The Michigan Air National Guard (MI ANG) is the aerial militia of the State of Michigan, United States of America. It is, along with the Michigan Army National Guard, an element of the Michigan National Guard. The Michigan Air National Guard is also an Air Reserve Component of the United States Air Force.

As a state militia, the Michigan Air National Guard are not in the United States Air Force chain of command unless it is federalized. They are under the jurisdiction of the Governor of Michigan through the office of the Michigan Adjutant General unless they are federalized by order of the President of the United States. The Michigan Air National Guard is headquartered at the Joint Forces Headquarters compound, located in Lansing, Michigan and its commander is  Brigadier General Bryan J. Teff.

Overview
Michigan ANG units are trained and equipped by the Air Force and are operationally gained by a Major Command of the USAF if federalized.  In addition, the Michigan Air National Guard forces are assigned to Air Expeditionary Forces and are subject to deployment tasking orders along with their active duty and Air Force Reserve counterparts in their assigned cycle deployment window.

Along with their federal reserve obligations, as state militia units the elements of the Michigan ANG are subject to being activated by order of the Governor to provide protection of life and property, and preserve peace, order and public safety. State missions include disaster relief in times of earthquakes, hurricanes, floods and forest fires, search and rescue, protection of vital public services, and support to civil defense.

Components
The Michigan Air National Guard consists of the following major units:
 110th Attack Wing
 Established 16 September 1947 (as: 172d Fighter Squadron); operates: MQ-9 Reaper
 Stationed at: Kellogg Air National Guard Base, Battle Creek
 Gained by: Air Combat Command
 The wing was slated to operate the C-27J Spartan, manufactured by the Italian company Alenia Aermacchi. At the time the C-27J was the newest cargo aircraft in the Air Force inventory. The missions of the C-27 would have included direct support of Army units, homeland security, disaster response, and medical evacuation, as well as multiple other Federal and State requirements.  Due to political decisions, the C-27 mission was replaced with a new Remotely Piloted Aircraft (RPA) MQ-9 Reaper mission.

 127th Wing
 Established 7 May 1926 (as: 107th Observation Squadron)
 flying squadrons: 107th Fighter Squadron operates A-10 Thunderbolt II, 171st Air Refueling Squadron operates KC-135T Stratotanker
 Stationed at: Selfridge Air National Guard Base, Harrison Township
 Elements gained by: Air Combat Command and Air Mobility Command
 A composite wing composed of approximately 1,700 Citizen-Airmen and provides highly trained personnel and aircraft and support resources to serve the community, state and nation. The wing operates Boeing KC-135 Stratotankers, providing global aerial refueling capability in support of Air Mobility Command, and the Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II, flying the close air support mission for Air Combat Command. The Wing also supported the Air Force Special Operations Command with its 107th Weather Flight (inactivated by 30 September 2017).  The current commander of the 127th Wing is Brig. Gen. Rolf E. Mammen. With approximately 1,700 personnel assigned, the 127th Wing is among the most complex Air National Guard wings. The 127th Wing's home station, Selfridge Air National Guard Base, is the largest facility managed by a reserve component (Air National Guard or U.S. Air Force Reserve) of the U.S. Air Force.

Support Unit Functions and Capabilities:
 Alpena Combat Readiness Training Center
 Houses the Combat Readiness Training Center which trains various units from National Guard and the USAF.

History
The origins of the Michigan Air National Guard can be traced back to the 107th Aero Squadron, which was organized on 27 August 1917. The squadron assembled, serviced, and repaired aircraft during World War I. It was re-designated 801st Aero Squadron on 1 February 1918 and inactivated after the end of the war on 18 March 1919.

The Militia Act of 1903 established the present National Guard system, units raised by the states but paid for by the Federal Government, liable for immediate state service. If federalized by Presidential order, they fall under the regular military chain of command. On 1 June 1920, the Militia Bureau issued Circular No.1 on organization of National Guard air units.

It was reformed on 7 May 1926, as the 107th Observation Squadron and is oldest unit of the Michigan Air National Guard.   It is one of the 29 original National Guard Observation Squadrons of the United States Army National Guard formed before World War II. The 107th Observation Squadron was ordered into active service on 15 October 1940 as part of the buildup of the Army Air Corps prior to the United States entry into World War II.

World War II
The unit was activated again on 15 October 1940, being redesignated 107th Observation Squadron with Douglas O-38 and North American O-47 observation planes. It was sent to the airfield at Camp Beauregard, Louisiana for unit training on 28 October 1940. In 1941, the 107th was joined by two other National Guard observation units to form the 67th Observation Group. The 67th Group did anti-submarine patrolling off the East Coast of the US from mid-December 1941 to March 1942, when it returned to Louisiana for training in fighter aircraft.

Under War Department policy, many of Michigan's National Guard units were detached from their former organizations and attached to other units. Such was the case for the 107th Observation Squadron, which entered service with the 32nd Division. The squadron was later attached to the 67th Fighter Reconnaissance Group and performed outstanding service in the European Theater of Operations.

The 67th Group was sent to Membury, England, in August 1942 and flew the Spitfire Mk V and Tiger Moths for a year until equipped with the F-6A Mustang. The 107th became the first operational photographic reconnaissance squadron in Northern Europe. Before the Normandy landings in June 1944, pilots of the Michigan National Guard's 107th Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron were flying photographic missions in preparation for D-Day. The squadron's pilots flew 384 missions to perform the dangerous task of photographically mapping the French coast before D-Day. Miraculously, only one aircraft was shot down from December 1943 to June 1944. Lt. Donald E. Colton was killed in action in the vicinity of Rouen, France, on 9 May 1944. For its efforts during this period, the 107th received the Presidential Unit Citation.

Assigned to support the U.S. First Army during the Normandy Campaign, the 107th became the first recon squadron to operate from French soil. The squadron flew an additional 1,800-plus missions after May 1944 and participated in four campaigns following Normandy.

Reorganization
Following their service during World War II, all Michigan National Guard units remaining in Federal service were officially deactivated by the Army. Officers and men returned to their homes as individuals rather than in units. The Michigan National Guard was again required to undertake post-war re-establishment and organization from scratch.

On 24 May 1946, the United States Army Air Forces, in response to dramatic postwar military budget cuts imposed by President Harry S. Truman, allocated inactive unit designations to the National Guard Bureau for the formation of an Air Force National Guard. These unit designations were allotted and transferred to various State National Guard bureaus to provide them unit designations to re-establish them as Air National Guard units.

