Seymouria was an amphibian tetrapod from the early Permian of North America and Europe, about 280 to 270 million years ago (mya). It was small, only 2 ft (60 cm) long.

As an adult animal, Seymouria was well adapted to life on land, with many reptilian features. It was for quite a long time thought to be a primitive reptile. It is now known that its early life stages were in water. Apparently, it is an amphibian whose adult stage was adapted for life in a dry climate.

The discovery of its amphibian nature was a considerable surprise.
"... the discovery of larval stages... demonstrated conclusively that the seymouriamorphs were not biologically amniotes". Fossil larvae have been found of three related genera, from the Upper Carboniferous and Lower Permian of five European countries.
"It has been shown conclusively that seymouriamorphs had an amphibian-type life history, with aquatic young stages that lost their external gills after metamorphosis.... Seymouriamorphs were definitely not amniotes themselves". This means they were not reptiles.

The adult skeletons were first found in the red beds of Texas and Oklahoma. These beds were laid down in the huge delta complex of a large river flowing towards a coast, much like the Mississippi of today. The species found in Germany and New Mexico, Seymouria sanjuanensis, had massive legs and held its body well off the ground. This shows an "effective adaptation to terrestrial locomotion".

A simplified life cycle might be: eggs laid in water, larval stages in water, young animal with limbs climbs out and instinctively moves to higher ground. All its life lived as a carnivore on dry land, returning to water occasionally to drink and to breed. The adults would be able to operate in a fairly dry climate.

References

Fossils
Amphibians

Seymouria


Georg III Truchsess von Waldburg-Zeil (Waldsee, 25 January 1488 – Bad Waldsee, 29 May 1531), also known as Bauernjörg, was a Swabian League Army Commander in the German Peasants' War.

Life

He was a member of the House of Waldburg, which received through him in 1525 the hereditary title of Truchsess (Seneschal, or Steward, in English) of the Holy Roman Empire and the right to put it in their family name.

He served since 1508 Duke Ulrich von Württemberg and helped him crush the Poor Conrad rebellion. In 1516 he fought for Bavaria alongside Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor in Italy against France and their allies.

In the next years he was in the service of the Swabian League and chased his former employer, Ulrich von Württemberg out of Württemberg. In 1525 he succeeded his cousin Wilhelm as governor of Württemberg. Both received the hereditary title of Imperial Steward (Reichserbtruchsess) from the hands of Emperor Charles V on 27 July 1526 in Toledo.

Bauernjörg
Georg became famous as Bauernjörg for his harsh and pitiless actions against the rebellious peasants in the German Peasants' War.

When the German peasants revolted in 1525, most Imperial troops were fighting in Italy. Georg von Waldburg could only recruit 4,000 unreliable Landsknechts and could do nothing more than to negotiate with the peasants. But after the victory against France in the Battle of Pavia, many war veterans returned to Southern Germany and were enlisted by Waldburg.

Under his command, army after army of peasants was defeated and pursued into their villages to be tortured and executed. Sources speak of between 70,000 and 130,000 peasants killed.
After the rebellion was crushed, Georg Truchsess von Waldburg-Zeil ruled large parts of the territories he had conquered, and collected ransoms from the remaining population.

In literature
The Truchsess von Waldburg-Zeil is a character in the historical novel Lichtenstein by Wilhelm Hauff. He is also a character in the historical novel The Adventurer, AKA Michael The Finn (Mikael Karvajalka) by Mika Waltari.

References

1488 births
1531 deaths
People from Bad Waldsee
House of Waldburg
German Peasants' War
Military personnel of the Holy Roman Empire

Georg, Truchsess von Waldburg


John Douglas Hall (January 18, 1957 – March 17, 2005) was an American politician, and a Democratic member of the North Carolina General Assembly. He represented the state's seventh House district, including constituents in Halifax and Nash counties. A radio station owner from Scotland Neck, North Carolina, Hall graduated from Scotland Neck High School in 1975 and went to Lenoir Community College. Hall served on the Halifax County Board of Commissioners and on the Scotland Neck City Council. Hall served 3.5 terms in the state House. He died while serving on March 17, 2005. North Carolina Governor Mike Easley appointed Ed Jones to fulfill the remainder of Hall's two-year term.

Notes

People from Scotland Neck, North Carolina
County commissioners in North Carolina
North Carolina city council members
Democratic Party members of the North Carolina House of Representatives
1957 births
2005 deaths
20th-century American politicians
21st-century American politicians

John D. Hall (politician)


The Beatles Book (also known as Beatles Monthly) was a fan magazine dedicated to the English rock band the Beatles, founded in 1963. It was first published in August 1963 and continued for 77 editions until it stopped publication after the December 1969 edition. It was revived in 1976, and ceased publication in 2003.

