The Vienna Monetary Treaty (also known as the Vienna Coinage Treaty) of 1857 was a treaty that set a currency standard for use across the German Zollverein states, Austria, and Liechtenstein. The official name of the treaty was Monetary Treaty Between the German States of 24 January 1857.

History
At the time there were three competing monetary systems in Germany, in Austria, Prussia and south Germany. The Mint Conference and Convention in Vienna sought to eliminate the problems from this, and the treaty was the result.

The treaty remained in force until the unification of Germany in 1871.

Main terms
Article 1: The pound, with a weight of 500 g, would serve as the basis of the coinage system.

Articles 2 and 3: There would be a single silver standard, but three national coinage systems would be permitted:
 The Prussian standard of 30 thalers per pound of silver, to replace the prior 14-thaler per Cologne Mark standard, for use in Prussia, Saxony, Hanover, Hesse, Grand Duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach and the Duchies of Saxe-Altenburg, Saxe-Gotha, Brunswick, Oldenburg (including Birkenfeld), Anhalt-Dessau, and Anhalt-Bernburg; in the Principality of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen and the Subordinate Lordship of the Principality of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt; in the Principalities of Waldeck and Pyrmont, Reuss of the senior line and Reuss of the junior line, Schaumburg-Lippe, and Lippe. (The states had a total population of 23 million.)
 The Austrian standard of 45 guldens per pound of silver, for use in the Austrian Empire and the principality of Liechtenstein. (The states had a total population of 35 million.)
 The South German standard of 52.5 guldens per pound of silver, for use in Bavaria, Württemberg, Grand Duchies of Baden and Hesse; in the Duchy of Saxe-Meiningen, Principality of Saxe-Coburg, the Hohenzollern domains in Prussia, Duchy of Nassau, Overlordship of the Principality of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, the Landgraviate of Hesse-Homburg, and the Free City of Frankfurt. (The states had a total population of between 9 and 10 million.)

Article 4: The exchange rates of the system would bw 1 thaler convention piece (1/30 point) = 1.5 florins (Austrian currency) = 1.75 florin (South Germany currency). All coins made in accordance to the treaty were to be legal tender in all states.

Article 5: Mintage by all states would be limited to silver coins as specified in this treaty, but Austria was allowed continue to coin the "Levantine Thaler" dated 1780 (better known today as the Maria Theresa Thaler). The smallest fractional coins authorized under the three national coinage systems were

 The one-sixth thaler piece in Prussian currency.
 The one-fourth florin piece in Austrian currency.
 The one-fourth florin piece in South German currency.

States had to limit their coinage of fractional coin to their necessary requirements.

Article 6: All coins shall be uniformly struck and of full fineness and weight.

Article 7: The fineness shall be expressed in thousandths. In determining the fineness of silver coins, the assay would be performed by the liquid process.

Article 8: For the accommodation and facilitation of international trade among the contracting states, two coins, answering to the specifications of the principal coins, provided for in Article 2 and on the monetary basis there contemplated, would be struck under the denomination of Vereinsthaler.

Article 9: Coins of the old monetary union of 1838 would be full legal tender, and any discrimination against such coins was forbidden.

Article 10: Coins would be 90% silver and 10% copper. A Thaler coin would be 33 mm in diameter, and two-thaler would will be 41 mm in diameter. Obverse and reverse devices were also specified.

Article 11: Each state would coin at least 24 thaler coins per 100 people by 1862 and at least 16 pieces per 100 people in every four years from 1863. The number of two-thaler coins to be struck was left to the discretion of each individual state.

Article 12: Provides for coinage testing.

Article 13: Provided rules for withdrawal or devaluation.

Articles 14-17: Provided for sub-thaler coins in silver and copper.

Articles 18-20: Provided for golden crowns and half-crowns.

Articles 21-27: Details on rules and duration.

Article 28: The treaty would take effect, after timely ratifications, on 1 May 1857.

Aftermath
The Vienna Monetary Treaty failed to accomplish all of its intended results for two principal reasons. First, it ran counter to the monetary theories, most widely held at the time, which favored a gold standard. Second, unfavourable political events began soon after its adoption. The Second Italian War of Independence  broke out between Italy and Austria in 1859, less than two years after the conclusion of the treaty hampered its operation. After the Austro-Prussian War, Austria then withdrew from the monetary union. On 31 July 1867, it adopted to a gold standard by a treaty with the Latin Monetary Union.

See also
Munich Coin Treaty
Dresden Coinage Convention
Thaler
Unification of Germany
Vereinsthaler

References

Treaties of the Austrian Empire
1857 treaties
1857 in the Austrian Empire
Currency treaties
Treaties of Liechtenstein
Treaties of the Kingdom of Prussia
Treaties of the Kingdom of Saxony
Treaties of the Kingdom of Hanover
Treaties of the Grand Duchy of Hesse
Treaties of the Electorate of Hesse
Treaties of the Grand Duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach
Treaties of the Duchy of Saxe-Altenburg
Treaties of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha
Treaties of the Duchy of Brunswick
Treaties of the Duchy of Oldenburg
Treaties of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt
Treaties of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen
Treaties of Waldeck (state)
Treaties of the Principality of Reuss-Gera
Treaties of the Principality of Reuss-Greiz
Treaties of the Principality of Lippe
Treaties of the Kingdom of Bavaria
Treaties of the Kingdom of Württemberg
Treaties of the Grand Duchy of Baden
Treaties of the Duchy of Saxe-Meiningen
Treaties of the Duchy of Nassau
Treaties of the Free City of Frankfurt
Treaties of Hesse-Homburg
Treaties of Anhalt-Dessau
Treaties of Anhalt-Bernburg
Treaties of the Principality of Schaumburg-Lippe

Vienna Monetary Treaty


Pamela Jackson is a Christian writer, public speaker and novelist.

Born in Atlanta, Georgia, and raised in Alpharetta, Georgia, Jackson obtained a B.A. in Communication Arts and Philosophy from the University of Maryland. Her talent for words began there, where she interned as a speech writer. After graduation, Jackson wrote copy for an advertising agency in Atlanta.

In mid-life Jackson went into ministry, becoming a Certified Candidate as a Local Pastor in the United Methodist Church. She concentrated her efforts in Hispanic ministry and teaching.

Jackson writes fiction and poetry. She is the recipient of the Georgia Author of the Year Award, and a member of The International Women's Writing Guild.

On This Side of Heaven, Jackson's first novel, follows the journey of a corrupt preacher in a fast-growing affluent suburb who is determined to build a mega church, at any cost.  Jackson has written a series of books in the Heavenly Novels series: On This Side of Heaven (2006), For the Love of Heaven (2007), with several other Heavenly Novels completed and slated for future release. Beyond the Cross, a book about Sanctification, was published in 2007.

Jackson cites her influences as Old Testament literature, including writings that were never canonized, F. Scott Fitzgerald, C. S. Lewis and Sue Monk Kidd. Jackson lives on a farm outside Atlanta. She is a member of Alpharetta First United Methodist Church.

External links
 Official website

1964 births
Living people
American writers
American women writers
21st-century American women

Pamela Jackson


"'Round Springfield" is the 125th episode (the 22nd episode of season 6) of The Simpsons. It was first shown on television on April 30, 1995. The episode was written by Joshua Sternin and Jeffrey Ventimilia based on a story idea by Al Jean and Mike Reiss and the first episode directed by Steven Dean Moore. The episode features many cultural references, including Carole King's song "Jazzman", the actor James Earl Jones and the Kimba the White Lion/The Lion King controversy.

Story
Bart Simpson gets a stomachache after accidentally eating a jagged metal Krusty-O with his breakfast cereal. Lisa is the only one who believes him, however. Homer and Marge send him to school anyway. Bart struggles through the test. After finally convincing Mrs. Krabappel that he is actually ill, she lets him go and see the nurse. Bart collapses on the medical room floor. He is then taken to Springfield General Hospital where he undergoes surgery from Dr. Hibbert and Dr. Nick. It seems Bart has appendicitis.

While visiting Bart in the hospital, Lisa meets her hero, jazzman Bleeding Gums Murphy, in a bed in another ward. Later, Bleeding Gums gives Lisa his saxophone for her school recital. It starts off terribly (owing to most of the orchestra having their appendixes removed so they could miss school), but Lisa gets up and performs a solo routine, becoming the star of the show. Returning to the hospital the next day, Lisa becomes sad to learn that Bleeding Gums has died. Lisa is the only person who attends Bleeding Gums's funeral, and she vows to make sure that everyone in Springfield knows the name Bleeding Gums Murphy. Bart, meanwhile, sues Krusty the Clown and is given a $100,000 settlement. However, after Bart's attorney Lionel Hutz takes his "legal fees", Bart is left with only $500, though Bart seems to be okay with it.

Lisa is still sad. She decides that the best way to honor Bleeding Gums' memory is by having his album played at the local jazz station. Lisa spots it in the Android's Dungeon store for $250, but after hearing that Bleeding Gums is dead, Comic Book Guy doubles the price to $500. Bart then walks in with his $500 and, after remembering that Lisa was the only one who believed him about his stomach ache, Bart decides to buy the album with his money, and Lisa thanks him for it. When the station plays one of Bleeding Gums's songs, Lisa is disappointed because the station's tiny range still prevents anyone from hearing it. Lightning then strikes the antenna, giving it extra power and projecting it into every radio in Springfield. Lisa is finally satisfied. After proclaiming "that was for you Bleeding Gums", she turns to leave, but not before Bleeding Gums is seen from heaven to tell Lisa that she had made "an old jazz man happy". After saying a final goodbye, Lisa and Bleeding Gums jam to "Jazzman" one last time.

Cultural references
The title of this episode is a play on both the song 'Round Midnight by Thelonious Monk and the movie of the same name about an unhappy jazz musician.

Bleeding Gums Murphy appears to Lisa in a cloud near the end of the episode with Darth Vader, Mufasa, and James Earl Jones saying "This is CNN". Despite the fact that all three characters were voiced by Jones, the characters in this scene were impersonated by cast member Harry Shearer; Jones himself guest-starred in two episodes before. Additionally, Mufasa accidentally said "Kimba". He corrects himself by saying "Simba". This is a reference to controversy regarding The Lion King'''s similarity to the anime show Kimba the White Lion. Lisa and Bleeding Gums play Carole King's song "Jazzman" in this scene and in the hospital earlier in the episode. Bleeding Gums has to leave at the end of the scene because he has a date with the jazz singer Billie Holiday. for the TV Show ER.