The Governor officially accepted the troop allotment assigned to Michigan by the National Defense Authority on 31 May 1946. The allotment called for 228 troop units (including 16 Air National Guard units) to be manned by 24,795 officers and men. This strength was not attained, however, because the United States War Department immediately began to scale down its plans.

Insofar as possible, units were allotted to Michigan communities that had previously sponsored National Guard units and where state-owned or leased armory facilities were available. Initial priority was given to the organization of the State Headquarters, the 46th Infantry Division, and Air National Guard units. On 29 September 1946, the first post-war units of the Michigan National Guard were activated. 18 September 1947, however, is considered the Michigan Air National Guard's official birth concurrent with the establishment of the United States Air Force as a separate branch of the United States military under the National Security Act.

Intense organizational efforts continued for the next two years. On 30 June 1948, the Adjutant General reported to the Governor that 94 percent of the first priority units had been organized and federally recognized. A total of 121 units (including 15 Air Guard units) had been organized in 40 communities with a strength of 8,818 officers and enlisted.

Korean War
The United States' second mobilization in a decade was touched off by the invasion of South Korea on 25 June 1950. 26 Michigan Army and Air National Guard units were called to active military service during the Korean War. Inducted strength of these units totaled 2,742 officers and men. All three squadrons of the 127th Fighter Wing, Michigan Air National Guard, were federalized in 1951. Two squadrons were stationed at Luke Air Force Base, Arizona. The Battle Creek squadron was assigned to Selfridge Air National Guard Base. The remaining federalized Michigan Army and Air National Guard units served in the United States, but some of their officers and men were transferred to units that eventually saw service in Korea. With the exception of those who elected to remain on active duty, most of Michigan's Guardsmen completed their tours of duty by the late spring or summer of 1952 and returned home.

1990s
When tensions began to reach the breaking point with Kosovo refugees being forced out of their homes in Yugoslavia, In 1997 the 110th Fighter Wing took part in Operation Deny Flight in 1997. Joining with other A-10 "Thunderbolt" units from other state National Guards and active-duty Air Force personnel, the Michigan Air National Guard members formed the 104th Expeditionary Operations Group, which were deployed from mid-May to early July 1997. In 1996, air crew members and maintainers from the airlift element of the 127th Fighter Wing deployed to Germany over a period of two months to fly support shuttle missions into Bosnia as part of Operation Joint Endeavor. The fighter element of the Wing took their F-16s to Singapore for training exercises with the Singapore Air Force, and then to Hawaii to participate in RIMPAC '96, a multi-national maritime exercise.

Elements of the Michigan National Guard were some of the last to serve at U.S. military installations in Panama before the return of those facilities to the Republic of Panama. The 171st Airlift Squadron of the 127th Wing is the last Air National Guard unit to perform missions from Howard Air Force Base in Panama and members of the 1775th and 46th Military Police Companies provided law enforcement services and security as Fort Clayton, Panama was closed down.

War on Terror
Michigan Air National Guard F-16s took to the skies within hours of the terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center towers and the Pentagon to fly combat air patrols over Michigan's cities. The 110th Fighter Wing had A-10 attack aircraft in service in both Iraq and Afghanistan, supporting Operation Iraqi Freedom and Operation Enduring Freedom.

See also

Michigan Volunteer Defense Force
Michigan Wing Civil Air Patrol

References

 Gross, Charles J (1996), The Air National Guard and the American Military Tradition, United States Dept. of Defense,
 Michigan Department of Military and Veterans Affairs website

External links

 Michigan Air National Guard
 110th Airlift Wing
 127th Wing

Air National Guard
United States Air National Guard
Air National Guard

Michigan Air National Guard


Franz Bronstert (18 February 1895 – 29 October 1967) was a German engineer and painter.

Life and art
Franz Bronstert was born to the teacher for arts and music Bernhard Bronstert and his wife Luise (from the Breil-family, an organ-builder dynasty) in Dorsten.
Before World War I Bronstert visited and finished the superior school for engineers in Hagen. He served during the war in the rank of Lieutenant and later "Rittmeister" equivalent to Captain. As a prisoner of war at Ripon, Yorkshire he got into contact with artists Fritz Fuhrken and Georg Philipp Wörlen and started with his own artistic work. These contacts led to the foundation of the group of artists "Der Fels" (The Rock) which was later completed by Reinhard Hilker and Carry Hauser.

Past the war he settled in Hagen and made contact with the group around collector Karl Ernst Osthaus especially with Christian Rohlfs. The latter influenced the work of Bronstert considerably. During this time a life-time friendship with Alfred Kubin developed. Membership in "Der Fels" led to numerous exhibitions all over Germany and Austria between 1921 and 1927. Eight portfolios with original prints of "Der Fels" were also published during this time.

His participation in exhibitions of Das Junge Rheinland(Young Rhineland) is also known of as well as participation in the group exhibition of Hagenring at Museum Osnabrück 1929.

Bronstert's art developed from radical expressionism of the early twenties to a
realistic phase and finally to a reformed impressionism as the artist claims himself. Bronstert finds his motifs mostly in nature.

Even though Bronstert mastered several techniques, like oil painting, drawing, woodcut it was the watercolour painting that he loved most.

As the financial success was not sufficient to feed a family, Bronstert had married Maria Regina Hedwig Schlickum, a relative of painter Carl Schlickum and writer Ferdinand Freiligrath; he took up a job as an engineer without stopping to paint. Four children were born subsequently. The possibility to work as an artist without financial pressure was the reason behind Bronsterts refusal to market himself.

Bronstert was both a technical and artistic talent. He was successful in his job and was a member of the board of VARTA with several international patents on his record when he retired. Past retirement he concentrated solely on his art again.

Works by Bronstert can be found in the Schneider Collection, Museum Baden, Solingen; in the collections of Karl Ernst Osthaus-Museum in Hagen; in the Museum Schloss Moyland, in the Von der Heydt-Museum, Wuppertal, in the Bavarian State Painting Collections, Munich,and in the art museums of Soest, Germany, Iserlohn, and Lüdenscheid as well as in private collections.

Bronstert died at Freudenberg (Baden) in 1967.