Publication history
In early 1963 a music writer and publisher, Sean O'Mahony, (who already published a magazine about the music scene called Beat Instrumental) heard Please Please Me and asked Brian Epstein if he could publish a magazine devoted to the Beatles. Epstein and the group agreed and the title launched in August 1963 with a print run of 80,000. By the end of the year circulation had grown to 330,000 copies per month. O'Mahony edited the magazine under the name of Johnny Dean.

The magazine's photographer, Leslie Bryce, had unrivalled access to the group throughout the 1960s, travelling the world and taking thousands of photographs. In addition, Beatles roadies Neil Aspinall and Mal Evans wrote many of the articles, and artist Bob Gibson created numerous cartoons and caricatures of the fab four on a regular basis. (He eventually did the cartoons for the Beatles' 1967 Magical Mystery Tour EP-set/US-album booklet.)

In May 1976 O'Mahony revived the publication and republished all 77 original issues surrounded by eight (later sixteen) pages of new Beatles news and articles. The reissue programme was completed in September 1982, coincidentally at a time when interest in the band was high due to the impending twentieth anniversary of "Love Me Do". Consequently, the decision was taken to continue the magazine with all new content. Publication continued until January 2003 (issue 321) when it once again ceased.

Sean O'Mahony retired from publishing in 2002 and died in 2020.

References

1963 establishments in the United Kingdom
1969 disestablishments in the United Kingdom
1976 establishments in the United Kingdom
2003 disestablishments in the United Kingdom
The Beatles
Music magazines published in the United Kingdom
Magazines established in 1963
Magazines disestablished in 1969
Magazines reestablished in 1976
Magazines disestablished in 2003
Monthly magazines published in the United Kingdom
Defunct magazines published in the United Kingdom

The Beatles Book


Darío Ripoll Herrera (San Pedro Garza García; May 16 of 1970) is a actor  Mexican of  cinema, theater and television known as Luis SanRomán in the series  Neighbors and the portrayed as Cardenas in Because love commands.

Career
Darío Ripoll studied a Bachelor of Acting at the National School of Theater Art of the INBA. He has taken acting training courses and acting specialization in cinema, with the directors: Nacho Ortíz, Joaquin Bissner and Luis Felipe Tovar.

With more than 20 years of artistic career, he has participated in more than 15 theatrical works, among which stand out:  Invisible Cities, Just Let's Get Out, The Suspicious Truth, Theatrical Blood, The Man of La Mancha, Chicago the Musical, Los Miserables, One Eva and Two Louts, The Rebel Novice, The Wife's Game and Peter Pan.

In cinema, his participation in the following feature films stands out:  7 Days, The Librarian, Artificial Lights, The Just, Divine Confusion, The Last Death and Tooth for a Tooth.

On television he has participated in soap operas such as:  The most beautiful ugly, I love Juan Querendón, Alma de Hierro, A lucky family  and in series such as  The Simulators, Thirteen Fears, Los Héroes del Norte,  Hermanos y Detectives, Addicts ,  XY, Mujeres Asesinas 3, La Familia Peluche (third season),  Neighbors  where he played Luis San Román (the bipolar) and his most recent participation in the telenovela "Because love commands" as Licenciado Cárdenas.

He also played the character of  Guáson in the Spanish dubbing of the video game "Batman: Arkham Origins".

Trajectory

Telenovelas

   Educating Nina  (2018) - Van Damme
  The pilot  (2017) - Eladio "El Bochas"
  My heart is yours  (2015) - Judge at Ana and Fernando's Wedding
  Because love rules  (2012-2013) - Oliverio Cárdenas
  A lucky family  (2011-2012) - Raymundo "Ray Pelonch"
  Iron soul  (2008-2009) - Monchi
  I love Juan Querendón  (2007-2008) - Oswaldo Ibarra
  The most beautiful ugly  (2006-2007) - Eder Roza del Moral

TV series

  Forever Joan Sebastian  (2016) - Chucho Rendón
  Logout  (2015) - Harmony
  The Plush Family  (2012) - Plush Police
  Star2  (2012) - Various characters
  Los Simuladores (2008) - Partner of the construction company
   Neighbors  (2005-2008 / 2012/2017-Present) - Luis San Román
  Furcio  (2000-2002)

Dubbing

  Batman: Arkham Origins  (2013) -  Joker (voice)
  Batman: Arkham Knight  (2015) - Joker (voice)

Darío Ripoll


Francis Cooke (ca. 1583 - April 7, 1663) was a passenger on the Mayflower.  He was a signer of the Mayflower Compact and was an important member of Plymouth Colony.

Francis Cooke lived in England and then in Leiden, Netherlands.