Bleeding Gums appears on an episode of The Cosby Show. This is a reference to Cosby often getting jazz musicians he liked to appear on the show; in the episode, Cosby is voiced by The Simpsons regular Dan Castellaneta. Lionel Hutz' "crack team of lawyers" Robert Shapiro and Albert Dershman are parodies of Robert Shapiro and Alan Dershowitz, two of the defense attorneys at the O.J. Simpson murder case. The three drive away in a white Ford Bronco, the same car O.J. Simpson drove in his televised low-speed pursuit before his arrest.

 Production
This was the first episode directed by Steven Dean Moore. Joshua Sternin and Jeffrey Ventimilia, who were writers on The Critic and were big fans of The Simpsons, were happy to be able to write an episode.The original story was based on a story idea by Al Jean and Mike Reiss. The main story of the episode's first act sees Bart get appendicitis from eating a jagged metal Krusty-O. Mike Reiss's father, being a doctor, "sort of" acted as the medical consultant on this episode. He stated that "you can't get" appendicitis from eating a piece of metal, but the writers decided to do it anyway. In his flashback, Murphy is shown as having a "$1,500 a day Fabergé egg habit"; Jean "didn't realize just how expensive" Fabergé eggs actually were, so the joke does not make much sense.

This episode was the first to have a recurring character killed off on the show. The writers and production team felt that it would be a good, emotional storyline, which, through Lisa, could focus on the theme of sadness. They decided that it could not be one of the main characters; Jean joked that "we wouldn't want it to be someone like Mr. Burns, that we'd obviously want to see in the show again". But later Jean decided on Bleeding Gums Murphy, a character introduced in "Moaning Lisa", an episode of season 1; a flashback to "Moaning Lisa" is featured in the episode.

Murphy was a fairly minor character, only appearing in 2 episodes of the show, but he appeared in the show's opening sequence and remained there after this episode, until the opening was re-designed in season 20. Moore's first-ever job on the show was in the animation department for "Moaning Lisa" so he "appreciated" being able to direct this episode. Reiss stated "I had been polling for years to kill Marge's mom but this was a better idea". Actor Ron Taylor returned to guest star as Murphy in the episode. Comedian Steve Allen also made his second guest appearance on the show, who had also appeared in the episode "Separate Vocations" before.

 Reception
"'Round Springfield" finished 60th on its American broadcast in the ratings for the week of April 24 to 30, 1995. It received a Nielsen rating of 8.2. The episode was the fourth highest-rated show on the Fox network that week. Mike Reiss and Al Jean thought that the episode would "get a ton of awards", and joked that this was why they opted to receive a story credit, which they usually would not. Ultimately it did not win any awards.

Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood, who were the authors of the book I Can't Believe It's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide found that it was "a real tear-jerker" and praised Grampa believing everything he saw was death. Ryan Keefer of DVD Verdict rated the episode a "B". Adam Finley of TV Squad liked the episode. He liked its many "great moments" including "Steve Allen pimping his books on TV: How to Make Love to Steve Allen; Happiness is a Naked Steve Allen; Journey to the Center of Steve Allen; The Joy of Cooking Steve Allen" and "Moe running a "retox" clinic right next to a detox clinic".

On the bad review side, Colin Jacobson of DVD Movie Guide called the episode "dull" stating that "some of the moments connected to Bart's illness are funny," but that he "really hate[s] that "Jazzman" song" and dislikes "the Bleeding Gums parts."

 Popularity
In the episode, budget cuts at Springfield Elementary School force the janitor Groundskeeper Willie to be used as a French teacher. Expressing his disdain for French people, he exclaims to his class: "Bonjour, you cheese-eatin' surrender monkeys." This quote, particularly the phrase "cheese-eating surrender monkeys", has since been more widely used. It was used particularly in the run-up to the war in Iraq, having been popularized by the right-wing National Review journalist Jonah Goldberg, to describe European and especially French opposition to military action. It was once noted that the phrase was "made acceptable in official diplomatic channels around the globe". Ben Macintyre has written that the phrase is "perhaps the most famous" of the show's coinages and since Goldberg's usage it "has gone on to become a journalistic cliché."

It has subsequently been used by the New York Post (as "Surrender Monkeys") as the headline for its December 7, 2006, front page, referring to the Iraq Study Group and its recommendation that U.S. soldiers be withdrawn from Iraq by early 2008. Articles in the Daily Mail have used the phrase in reference the French's "attitude problem", and the "muted" European reaction to the death of Osama Bin Laden, while The Daily Telegraph has cited it in relation to Anglo-French military cooperation. The term has been used in books by commentator Laura Ingraham, and academics Stuart Croft, Stephen Chan, and Paul L. Moorcraft and Philip M. Taylor. Ned Sherrin included the quote in the Oxford Dictionary of Humorous Quotations; it was introduced in the third edition in 2005. It is also included in the Oxford Dictionary of Modern Quotations. Douglas Coupland's 2009 novel Generation A'' refers to Groundskeeper Willie's use of the phrase.

The line was "probably" written by Ken Keeler during one of the episode's re-write sessions, although none of those present on the episode's DVD audio commentary could remember for sure. The writers were surprised it became as widely used as it did and never meant it as a political statement, merely as an "obnoxious" joke for Willie. The French dub of the show uses the line "singes mangeurs de fromage", eliding the word "surrender".

References

Other websites

The Simpsons (season 6) episodes
1995 television episodes

'Round Springfield


Accident-proneness is the idea that some people have a greater predisposition than others to experience accidents, such as car crashes and industrial injuries. It may be used as a reason to deny any insurance on such individuals.

Early work
The early work on this subject dates back to 1919, in a study by Greenwood and Woods, who studied workers at a British munitions factory and found that accidents were unevenly distributed among workers, with a relatively small proportion of workers accounting for most of the accidents.
Further work on accident-proneness was carried out in the 1930s and 1940s.

Present study
The subject is still being studied actively. Research into accident-proneness is of great interest in safety engineering, where human factors such as pilot error, or errors by nuclear plant operators, can have massive effects on the reliability and safety of a system.
One of the areas of most interest and more profound research is aeronautics, where accidents have been reviewed from psychological and human factors, to mechanical and technical failures. Many conclusive studies have presented that a human factor has great influence on the results of those occurrences.

Statistical evidence
Statistical evidence clearly demonstrates that different individuals can have different rates of accidents from one another; for example, young male drivers are the group at highest risk for being involved in car accidents. Substantial variation in personal accident rates also seem to occur between individuals.

Doubt
A number of studies have cast doubt, though, on whether accident-proneness actually exists as a "distinct, persistent and independently verifiable" physiological or psychological syndrome. Although substantial research has been devoted to this subject, no conclusive evidence seems to exist either for or against the existence of accident-proneness in this sense.

Nature and causes
The exact nature and causes of accident-proneness, assuming that it exists as a distinct entity, are unknown. Factors which have been considered as associated with accident-proneness have included absent-mindedness, clumsiness, carelessness, impulsivity, predisposition to risk-taking, and unconscious desires to create accidents as a way of achieving secondary gains.
Broad studies on the speed and accuracy using a specially designed test sheet of finding a specific figure on various people, such as Japanese, Brazil-born Japanese, Chinese, Russian, Spanish, Filipino, Thai, and Central American with different educational backgrounds. The studies have revealed that educational background or study experience is the key factor of concentration capability. Screening new employees using this test gave drastic decreases in work accidents in several companies.

Hypophobia

In 1908, 1 percent of U.S. households owned at least one automobile, while 50 percent did by 1948 and 75 percent did by 1960. In 2000, a majority of U.S. households had at least one personal computer and internet access the following year. In 2002, a majority of U.S. survey respondents reported having a mobile phone. In January 2013, a majority of U.S. survey respondents reported owning a smartphone. In July 1992, Behavioral Ecology published experimental research conducted by biologist Lee A. Dugatkin where guppies were sorted into "bold", "ordinary", and "timid" groups based upon their reactions when confronted by a smallmouth bass (i.e. inspecting the predator, hiding, or swimming away) after which the guppies were left in a tank with the bass. After 60 hours, 40 percent of the timid guppies and 15 percent of the ordinary guppies survived while none of the bold guppies did.

In The Handbook of the Emotions (1993), psychologist Arne Öhman studied pairing an unconditioned stimulus with evolutionarily-relevant fear-response neutral stimuli (snakes and spiders) versus evolutionarily-irrelevant fear-response neutral stimuli (mushrooms, flowers, physical representation of polyhedra, firearms, and electrical outlets) on human subjects and found that ophidiophobia and arachnophobia required only one pairing to develop a conditioned response while mycophobia, anthophobia, phobias of physical representations of polyhedra, firearms, and electrical outlets required multiple pairings and went extinct without continued conditioning while the conditioned ophidiophobia and arachnophobia were permanent. Similarly, psychologists Susan Mineka, Richard Keir, and Veda Price found that laboratory-raised rhesus macaques did not display fear if required to reach across a toy snake to receive a banana unless the macaque was shown a video of another macaque withdrawing in fright from the toy (which produced a permanent fear-response), while being shown a similar video of another macaque displaying fear of a flower produced no similar response.

Psychologist Paul Ekman cites the following anecdote recounted by Charles Darwin in The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (1872) in connection with Öhman's research:

In May 1998, Behaviour Research and Therapy published a longitudinal survey by psychologists Richie Poulton, Simon Davies, Ross G. Menzies, John D. Langley, and Phil A. Silva of subjects sampled from the Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and Development Study who had been injured in a fall between the ages of 5 and 9, compared them to children who had no similar injury, and found that at age 18, acrophobia was present in only 2 percent of the subjects who had an injurious fall but was present among 7 percent of subjects who had no injurious fall (with the same sample finding that typical basophobia was 7 times less common in subjects at age 18 who had injurious falls as children than subjects that did not).

Psychiatrists Isaac Marks and Randolph M. Nesse and evolutionary biologist George C. Williams have noted that people with systematically deficient responses to various adaptive phobias (e.g. basophobia, ophidiophobia, arachnophobia) are more temperamentally careless and more likely to receive unintentional injuries that are potentially fatal and have proposed that such deficient phobia should be classified as "hypophobia" due to its selfish genetic consequences. Nesse notes that while conditioned fear responses to evolutionarily novel dangerous objects such as electrical outlets is possible, the conditioning is slower because such cues have no prewired connection to fear, noting further that despite the emphasis of the risks of speeding and drunk driving in driver's education, it alone does not provide reliable protection against traffic collisions and that nearly one-quarter of all deaths in 2014 of people aged 15 to 24 in the United States were in traffic collisions.