Selection of exhibitions
1921–1927 rotating exhibition "Der Fels", in many cities of Germany and Austria
1929 Museum Osnabrück: group exhibition "Hagenring"
1966 Gallery Lempertz Contempora, Cologne "Baukhage Bronstert Cordone Venema"
1991 Museum of Modern Art, Passau "Der Fels"
2006 Amtshaus Gallery, Freudenberg "Franz Bronstert - Ein Künstler der klassischen Moderne"
2008 City Museum Lüdenscheid "Nature viewed by painters and photographers"

See also
 List of German painters

Notes

References
 Der Fels, Künstlergemeinschaft 1921-1927: Franz Bronstert, Hagen, Fritz Fuhrken, Bremen, Carry Hauser, Wien, Reinhard Hilker, Hagen, Georg Ph. Wörlen, Passau / Museum Moderner Kunst, Passau (ed.: Michaela Rathgeber) 1991
 Jessewitsch, Rolf und Schneider, Gerhard (ed.): Expressive Gegenständlickeit, Schicksale figurativer Malerei und Graphik im 20. Jhd. Werke aus der Sammlung Gerhard Schneider, Kettler 2001,  Abb. 427-429

1895 births
1967 deaths
People from Dorsten
German Expressionist painters
German Army personnel of World War I
Engineers from North Rhine-Westphalia
20th-century German painters
20th-century German male artists
German male painters
Modern painters
People from the Province of Westphalia
Artists from North Rhine-Westphalia

Franz Bronstert


The Compact Cassette, also commonly called a cassette tape, audio cassette, or simply tape or cassette, is an analog magnetic tape recording format for audio recording and playback. Invented by Lou Ottens and his team at the Dutch company Philips and released in August 1963, Compact Cassettes come in two forms, either containing content as a prerecorded cassette (Musicassette), or as a fully recordable "blank" cassette. Both forms have two sides and are reversible by the user. Although other tape cassette formats have also existed—for example the Microcassette—the generic term cassette tape is normally used to refer to the Compact Cassette because of its ubiquity.

Its uses have ranged from portable audio to home recording to data storage for early microcomputers; the Compact Cassette technology was originally designed for dictation machines, but improvements in fidelity led to it supplanting the stereo 8-track cartridge and reel-to-reel tape recording in most non-professional audio applications by the mid-1970s.  It became an extremely popular format for prerecorded music, first alongside the LP record and later the digital compact disc (CD); the latter format eventually caused prerecorded cassettes to fade into obscurity by the mid-1990s in many countries, but it continued to be popular well into the 2000s in some other countries as well as for home recording purposes. Compact Cassette tapes remain in production  and survive as a niche format, continuing to receive some new music releases.

Compact Cassettes contain two miniature spools, between which the magnetically coated, polyester-type plastic film (magnetic tape) is passed and wound—essentially miniaturizing reel-to-reel audio tape and enclosing it, with its reels, in a small case (cartridge)—hence "cassette". These spools and their attendant parts are held inside a protective plastic shell which is  at its largest dimensions. The tape itself is commonly referred to as "eighth-inch" tape, supposedly  wide, but actually slightly larger, at . Two stereo pairs of tracks (four total) or two monaural audio tracks are available on the tape; one stereo pair or one monophonic track is played or recorded when the tape is moving in one direction and the second (pair) when moving in the other direction. This reversal is achieved either by manually flipping the cassette when the tape comes to an end, or by the reversal of tape movement, known as "auto-reverse", when the mechanism detects that the tape has ended.

History

Precursors

After the Second World War, magnetic tape recording technology proliferated across the world. In the United States, Ampex, using equipment obtained in Germany as a starting point, began commercial production of tape recorders. First used in studios to record radio programs, tape recorders quickly found their way into schools and homes. By 1953, 1 million US homes had tape machines.

In 1958, following four years of development, RCA Victor introduced the stereo, quarter-inch, reversible, reel-to-reel RCA tape cartridge.

Introduction

In the early 1960s Philips Eindhoven tasked two different teams to design a tape cartridge for thinner and narrower tape compared to what was used in reel-to-reel tape recorders. By 1962, the Vienna division of Philips developed a single-hole cassette, adapted from its German described name Einloch-Kassette.

Philips selected the two-spool cartridge as a winner and introduced it in Europe on 28 August 1963 at the Berlin Radio Show, and in the United States (under the Norelco brand) in November 1964. The trademark name Compact Cassette came a year later. The team of Dutch and Belgian origin at Philips was led by the Dutch Lou Ottens in Hasselt, Belgium.

Original mono version
Philips selected the two-spool cartridge as a winner and introduced the 2-track 2-direction mono version in Europe on 30 August 1963 at the Berlin Radio Show, and in the United States (under the Norelco brand) in November 1964. The trademark name Compact Cassette came a year later. The team of Dutch and Belgian origin at Philips was led by the Dutch Lou Ottens in Hasselt, Belgium.

Philips also offered a machine to play and record the cassettes, the Philips Typ EL 3300. An updated model, Typ EL 3301 was offered in the US in November 1964 as Norelco Carry-Corder 150. By 1966 over 250,000 recorders had been sold in the US alone and Japan soon became the major source of recorders. By 1968, 85 manufacturers had sold over 2.4 million players. By the end of the 1960s, the cassette business was worth an estimated 150 million dollars. By the early 1970s the compact cassette machines were outselling other types of tape machines by a large margin.

Philips was competing with Telefunken and Grundig (with their DC International format ) in a race to establish its cassette tape as the worldwide standard, and it wanted support from Japanese electronics manufacturers. Philips' Compact Cassette became dominant as a result of Sony pressuring Philips to license the format to them free of charge.

In the early years sound quality was mediocre, but it improved dramatically by the early 1970s when it caught up with the quality of 8-track tape and kept improving. The Compact Cassette went on to become a popular (and re-recordable) alternative to the 12-inch vinyl LP during the late 1970s.

Stereo version
As with prerecorded reel-to-reel and 8-track, sales were slow to start, but picked up rapidly to tie with the 8-track before superseding it by the early '70s. By 1968, 85 manufacturers had sold over 2.4 million mono and stereo players. By the end of the 1960s, the cassette business was worth an estimated 150 million dollars. By the early 1970s the compact cassette machines were outselling other types of tape machines by a large margin.

Popularity of music cassettes
The mass production of "blank" (not yet recorded) Compact Cassettes began in 1964 in Hanover, Germany. Prerecorded music cassettes (also known as Music-Cassettes, and later just Musicassettes; M.C. for short) were launched in Europe in late 1965. The Mercury Record Company, a US affiliate of Philips, introduced M.C. to the US in July 1966. The initial offering consisted of 49 titles.