Cooke married Hester Mahieu at the French Walloon Church in Leiden. In August 1606 Francis Cooke and his wife moved to Norwich in county Norfolk in England. They did not live there long and returned to Netherlands. Their son John was baptized at the Walloon Church in Leiden in 1607.

On the Mayflower

When the English Separatist Church members in Leiden decided to go to America in 1620, Cooke decided he would go with them.  He brought his thirteen year–old son, John, with him. Cooke's wife and the younger children stayed in Leiden and came to Plymouth Colony on the ship Anne in July 1623.

The Mayflower left Plymouth, England on 6 September 1620. There were 102 passengers and 30–40 crew. On 19 November 1620, the Mayflower reached land at Cape Cod hook. They landed on November 21. They wrote the Mayflower Compact, which made rules on how they would live and treat each other.  Cooke was one of the signers. The Mayflower was supposed to land in Virginia Colony, but the ship was too damaged and they were forced to land at Cape Cod now called Provincetown Harbor.

In Plymouth Colony
In Plymouth Colony, the settlers were given land.  In that Division of Land in 1623, Cooke received two acres, one for himself and one acre for his son John. He also received 4 acres for his wife and children who came over on the ship called Anne in 1623.

Cooke's children were named John, Jacob, Jane, Hester and Mary.

Cooke seemed to have been trusted and liked by the other colonist because in early 1633, Cooke was assigned by the court to help resolve a dispute of a financial nature between Peter Browne and Dr. Samuel Fuller.

In 1640/41 Cooke was one of twelve men tasked by the court to make official travel routes, and make a formal survey and mark the boundaries of plots of land and for the Jones River. In 1645 he was again road surveyor for Plymouth. In June 1650, when he was almost seventy, he was still doing survey work. In August 1659, in his late 70s, he was again called upon by the Plymouth Court to help to decide a land boundary dispute between Thomas Pope and William Shurtliff.

Cooke also did other public service work, being on several petty and grand juries. He also served on civil case juries up to March 1643. Most of the civil case involved debts or slander. He was also on grand juries in 1638, 1640, 1642 and 1643 which involved more serious crimes.

In the 1643 Able to Bear Arms List, Francis Cooke and his sons Jacob and John Jr., are listed with those from Plymouth.

On December 7, 1659 Francis Cooke made out his will, saying he was weak in body.  The will was very simple and he gave everything to Hester, his loving wife. 1609.

Francis Cooke died in Plymouth on April 7, 1663 and was buried on Burial Hill in Plymouth, Massachusetts.

References

1580s births
1663 deaths
Mayflower passengers

Francis Cooke


Francis Asbury Morris (1817 – 1881) was an attorney general of the Republic of Texas.  He subsequently left the practice of law and became a Methodist minister.

Morris was born in Ohio in 1817 to Thomas Asbury Morris, later a Methodist bishop, and his wife Abigail Scales Morris.  He attended the University of Ohio and graduated from Augusta College.  He studied law and was admitted to the Ohio Bar in 1838.

The following year he moved to Texas to practice law and was named Attorney General in 1841 at the age of 24.

Later that year he went home to visit his sick mother who died in 1842.  This event profoundly influenced the young Morris.  He decided to change careers and go into the ministry.

He became professor of languages at St. Charles College (Missouri) in 1842.  He married Mary Fielding in 1845, who was the daughter of the school's late President and a first cousin of Julia Dent, who later married Ulysses S. Grant.

He was a circuit riding minister and pastor in Missouri for the next several decades.

He died in 1881 and was buried in St. Louis, Missouri.

References

The American Illustrated Methodist Magazine, Volume 1 - The Grants' Marriage
Annals of Methodism in Missouri - Francis Asbury Morris
Handbook of Texas Online - Francis Asbury Morris
West Virginia Historical Magazine Quarterly, Volumes 4-5 - Bishop Thomas Asbury Morris

1817 births
1881 deaths
Texas Attorneys General
19th-century Methodist ministers
Augusta College (Kentucky) alumni
19th-century American lawyers

Francis Asbury Morris


Yagli (foaled in 1993 in Kentucky) is a retired American Thoroughbred racehorse. He was bred and raced by prominent horseman and CEO of Gulfstream Aerospace Allen Paulson, who also owned U.S. Racing Hall of Fame inductee, Cigar, European Horse of the Year and winner of the 1991 Breeders' Cup Juvenile Arazi, as well as 2002 American Horse of the Year Azeri, among others.

A colt who developed late, Yagli began racing at age three but did not meet with much success until age five in 1998 when he won three Graded stakes races including the Hialeah Turf Cup Handicap and finished second in the Breeders' Cup Turf. The following year, he won three Grade I races at age six in 1999.

Paulson died in July 2000, and Yagli was sold by the estate to a stud farm in Brazil.