In April 2006, The Indian Journal of Pediatrics published a study comparing 108 secondary education students attending a special education school that were diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) or a learning disability to a control group of 87 secondary school students that found the treatment group had experienced 0.57±1.6 accidents while the control group had experienced 0.23±0.4 accidents. In June 2016, the Journal of Attention Disorders published a study comparing a survey of 13,347 subjects (ages 3 to 17) from Germany in a nationwide, representative cross-sectional health interview and examination dataset collected by the Robert Koch Institute and a survey of 383,292 child and adolescent policyholders of a German health insurance company based in Saxony and Thuringia. Using a Chi-squared test on accident data about the subjects, the study found that 15.7% of subjects were reported to have been involved in an accident requiring medical treatment during the previous 12 months, while the percentage of ADHD subjects that had been involved in an accident was 23% versus 15.3% among the non-ADHD group and that the odds ratio for accidents was 1.6 for ADHD subjects compared to those without. Of the subjects in both samples diagnosed with ADHD (653 subjects and 18,741 policyholders respectively), approximately three-quarters of cases in both surveys were male (79.8% and 73.3% respectively).

In March 2016, Frontiers in Psychology published a survey of 457 post-secondary student Facebook users (following a face validity pilot of another 47 post-secondary student Facebook users) at a large university in North America showing that the severity of ADHD symptoms had a statistically significant positive correlation with Facebook usage while driving a motor vehicle and that impulses to use Facebook while driving were more potent among male users than female users. In January 2014, Accident Analysis & Prevention published a meta-analysis of 16 studies examining the relative risk of traffic collisions for drivers with ADHD, finding an overall relative risk estimate of 1.36 without controlling for exposure, a relative risk estimate of 1.29 when controlling for publication bias, a relative risk estimate of 1.23 when controlling for exposure, and a relative risk estimate of 1.86 for ADHD drivers with oppositional defiant disorder and/or conduct disorder comorbidities. In June 2021, Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews published a systematic review of 82 studies that all confirmed or implied elevated accident-proneness in ADHD patients and whose data suggested that the type of accidents or injuries and overall risk changes in ADHD patients over the lifespan.

In November 1999, Biological Psychiatry published a literature review by psychiatrists Joseph Biederman and Thomas Spencer on the pathophysiology of ADHD that found the average heritability estimate of ADHD from twin studies to be 0.8, while a subsequent family, twin, and adoption studies literature review published in Molecular Psychiatry in April 2019 by psychologists Stephen Faraone and Henrik Larsson that found an average heritability estimate of 0.74. Additionally, Randolph M. Nesse has argued that the 5:1 male-to-female sex ratio in the epidemiology of ADHD suggests that ADHD may be the end of a continuum where males are overrepresented at the tails, citing clinical psychologist Simon Baron-Cohen's suggestion for the sex ratio in the epidemiology of autism as an analogue. Despite critique about its limited scope, methodology, and atheoretical character, the Big Five personality traits model (which includes conscientiousness) is well-established and well-replicated, and it has been suggested that the Big Five may have distinct biological substrates.

See also
 Accident analysis
 Accident insurance
 Counterphobic attitude
 Developmental coordination disorder § Associated disorders
 Diathesis–stress model
 Effects of the car on societies
 Human factors and ergonomics
 Lead–crime hypothesis
 Passive–aggressive behavior
 Traffic collision

References

Bundled references

Further reading

Safety
Safety engineering
Risk
Epidemiology
Accidents

Accident-proneness


Elbe-Saale was a Verwaltungsgemeinschaft ("collective municipality") in the district Salzlandkreis, in Saxony-Anhalt, Germany. It was situated on the left bank of the Elbe, around the confluence with the Saale. The seat of the Verwaltungsgemeinschaft was in Barby. It was disbanded on 1 January 2010.

The Verwaltungsgemeinschaft Elbe-Saale consisted of the following municipalities:

 Barby
 Breitenhagen
 Glinde
 Gnadau
 Groß Rosenburg
 Lödderitz
 Pömmelte
 Sachsendorf
 Tornitz
 Wespen
 Zuchau

References

Former Verwaltungsgemeinschaften in Saxony-Anhalt

Elbe-Saale


Chris Carmichael (born July 6, 1962) is an American musician, arranger and composer.

Biography
Carmichael was born in San Antonio, Texas. The son of an Air Force fighter pilot, he moved extensively before taking up the violin while living in Hampton, Virginia. After moving to Bowling Green, Kentucky in 1975, he entered into more formal training - studying violin with Western Kentucky University professor Betty Pease (a former student of Ivan Galamian) for eight years. While in the university environment, he also studied music theory, composition, orchestral and chamber performance under teachers; Dr. David Livingston (a former student of composer Roy Harris), Vsevolod Lezhnev, (principal cellist with the Moscow Philharmonic and Pittsburgh Symphony orchestras) and Leon Gregorian (head of Michigan State University's conducting program).

After his formal training, he began a career as a touring musician for various artists in several genres including outlandish entertainers Joe Savage and Jason D. Williams (RCA).

After moving to Nashville, Tennessee in the late 1980s, his group Fifteen Strings—a hard rock band—landed a record deal with Atlantic Records in New York City. A few years later, he signed as a staff writer for Warner/Chappell in New York, but remained a Nashville resident.

In the early 1990s, Carmichael transitioned into full-time studio work and arranging. His orchestral arrangements have been performed by major groups such as the Boston Pops Orchestra.

Carmichael's television and radio appearances include the 71st Academy Awards, The Tonight Show, The Academy of Country Music Awards,  The Country Music Association Awards, CBS Morning Show, The View, A Prairie Home Companion, Noddy, and many others.

Arrangements of distinction include the string quartet arrangement of Tim McGraw's "If You're Reading This" which originally aired at the 2007 Academy of Country Music awards show, and later became a single release.

His contributions to film soundtracks include Down in the Valley, The Sapphires, and Shrek 2.

References

External links

 artvilla.com website

1962 births
Living people
Musicians from San Antonio
American music arrangers
Western Kentucky University alumni

Chris Carmichael (musician)


Dear Zindagi () is a 2016 Indian Hindi-language coming-of-age romantic comedy drama movie written and directed by Gauri Shinde. It was produced by Gauri Khan, Karan Johar, and Shinde under the banners of Red Chillies Entertainment, Dharma Productions, and Hope Productions respectively. The film stars Alia Bhatt and Shah Rukh Khan in lead roles, while Ira Dubey, Kunal Kapoor, Angad Bedi, Ali Zafar, Yashaswini Dayama and Rohit Suresh Saraf are playing the supporting roles.

Dear Zindagi released worldwide on 25 November 2016 and received positive reviews and was a success at the box office. The audience loved Alia Bhatt and Shah Rukh Khan's performances a lot.

Cast

 Alia Bhatt as Kaira
 Shah Rukh Khan as Dr. Jehangir "Jug" Khan
 Ali Zafar as Rumi
 Ira Dubey as Fatima
 Yashaswini Dayama as Jackie
 Gautmik as Ganju
 Yashwant Singh as Kaira's uncle
 Salone Mehta as Kaira's aunt
 Baby Dishita as little Kaira
 Nitika Anand as family friend
 Rohit Suresh Saraf as Kiddo
 Amit Nagraj as little Kiddo
 Aban Deohans as Kaira's mother
 Atul Kale as Kaira's father
 Martha Xavier Fernandes as Kaira's maternal grandmother
 Madhav Vaze as Kaira's maternal grandfather
 Kunal Kapoor as Raghuvendra
 Angad Bedi as Sid
 Ivan Sylvester Rodrigues as vice president of a hotel
 Akanksha Gade as maid Alka
 Aditya Roy Kapur as a furniture dealer (guest appearance)

References

Dear Zindagi


Terence "Pablo" Gerard Vaughan Percy DSC (29 August 1919 – 19 January 2015) was a Royal Navy officer of the Second World War in command of the 848th Naval Air Squadron on the carrier HMS Formidable. The squadron flew Grumman Avenger torpedo bombers and returning from a raid over Okinawa in May 1945, Percy was lucky to escape a Japanese Kamikaze attack on the Formidable in which his wingman died. Percy was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross for his many sorties during this time. In 1942 he had also been fortunate to escape when he was forced to ditch his aircraft in the North Sea due to mechanical failure. On another occasion he narrowly escaped a V1 rocket attack.

After the war, Percy became secretary of the Royal Golf Club of Belgium at Chateau de Ravenstein.

References

1919 births
2015 deaths
Royal Navy officers of World War II
Recipients of the Distinguished Service Cross (United Kingdom)

Terence Percy


Bromont, montagne d'expériences is an alpine ski resort located in Bromont, Quebec on the slopes of Mont Brome, Mont Spruce, and Pic du Chevreuil. As of the 2009-2010 season, it was the largest centre in North America for illuminated alpine skiing. It is one of the four major ski centres in the Eastern Townships east of Montreal, the other three being Ski Mont Sutton, Ski Mont Orford, and Owl's Head. It is about 45 minutes from Montreal.

Bromont is on the edge of the orographic snowbelt created by the Appalachians south of the St-Lawrence Valley. Mount Brome is 2000 feet high, and the resort has a vertical drop of 1300 feet. The resort has 9 chair lifts.

The ski resort opened in 1964, for the 1964-1965 ski season, with the opening of the new Eastern Townships Autoroute, Quebec Autoroute 10. It was created in the same year that the City of Bromont was created, out of Brome County. A second chalet was established at the top of the mountain in 1978. The City of Montreal has invested in the resort. The Canadian government has also invested in the resort. Its investment, for a World Cup event, created permanent facilities for the Bromont Ski School. Bromont became the largest night skiing venue in eastern North America in 2006 when it upped its lighted ski runs to 50.

At one time, the resort was part of the Ski East promotional group, along with the resorts of Jay Peak Resort (Vermont), Ski Mont Orford, Ski Mont Sutton, Owl's Head, Ski Mt. Echo.

At one time, the resort has staged events for the alpine Eastern Canada Cup. The resort has hosted the Bromont Cup, an alpine event that has been part of the Pontiac Cup, a national ski championship in Canada, that was based on the international championship, in the 1960s. It has also hosted an alpine World Cup event. Also hosted has been a freestyle World Cup event.

Amongst other things outside of ski season available at the resort, is an aquatic park, with water slides.

In 2018, Bromont replaced a 1985-built high speed quadruple Poma chairlift by Canada's second hybrid lift composed of six place chairs and eight passenger cabins, at a cost of roughly 10.1 M$, part of Bromont's 111 M$ Projet Altitude plan.