However, the system had been designed initially for dictation and portable use, with the audio quality of early players not well suited for music. Some early models also had an unreliable mechanical design. In 1971, the Advent Corporation introduced their Model 201 tape deck that combined Dolby type B noise reduction and chromium(IV) oxide (CrO2) tape, with a commercial-grade tape transport mechanism supplied by the Wollensak camera division of 3M Corporation. This resulted in the format being taken more seriously for musical use, and started the era of high fidelity cassettes and players.

British record labels began releasing compact cassettes in October 1967, and they exploded as a mass-market medium after the first Walkman, the TPS-L2, went on sale on July 1, 1979, as cassettes provided portability, which vinyl records could not. While portable radios and boom boxes had been around for some time, the Walkman was the first truly personal portable music player, one that not only allowed users to listen to music away from home, but to do so in private. According to the technology news website The Verge, "the world changed" on the day the TPS-L2 was released. Stereo tape decks and boom boxes became some of the most highly sought-after consumer products of both decades, as the ability of users to take their music with them anywhere with ease led to its popularity around the globe.

Like the transistor radio in the 1950s and 1960s, the portable CD player in the 1990s, and the MP3 player in the 2000s, the Walkman defined the portable music market for the decade of the '80s, with cassette sales overtaking those of LPs. Total vinyl record sales remained higher well into the 1980s due to greater sales of singles, although cassette singles achieved popularity for a period in the 1990s. Another barrier to cassettes overtaking vinyl in sales was shoplifting; compact cassettes were small enough that a thief could easily place one inside a pocket and walk out of a shop without being noticed. To prevent this, retailers in the US would place cassettes inside oversized "spaghetti box" containers or locked display cases, either of which would significantly inhibit browsing, thus reducing cassette sales. During the early 1980s some record labels sought to solve this problem by introducing new, larger packages for cassettes which would allow them to be displayed alongside vinyl records and compact discs, or giving them a further market advantage over vinyl by adding bonus tracks. Willem Andriessen wrote that the development in technology allowed "hardware designers to discover and satisfy one of the collective desires of human beings all over the world, independent of region, climate, religion, culture, race, sex, age and education: the desire to enjoy music at any time, at any place, in any desired sound quality and almost at any wanted price". Critic Robert Palmer, writing in The New York Times in 1981, cited the proliferation of personal stereos as well as extra tracks not available on LP as reasons for the surge in popularity of cassettes.

Cassettes' ability to allow users to record content in public also led to a boom in bootleg cassettes made at live shows in the 1980s. The Walkman dominated the decade, selling up to 350 million units. So synonymous did the name "Walkman" become with all portable music players—with a German dictionary at one point defining the term as such without reference to Sony—that the Austrian Supreme Court ruled in 2002 that Sony, which had not sought to have the publisher of that dictionary retract that definition, could not prevent other companies from using that name, as it had now become genericized. As a result of this, a number of Sony's competitors produced their own version of the Walkman. Others made their own branded tape players, like JVC, Panasonic, Sharp, and Aiwa, the second-largest producer of the devices.

Between 1985, when cassettes overtook vinyl, and 1992, when they were overtaken by CDs (introduced in 1983 as a format that offered greater storage capacity and more accurate sound), the cassette tape was the most popular format in the United States and the UK. Record labels experimented with innovative packaging designs. A designer during the era explained: "There was so much money in the industry at the time, we could try anything with design." The introduction of the cassette single, called a "cassingle", was also part of this era and featured a music single in Compact Cassette form. Until 2005, cassettes remained the dominant medium for purchasing and listening to music in some developing countries, but compact disc (CD) technology had superseded the Compact Cassette in the vast majority of music markets throughout the world by this time.

Cassette culture

Compact cassettes served as catalysts for social change. Their small size, durability and ease of copying helped bring underground rock and punk music behind the Iron Curtain, creating a foothold for Western culture among the younger generations. Likewise, in Egypt cassettes empowered an unprecedented number of people to create culture, circulate information, and challenge ruling regimes before the internet became publicly accessible.

One of the most famous political uses of cassette tapes was the dissemination of sermons by the exiled Ayatollah Khomeini throughout Iran before the 1979 Iranian Revolution, in which Khomeini urged the overthrow of the regime of the Shah, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. During the military dictatorship of Chile (1973–1990) a "cassette culture" emerged where blacklisted music or music that was by other reasons not available as records was shared. Some pirate cassette producers created brands such as Cumbre y Cuatro that have in retrospect received praise for their contributions to popular music. Armed groups such as Manuel Rodríguez Patriotic Front (FPMR) and the Revolutionary Left Movement (MIR) made use of cassettes to spread their messages.

In 1970s India, cassettes were blamed for bringing unwanted Christian and Islamic influences into traditionally Sikh and Hindu areas. Cassette technology was a booming market for pop music in India, drawing criticism from conservatives while at the same time creating a huge market for legitimate recording companies, as well as pirated tapes. Some sales channels were associated with cassettes: in Spain filling stations often featured a display selling cassettes. While offering also mainstream music these cassettes became associated with genres such as Gipsy rhumba, light music and joke tapes that were very popular in the 1970s and 1980s.

Decline
Despite sales of CDs overtaking those of prerecorded cassettes in the early 1990s in the U.S., the format remained popular for specific applications, such as car audio, personal stereos, boomboxes, telephone answering machines, dictation, field recording, home recording, and mixtapes well into the decade. Cassette players were typically more resistant to shocks than CD players, and their lower fidelity was not considered a serious drawback in mobile use. With the introduction of electronic skip protection it became possible to use portable CD players on the go, and automotive CD players became viable. CD-R drives and media also became affordable for consumers around the same time.

By 1993, annual shipments of CD players had reached 5 million, up 21% from the year before; while cassette player shipments had dropped 7% to approximately 3.4 million. Sales of pre-recorded music cassettes in the US dropped from 442 million in 1990 to 274,000 by 2007. For audiobooks, the final year that cassettes represented greater than 50% of total market sales was 2002 when they were replaced by CDs as the dominant media.

The last new car with an available cassette player was a 2014 TagAZ AQUiLA. Four years prior, Sony had stopped the production of personal cassette players. In 2011, the Oxford English Dictionary removed the phrase "cassette player" from its 12th edition Concise version, which prompted some media sources to mistakenly report that the term "cassette tape" was being removed.

In India, music continued to be released on the cassette format due to its low cost until 2009.