References

External Links
 Yagli's pedigree and partial racing stats

1993 racehorse births
Thoroughbred family 8-f
Racehorses bred in Kentucky
Racehorses trained in the United States

Yagli (horse)


Anywhere but Here is a novel written by American novelist Mona Simpson. The book was a commercial success and earned the author the Whiting Prize for her first novel. The book was adapted by Alvin Sargent into a major motion picture of the same name in 1999. The film starred Susan Sarandon and Natalie Portman, and was directed by Wayne Wang.

Plot
Adele August leaves her second husband, Ted, and taking her 11-year-old daughter Ann, drives in Ted's Lincoln Continental from their small Wisconsin hometown to Los Angeles with ambitions of making Ann a child star and finding herself a rich husband. Ann, the child of Adele's first marriage to an Egyptian man who deserted the family, is separated from her beloved grandmother Lillian who remained in Wisconsin, and must now cope on her own with her mother's moods, whims, fantasies, and occasional neglect and abuse. Narcissistic Adele is chronically dissatisfied with her life, lives above her means, overspends on clothing and status goods, and treats Ann as an extension of herself, rather than as a person in her own right. Ann is torn between feelings of love, longing and responsibility for her mother on one hand, and anger and rebellion on the other.

In Los Angeles, Adele finds work as a teacher and, despite her low income and irresponsible spending habits, manages to move herself and Ann into Beverly Hills so that Ann can attend the local schools with the children of rich families and movie stars. The two engage in various schemes to stay in Beverly Hills and fit in, including skipping out on rent and stealing fashionable clothing. Over time, Ann befriends several of her rich classmates, while Adele, increasingly out of her element, exploits Ann's school connections to benefit herself. Back in Wisconsin, Ann's grandmother Lillian and her cousin Benny both die, severing Ann's last links with her old life.

After a failed affair with a wealthy dentist, Adele shows signs of mental disturbance; she fantasizes that her psychiatrist is in love with her, and begins to physically abuse the now-teenage Ann. Ann finally gets a role in a TV series, which enables her to escape her mother and attend an East Coast university. Ann avoids visiting Adele for years, but sends home money earned through her TV work, ostensibly for Adele to buy a house in California. When Ann finally does visit her mother, she finds that Adele spent the money on a new sports car rather than the house, in keeping with Adele's unwillingness to accept a settled fate.

Film adaptation

In 1998, 20th Century Fox greenlit a feature film adaptation of Simpson's novel. The screenplay was written by Alvin Sargent and the movie was directed by Wayne Wang. Susan Sarandon and Natalie Portman were cast as Adele and Ann, respectively. The film debuted at the Toronto Film Festival on September 17, 1999, before being released on November 12, opening at #5 at the North American box office and making US$5.6 million in its opening weekend. Portman was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for the role.

Sequel

Simpson wrote a sequel, The Lost Father, which tells the story of Ann, now on her own, and her search for her father.

References

External links

1986 American novels
Arab-American novels
Novels by Mona Simpson
American novels adapted into films
Novels set in Los Angeles
1986 debut novels

Anywhere but Here (novel)


Donald J. Raleigh is an American scholar specializing in twentieth-century Russian history. He is the Jay Richard Judson Distinguished Professor of History at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. He obtained his BA degree from Knox College in 1971, followed by MA and PhD degrees from Indiana University. He has written extensively on the Russian Revolution, on local history (including two books on the Saratov region), and on Soviet oral history. He edited the scholarly journal Soviet (Russian) Studies in History and the monograph series The New Russian History.

More recently, he has researched the life and times of Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev. His 2011 book Soviet Baby Boomers: An Oral History of Russia's Cold War Generation was nominated for the Pushkin House Book Award.

Selected works
 Soviet Baby Boomers: An Oral History of Russia's Cold War Generation (Oxford University Press, 2011)
 Russia's Sputnik Generation: Soviet Baby Boomers Talk about Their Lives (Indiana University Press, 2006)
 Experiencing Russia's Civil War: Politics, Society, and Revolutionary Culture in Saratov, 1917–1922 (Princeton University Press, 2002)
 Provincial Landscapes: Local Dimensions of Soviet Power (University of Pittsburgh Press, 2001)
 Revolution on the Volga: 1917 in Saratov (Cornell University Press, 1986)

References

American historians
Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
Place of birth missing (living people)
Indiana University alumni
Knox College (Illinois) alumni

Donald Raleigh (historian)


Håkon Armand Menzoni Johnsen (3 March 1914 – 17 October 1991) was a Norwegian politician for the Labour Party.

He was born in Trondheim.

He was elected to the Norwegian Parliament from the Market towns of Sør-Trøndelag and Nord-Trøndelag counties in 1945, and was re-elected on six occasions. From 1969 to 1973 he was President of the Odelsting.