Mountain's Profile

References

Ski areas and resorts in Quebec
1964 establishments in Quebec
Tourist attractions in Montérégie
Brome-Missisquoi Regional County Municipality

Ski Bromont


Bingo is a term used in North American Scrabble for a play in which a player puts seven tiles on the board in a single turn. Mattel, the game's manufacturer outside North America, uses the term bonus to describe such a word. In French, it is called a scrabble. A player who does this receives 50-point bonus. The calculation of the bonus varies between the Hasbro and Mattel versions of the game, with the bonus applied before double- and triple-word scores multipliers in the Hasbro rules and after in the Mattel rules.

Bingos are an important part of achieving high scores in Scrabble. While many beginners rarely play even one during a game, experts frequently score three or more. Much advanced strategy revolves around maximizing one's chance of playing of a bingo: blank tiles are kept, poor letter combinations such as BVW, LLNNN, or IIIUU are broken up, and flexible letter combinations such as AEINST (a six-letter "stem" that anagrams with 24 letters — all but Q and Y — to form nearly 70 bingos) are aimed for until a bingo is formed. This strategy is often at direct odds with that of placing high-value letters on premium squares.

The highest-scoring bingo ever played in an official Scrabble tournament was by Karl Khoshnaw, who got 392 points for CAZIQUES in a 1982 game in Manchester.

Bingo examples
These facts are according to the SOWPODS lexicon as amended in 2006.

 The highest scoring 7-letter bingo is "MUZJIKS". Though the sum total of the seven tiles is 29 points, if the Z is placed on the double letter square (for maximum score value), the resulting score is (39x2) + 50 = 128 points.
 The highest scoring 8-letter bingo in Collins is "QUIZZIFY" (using a blank for one of the Zs). Placed on two triple-word squares with the Z on a double letter square, it scores 419.
 The highest scoring 8-letter bingo in TWL and the highest scoring 8-letter bingo without a blank is "QUINZHEE", which amounts to 401 points when played across two triple-word squares.
 The lowest possible score for a bingo is 56. This is achieved by making an 8-letter word with six one-point tiles and two blanks, or by making a 7-letter word with one blank and a two-letter word with both blanks. The word must not be doubled or tripled, and no one-point tile may be doubled or tripled. A 55-point bingo is theoretically possible in tournament play, by making a two-blank play on an empty board that misses the center star.
 The highest scoring 15-letter bingo is theoretically "OXYPHENBUTAZONE" (an anti-inflammatory drug once used mostly to treat arthritis). With 8 letters already placed between three triples, the word can score 1785. There are no reports of a triple-triple-triple ever being played in a competitive game, as it requires very unlikely circumstances.
 Based on the tile frequency, the most likely bingos in SOWPODS are OTARINE#/NOTAIRE#, followed by ETAERIO# (the # denotes words not in the TWL lexicon). Using the TWL lexicon, the most probable bingos are ANEROID, AILERON/ALIENOR, ATONIES, ELATION/TOENAIL, and ERASION.

References

External links
 The ABSP tournament records page

Scrabble

Bingo (Scrabble)


Christine Kamp (1966 in Strasbourg, France) is a Dutch organist & pianist.

Biography
She studied organ and piano at the Sweelinck Conservatory in Amsterdam, as well as organ, church music, chamber music and lied accompaniment at the Utrecht conservatory. Her organ teachers included Ewald Kooiman, Jacques van Oortmerssen and Jan Raas. Ronald Brautigam and Thom Bollen were among her piano teachers. She attended courses with György Sebők and Marie-Louise Jaquet-Langlais.
Christine Kamp has performed in the Netherlands (e.g. Concertgebouw Amsterdam and Sint-Bavokerk Haarlem), abroad (St. Clotilde, Paris), and has done recordings for radio, TV and CD. She gave the Dutch premiere (and first performance since 1928) of the Pièce Symphonique by Louis Vierne with the Holland Symfonia Orchestra conducted by Ermanno Florio in 2006.
She has been the organist of the Grote Kerk at Weesp since 1996.

Discography
Louis Vierne Complete organ works (2CD) Vol.1, 2, 3, 4 (5 not recorded): including complete choral works, transcriptions, organ with chant, brass & orchestra
Christine Kamp Sauer organ Hermannstadt/Sibiu Romania Vol.1, 2

Awards
In 2002, Christine Kamp was decorated with the Silver Medal of the Société Académique 'Arts Sciences Lettres' in Paris, and in 2008, with the Weesper Cultuurprijs.

References & Sources
Article
Interview
Interview radio

External links
Christine Kamp

1966 births
Living people
Dutch classical organists
Conservatorium van Amsterdam alumni
Musicians from Strasbourg
Date of birth missing (living people)
Women organists
20th-century organists
20th-century Dutch musicians
20th-century classical musicians
20th-century women musicians
21st-century organists
21st-century Dutch musicians
21st-century classical musicians
21st-century women musicians

Christine Kamp


In computer science, declarative programming is a programming paradigm—a style of building the structure and elements of computer programs—that expresses the logic of a computation without describing its control flow.

Many languages that apply this style attempt to minimize or eliminate side effects by describing what the program must accomplish in terms of the problem domain, rather than describing how to accomplish it as a sequence of the programming language primitives (the how being left up to the language's implementation). This is in contrast with imperative programming, which implements algorithms in explicit steps.

Declarative programming often considers programs as theories of a formal logic, and computations as deductions in that logic space. Declarative programming may greatly simplify writing parallel programs.

Common declarative languages include those of database query languages (e.g., SQL, XQuery), regular expressions, logic programming (e.g. Prolog, Datalog, answer set programming), functional programming, and configuration management systems.

The term is often used in contrast to imperative programming, which dictates the transformation steps of its state explicitly.

Definition
Declarative programming is often defined as any style of programming that is not imperative. A number of other common definitions attempt to define it by simply contrasting it with imperative programming. For example:

 A high-level program that describes what a computation should perform.
 Any programming language that lacks side effects (or more specifically, is referentially transparent)
 A language with a clear correspondence to mathematical logic.

These definitions overlap substantially.

Declarative programming is a non-imperative style of programming in which programs describe their desired results without explicitly listing commands or steps that must be performed. Functional and logic programming languages are characterized by a declarative programming style. In logic programming, programs consist of sentences expressed in logical form, and computation uses those sentences to solve problems, which are also expressed in logical form.

In a pure functional language, such as Haskell, all functions are without side effects, and state changes are only represented as functions that transform the state, which is explicitly represented as a first-class object in the program. Although pure functional languages are non-imperative, they often provide a facility for describing the effect of a function as a series of steps. Other functional languages, such as Lisp, OCaml and Erlang, support a mixture of procedural and functional programming.

Some logic programming languages, such as Prolog, and database query languages, such as SQL, while declarative in principle, also support a procedural style of programming.

Subparadigms
Declarative programming is an umbrella term that includes a number of better-known programming paradigms.

Constraint programming
Constraint programming states relations between variables in the form of constraints that specify the properties of the target solution. The set of constraints is solved by giving a value to each variable so that the solution is consistent with the maximum number of constraints. Constraint programming often complements other paradigms: functional, logical, or even imperative programming.

Domain-specific languages
Well-known examples of declarative domain-specific languages (DSLs) include the yacc parser generator input language, QML, the Make build specification language, Puppet's configuration management language, regular expressions, Datalog, answer set programming and a subset of SQL (SELECT queries, for example). DSLs have the advantage of being useful while not necessarily needing to be Turing-complete, which makes it easier for a language to be purely declarative.

Many markup languages such as HTML, MXML, XAML, XSLT or other user-interface markup languages are often declarative. HTML, for example, only describes what should appear on a webpage - it specifies neither control flow for rendering a page nor the page's possible interactions with a user.

, some software systems combine traditional user-interface markup languages (such as HTML) with declarative markup that defines what (but not how) the back-end server systems should do to support the declared interface. Such systems, typically using a domain-specific XML namespace, may include abstractions of SQL database syntax or parameterized calls to web services using representational state transfer (REST) and SOAP.

Functional programming
Functional programming languages such as Haskell, Scheme, and ML evaluate expressions via function application. Unlike the related but more imperative paradigm of procedural programming, functional programming places little emphasis on explicit sequencing. For example, in Scheme, the order of evaluation of many kinds of sub-expressions is undefined or implicit. Instead, computations are characterised by various kinds of recursive higher-order function application and composition, and as such can be regarded simply as a set of mappings between domains and codomains. Many functional languages, including most of those in the ML and Lisp families, are not purely functional, and thus allow the introduction of stateful effects in programs.

Hybrid languages

Makefiles, for example, specify dependencies in a declarative fashion, but include an imperative list of actions to take as well. Similarly, yacc specifies a context free grammar declaratively, but includes code snippets from a host language, which is usually imperative (such as C).

Logic programming
Logic programming languages, such as Prolog, Datalog and answer set programming, compute by proving that a goal is a logical consequence of the program, or by showing that the goal is true in a model defined by the program. Prolog computes by reducing goals to subgoals, top-down using  backward reasoning, whereas most Datalog systems compute bottom-up using  forward reasoning. Answer set programs typically use SAT solvers to generate a model of the program.

Modeling

Models, or mathematical representations, of physical systems may be implemented in computer code that is declarative. The code contains a number of equations, not imperative assignments, that describe ("declare") the behavioral relationships. When a model is expressed in this formalism, a computer is able to perform algebraic manipulations to best formulate the solution algorithm.  The mathematical causality is typically imposed at the boundaries of the physical system, while the behavioral description of the system itself is declarative or acausal. Declarative modeling languages and environments include Analytica, Modelica and Simile.

Examples

Lisp
Lisp (1958) stands for "LISt Processor." It is tailored to process lists. A data structure is formed by building lists of lists. In memory, this forms a tree data structure. Internally, the tree structure of typical Lisp data lends itself nicely to processing with recursive functions. The syntax to build a tree is to enclose the whitespace-separated elements within parenthesis. The following is a list of three elements. The first two elements are themselves lists of two elements each:

Lisp has functions to extract and reconstruct elements. The function car (sometimes called first) returns the first element in the list. The function cdr (sometimes called rest) returns a list containing everything but the first element. The function cons returns a list that is the second argument with the first prepended to it. Therefore, if X is a non-empty list, the following expression evaluates to the list X:

The code itself returns a copy of the list X. As is typical in functional languages, operations in Lisp often copy data when asked to produce new data from old. The tree structure of Lisp data facilitates this as well: a new structure made from pre-existing data shares as much of its internal structure with its antecedents as possible, with new additions stored as branches of the tree, and references to the original structure under its original name will return exactly that and no more.

