watchdog over powerful corporations. A significant number of studies have shown no negative influence on shareholder results from CSR but rather a slightly positive correlation with improved shareholder returns.

While many corporations include social responsibility in their operations, those procuring their goods and services may also independently ensure these products are socially sustainable. Verification tools are available from many entities internationally, for example the Underwriters Laboratories environmental standards, BioPreferred, and Green Seal. A corporate reputation aligned with social responsibility is linked to higher profits, particularly when firms voluntarily report the positive and negative impacts of their social responsibility endeavors.

Certification processes like these help corporations and their consumers identify potential risks associated with a product's lifecycle and enable end users to confirm the corporation's practices adhere to social responsibility ideals. A reputation for social responsibility leads to more positive responses toward a brand's products by inducing a reciprocal desire to help companies that have helped others, an effect that is more prominent among consumers who value helping others and is reduced if consumers doubt a firm's intentions.

See also

 Accountability
 Corporate social responsibility
 Good German
 Inclusive business
 SA8000
 Shareholder primacy
 Social enterprise
 Social entrepreneurship
 Socially responsible investing

Notes

Further reading

Concepts in ethics
Euthenics
Social ethics
Social movements
Sociological terminology

Social responsibility


The fifth government of Israel was formed by Moshe Sharett during the second Knesset on 26 January 1954, and was the first government not led by David Ben-Gurion. Sharett kept the same coalition partners as during the fourth government, i.e. Mapai, the General Zionists, the Progressive Party, Mizrachi, Hapoel HaMizrachi, the Democratic List for Israeli Arabs, Progress and Work and Agriculture and Development.

The only changes to the previous government were Sharett taking over as PM, Pinhas Lavon as Minister of Defense, the addition of Zalman Aran as a Minister without Portfolio and the dropping of the two Mizrachi and Hapoel HaMizrachi Deputy Ministerial posts.

Ben-Gurion returned to the government in February 1955, replacing Lavon following the former's resignation over the Lavon Affair.

The government fell when Sharett resigned on 29 June 1955, when the General Zionists refused to abstain from voting on a motion of no-confidence brought by Herut and Maki over the government's position on the trial of Malkiel Gruenwald, who had accused Israel Kastzner of collaborating with the Nazis.

External links
Second Knesset: Government 5 Knesset website

 05
1954 establishments in Israel
1955 disestablishments in Israel
Cabinets established in 1954
Cabinets disestablished in 1955
1954 in Israeli politics
1955 in Israeli politics
 05

Fifth government of Israel


The Scranton Miners, known as the Scranton Apollos from 1970 to 1977, were a professional basketball team based in Scranton, Pennsylvania that was a member of the American Basketball League and the Eastern Basketball Association.  Arthur Pachter was the owner and coach for many years.

The team was previously known as the Jersey City Atoms before moving to Scranton in 1946.  They played in the ABL until 1953.  After a two-year hiatus, they were resurrected in the middle of the 1954-55 season in the Eastern Professional Basketball League as a replacement for the Carbondale Celtics.  For many years the team was owned by local businessman, Art Pachter, and played games at the Scranton CYC building.  During its brief existence the team won two championships, led by Syracuse University alum Jim Boeheim (who later became its head coach).  They were renamed the Scranton Apollos in 1970, and folded in 1977.

In June 1963, Scranton Miners owner Arthur Pachter announced the team had signed Paul Seymour to a one-year contract as head coach. The details of the contract were not disclosed, but Pachter told the Associated Press, "[it is] unquestionably the highest ever paid to a coach in the Eastern Basketball Association." Scranton hosted the 1969 Eastern Basketball Association (EBA) All-Star Game. The league also held the 1971 EBA All-Star Game on February 17 in Scranton at the Scranton CYC Building. On January 25, 1976, Scranton Apollos player Charlie Criss set an EBA record for points scored in a game with 72.

The Scranton Miners were resurrected in 1993 by an investment group led by attorneys George Daniel and Anthony Daniel. The Miners were charter members of the Atlantic Basketball Association and again played at the Scranton CYC for 3 seasons   The Miners captured the league's regular season title in 1993-94 and in 1994-95.  The Miners defeated the Trenton Flames to win the 1994-95 ABA championship. The franchise was sold and moved to Connecticut following the 1995-96 season.