Johnsen was a member of Trondheim city council in 1937–1940, 1945–1947, 1947–1951 and 1951–1955. He was chairman of Arbeidernes Ungdomslag in Trondheim from 1932 to 1935, and of the county chapter of the Workers' Youth League from 1937 to 1938.

References

Håkon Armand Menzoni Johnsen at Trondheim Kooperative Borettslag history pages

1914 births
1991 deaths
Members of the Storting
Labour Party (Norway) politicians
Politicians from Trondheim
20th-century Norwegian politicians

Håkon Johnsen


Charles Raymond Adrian (March 12, 1922 – May 28, 2004) was an American professor of political science who specialized in municipal politics.

Early life and education
In December 1924, Adrian's mother sued his father for divorce and custody of Adrian and his sister, Marian. After his parents' divorce Adrian relocated with his mother and sister to his mother's hometown of Davenport, Iowa. Having been dissuaded against pursuing music while still a high school student, Adrian pursued political science at Cornell College. With the US entrance into World War II, Adrian enlisted in the United States Army Air Forces in 1943 where he served in the Weather Wing. After his military service ended in 1946, Adrian returned to Cornell College, graduating in 1947 with a Bachelor's degree. Adrian was elected a member of Phi Beta Kappa at Cornell. Adrian met his future wife Audrey Nelson, a euphonium player, at a concert in Iowa. Her father was a physics professor at Cornell. They married in 1946. Adrian immediately enrolled at the University of Minnesota to study urban politics under William Anderson. He completed his master's degree in 1948 and his doctorate in 1950. Adrian accepted a post-doctoral fellowship in 1954 from the Ford Foundation and attended the University of Copenhagen to study the developing welfare state there.

Career

Adrian started teaching at Wayne University in 1949. After returning from his post-doctoral fellowship in the Summer of 1955 he started teaching at Michigan State University in 1955. Through 1956 and 1957 he served as an administrative assistant to G. Mennen Williams, then Governor of Michigan. During his time in Michigan Adrian wrote two articles, Some General Characteristics of Nonpartisan Elections and A Typology for Nonpartisan Elections, that are considered the seminal works in the study of non-partisanship. Adrian wrote a third, The Origin of Minnesota's Nonpartisan Legislature, specifically discussing the "political accident" of nonpartisanship in the Minnesota Legislature. Adrian was promoted to associate professor in 1957 and again to chair of the political science department in 1963.

Adrian was recruited by fellow University of Minnesota-alum Ivan Hinderaker, the Chancellor of University of California, Riverside (UCR), to join the faculty. Adrian served as chair of the political science department from 1966 until his retirement on June 30, 1988 as the effects of his diabetes hampered his ability to teach. Adrian's 1977 book, Governing Urban America, was considered the most cited textbook in the field of urban politics.

Adrian was a member of the American Political Science Association, the American Society for Public Administration and the American Association of University Professors.

Death
Adrian died of complications from diabetes on May 28, 2004.

Selected published works

References

Citations

Bibliography

1922 births
2004 deaths
American political scientists
Cornell College alumni
Deaths from diabetes
Michigan State University faculty
People from Davenport, Iowa
University of California, Riverside faculty
University of Minnesota alumni
United States Army Air Forces personnel of World War II
Scientists from Portland, Oregon
Wayne State University faculty
20th-century political scientists

Charles R. Adrian


People v. Saephanh, 80 Cal. App. 4th 451, 94 Cal. Rptr. 910 (2001), is a United States criminal case in which it was determined that solicitation of another person to commit a crime can occur even if the solicitation is never communicated to that person. Saephanh conceived a child with a woman, was imprisoned, and from prison wrote a letter soliciting another person to attack the woman to terminate the pregnancy. The letter was intercepted by a prison official before it was delivered. The court held that solicitation did not occur, but that "attempted solicitation" did, even though this was a doubly inchoate crime (i.e., neither the attack nor the communication actually occurred).

Notes

References

External links

2001 in United States case law
California state case law
U.S. state criminal case law

People v. Saephanh


Nick translation (or head translation), developed in 1977 by Peter Rigby and Paul Berg, is a tagging technique in molecular biology in which DNA Polymerase I is used to replace some of the nucleotides of a DNA sequence with their labeled analogues, creating a tagged DNA sequence which can be used as a probe in fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) or blotting techniques. It can also be used for radiolabeling.