One drawback of Lisp is when many functions are nested, the parentheses may look confusing. Modern Lisp environments help ensure parenthesis match. As an aside, Lisp does support the imperative language operations of the assignment statement and goto loops. Also, Lisp is not concerned with the datatype of the elements at compile time. Instead, it assigns the datatypes at runtime. This may lead to programming errors not being detected early in the development process. To counteract this, Lisp development is typically carried out in an extremely incremental manner, with functions and higher-order functions built up and tested live during development. Additionally, through the use of macros, which are Lisp functions that operate upon Lisp programs as data structures, type checking may be performed discretionally at any point the programmer wishes.

Writing large, reliable, and readable Lisp programs requires forethought. If properly planned, the program may be much shorter than an equivalent imperative language program. Lisp is widely used in artificial intelligence. However, its usage has been accepted only because it has imperative language operations, making unintended side-effects possible.

ML
ML (1973) stands for "Meta Language." ML is statically typed, and function arguments and return types may be annotated.

ML is not as bracket-centric as Lisp, and instead uses a wider variety of syntax to codify the relationship between code elements, rather than appealing to list ordering and nesting to express everything. The following is an application of times_10:

 times_10 2

It returns "20 : int", that is, 20, a value of type int.

Like Lisp, ML is tailored to process lists, though all elements of a list must be the same type.

Prolog
Prolog (1972) stands for "PROgramming in LOGic." It was developed for natural language question answering, using SL resolution both to deduce answers to queries and to parse and generate natural language sentences.

The building blocks of a Prolog program are facts and rules. Here is a simple example:
cat(tom).                        % tom is a cat
mouse(jerry).                    % jerry is a mouse

animal(X) :- cat(X).             % each cat is an animal
animal(X) :- mouse(X).           % each mouse is an animal

big(X)   :- cat(X).              % each cat is big
small(X) :- mouse(X).            % each mouse is small

eat(X,Y) :- mouse(X), cheese(Y). % each mouse eats each cheese
eat(X,Y) :- big(X),   small(Y).  % each big being eats each small being

Given this program, the query eat(tom,jerry) succeeds, while eat(jerry,tom) fails. Moreover, the query eat(X,jerry) succeeds with the answer substitution X=tom.

Prolog executes programs top-down, using SLD resolution to  reason backwards, reducing goals to subgoals. In this example, it uses the last rule of the program to reduce the goal of answering the query eat(X,jerry) to the subgoals of first finding an X such that big(X) holds and then of showing that small(jerry) holds. It repeatedly uses rules to further reduce subgoals to other subgoals, until it eventually succeeds in  unifying all subgoals with facts in the program. This backward reasoning, goal-reduction strategy treats rules in logic programs as procedures, and makes Prolog both a declarative and  procedural programming language.

The broad range of Prolog applications is highlighted in the Year of Prolog Book, celebrating the 50 year anniversary of Prolog.

Datalog
The  origins of Datalog date back to the beginning of logic programming, but it was identified as a separate area around 1977. Syntactically and semantically, it is a subset of Prolog. But because it does not have  compound terms, it is not Turing-complete.

Most Datalog systems execute programs bottom-up, using rules to  reason forwards, deriving new facts from existing facts, and terminating when there are no new facts that can be derived, or when the derived facts unify with the query. In the above example, a typical Datalog system would first derive the new facts:
animal(tom).
animal(jerry).
big(tom).
small(jerry).

Using these facts, it would then derive the additional fact:
eats(tom, jerry).

It would then terminate, both because no new, additional facts can be derived, and because the newly derived fact unifies with the query eats(X, jerry).

Datalog has been applied to such problems as data integration, information extraction, networking, security, cloud computing and machine learning.

Answer Set Programming
Answer set programming (ASP) evolved in the late 1990s, based on the stable model (answer set) semantics of logic programming. Like Datalog, it is a subset of Prolog; and, because it does not have compound terms, it is not Turing-complete.

Most implementations of ASP execute a program by first "grounding" the program, replacing all variables in rules by constants in all possible ways, and then using a propositional SAT solver, such as the DPLL algorithm to generate one or more models of the program.

Its applications are oriented towards solving difficult search problems and knowledge representation.

See also
 Comparison of programming paradigms
 Inductive programming
 List of declarative programming languages

References

External links

 Frans Coenen. Characteristics of declarative programming languages. 1999.
Robert Harper.
What, If Anything, Is A Declarative Language?. 2013.
"There Is Such A Thing As A Declarative Language, and It's The World's Best DSL". 2013.
 Olof Torgersson. A Note on Declarative Programming Paradigms and the Future of Definitional Programming. 1996.

Programming paradigms

Declarative programming


A coal preparation plant (or coal handling plant) is a place where coal is prepared for use after it has been mined. The coal is washed and resized here, before it is transported to be sold, loaded on coal transport or used locally. It is then transported to coal-fired power plants, for example.

Coal mining

Coal preparation plant


Confessions of a Serial Killer is a 1985 American horror film directed by Mark Blair.  Preceding Henry: Portrait of a Serial Killer by one year, the film details a serial killer (based on Henry Lee Lucas) who, after being arrested, confesses to the murders of over 200 women.

Synopsis
Daniel Ray (Robert A. Burns) has been arrested and much to the surprise and horror of the police officers, he begins to confess to the murders of over 200 women. He also talks about his background as a childhood abuse victim and runaway before meeting Moon (Dennis Hill) and Molly (Sidney Brammer), who accompanied him on several of his murders. This proves to be too much for Sheriff Will Gaines (Berkley Garrett) to believe, only for Daniel Ray to describe the events that led to his capture and arrest.

Cast
Robert A. Burns as Daniel Ray Hawkins
Dennis Hill as Moon Lewton
Berkley Garrett as Sheriff Will Gaines
Sidney Brammer as Molly Lewton
DeeDee Norton as Monica Krivics (as Dee Dee Norton)
Ollie Handley as Doctor Earl Krivics
Demp Toney as Doris Simpson
Lainie Frasier as Stranded Motorist (as Lainie Ferrante)
Eleese Lester as Karen Grimes
Colom L. Keating as Detective Barnes (as Colom Keating)
Dayna Blackwell as Girl Hitchhiker
John Browning as Doctor Spivey
Carla Edson as Honkytonk Girl
Gene Grottke as Deputy Sheriff
Brady Coleman as Arresting Officer #1

Reception
AllMovie compared Confessions of a Serial Killer to the 1986 film Henry: Portrait of a Serial Killer, saying that "where Henry's flat, non-judgmental documentary style served to amplify the horror of the proceedings, this film's depiction of the killings draws too heavily on slasher-movie conventions, which rob the story of its potency". TV Guide gave the film a rating of 2 1/2 stars out of 4.

References

External links

1980s slasher films
American slasher films
1985 films
1985 horror films
1985 thriller films
1980s crime thriller films
American horror thriller films
American crime thriller films
American serial killer films
Crime films based on actual events
American independent films
1980s English-language films
1980s American films

Confessions of a Serial Killer


The Cremona elephant was a gift presented to Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II by Sultan of Egypt Al-Kamil, in 1229. Frederick used the elephant in his triumph parades.

The elephant is mentioned in the context of the visit of  Frederick's brother-in-law Richard of Cornwall to Cremona in 1241, in the Chronica Maiora of Matthew Paris. The presence of the animal is also recorded in the Cremona city annals, in 1237.

This elephant was the first of its species reported from first-hand experience by European sources since the days of Abul Abbas owned by Charlemagne. Another 13th-century individual was owned by Louis IX (attested for 1255).

See also
History of elephants in Europe
List of individual elephants

References
 William S. Heckscher: Bernini's Elephant and Obelisk. In: Art Bulletin 29, 1949; S. 155–182
 Stephan Oettermann: Die Schaulust am Elefanten. Eine Elephantographia Curiosa. Syndikat, Frankfurt am Main 1982 S. 99

Individual elephants
Animals as diplomatic gifts
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor

Cremona elephant


Denis Donoghue (1 December 1928 – 6 April 2021) was an Irish literary critic. He was the Henry James Chair of English and American Letters at New York University.

Life and career
Donoghue was born at Tullow, County Carlow, into a Roman Catholic family, the youngest of four surviving children. He was brought up in Warrenpoint, County Down, Northern Ireland, where his father, Denis, was sergeant-in-charge of the Royal Ulster Constabulary. His mother was Johanna (O'Neill) Donoghue.

He was educated by the  Irish Christian Brothers at the Abbey Christian Brothers' Grammar School, Newry. He stood 6'7".

He studied Latin and English at University College Dublin, earning a bachelor of arts degree in 1949, an M.A. in 1952, a Ph.D. in 1957, and a D.Litt. (honoris causa) in 1989. He then studied Lieder singing at the Royal Irish Academy of Music. He earned an M.A. at the University of Cambridge in 1964, and returned to Dublin, becoming a professor at UCD.

In 1980, he was appointed to the Henry James chair of English and American letters at NYU, his final teaching post.

He married Frances Rutledge, formerly a teacher and flight attendant, on 1 December 1951. The couple had eight children. One, Emma Donoghue (born 1969), is an Irish-Canadian novelist, literary historian, teacher, playwright, and radio/film scriptwriter.

On 7 December 2018, aged 90, Donoghue married his longtime partner of more than twenty years, Melissa Malouf, in North Carolina, USA. Malouf
Melissa Malouf (born 1951), previously married to literary critic Frank Lentriccia. Malouf is a writer and retired Duke University professor of English. They resided together in Durham, North Carolina, until Denis Donoghue's death at age 92 on 6 April 2021 from natural causes. His first wife, Frances, predeceased him in 2018. He is survived by his second wife Melissa, his children (David, Helen, Hugh, Celia, Mark, Barbara, Stella and Emma), and a large extended family.