Year-by-year

References

Sports in the Scranton–Wilkes-Barre metropolitan area
Defunct basketball teams in Pennsylvania
Scranton, Pennsylvania
American Basketball League (1925–1955) teams
Basketball teams established in 1947
1977 disestablishments in Pennsylvania
Basketball teams disestablished in 1977
1947 establishments in Pennsylvania

Scranton Miners


Nina Simone in Concert is an album by the jazz singer Nina Simone. It is her first album for the record label Philips, composed of three live recordings made at Carnegie Hall, New York City, in March and April 1964. Simone recorded Nina Simone at Carnegie Hall in 1963 for Colpix. This album marked the beginning of Simone's explicitly Civil Rights oriented music and she incorporated civil rights messaging into her performances. Included on the album are unambiguous political songs such as "Mississippi Goddamn", released as a single at the time. However, songs such as "Old Jim Crow", "Go Limp", and "Pirate Jenny" contributed to the political and civil rights messaging in a more covert or metaphorical way. The album was rated as the 94th best album of the 1960s by Pitchfork.

Background
 Simone recorded "I Loves You, Porgy", "Plain Gold Ring", and "Don't Smoke in Bed" on her debut album Little Girl Blue (1958).
 "Pirate Jenny" was from The Threepenny Opera by Kurt Weill and Bertold Brecht. Simone used the story within the song as a metaphor for the civil rights movement at that time. Simone rarely performed the song, though the theatrical piece became one of her signature tunes.
 "Old Jim Crow" was a protest song against Jim Crow laws.
 "Go Limp" was a humorous folk song about a girl who is warned by her mother not to join the NAACP because it would cost her her virginity. Halfway through the song Simone forgot the lyrics and invented some. At the end she received a standing ovation.
 "Mississippi Goddam" is a protest song written by Simone in 1963 immediately after the Alabama Church Bombing that killed four young girls. A minute into the performance, Simone addresses the audience, saying "This is a show tune, but the show hasn't been written for it yet."

Track listing

 "I Loves You Porgy" (George Gershwin, Ira Gershwin, DuBose Heyward) – 2:18
 "Plain Gold Ring" (Earl Burroughs) – 5:30
 "Pirate Jenny" (Kurt Weill, Bertolt Brecht, Marc Blitzstein) – 6:42
 "Old Jim Crow" (Nina Simone, Jackie Alper, Ron Vander Groef) – 2:10
 "Don't Smoke in Bed" (Willard Robison) – 5:30
 "Go Limp" (Alex Comfort, Simone) – 6:55
 "Mississippi Goddam" (Simone) – 4:45

Personnel
 Nina Simone – piano, vocals, arranger
 Rudy Stevenson – guitar
 Lisle Atkinson – bass
 Bobby Hamilton – drums

Production
 Hal Mooney – record producer
 Nat Shapiro –  liner notes
 Mort Shuman – cover photo

Charts

References

1964 live albums
Nina Simone live albums
Albums produced by Hal Mooney
Philips Records live albums
Albums recorded at Carnegie Hall

Nina Simone in Concert


A supra (Georgian: სუფრა ) is a traditional Georgian feast and a part of Georgian social culture. There are two types of supra: a festive supra (ლხინის სუფრა, ), called a keipi; and a sombre supra (ჭირის სუფრა, ), called a kelekhi, which is always held after burials.

The traditions of supra, as an important part of Georgian social culture, were inscribed on the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Georgia list in 2017. Traditionally, and for many Georgians, up to the present, the foregrounded participants at a supra are men, with women relegated to secondary, supporting roles (especially as far as food preparation is concerned).

Etymology

In Georgian, "supra" literally means "table-cloth" and, over centuries, it has become essentially synonymous with feasts where a large table is ordinarily set. The word for "table-cloth" itself is likely related to the Persian word sofre, although it does not have the same connotations outside of the Georgian language context. Large public meals are never held in Georgia without a supra; when there are no tables, the supra is laid on the ground.

Rules
Regardless of size and type, a supra is always led by a tamada, or toastmaster, who introduces each toast during the feast.  The tamada is elected by the banqueting guests or chosen by the host.  A successful tamada must possess great rhetorical skill and be able to consume a large amount of alcohol without showing signs of drunkenness.