This process is called nick translation because the DNA to be processed is treated with DNAase to produce single-stranded "nicks". This is followed by replacement in nicked sites by DNA polymerase I, which elongates the 3' hydroxyl terminus, removing nucleotides by 5'-3' exonuclease activity, replacing them with dNTPs. To radioactively label a DNA fragment for use as a probe in blotting procedures, one of the incorporated nucleotides provided in the reaction is radiolabeled in the alpha phosphate position. Similarly, a fluorophore can be attached instead for fluorescent labelling, or an antigen for immunodetection. When DNA polymerase I eventually detaches from the DNA, it leaves another nick in the phosphate backbone.  The nick has "translated" some distance depending on the processivity of the polymerase.  This nick could be sealed by DNA ligase, or its 3' hydroxyl group could serve as the template for further DNA polymerase I activity. Proprietary enzyme mixes are available commercially to perform all steps in the procedure in a single incubation.

Nick translation could cause double-stranded DNA breaks, if DNA polymerase I encounters another nick on the opposite strand, resulting in two shorter fragments. This does not influence the performance of the labelled probe in in-situ hybridization.

References

Biochemistry detection methods
Genetics techniques
Laboratory techniques
Molecular biology techniques

Nick translation


Artem or Artyom Mikhaylovich Tarasov (; July 4, 1950 — July 22, 2017) was a Russian businessman and political activist of Armenian descent. He was born in Moscow. In 1989 Tarasov became the first officially declared millionaire in the USSR. Tarasov is the co-founder of Kommersant daily newspaper, the first independent airline, Transaero, and was elected to the Russian parliament.

After a conflict with Soviet officials in 1990, he left the USSR and settled in London. In 1993, he returned to Russia and was once again elected to the Russian Duma. In 1996, he decided to run for President as an independent pro-business candidate, but his application was rejected by the electoral commission.

Tarasov died on July 22, 2017 from pneumonia at the age of 67.

References

1950 births
2017 deaths
Businesspeople from Moscow
Politicians from Moscow

Artyom Tarasov


Peter Leeds (May 30, 1917 – November 12, 1996) was an American actor who appeared on television more than 8,000 times and also had many film, Broadway, and radio credits.  The majority of his work took place in the 1950s and 1960s.  Working with many well-known comedians, he became popular as a straight man to their antics.

Beyond situation comedies, Peter Leeds was also a dramatic actor, a Broadway performer, and a regular on many variety shows.  He made three guest appearances on Perry Mason and multiple appearances on the radio drama Yours Truly, Johnny Dollar.

Peter Leeds was also a popular voice-over artist, being heard on over 3,000 radio shows.

Early life

A native of Bayonne, New Jersey, Leeds received his training at the Neighborhood Playhouse. He made his film debut with a bit part in Public Enemies (1941). He received a scholarship from the John Marshall Law School, which he attended for one year. He also attended The Neighborhood Playhouse School of the Theatre in New York City. Leeds was noticed by the Group Theater of New York, through which he received a scholarship and graduated.

Career

Leeds worked with hundreds of well-known actors, including Bob Hope, Lucille Ball, Milton Berle, Carol Burnett, Red Skelton, Jack Benny, Jerry Lewis, Dean Martin, and Johnny Carson. He appeared four times with David Janssen in the crime drama, Richard Diamond, Private Detective. Leeds was cast as George Colton in nine episodes of the 1960s CBS sitcom, Pete and Gladys. He guest-starred on an episode of the 1961 crime adventure-drama series The Investigators and on an episode of the 1962-1963 ABC drama series, Going My Way. In 1965, he guest-starred in an episode of The Cara Williams Show.

Leeds was known for his association with Stan Freberg and played his foil in several song parodies. In addition, he had several roles on both Volume One and Volume Two of the classic comedy albums Stan Freberg Presents the United States of America, and also appeared as a regular on the short-lived CBS radio series The Stan Freberg Show in 1957.

Leeds had a recurring role as gambler/saloon owner Tenner Smith in the 1957-1959 CBS television series, Trackdown.

Leeds appeared in three episodes of Perry Mason including Bill Emory in the 1958 episode "The Case of the Sunbather's Diary."

Leeds played federal agent LaMarr Kane in "The Scarface Mob", the pilot for ABC's The Untouchables TV series, a role taken over in the actual series by Chuck Hicks. He was a member of the casts of the 1958 version of The Betty White Show and The Buster Keaton Show , and made an appearance on Batman (TV show) (year two, episodes 29 and 30).

USO tours
Leeds accompanied Bob Hope on 14 international USO (United Service Organizations) tours.

Voice work
Leeds also did voices for animated television and film, including The Nine Lives of Fritz the Cat, Hong Kong Phooey, The New Yogi Bear Show, The Dukes, Challenge of the GoBots, CBS Storybreak, The Jetsons and was the narrator of The Quick Draw McGraw Show. He was also on the CBS radio program, The Stan Freberg Show along with Daws Butler and June Foray.