21st century

Although portable digital recorders are most common today, analog tape remains a desirable option for certain artists and consumers. Artists and listeners of older genres like "dansband" may favor the format most familiar to their fans. Some musicians and DJs in the independent music community maintain a tradition of using and releasing cassettes due to its low cost and ease of use. Underground and DIY communities release regularly, and sometimes exclusively, on cassette format, particularly in experimental music circles and to a lesser extent in hardcore punk, death metal, and black metal circles, out of a fondness for the format. Even among major-label stars, the form has at least one devotee: Thurston Moore stated in 2009, "I only listen to cassettes." By 2019, few companies still made cassettes. Among those are National Audio Company, from the US, and Mulann, also known as Recording The Masters, from France.

Sony announced the end of cassette Walkman production on October 22, 2010, a result of the emergence of MP3 players such as Apple's iPod. Today Sony uses the Walkman brand solely for its line of digital media players, such as the NW-WM1ZM2, a high-end device released in 2022 for the niche audiophile market, which is manufactured with high quality components.

In 2010, Botswana-based Diamond Studios announced plans for establishing a plant to mass-produce cassettes in a bid to combat piracy. It opened in 2011.

In South Korea, the early English education boom for toddlers encourages a continuous demand for English language cassettes, , due to the affordable cost.

National Audio Company in Missouri, the largest of the few remaining manufacturers of audio cassettes in the US, oversaw the mass production of the "Awesome Mix #1" cassette from the film Guardians of the Galaxy in 2014. They reported that they had produced more than 10 million tapes in 2014 and that sales were up 20 percent the following year, their best year since they opened in 1969. In 2016, cassette sales in the United States rose by 74% to 129,000. In 2018, following several years of shortage, National Audio Company began producing their own magnetic tape, becoming the world's first known manufacturer of an all-new tape stock. Mulann, a company which acquired Pyral/RMGI in 2015 and originates from BASF, also started production of its new cassette tape stock in 2018, basing on reel tape formula.

In Japan and South Korea, the pop acts Matsuda Seiko, SHINee, and NCT 127released their material on limited-run cassettes.

In the mid-to-late 2010s, cassette sales saw a modest resurgence concurrent with the vinyl revival. As early as 2015, the retail chain Urban Outfitters, which had long sold LPs, started selling new pre-recorded cassettes (both new and old albums), blank cassettes, and players. In 2016, cassette sales increased, a trend that continued in 2017 and 2018. In the UK, sales of cassette tapes in 2021 reached its highest number since 2003.

Cassettes are favored by some artists and listeners, including those of older genres of music such as dansband, as well as independent and underground artists, some of whom were releasing new music on tape by the 2020s, including Britney Spears and Busta Rhymes. Reasons cited for this include tradition, low cost, the DIY ease of use, and a nostalgic fondness for how the format's imperfections lend greater vibrancy to low-fi, experimental music, despite the lack of the "full-bodied richness" of vinyl.

Features

The cassette was a great step forward in convenience from reel-to-reel audio tape recording, although, because of the limitations of the cassette's size and speed, it initially compared poorly in quality. Unlike the 4-track stereo open-reel format, the two stereo tracks of each side lie adjacent to each other, rather than being interleaved with the tracks of the other side. This permitted monaural cassette players to play stereo recordings "summed" as mono tracks and permitted stereo players to play mono recordings through both speakers. The tape is  wide, with each mono track  wide, plus an unrecorded guard band between each track. In stereo, each track is further divided into a left and a right channel of  each, with a gap of . The tape moves past the playback head at , the speed being a continuation of the increasingly slower speed series in open-reel machines operating at 30, 15, , or  inches per second. For comparison, the typical open-reel -inch 4-track consumer format used tape that is  wide, each track  wide, and running at either twice or four times the speed of a cassette.

Cassette types

Cassette tapes are made of a polyester-type plastic film with a magnetic coating. The original magnetic material was based on gamma ferric oxide (Fe2O3). Circa 1970, 3M Company developed a cobalt volume-doping process combined with a double-coating technique to enhance overall tape output levels. This product was marketed as "High Energy" under its Scotch brand of recording tapes. Inexpensive cassettes commonly are labeled "low-noise", but typically are not optimized for high frequency response. For this reason, some low-grade IEC Type I tapes have been marketed specifically as better suited for data storage than for sound recording.

In 1968, DuPont, the inventor of a chromium dioxide (CrO2) manufacturing process, began commercialization of CrO2 media. The first CrO2 cassette was introduced in 1970 by Advent, and later strongly backed by BASF, the inventor and longtime manufacturer of magnetic recording tape. Next, coatings using magnetite (Fe3O4) such as TDK's Audua were produced in an attempt to approach or exceed the sound quality of vinyl records. Cobalt-adsorbed iron oxide (Avilyn) was introduced by TDK in 1974 and proved very successful. "Type IV" tapes using pure metal particles (as opposed to oxide formulations) were introduced in 1979 by 3M under the trade name Metafine. The tape coating on most cassettes sold today as either "normal" or "chrome" consists of ferric oxide and cobalt mixed in varying ratios (and using various processes); there are very few cassettes on the market that use a pure (CrO2) coating.

Simple voice recorders and earlier cassette decks are designed to work with standard ferric formulations. Newer tape decks usually are built with switches and later detectors for the different bias and equalization requirements for higher grade tapes. The most common are iron oxide tapes (defined by the IEC 60094 standard.

Notches on top of the cassette shell indicate the type of tape. Type I cassettes have only write-protect notches, Type II have an additional pair next to the write protection ones, and Type IV (metal) have a third set near the middle of the top of the cassette shell. These allow later cassette decks to detect the tape type automatically and select the proper bias and equalization.

Tape length

Tape length usually is measured in minutes of total playing time.  The most popular varieties of blank tape were C60 (30 minutes per side), C90 (45 minutes per side) and C120 (60 minutes per side). The C46 and C60 lengths typically are  thick, but C90s are  and (the less common) C120s are just  thick, rendering them more susceptible to stretching or breakage. Even C180 tapes were available at one point.

Other lengths are (or were) also available from some vendors, including C10, C12 and C15 (useful for saving data from early home computers and in telephone answering machines), C30, C40, C50, C54, C64, C70, C74, C80, C84, C94, C100, C105, and C110. As late as 2010, Thomann still offered C10, C20, C30 and C40 IEC Type II tape cassettes for use with 4- and 8-track portastudios.