During the meal, the tamada will propose a toast, and then speak at some length about the topic. The guests raise their glasses, but do not drink. After the tamada has spoken, the toast continues, often in a generally counter-clockwise direction (to the right). The next guest who wishes to speak raises their glass, holds forth, and then drains their glass. If a guest does not wish to speak, they may drink from their glass after some words that particularly resonate to them.

Eating is entirely appropriate during toasts, but talking is frowned upon. Once everyone who wishes to speak on the theme has done so, the tamada proposes a new toast, and the cycle begins again. Some popular traditional themes include toasts to God, Georgia, family, the mother of God, various saints, friends, ancestors, and so on. However, the theme of each toast is up to the tamada, who should be able to tailor his or her toasts to the occasion.

A keipi toast is called sadghegrdzelo (სადღეგრძელო, ), while a kelekhi toast is called a shesandobari (შესანდობარი, ).

See also
 List of dining events

References

External links

 Darra Goldstein, The Georgian Feast': The Vibrant Culture and Savory Food of the Republic of Georgia, 1999,
 The Autocrat of the Banquet Table
 About Georgia

Culture of Georgia (country)
Georgian words and phrases
Eating parties

Supra (feast)


John McGregor Carter (born 8 Mey 1950) is a New Zealand politeecian, an umwhile member o the kintra's pairlament in Wellington, representin the Naitional Pairty.  He is a consteetuency member unner the proportional representation seestem, representin Northland.

1950 births
Livin fowk
New Zealand Naitional Pairty MPs
Companions o the Queen's Service Order
Members o the New Zealand Hoose o Representatives
New Zealand monarchists
Fowk frae the Kaipara Destrict
New Zealand MPs for North Island electorates
Heich Commissioners o New Zealand tae the Cook Islands
Mayors o places in New Zealand
21st-century New Zealand politeecians

John Carter


Stephanie Bennett is a harpist, composer, arranger and vocalist who lives in Los Angeles. She plays popular music, jazz, and other contemporary music genres.

Career
Bennett began studying the harp as a junior high school student in Ann Arbor, Michigan, after having studied some guitar and piano as a child. She continued her studies of classical harp performance with Ruth Dean Clark at the University of Michigan, where she also studied composition with Pulitzer Prize winning composer Leslie Bassett and Ross Lee Finney. While in college, she also began exploring creating her own arrangements of popular music.  She continued her music studies at the Dick Grove School of Music and at UCLA Extension, with courses in Advanced Modern Harmony (including jazz and pop music harmony), Arranging, Twentieth Century Harmony, Film Scoring, etc.

Bennett has performed in the United States, Japan, Australia, Brazil, Argentina, Chile, Ecuador, Guatemala, Costa Rica, Uruguay, Panama, France and Switzerland, including solo harp performances of her own compositions at the Montreux Jazz Festival (Switzerland), as a guest artist at the International Music Seminars in Montpelier, France, and at the International Conference on Women in Music. She has performed for President Obama, the President of Israel, and the President of Ireland.

For the winter 1984 concert season, Bennett joined the American folk-music group The New Christy Minstrels, playing harp in a U.S. tour booked by Community Concerts, a division of Columbia Artists Management Inc. Later in 1984, she toured as part of the band of R&B artist Bobby Womack, along with frequent guest artist Sly Stone.

In 1989, she gave a solo harp performance at the Montreux Jazz Festival in Switzerland.

In 1999, she was invited by the Los Angeles World Affairs Council to perform Irish music for the President of Ireland upon the president's visit to Los Angeles.

Bennett lives in the Los Angeles area, where she composes, records and produces her own CDs, composes and produces music that has been heard on television shows such as Bones, Murphy Brown, Party of Five and The Single Guy, and on the feature film A Time For Dancing. She writes musical arrangements for other artists (including arrangements for rocker Ozzy Osbourne, Native American flute player Golana, Celtic fiddler Mary Barton, and New Age ensemble Midnight Skye). She composes chamber music which has been performed by ensembles such as "Entr'amis" (classical harp, flute and viola trio), and "Campanile", (renowned contemporary handbell ensemble).