Broadway
Leeds appeared on Broadway in the first cast of Sugar Babies along with Mickey Rooney and Ann Miller in 1979.

Personal life
Leeds and his wife of 34 years, Pat Leeds, had a son, Dr. Michael Leeds. Leeds died of cancer at the age of 79, on November 12, 1996 in Los Angeles, California.

American Federation of Television and Radio Artists
During the 1970s, Leeds spent five years as the president of the Los Angeles chapter of the American Federation of Television and Radio Artists (AFTRA). He later served on the actors' union's national and local Board of Directors. In 1992, AFTRA repaid his many years of service with its highest honor, the Gold Card. Leeds later served on the Board of Governors for the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences.

Filmography

References

External links

1917 births
1996 deaths
American male stage actors
American male film actors
American male television actors
American male voice actors
American male radio actors
Actors from Bayonne, New Jersey
Male actors from Los Angeles
20th-century American male actors

Peter Leeds


The Rabatak Inscription is a stone inscribed with text written in the Bactrian language and Greek script, found in 1993 at Rabatak, near Surkh Kotal in Afghanistan. The inscription relates to the rule of the Kushan emperor Kanishka, and gives remarkable clues on the genealogy of the Kushan dynasty. It dates to the 2nd century CE.

Discovery
The Rabatak inscription was found near the top of an artificial hill, a Kushan site, near the main Kabul-Mazar highway, to the southeast of the Rabatak pass which is currently the border between Baghlan and Samangan provinces. It was found by Afghan mujahideen digging a trench at the top of the site, along with several other stone sculptural elements such as the paws of a giant stone lion, which have since disappeared.

An English aid worker who belonged to the demining organization HALO Trust, witnessed and took a photograph of the inscription before reporting the discovery. The photograph was sent to the
British Museum, where its significance as an official document that named four kings of Kushan, was recognised by Joe Cribb. He determined that it was similar to an inscription found in the 1950s at Surkh Kotal by the French Archaeological Delegation in Afghanistan. Cribb shared the photograph with one of only a handful of living people able to read the Bactrian language, Nicholas Sims-Williams of the School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS). More photographs arrived from HALO Trust workers, and a first translation was published by Cribb and Sims-Williams in 1996.

Because of the civil war in Afghanistan years passed before further examination was possible. In April 2000 Jonathan Lee, an English specialist in Afghan history, travelled with Robert Kluijver, director of the Society for the Preservation of Afghanistan's Cultural Heritage, from Mazar-i Sharif to Pul-i Khumri, the provincial capital of Baghlan, to locate the stone. It was eventually found in a storehouse at the Department of Mines and Industry. Lee took photographs that allowed Sims-Williams to publish a more accurate translation, and another translation once Sims-Williams had examined the stone in person (2008).

In July 2000 Robert Kluijver travelled with a delegation of the Kabul Museum to Pul-i Khumri to retrieve the stone inscription (weighing between ). It was brought by car to Mazar-i Sharif and flown from there to Kabul. At the time the Taliban had a favorable policy towards the preservation of Afghan cultural heritage, including pre-Islamic heritage. The inscription, whose historical value had meanwhile been determined by Sims-Williams, became the centrepiece of the exhibition of the (few) remaining artifacts in the Kabul Museum, leading to a short-lived inauguration of the museum on 17 August 2000. Senior Taliban officials objected to the display of pre-Islamic heritage, which led to the closing of the museum (and the transfer of the Rabatak inscription to safety), a reversal of the cultural heritage policy and eventually leading to the destruction of the Buddhas of Bamyan and other pre-Islamic statuary (from February 2001 onwards).

Today the Rabatak inscription is again on display in the reopened Afghan National Museum, or Kabul Museum.

The Rabatak site, again visited by Robert Kluijver in March 2002, has been looted and destroyed (the looting was performed with bulldozers), reportedly by the local commander at Rabatak.

Main findings

Religion
The first lines of the inscription describe Kanishka as:
"the great salvation, the righteous, just autocrat, worthy of divine worship, who has obtained the kingship from Nana and from all the gods, who has inaugurated the year one as the gods pleased" (Trans. Sims-Williams)

The "Arya language"
Follows a statement regarding the writing of the inscription itself, indicating that the language used by Kanishka in his inscription was self-described as the "Aryan language".
"It was he who laid out (i.e. discontinued the use of) the Ionian ("ιωνα", Yona, Greek) speech and then placed the Arya ("αρια", Aryan) speech."

Regnal eras
Also, Kanishka announces the beginning of a new era starting with the year 1 of his reign, abandoning the therefore "Great Arya Era" which had been in use, possibly meaning the Vikrama era of 58 BCE.