Works

The Third Voice: Modern British and American Verse Drama (1959)
The Integrity of Yeats (1964) editor
An Honoured Guest - New Essays on W.B. Yeats (1965) editor with J.R. Mulryne
Connoisseurs of Chaos: Ideas of Order in Modern American Poetry (1965)
The Ordinary Universe: Soundings in Modern Literature (1968) criticism
Swift Revisited (1968) editor, Thomas Davis Lectures, with Roger McHugh, Matthew Hodgart, Mark Kinkead-Weekes, and John Holloway
Emily Dickinson (1969)
Jonathan Swift: A Critical Introduction (1969) editor
Jonathan Swift, Penguin Critical Anthologies (1971) editor
Yeats (Fontana Modern Masters, 1971)
W. B. Yeats, Memoirs (1972) editor
Thieves of Fire (1973) T.S. Eliot Memorial Lectures.
Seven American Poets from MacLeish to Nemerov (1975) essays on John Berryman, Richard Eberhart, Randall Jarrell, Robert Lowell, Archibald MacLeish, Howard Nemerov and Theodore Roethke
The Sovereign Ghost: Studies in Imagination (1976)
Ferocious Alphabets (1981) criticism
The Politics of Modern Criticism (1981)
The Arts Without Mystery (1983) 1982 Reith Lectures
Creation and Interpretation (1984) with William Barrett, Richard Wollheim
R. P. Blackmur, Selected Essays (1986) editor
We Irish : Essays on Irish Literature & Society (1986)
Reading America: Essays on American Literature (1987)
America in Theory (1988) editor with Leslie Berlowitz and Louis Menand
England their England: Commentaries on English Language and Literature (1988)
Warrenpoint (1990) memoirs
The Pure Good Of Theory (1992) Bucknell Lectures in Literary Theory
Who Says What and The Question of Voice (1992) Princess Grace Irish Library Lectures
The Old Moderns,: Essays on Literature and Theory (1994)
Walter Pater: Lover of Strange Souls (1995) biography
Henry James Complete Stories, 1898-1910 (1997) editor
Practice Of Reading (1998)
Words Alone : The Poet T. S. Eliot (2000)
Adam's Curse: Reflections on Religion and Literature (2001)
Speaking of Beauty (2003)
The American Classics (2005)
On Eloquence (2008)
Warrenpoint (2013)
Metaphor (2014)

Broadcasting
In 1982 the BBC invited Donoghue to present its annual Reith Lectures. Across six lectures, called The Arts Without Mystery, he discussed how society's rationalisation of art was destroying its mystery.

References

Sources

1928 births
2021 deaths
Scholars and academics from County Carlow
Irish literary critics
New York University faculty
Musicians from County Down
Alumni of the Royal Irish Academy of Music
Alumni of University College Dublin
People educated at Abbey Christian Brothers' Grammar School
Musicians from County Carlow
Irish expatriates in the United States
Date of birth missing
People from Tullow

Denis Donoghue (academic)


Joseph L. Garrubbo (born January 28, 1938) is an American Democratic Party politician who served in the New Jersey General Assembly from 1974 to 1976, and as a Judge.  He is a 1962 graduate of Seton Hall University Law School and is a Certified Civil Trial Attorney.  He served as a Union County Freeholder and as a Municipal Court Judge.  He was elected to the State Assembly in 1973, defeating freshman Republican Assemblyman C. Louis Bassano by 6,153 votes.  He lost his bid for re-election to a second term in 1975, losing to Bassano by 1,156 votes.  He is a partner at Garrubbo & Capece.

References

Seton Hall University School of Law alumni
1938 births
Living people

Joseph L. Garrubbo


Nenad Milosavljević (Serbian Cyrillic: Ненад Милосављевић, born February 6, 1954), also known as Neša Galija (Неша Галија), is a Serbian musician and politician, best known as the frontman of the Serbian and former Yugoslav rock band Galija. He is the brother of Galija vocalist and lyricist Predrag Milosavljević. Nenad Milosavljević is a member of Socialist Party of Serbia, and is a former deputy in the National Assembly of Serbia.

Biography

Early life
Milosavljević was born on February 6, 1954, in Niš, to father Čedomir and mother Branislava Milosavljević. His brother Predrag was born three years earlier.

He went to Ratko Vukićević Elementary School in Niš. As a child, he learned to play the accordion, participating in elementary school competitions playing it. He learned to play the guitar in high school. At the same time, he sang in Dr Vojislav Vučković Music School choir and in Culture and Arts Society Veljko Vlahović choir.

As a teenager he was under a strong influence of the hippie movement. He started performing in parks in Niš and in parks and on the beaches on the Adriatic coast, playing rock hits on acoustic guitar and harmonica.

Early career
Milosavljević started composing as a teenager, on the lyrics of poems by famous poets. He composed the song "Čuj kako jauče vetar" ("Hear the Wind Howl"), on the lyrics by Dobriša Cesarić, and "Pozna jesen" ("Late Autumn"), on the lyrics by Vojislav Ilić.

Milosavljević had his first public performance in September 1970, in a club in Niš, performing alone, playing acoustic guitar and harmonica. Soon after the performance, with a help of acoustic rock band Lutajuća Srca member Milan Marković, Milosavljević made his first recordings in Radio Niš Studio. After that, Milosavljević performed with Lutajuća Srca on several occasions. At the same time, he continued to perform alone. In 1973, he appeared on Festival Omladina's Evening of Free Forms, as a replacement for previously announced Lutajuća Srca on a suggestion by the band members themselves. The appearance on the festival helped him appear in numerous shows, including Radio Belgrade show Veče uz radio (Evening by the Radio). In 1974, on Belgrade Spring Festival Lutajuća Srca performed Milosavljević's song "Ta ulica je meni znana" ("I Know that Street", on lyrics from Sergei Yesenin's poem).

In 1974, he wrote the music for a project by amateur theatre Treća polovina (Third Half). After an idea by the director Desimir Stanojević, Milosavljević made an agreement with the members of the band Dva Lustera (Two Chandeliers) to form a band which would perform during the play. The band consisted of Milosavljević (vocals), Goran Ljubisavljević (guitar), Predrag Branković (bass guitar), Nenad Tančić (drums) and Bratislav Stamenković (keyboards), while Nenad Milosavljević's brother Predrag sang backing vocals. The band had their first rehearsal on January 4, 1976. Soon after, the band made their first live appearance, on a play by Treća polovina, on April 11, 1977, they held a concert in Niš National Theatre. The concert also featured Lutajuća Srca, acoustic rock band Život from Kruševac and Elementary School Ratko Vukićević choir.

Galija

In 1977, the members of Dva Lustera decided to change their name to Galija, choosing the new name after a kafana in which they used to gather. Galija, led by Milosavljević, released their debut album, Prva plovidba, in 1979. The album featured Predrag Milosavljević as a lyricist (the band's second album, Druga plovidba, released in 1980, was the first album to feature Predrag Milosavljević as the official band member). The band's first several releases featured progressive rock sound, but in the mid-1980s they turned towards more commercial sound. Galija reached the peak of popularity in the late 1980s and early 1990s, becoming one of the most popular acts on the Serbian rock scene.

Milosavljević was the only author of the music on the band's first three studio albums, Prva plovidba, Druga plovidba and Ipak verujem u sebe (1982). During the following years, other Galija members also wrote music for the band's song, but since the release of the album Trinaest (1996), Milosavljević has been the only author of the music.

Solo recordings
During his career, Milosavljević made only few solo recordings. In 1998, he appeared, alongside Toni Montano, Viktorija, Dejan Cukić & Spori Ritam Band, Ksenija Pajčin, Maja Nikolić, Neverne Bebe and others, on the charity live album Terorizam ne! (Terrorism No!) with the song "Jeleni" ("To Jelena"). In 2013, he appeared at the Beosong festival with the song "Ruža od baruta" ("Gunpowder Rose"), but failed to qualify to the finals.

Theatre music and activities
Milosavljević started writing music for theatre while still a teenager. In the early 1970s he wrote music for Anton Chekhov's The Festivities played by amateur Culture and Arts Society Veljko Vlahović. In the play he appeared as troubadour, playing guitar and singing his songs. In 1972, he composed the music for the play Aska and the Wolf (written after a short story by Ivo Andrić) directed by Marisav Radosavljević and played in Niš Puppet Theatre.

During the following years, Milosavljević wrote music for more than 100 theatre pieces, played in Puppet Theatre in Niš, National Theatre in Niš, National Theatre in Kikinda, DES Theatre in Belgrade, Theatre Bora Stanković in Vranje, National Theatre in Leskovac, National Theatre in Banja Luka, Belgrade Drama Theatre, Terazije Theatre, National Theatre in Belgrade, Atelje 212, Priština Theatre, Sombor Theatre, and other theatres.

Children's music
From 1974 to 1991, Milosavljević had cooperated with the Niš Scout Music Festival as a composer and arranger. Since 1979, he has cooperated with children's music festival Prolećna pesma (Spring Song), held in Kuršumlija, as a composer and arranger, and since 1986, as the festival editor. From 1979 to 1994, he had cooperated with Niš Children's Music Festival as a composer and arranger.

Film music
In 2002, Milosavljević wrote music for Zdravko Šotra's film Zona Zamfirova The music Milosavljević wrote, alongside other music used in the film, was released on two CDs, Zona Zamfirova – Zonina muzika (Zona Zamfirova – Zona's Music) and Zona Zamfirova – Manetova muzika (Zona Zamfirova – Mane's Music). In 2003, Milosavljević wrote music for Šotra's film The Robbery of the Third Reich (2004). The music from the film was released on CD in 2004.

Album production
In 2004, Milosavljević produced and arranged the double album Kalompuri (Black Train) by Srđan Azirović's Trumpet Orchestra. During the same year, he, together with Galija guitarist Dragutin Jakovljević, produced Galija's album Dobro jutro, to sam ja. In 2008, he produced and arranged the album Nečujna zvona (Silent Bells), featuring the traditional music of Kosovo and Metohija.

Political career
Milosavljević is a member of the Socialist Party of Serbia. On April 16, 2014, after the 2014 parliamentary election, he became a deputy in the National Assembly of Serbia.

Discography

With Galija

Prva plovidba (1979)
Druga plovidba (1980)
Ipak verujem u sebe (1982)
Bez naglih skokova (1984)
Digni ruku (1986)
Daleko je Sunce (1988)
Korak do slobode (1989)
Istorija, ti i ja (1991)
Karavan (1994)
Trinaest (1996)
Voleti voleti (1997)
Južnjačka uteha (1999)
Dobro jutro, to sam ja (2005)
Mesto pored prozora (2010)

Solo
"Jeleni" (Terorizam ne!, 1998)

References

EX YU ROCK enciklopedija 1960–2006, Janjatović Petar;

External links
Galija official website
Nenad Milosavljević at Discogs

1954 births
Living people
Musicians from Niš
Serbian record producers
Serbian rock singers
Serbian rock guitarists
Sportspeople from Niš
Yugoslav children's musicians
Yugoslav rock singers

Nenad Milosavljević


Masahiko Fujiwara (Japanese: 藤原 正彦 Fujiwara Masahiko; born July 9, 1943, in Shinkyo, Manchukuo) is a Japanese mathematician and writer who is known for his book The Dignity of the Nation. He is a professor emeritus at Ochanomizu University.

Biography
Masahiko Fujiwara is the son of Jirō Nitta and Tei Fujiwara, who were both popular authors. He graduated from the University of Tokyo in 1966.