Bennett plays harp on soundtracks for movies and television, and plays harp on recordings by many other artists (including the Dixie Chicks, Sir Paul McCartney, LeAnn Rimes, Lamb, Linda Ronstadt, Everlast, Good Charlotte, Miyuki Nakajima, and Ray Conniff),teaches harp students, and writes lyrics which have been recorded by other vocalists, as well as writing music for other vocalists. She has toured with groups as diverse as R&B legend Bobby Womack, big band Ray Conniff Singers & Orchestra, Persian singing star Dariush, Mexican superstars Vicente & Alejandro Fernandez, and Canadian band Cowboy Celtic.

Bennett has also appeared onscreen in television, movies and music videos, including American Idol, The Sweetest Thing with Cameron Diaz, Celine Dion's 1998 Christmas special, 1999 hit movie The Other Sister (with Diane Keaton, Juliette Lewis and Giovanni Ribisi); Love Affair with Warren Beatty, Gypsy with Bette Midler, Cobb with Tommy Lee Jones, the Frank Sinatra mini-series, A Romantic Christmas by John Tesh, music videos including Trisha Yearwood and Aerosmith, and television shows including Bones, Murphy Brown, Falcon Crest, Sisters, and Picket Fences.

Bennett was part of American balladeer group the Bards of FoDLA and produced their album Sacred Oaks (2012) through Harpworld Music Co.

Honors

In 1979, Stephanie Bennett won first prize in the Second Salvi International Competition of Jazz and Pop Harp. The Hollywood Reporter has called her "one of our country's top harpists".

Discography

References

External links
Official website

Living people
American harpists
Year of birth missing (living people)
University of Michigan School of Music, Theatre & Dance alumni
University of California, Los Angeles alumni
Musicians from Los Angeles
Musicians from Ann Arbor, Michigan
The New Christy Minstrels members

Stephanie Bennett (harpist)


Adolf II of Holstein ( – 6 July 1164) was the Count of Schauenburg and Holstein from 1130 until his death, though he was briefly out of Holstein from 1137 until 1142. He succeeded his father Adolf I under the regency of his mother, Hildewa.

After the death of the Emperor Lothair II (1137), the new king, Conrad III, granted the Duchy of Saxony to Albert the Bear. Adolf was consequently deprived of Holstein because he was a Welf supporter and refused to recognise Albert as duke. He only received it back in 1142 when Conrad and Henry the Lion were reconciled.

In 1143 as a result of the Wendish Crusade, Henry and Adolf divided the rule of the conquered Slavic lands to their east. Adolf received Wagria with its chief city, the castle of Sigberg, built by Lothair, and Henry received Polabia with Ratzeburg as its capital. Sigberg became Adolf's chief fortress and most regular seat. Adolf promoted Christianity in his new lands, especially through the missionary work of Vicelinus. Adolf, encouraged by Lothair, promoted German colonisation of his Slavic territories, especially with colonists from not only his own lands but also from Westphalia, Flanders, Holland, Utrecht, and Frisia.

In 1143 or 1144, Adolf built Lübeck, the first German port on the Baltic Sea. Adolf also built the first castle (1143) in Lübeck: a wood and earth construction. In 1157, Lübeck was burned and rebuilt by Henry the Lion, to whom Adolf transferred it in 1159.

Adolf supported Sweyn III of Denmark against the claimant Canute V in a dispute over the Danish throne. Canute, with the help of Etheler von Dithmarschen, attacked Holstein and burned Oldenburg in Holstein, devastating the German north coast.

In 1159, Adolf accompanied the Emperor Frederick I into Italy and in 1164 he aided Henry the Lion against the Obotrites, dying in the Battle of Verchen. He was buried in Minden. He was succeeded by his son, Adolf III, under the regency of his widow, Mechtild of Schwarzburg-Käfernburg.

Sources

Manuel Talaván (2010). Relaciones germano eslavas en el contexto de cruzada: la cruzada venda. Intus-Legere Historia. Vol. 4, Nº 2; pp. 19–44

1120s births
Year of birth uncertain
Place of birth unknown
1164 deaths
Counts of Holstein
House of Schauenburg
Military personnel killed in action
Christians of the Wendish Crusade

Adolf II of Holstein