Track width
The full tape width is 3.8 mm. For mono recording the track width is 1.5 mm. In stereo mode each channel has width of 0.6 mm with a 0.3 mm separation to avoid crosstalk.

Head gap
The head-gap width is 2 µm which gives a theoretical maximum frequency of about 12 kHz (at the standard speed of 1 7/8 ips or 4.76 cm/s). A narrower gap would give a higher frequency limit but also weaker magnetization.

Cassette tape adapter
Cassette tape adapters allow external audio sources to be played back from any tape player, but were typically used for car audio systems. An attached audio cable with a phone connector converts the electrical signals to be read by the tape head, while mechanical gears simulate reel to reel movement without actual tapes when driven by the player mechanism.

Optional mechanical elements

In order to wind up the tape more reliably, the former BASF (from 1998 EMTEC) patented the Special Mechanism or Security Mechanism advertised with the abbreviation SM in the early 1970s, which was temporarily used under license by Agfa. This feature each includes a rail to guide the tape to the spool and prevent an unclean roll from forming.

Flaws
Magnetic tape is not an ideal medium for long-term archival storage, as it begins to degrade after 10 – 20 years, with some experts estimating its lifespan to be no more than 30 years.

A common mechanical problem occurs when a defective player or resistance in the tape path causes insufficient tension on the take-up spool. This would cause the magnetic tape to be fed out through the bottom of the cassette and become tangled in the mechanism of the player. In these cases, the player was said to have "eaten" or "chewed" the tape, often destroying the playability of the cassette. Splicing blocks, analogous to those used for open-reel 1/4" tape, were available and could be used to remove the damaged portion or repair the break in the tape.

Cassette players and recorders

The first cassette machines (e.g. the Philips EL 3300, introduced in August 1963)

A major innovation was the front-loading arrangement. Pioneer's angled cassette bay and the exposed bays of some Sansui models eventually were standardized as a front-loading door into which a cassette would be loaded. Later models would adopt electronic buttons, and replace conventional meters (which could be "pegged" when overloaded) with electronic LED or vacuum fluorescent displays, with level controls typically being controlled by either rotary controls or side-by-side sliders. BIC and Marantz briefly offered models that could be run at double speeds, but Nakamichi was widely recognized as one of the first companies to create decks that rivaled reel-to-reel decks with full 20–20,000 Hz frequency response, low noise, and very low wow and flutter.

Different interpretations of the cassette standard resulted in a 4 dB ambiguity at 16 kHz. Technically, both camps in this debate were still within the original cassette specification as no tolerance for frequency response is provided above 12.5 kHz and all calibration tones above 12.5 kHz are considered optional. Decreasing noise at 16 kHz also decreases the maximum signal level at 16 kHz, the High-Frequency Dynamics stay almost constant.

A third company, Bang & Olufsen of Denmark, created the Dolby HX "head room extension" system for reliably reducing tape saturation effects at high frequencies while maintaining higher bias levels.

Applications for car stereos varied widely. Auto manufacturers in the US typically would fit a cassette slot into their standard large radio faceplates. Europe and Asia would standardize on DIN and double DIN sized faceplates. In the 1980s, a high-end installation would have a Dolby AM/FM cassette deck, and they rendered the 8-track player obsolete in car installations because of space, performance, and audio quality. In the 1990s and 2000s, as the cost of building CD players declined, many manufacturers offered a CD player. The CD player eventually supplanted the cassette deck as standard equipment, but some cars, especially those targeted at older drivers, were offered with the option of a cassette player, either by itself or sometimes in combination with a CD slot. Most new cars can still accommodate aftermarket cassette players, and the auxiliary jack advertised for MP3 players can be used also with portable cassette players, but 2011 was the first model year for which no manufacturer offered factory-installed cassette players.

Applications

Audio

The Compact Cassette originally was intended for use in dictation machines. In this capacity, some later-model cassette-based dictation machines could also run the tape at half speed (15⁄16 in/s) as playback quality was not critical. The cassette soon became a popular medium for distributing prerecorded music—initially through the Philips Record Company (and subsidiary labels Mercury and Philips in the US). As of 2009, one still found cassettes used for a variety of purposes, such as journalism, oral history, meeting and interview transcripts, audio-books, and so on. Police are still big buyers of cassette tapes, as some lawyers "don't trust digital technology for interviews". However, they are starting to give way to Compact Discs and more "compact" digital storage media. Prerecorded cassettes were also employed as a way of providing chemotherapy information to recently diagnosed cancer patients as studies found anxiety and fear often gets in the way of the information processing.

The cassette quickly found use in the commercial music industry. One artifact found on some commercially produced music cassettes was a sequence of test tones, called SDR (Super Dynamic Range, also called XDR, or eXtended Dynamic Range) soundburst tones, at the beginning and end of the tape, heard in order of low frequency to high. These were used during SDR/XDR's duplication process to gauge the quality of the tape medium. Many consumers objected to these tones since they were not part of the recorded music.

Home studio
In the simplest configuration, rather than playing a pair of stereo channels of each side of the cassette, the typical "portastudio" used a four-track tape head assembly to access four tracks on the cassette at once (with the tape playing in one direction). Each track could be recorded to, erased, or played back individually, allowing musicians to overdub themselves and create simple multitrack recordings easily, which could then be mixed down to a finished stereo version on an external machine. To increase audio quality in these recorders, the tape speed sometimes was doubled to 3 inches per second, in comparison to the standard 17⁄8 ips; additionally, dbx, Dolby B or Dolby C noise reduction provided compansion (compression of the signal during recording with equal and opposite expansion of the signal during playback), which yields increased dynamic range by lowering the noise level and increasing the maximum signal level before distortion occurs. Multi-track cassette recorders with built-in mixer and signal routing features ranged from easy-to-use beginner units up to professional-level recording systems.

Home dubbing

Most cassettes were sold blank, and used for recording (dubbing) the owner's records (as backup, to play in the car, or to make mixtape compilations), their friends' records, or music from the radio. This practice was condemned by the music industry with such alarmist slogans as "Home Taping Is Killing Music". However, many claimed that the medium was ideal for spreading new music and would increase sales, and strongly defended their right to copy at least their own records onto tape. For a limited time in the early 1980s Island Records sold chromium dioxide "One Plus One"

Various legal cases arose surrounding the dubbing of cassettes. In the UK, in the case of CBS Songs v. Amstrad (1988), the House of Lords found in favor of Amstrad that producing equipment that facilitated the dubbing of cassettes, in this case a high-speed twin cassette deck that allowed one cassette to be copied directly onto another, did not constitute copyright infringement by the manufacturer. In a similar case, a shop owner who rented cassettes and sold blank tapes was not liable for copyright infringement even though it was clear that his customers likely were dubbing them at home. In both cases, the courts held that manufacturers and retailers could not be held accountable for the actions of consumers.