He began writing after a two-year position as associate professor at the University of Colorado, with a book Wakaki sugakusha no Amerika
designed to explain American campus life to Japanese people. He also wrote about the University of Cambridge, after a year's visit (Harukanaru Kenburijji: Ichi sugakusha no Igirisu). In a popular book on mathematics, he categorized theorems as beautiful theorems or ugly theorems. He is also known in Japan for speaking out against government reforms in secondary education. He wrote The Dignity of the Nation, which according to Time Asia was the second best selling book in the first six months of 2006 in Japan.

In 2006, Fujiwara published Yo ni mo utsukushii sugaku nyumon ("An Introduction to the World's Most Elegant Mathematics") with the writer Yōko Ogawa: it is a dialogue between novelist and mathematician on the extraordinary beauty of numbers.

References

External links
Article in the Financial Times from 2007.
Online essay
Essay on Literature and Mathematics

Japanese essayists
Mathematics popularizers
Number theorists
20th-century Japanese mathematicians
21st-century Japanese mathematicians
1943 births
Living people
Recreational mathematicians
Japanese people from Manchukuo
University of Tokyo alumni
University of Colorado Boulder faculty
20th-century essayists
21st-century essayists
Academic staff of Ochanomizu University

Masahiko Fujiwara


Native American cultures across the 574 current Federally recognized tribes in the United States, can vary considerably by language, beliefs, customs, practices, laws, art forms, traditional clothing, and other facets of culture. Yet along with this diversity, there are certain elements which are encountered frequently and shared by many tribal nations.

European colonization of the Americas had a major impact on Native American cultures through what is known as the Columbian exchange. Also known as the Columbian interchange, this was the spread transfer of plants, animals, culture, human populations, technology, and ideas between the Americas and the Old World in the 15th and 16th centuries, following Christopher Columbus's 1492 voyage. The Columbian exchange generally had a destructive impact on Native American cultures through disease, and a 'clash of cultures', whereby European values of private property, smaller family structures, and labor led to conflict, appropriation of traditional communal lands and slavery.

Cultural areas
Academics tend to group the cultures of Indigenous North America by geographical region where shared cultural traits occur, based on how these cultures have continued since the Pre-Columbian era. The northwest culture area, for example, shared common traits such as salmon fishing, woodworking, large villages or towns, and a hierarchical social structure.

Native Americans in the United States fall into several distinct ethnolinguistic and territorial phyla, whose only uniting characteristic is that they were in a stage of either Mesolithic (hunter-gatherer]]) or Neolithic (subsistence farming) culture at the time of European contact.

They can be classified as belonging to several large cultural areas:
Continental U.S.
Californian tribes (Northern): Yok-Utian, Pacific Coast Athabaskan, Coast Miwok, Yurok, Palaihnihan, Chumashan, Uto-Aztecan
Plateau tribes: Interior Salish, Plateau Penutian
Great Basin tribes: Uto-Aztecan
Pacific Northwest Coast tribes: Pacific Coast AthabaskanCoast Salish, Wakashan
Southwestern tribes: Uto-AztecanYuman, Southern Athabaskan
Plains Indians: Siouan, Plains Algonquian, Southern Athabaskan
Northeastern Woodlands tribes: Lenape, Pequot, Mohican, Mohawk, Iroquoian, Central Algonquian, Eastern Algonquian
Southeastern Woodlands tribes: Muskogean, Caddoan, Catawban, Iroquoian
Alaska Natives
Arctic: Eskimo–Aleut
Subarctic: Northern Athabaskan
Hawaiians

Language

There are approximately 296 spoken (or formerly spoken) indigenous languages north of Mexico, 269 of which are grouped into 29 families.

The major ethno-linguistic phyla are:
Na-Dene languages,
Iroquoian languages,
Caddoan languages
Algonquian languages
Algic languages,
Siouan–Catawban languages,
Uto-Aztecan languages,
Salishan languages,
Tanoan languages
Eskimo–Aleut (Alaska)

The Na-Dené, Algic, and Uto-Aztecan families are the largest in terms of number of languages. Uto-Aztecan has the most speakers (1.95 million) if the languages in Mexico are considered (mostly due to 1.5 million speakers of Nahuatl); Na-Dené comes in second with approximately 200,000 speakers (nearly 180,000 of these are speakers of Navajo), and Algic in third with about 180,000 speakers (mainly Cree and Ojibwe). Na-Dené and Algic have the widest geographic distributions: Algic currently spans from northeastern Canada across much of the continent down to northeastern Mexico (due to later migrations of the Kickapoo) with two outliers in California (Yurok and Wiyot). The remaining 27 languages are either isolates or unclassified), such as Penutian languages, Hokan, Gulf languages and others.

Organization

Gens structure
Early European American scholar described the Native Americans (as well as any other tribal society) as having a society dominated by clans or gentes (in the Roman model) before tribes were formed. There were some common characteristics:
The right to elect its sachem and chiefs.
The right to depose its sachem and chiefs.
The obligation not to marry in the gens.
Mutual rights of inheritance of the property of deceased members.
Reciprocal obligations of help, defense, and redress of injuries.
The right to bestow names on its members.
The right to adopt strangers into the gens.
Common religious rights, query.
A common burial place.
A council of the gens.

Tribal structures

Early European American scholars described the Native Americans as having a society dominated by clans.

Tribes, Nations, bands and clans may define and organize themselves in a variety of ways. Federally recognized tribes in the United States are communities of Indigenous people that have been in continual existence since prior to European contact, and which have a sovereign, government-to-government relationship with the Federal government of the United States. In the United States, the Native American tribe is a fundamental unit of sovereign tribal government, with the federally-recognized right to self-government and, tribal sovereignty and self-determination. These tribes possess the right to establish the legal requirements for membership. They may form their own government, enforce laws (both civil and criminal), tax, license and regulate activities, zone, and exclude people from tribal territories. Limitations on tribal powers of self-government include the same limitations applicable to states; for example, neither tribes nor states have the power to make war, engage in foreign relations, or coin money.

Traditional diets

The traditional diet of Native Americans has historically consisted of a combination of agriculture, hunting, and the gathering of wild foods, variable by bioregion.

Post-contact, European settlers in the northeastern region of the Americas observed that some of the Indigenous peoples cleared large areas for cropland. These fields in New England sometimes covered hundreds of acres. Colonists in Virginia noted thousands of acres under cultivation by Native Americans.

Native American agricultural communities have commonly used tools such as the hoe, maul, and dibber. The hoe is the main tool used to till the land and prepare it for planting; and later used for weeding. The first versions were made out of wood and stone. When the settlers brought iron, Native Americans switched to iron hoes and hatchets. The dibber was historically a digging stick, used to plant seeds. Once plants are harvested, traditionally women have prepared the produce for eating, using the maul to grind the corn into mash. It is then cooked and eaten that way or baked as corn bread.

Religion

Traditional Native American ceremonies are still practiced by many tribes and bands, and the older theological belief systems are still held by many of the traditional people. Many Plains tribes have sweatlodge ceremonies, though the specifics of the ceremony vary among tribes. Fasting, singing and prayer in the ancient languages of their people, and sometimes drumming, and dancing are also common.

The Midewiwin Lodge is a traditional medicine society based on the oral traditions and prophesies of the Ojibwa (Chippewa) and related tribes.

Another significant, though more recent, religious body among some Native Americans is the Native American Church. It is a syncretistic religion incorporating elements of Native spiritual practice from a number of different tribes. Some varieties also include elements from Christianity, while others do not. Its main rite is the peyote ceremony. Some tribes' traditional religious beliefs included Wakan Tanka. In the American Southwest, especially New Mexico, a syncretism between the Catholicism brought by Spanish missionaries and the Indigenous religions is common; the religious drums, chants, and dances of the Pueblo people are regularly part of Masses at Santa Fe's Saint Francis Cathedral. Native American-Catholic syncretism is also found elsewhere in the United States. (e.g., the National Kateri Tekakwitha Shrine in Fonda, New York and the National Shrine of the North American Martyrs in Auriesville, New York).

The eagle feather law (Title 50 Part 22 of the Code of Federal Regulations) stipulates that only individuals of certifiable Native American ancestry enrolled in a federally recognized tribe are legally authorized to obtain eagle feathers for religious or spiritual use. The law does not allow Native Americans to give eagle feathers to non-Native Americans.

Gender roles

Gender roles can vary significantly between tribal nations, with patriarchal, matriarchal, and egalitarian traditions among the 574 federally-recognized tribes.

Many tribes, such as the Haudenosaunee Six Nations and the Southeast Muskogean tribes, are traditionally matrilineal, with property and hereditary leadership passed through the maternal lines, and children belonging to their mother's and grandmother's clan. Others were patrilineal tribes, such as the Omaha, Osage and Ponca, where hereditary leadership passed through the male line, and children were considered to belong to the father and his clan.

Historically, when European-American male settlers had children with Native American women, if the tribe was patrilineal, their children were considered "white" like their fathers. If the mother was from a matrilineal tribe, the children would be considered tribal members. While rules have, in most cases, been modernized so the sex of the parent is irrelevant, historically the children of white fathers could have no official place in a patrilineal tribe because their fathers did not belong to it, unless they were adopted by a tribalmale and made part of his family.

In most of the Plains Nations, men traditionally hunt, trade and go to war. The women have traditionally held primary responsibility for the survival and welfare of the families (and future of the tribe). Traditionally, Plains women own the home, and tend to jobs such as gathering and cultivating plants for food and healing, along with caring for the young and the elderly, making clothing and processing and curing meat and skins. Plains women have historically tanned hides to make clothing as well as bags, saddle cloths, and tipi covers, and have used cradleboards to carry an infant while working or traveling.

Several dozen tribes have been documented to practiced polygyny to sisters, with procedural and economic limits.

Apart from making homes, women traditionally hold many additional responsibilities essential for the survival of the tribes, including the manufacture of weapons and tools, maintenance of the roofs of their homes, as well as historically participating in the bison hunts. In some of the Plains Indian tribes, medicine women gathered herbs and cured the ill.

The Lakota, Dakota, and Nakota girls have traditionally been encouraged to learn to ride, hunt and fight. Though fighting was predominantly the duty of men and boys, occasionally women fought as well, especially if the tribe was severely threatened.

Sports

Notable Native American athletes include Jim Thorpe, Joe Hipp, Notah Begay III, Jacoby Ellsbury, and Billy Mills.