As an alternative to home dubbing, in the late 1980s, the Personics company installed booths in record stores across America that allowed customers to make personalized mixtapes from a digitally encoded back-catalogue with customised printed covers.

Data recording

Floppy disk storage had become the standard data storage medium in the United States by the mid-1980s; for example, by 1983 the majority of software sold by Atari Program Exchange was on floppy. Cassette remained more popular for 8-bit computers such as the Commodore 64, ZX Spectrum, MSX, and Amstrad CPC 464 in many countries such as the United Kingdom (where 8-bit software was mostly sold on cassette until that market disappeared altogether in the early 1990s). Reliability of cassettes for data storage is inconsistent, with many users recalling repeated attempts to load video games; the Commodore Datasette used very reliable, but slow, digital encoding. In some countries, including the United Kingdom, Poland, Hungary, and the Netherlands, cassette data storage was so popular that some radio stations would broadcast computer programs that listeners could record onto cassette and then load into their computer. See BASICODE.

The cassette was adapted into what is called a streamer cassette (also known as a "D/CAS" cassette), a version dedicated solely for data storage, and used chiefly for hard disk backups and other types of data. Streamer cassettes look almost exactly the same as a standard cassette, with the exception of having a notch about one quarter-inch wide and deep situated slightly off-center at the top edge of the cassette. Streamer cassettes also have a re-usable write-protect tab on only one side of the top edge of the cassette, with the other side of the top edge having either only an open rectangular hole, or no hole at all. This is due to the entire one-eighth inch width of the tape loaded inside being used by a streamer cassette drive for the writing and reading of data, hence only one side of the cassette being used. Streamer cassettes can hold anywhere from 250 kilobytes to 600 megabytes of data.

Rivals and successors

Technical development of the cassette effectively ceased when digital recordable media, such as DAT and MiniDisc, were introduced in the late 1980s and early-to-mid 1990s, with Dolby S recorders marking the peak of Compact Cassette technology. Anticipating the switch from analog to digital format, major companies, such as Sony, shifted their focus to new media. In 1992, Philips introduced the Digital Compact Cassette (DCC), a DAT-like tape in almost the same shell as a Compact Cassette. It was aimed primarily at the consumer market. A DCC deck could play back both types of cassettes. Unlike DAT, which was accepted in professional usage because it could record without lossy compression effects, DCC failed in home, mobile and professional environments, and was discontinued in 1996.

The microcassette largely supplanted the full-sized cassette in situations where voice-level fidelity is all that is required, such as in dictation machines and answering machines. Microcassettes have in turn given way to digital recorders of various descriptions. Since the rise of cheap CD-R discs, and flash memory-based digital audio players, the phenomenon of "home taping" has effectively switched to recording to a Compact Disc or downloading from commercial or music-sharing websites.

Because of consumer demand, the cassette has remained influential on design, more than a decade after its decline as a media mainstay. As the Compact Disc grew in popularity, cassette-shaped audio adapters were developed to provide an economical and clear way to obtain CD functionality in vehicles equipped with cassette decks but no CD player. A portable CD player would have its analog line-out connected to the adapter, which in turn fed the signal to the head of the cassette deck. These adapters continue to function with MP3 players and smartphones, and generally are more reliable than the FM transmitters that must be used to adapt CD players and digital audio players to car stereo systems. Digital audio players shaped as cassettes have also become available, which can be inserted into any cassette player and communicate with the head as if they were normal cassettes.

See also
 Compact Video Cassette
 Digital cassettes
 Digital journalism
 J-card
 Mini-Cassette
 Personal stereo
 Pocket Rockers
 Picocassette
 Timeline of audio formats
 VHS
 Video 2000

References

External links

 Project C-90, a website dedicated to cassette tapes
 tapedeck.org, an online collection of blank audio tape cassettes

Audiovisual introductions in 1963
Audio storage
Tape recording
Computer storage tape media
Home computer peripherals
Philips products
Belgian inventions
Dutch inventions
1963 in music
1963 in technology
Computer-related introductions in 1963
Products introduced in 1963
20th-century inventions
Science and technology in the Netherlands
Science and technology in Belgium

Cassette tape


Culinology, according to Jeff Cousminer in Food Product Design Magazine, is a term that was coined by the first president and founder of the Research Chefs Association, Winston Riley. The original meaning of the word was quite different from what it has come to mean today. Originally, the word was designed to be a combination of two words: "culinary" and "technology". So the first meaning of the word was the convergence of culinary arts and all technology, which includes communications, chemistry, physiology, economics and many others.

There are accredited culinology educational programs offered by many institutions. The curriculums of such courses combine the disciplines of cooking and food science. According to industry professionals, such as Harry Crane, culinology should "help jump-start product development."

Culinologists work in diverse aspects of food—from experimental chefs and menu planners to food manufacturing to fine dining. The word is protected by the professional association, the Research Chefs Association, which owns the registered trademark.

See also
Molecular gastronomy

References

External links
 Research Chefs Association website

Culinary arts
Food technology

Culinology


Samuel Colin Walker (born 2 October 1991) is an English professional footballer who plays as a goalkeeper for Charlton Athletic.

Walker progressed through the youth ranks at Millwall and Chelsea, although he failed to make an appearance for either club. He was loaned from Chelsea to Barnet, Northampton Town, Yeovil Town, Bristol Rovers and Colchester United on two occasions. He made his move to Colchester permanent in January 2014. He made over 200 appearances in total for Colchester.

Career

Chelsea
Born in Gravesend, Kent, Walker spent his childhood career playing for local club Gravesend & Northfleet but was later signed by Millwall. Chelsea were given permission to speak to a 15-year-old Walker after a £500,000 bid was accepted by the Lions in September 2007. He joined Norwich City on a youth loan in March 2009, playing for the under-19s to cover an international call-up for Jed Steer and an injury to Declan Rudd.

Walker was a member of the successful 2009–10 FA Youth Cup-winning squad with Chelsea. He and the team conceded just three goals throughout the entire competition. Having been a regular in the Chelsea youth sides, he subsequently became a regular at reserve team level

Barnet loan
Walker joined struggling League Two side Barnet on loan on 24 March 2011 until the end of the season. He made his Football League and professional debut two days later as the Bees came back from two goals down to draw with Chesterfield at Underhill. He was shown a red card for a second bookable offence in added time of a 2–1 home victory over Crewe Alexandra on 9 April, but a 3–1 away defeat to Accrington Stanley on 30 April left Barnet on the brink of relegation. However, on the final day of the season, with other results working in their favour, Barnet remained a Football League side as Walker kept his first clean sheet in a 1–0 victory over Port Vale. He ended his time with the Bees with seven league appearances.

Northampton Town loan
Northampton Town boss Gary Johnson signed Walker on a season-long loan from Chelsea on 11 July 2011 following his successful stint at Barnet. He made his debut for the Cobblers in an opening day 0–0 draw with Accrington on 5 August. Northampton suffered a string of heavy defeats, including a 7–2 home defeat by Shrewsbury Town on 19 November with the club having parted company with Gary Johnson earlier the same week. New manager Aidy Boothroyd offered the players a chance to impress him following significant defeats to Plymouth Argyle and Gillingham However, on 23 December, having made 24 appearances for the club, Boothroyd decided to send Walker back to Chelsea after announcing that Shane Higgs would be his first-choice goalkeeper.

Yeovil Town loan
Walker made the step up to League One football in 2012, signing on loan with Yeovil Town on 19 January until the end of the season, once again teaming up with Gary Johnson. He made his Yeovil debut on 21 January as they fell to a 3–2 away defeat at Bury. With the club struggling near the relegation zone, Walker put in some impressive performances, including a penalty save against Milton Keynes Dons as the Glovers went on to record a 1–0 victory and in turn boost their hopes of survival. Manager Johnson described a "horrendous mistake" by Walker in a 3–0 defeat to Charlton Athletic as a "lapse in concentration", with Walker describing his own recent performances as a "lapse in form". Walker retained his place in the first-team, and despite a 6–0 defeat by Stevenage, Yeovil survived their relegation battle and Walker completed his loan spell with 20 league appearances.

Bristol Rovers loan
Bristol Rovers signed Walker on loan on 14 August 2012 until 2 January 2013. He made his debut in a League Cup clash with Ipswich Town the same day, a match which the Pirates lost 3–1. Walker made 14 appearances at the Memorial Stadium, but failed to establish himself as a regular, with fellow loanee and former Chelsea trainee Neil Etheridge becoming first choice goalkeeper for the League Two side.

Colchester United loans
Walker first joined Colchester United on 14 January 2013, stepping up to League One for the second half of the 2012–13 season. Walker joined until the end of the season alongside fellow Chelsea player Billy Clifford with the U's having dropped into the bottom four in the table. He made his debut on 26 January and immediately kept a clean sheet as Colchester defeated Walsall 2–0 to end a run of nine league games without a point, the club's worst ever run. Walker produced clean sheets at former club Yeovil and Stevenage, as well as some important saves to secure points in wins against Bury and a penalty save against Leyton Orient. Walker kept another clean sheet on the final day of the season with a 2–0 away victory at Carlisle United, ensuring Colchester remained in League One for another season as they finished 20th in the table. He ended his first loan stint at the club with 19 league appearances.

Having been influential in goal in the second half of the 2012–13 season, on 19 July 2013, Walker rejoined Colchester on a six-month loan deal, keeping him at the club until 19 January. He kept a clean sheet in the opening day victory at Gillingham on 3 August. He conceded an own goal against Sheffield United in a home FA Cup tie on 9 November as Colchester slipped to a 3–2 defeat. In December 2013, with his contract expiring at the end of the season, Walker announced he needed to discuss his future with Chelsea before deciding whether to extend his loan spell at Colchester or pay attention to interest from elsewhere. Walker then played the final game of his loan spell away at Carlisle on 18 December, spilling a late free kick to concede a goal, although the U's went on to win 4–2. He amassed a further 29 appearances for Colchester in all competitions in his second loan period.

Colchester United
Following his two loan spells with the club in the 2012–13 and 2013–14 seasons, Walker signed for the League One club on a permanent basis on 20 January 2014 on an 18-month contract. Owing to a string of postponed games due to waterlogged pitches, Walker's first appearance as a full-time U's player didn't arrive until 11 February, when Colchester lost 2–0 at Port Vale. Walker signed a contract extension with the club in December 2014 to remain with Colchester until the summer of 2016.

Despite being ruled out of the first half of the 2015–16 season, Walker signed a new contract extension on 22 December 2015 to remain at the Colchester Community Stadium until the summer of 2018. Being ruled out for the entire season, Walker made just one solitary appearance during the 2015–16 season.

Walker made his first start in almost one year on 6 August 2016 in Colchester's 1–1 draw with Hartlepool United at Victoria Park on the opening day of the 2016–17 season. He played every league game in the 2016–17 season, making a total of 48 appearances throughout the campaign.

On 29 June 2018, Colchester manager John McGreal announced that Walker had left the club after failing to agree a new contract. He had made 47 appearances across the 2017–18 season and made 213 total appearances for the club including his loan spells.

Reading
On 25 July 2018, Walker signed a three-year contract with Reading.

Blackpool loan
On 23 December 2020, Walker joined League One side Blackpool on an emergency one-week loan after their first-team goalkeeper Chris Maxwell tested positive for Coronavirus. On 30 December, the loan was extended for a further seven days.

AFC Wimbledon loan
On 11 January 2021, Walker joined League One side AFC Wimbledon on loan for the remainder of the 2020-21 season.

Kilmarnock
In July 2021, Walker signed a two-year deal with Scottish Championship side Kilmarnock.

Charlton Athletic
On 16 October 2023, Walker joined Charlton Athletic on a short-term deal until January 2024.

Career statistics

Honours
Chelsea
2009–10 FA Youth Cup winner

References

External links

1991 births
Living people
Footballers from Gravesend, Kent
English men's footballers
Men's association football goalkeepers
Millwall F.C. players
Chelsea F.C. players
Norwich City F.C. players
Barnet F.C. players
Northampton Town F.C. players
Yeovil Town F.C. players
Bristol Rovers F.C. players
Colchester United F.C. players
Blackpool F.C. players
AFC Wimbledon players
Charlton Athletic F.C. players
English Football League players
Kilmarnock F.C. players
Scottish Professional Football League players

Sam Walker (footballer)