Team based
Native American ball sports, such as lacrosse, stickball, or baggataway, have historically been used to settle disputes, rather than going to war, as a civil way to settle potential conflict. The Choctaw called it isitoboli ("Little Brother of War"); the Onondaga name was dehuntshigwa'es ("men hit a rounded object"). There are three basic versions, classified as Great Lakes, Iroquoian, and Southern.

The game is played with one or two rackets/sticks and one ball. The object of the game is to land the ball on the opposing team's goal (either a single post or net) to score and to prevent the opposing team from scoring on your goal. The game involves as few as 20 or as many as 300 players with no height or weight restrictions and no protective gear. The goals could be from around  apart to about ; in Lacrosse the field is .

Music

Native American musicians have occasionally found broader fame in more mainstream American music. Artists such as Robbie Robertson (The Band) and Redbone have had success on the rock and pop charts. Some, such as John Trudell, and Blackfoot have used music as political commentary and part of their work as activists for Native American and First Nations causes. Others, such as flautists Charles Littleleaf record traditional instruments with an aim of preserving the sounds of nature, or in the case of R. Carlos Nakai, integrate traditional instruments with more modern instrumentation. A variety of small and medium-sized recording companies offer an abundance of contemporary music by Native Americans and descendants, ranging from pow-wow drum music to rock-and-roll and rap.

A popular Native American musical form is pow wow drumming and singing, which happens at events like the annual Gathering of Nations in Albuquerque, New Mexico. One form involves members of drum groups sitting in a circle around a large drum, playing in unison while they sing together in their Indigenous language. Often they are accompanied by dancers in colorful regalia. Most Indigenous communities in the United States also maintain private, traditional songs and ceremonies, which are only shared within the community.

Art

Writing and communication

Native Americans in the United States have developed several original systems of communication, both in Pre-Columbian times, and later as a response to European influences. For example, the Iroquois, living around the Great Lakes and extending east and north, used strings or belts called wampum that served a dual function: the knots and beaded designs mnemonically chronicled tribal stories and legends, and further served as a medium of exchange and a unit of measure. The keepers of the articles were seen as tribal dignitaries.

A widely used form of communication historically, that is still in use to some extent today is Plains Indian Sign Language (PISL), also known as Hand Talk, Plains Sign Language and First Nation Sign Language. PISL is a trade language (or international auxiliary language), formerly a trade pidgin, that was once the lingua franca across central Canada, central and western United States and northern Mexico, used among the various Plains Nations. It is also used for story-telling, oratory, various ceremonies, and by deaf people for ordinary daily use.

In the late 1810s and early 1820s, the Cherokee syllabary was invented by the silversmith Sequoyah to write the Cherokee language. His creation of the syllabary is particularly noteworthy as he could not previously read any script. He first experimented with logograms, before developing his system into a syllabary. In his system, each symbol represents a syllable rather than a single phoneme; the 85 (originally 86) characters provide a suitable method to write Cherokee. Although some symbols resemble Latin, Greek, and Cyrillic letters, the relationship between symbols and sounds is different.

The success of the Cherokee syllabary inspired James Evans, a missionary in what is now Manitoba, during the 1840s to develop Cree syllabics. Evans had originally adapted the Latin script to Ojibwe (see Evans system), but after learning of the Cherokee syllabary, he experimented with invented scripts based on his familiarity with shorthand and Devanagari. When Evans later worked with the closely related Cree, and ran into trouble with the Latin alphabet, he turned to his Ojibwe project and in 1840 adapted it to the Cree language. The result contained just nine glyph shapes, each of which stood for a syllable with the vowels determined by the orientations of these shapes. Cree syllabics are primarily a Canadian phenomenon, but are used occasionally in the United States by communities that straddle the border.

Relationships with other cultures
Relationships between Native Americans, European-Americans, and African-Americians have taken different forms over many generations since European contact. Some of the first documented cases of European/Native American intermarriage and contact were recorded in Post-Columbian Mexico. One case is that of Gonzalo Guerrero, a European from Spain, who was shipwrecked along the Yucatan Peninsula, and fathered three Mestizo children with a Mayan noblewoman. Another is the case of Hernán Cortés and his mistress La Malinche, who gave birth to another of the first multi-racial people in the Americas.

Assimilation

European impact was immediate, widespread, and profound—more than any other cultural groups that had contact with Native Americans during the early years of colonization and nationhood. There was fear on both sides, as both peoples realized how different their societies were. The whites regarded the Indians as "savage" because they were not Christian, and were suspicious of cultures which they did not understand. The Native American author, Andrew J. Blackbird (Odawa), wrote in his History of the Ottawa and Chippewa Indians of Michigan, (1897), that white settlers introduced some immoralities into Native American tribes. Many Indians suffered because the Europeans introduced alcohol and the whiskey trade resulted in alcoholism among the people, who were alcohol-intolerant.

Slavery

A number of Native American tribes took captives in war, but usually these captives were able to later become full members of the community via adoption or marriage. While this has been called "slavery" by some anthropologists, none of the named tribes exploited slave labor on a large scale. In addition, Native Americans did not buy and sell captives in the pre-colonial era, although they sometimes exchanged captives with other tribes in peace gestures or in exchange for their own members.

The conditions of enslaved or hostage Native Americans varied among the tribes. In many cases, young  captives were adopted into the tribes to replace warriors killed during warfare or by disease. Other tribes practiced debt slavery or imposed slavery on tribal members who had committed crimes; but, this status was only temporary as the enslaved worked off their obligations to the tribal society.

Among some Pacific Northwest tribes, about a quarter of the population were enslaved. Other North American tribes that participated in some form of enslavement were the Comanche of Texas, the Creek of Georgia, the Pawnee, and Klamath. There was heavy incentive by colonizing Europeans to adopt slavery, and it was most common among tribes who were allied with the British.

European enslavement

During the European colonization of North America, the practice of slavery changed dramatically. As the demand for labor in the West Indies grew with the cultivation of sugar cane, European settlers frequently transported enslaved Native Americans to the Caribbean to work on plantations. White settlers in European colonies established in the American South purchased or captured Native Americans to use as forced labor in cultivating tobacco, rice, and indigo on plantations as well. Accurate records of the numbers enslaved do not exist. Scholars estimate tens of thousands of Native Americans may have been enslaved by the Europeans, sometimes being sold by Native Americans themselves but often war prizes with Europeans, similar to what occurred in the aftermath of the Pequot War. Slavery in Colonial America soon became racialized, including Native Americans and Africans but excluding Europeans. The Virginia General Assembly defined some terms of slavery in 1705:

The slave trade of Native Americans lasted only until around 1730.  It gave rise to a series of devastating wars among the tribes, including the Yamasee War. The Indian Wars of the early 18th century, combined with the increasing importation of African slaves, effectively ended the Native American slave trade by 1750. Colonists found that Native American slaves could easily escape, as they knew the country.  The wars cost the lives of numerous colonial slave traders and disrupted their early societies.  The remaining Native American groups banded together to face the Europeans from a position of strength. Many surviving Native American peoples of the southeast strengthened their loose coalitions of language groups and joined confederacies such as the Choctaw, the Creek, and the Catawba for protection.

Native American women were at risk for rape whether they were enslaved or not; during the early colonial years, settlers were disproportionately male.  They turned to Native women for sexual relationships. Both Native American and African enslaved women suffered rape and sexual harassment by male slaveholders and other white men.

Relation with Africans in the United States

African and Native Americans have interacted for centuries. The earliest record of Native American and African contact occurred in April 1502, when Spanish colonists transported the first Africans to Hispaniola to serve as slaves.

Native Americans were rewarded if they returned escaped slaves, and African Americans were rewarded for fighting in the late 19th-century Indian Wars.

While numerous tribes used captive enemies as servants and slaves, they also often adopted younger captives into their tribes to replace members who had died. In the Southeast, a few Native American tribes began to adopt a slavery system similar to that of the American colonists, buying African American slaves, especially the Cherokee, Choctaw, and Creek. Though less than 3% of Native Americans owned slaves, divisions grew among the Native Americans over slavery. Among the Cherokee, records show that slave holders in the tribe were largely the children of European men that had shown their children the economics of slavery. As European colonists took slaves into frontier areas, there were more opportunities for relationships between African and Native American peoples.

Among the Five Civilized Tribes, mixed-race slaveholders were generally part of an elite hierarchy, often based on their mothers' clan status, as the societies had matrilineal systems. As did Benjamin Hawkins, European fur traders and colonial officials tended to marry high-status women, in strategic alliances seen to benefit both sides. The Choctaw, Creek and Cherokee believed they benefited from stronger alliances with the traders and their societies. The women's sons gained their status from their mother's families; they were part of hereditary leadership lines who exercised power and accumulated personal wealth in their changing Native American societies. The chiefs of the tribes believed that some of the new generation of mixed-race, bilingual chiefs would lead their people into the future and be better able to adapt to new conditions influenced by European Americans.

Philosophy
Native American authors have written about aspects of "tribal philosophy" as opposed to the modern or Western worldview. Thus, Yankton Dakota author Vine Deloria Jr. in an  essay "Philosophy and the Tribal Peoples" argued that  whereas a "traditional Westerner" might reason, "Man is mortal; Socrates is a man; therefore, Socrates is mortal," aboriginal thinking might read, 'Socrates is mortal, because I once met Socrates and he is a man like me, and I am mortal.'
Deloria explains that both of the statements assume that all men are mortal, and that these statements are not verifiable on these grounds. The line of Native American thinking, however uses empirical evidence through memory to verify that Socrates was in fact a man like the person originally making the statement, and enhances the validity of the thinking. Deloria made the distinction, "whereas the Western syllogism simply introduces a doctrine using general concepts and depends on faith in the chain of reasoning for its verification, the Native American statement would stand by itself without faith and belief." Deloria also comments that Native American thinking is very specific (in the way described above) compared to the broadness of traditional Western thinking, which leads to different interpretations of basic principles. American thinkers have previously denounced Native ideas because of this narrower approach, as it leads to 'blurry' distinctions between the 'real' and the 'internal.'

According to Carlin Romano, the best resource on a characteristically "Native American Philosophy" is Scott L. Pratt's, Native Pragmatism: Rethinking the Roots of American Philosophy, which relates the ideas of many 'American' philosophers like Pierce, James, and Dewey to important concepts in early Native thought.
Pratt's publication takes his readers on a journey through American philosophical history from the colonial time period, and via detailed analysis, connects the experimental nature of early American pragmatism to the empirical habit of indigenous Americans. Though Pratt makes these alliances very comprehensible, he also makes clear that the lines between the ideas of Native Americans and American philosophers are complex and historically difficult to trace.

References

Native American culture
Native American art
Native American topics
Indigenous culture in the United States

Native American cultures in the United States