Territorial extent
Lines 4 to 7 describe the cities which were under the rule of Kanishka, among which four names are identifiable: Saketa, Kausambi, Pataliputra, and Champa (although the text is not clear whether Champa was a possession of Kanishka or just beyond it). The Rabatak inscription is significant in suggesting the actual extent of Kushan rule under Kanishka, which would go significantly beyond traditionally held boundaries:

Succession
Finally, Kanishka makes the list of the kings who ruled up to his time: Kujula Kadphises as his great-grandfather, Vima Taktu as his grandfather, Vima Kadphises as his father, and himself Kanishka:

"for King Kujula Kadphises (his) great grandfather, and for King Vima Taktu (his) grandfather, and for King Vima Kadphises (his) father, and *also for himself, King Kanishka" (Cribb and Sims-Williams 1995/6: 80)

Mukherjee translation

B. N. Mukherjee also published a translation of the inscription.

1–3
"The year one of Kanishka, the great deliverer, the righteous, the just, the autocrat, the god, worthy of worship, who has obtained the kingship from Nana and from all the gods, who has laid down (i.e. established) the year one as the gods pleased."
3–4
"And it was he who laid out (i.e. discontinued the use of) the Ionian speech and then placed the Arya (or Aryan) speech (i.e. replaced the use of Greek by the Aryan or Bactrian language)."
4–6
"In the year one, it has been proclaimed unto India, unto the whole realm of the governing class including Koonadeano (Kaundinya< Kundina) and the city of Ozeno (Ozene, Ujjain) and the city of Zageda (Saketa) and the city of Kozambo (Kausambi) and the city of Palabotro (Pataliputra) and so long unto (i.e. as far as) the city of Ziri-tambo (Sri-Champa)."
6–7
"Whichever rulers and the great householders there might have been, they submitted to the will of the king and all India submitted to the will of the king."
7–9
"The king Kanishka commanded Shapara (Shaphar), the master of the city, to make the Nana Sanctuary, which is called (i.e. known for having the availability of) external water (or water on the exterior or surface of the ground), in the plain of Kaeypa, for these deities – of whom are Ziri (Sri) Pharo (Farrah) and Omma."
9-9A
"To lead are the Lady Nana and the Lady Omma, Ahura Mazda, Mazdooana, Srosharda, who is called ... and Komaro (Kumara) and called Maaseno (Mahasena) and called Bizago (Visakha), Narasao and Miro (Mihara)."
10–11
"And he gave same (or likewise) order to make images of these deities who have been written above."
11–14
"And he ordered to make images and likenesses of these kings: for king Kujula Kadphises, for the great grandfather, and for this grandfather Saddashkana (Sadashkana), the Soma sacrificer, and for king V'ima Kadphises, for the father, and for himself (?), king Kanishka."
14–15
"Then, as the king of kings, the son of god, had commanded to do, Shaphara, the master of the city, made this sanctuary."
16–17
"Then, the master of the city, Shapara, and Nokonzoka led worship according to the royal command."
17–20
"These gods who are written here, then may ensure for the king of kings, Kanishka, the Kushana, for remaining for eternal time healthy., secure and victorious... and further ensure for the son of god also having authority over the whole of India from the year one to the year thousand and thousand."
20
"Until the sanctuary was founded in the year one, to (i.e. till) then the Great Arya year had been the fashion."
21
"...According to the royal command, Abimo, who is dear to the emperor, gave capital to Pophisho."
22
"...The great king gave (i.e. offered worship) to the deities."
23
"..."

Note: This translation differs from Nicholas Sims-Williams, who has "Vima Taktu" as the grandfather of Kanishka (lines 11–14). Further, Sims-Williams does not read the words "Saddashkana" or "Soma" anywhere in the inscription.

See also
Religion in Afghanistan
Pre-Islamic Hindu and Buddhist heritage of Afghanistan

Footnotes

References

Sources
 Sims-Williams, Nicholas and Cribb, Joe 1996, "A New Bactrian Inscription of Kanishka the Great", Silk Road Art and Archaeology, volume 4, 1995–6, Kamakura, pp. 75–142.
 Fussman, Gérard (1998). "L'inscription de Rabatak et l'origine de l'ère saka." Journal asiatique 286.2 (1998), pp. 571–651.
 Pierre Leriche, Chakir Pidaev, Mathilde Gelin, Kazim Abdoulaev, " La Bactriane au carrefour des routes et des civilisations de l'Asie centrale :  Termez et les villes de Bactriane-Tokharestan ",  Maisonneuve et Larose – IFÉAC, Paris, 2001  . Actes du colloque de Termez 1997. (Several authors, including Gérard Fussman « L'inscription de Rabatak. La Bactriane et les Kouchans » )
 S.R. Goyal "Ancient Indian Inscriptions" Kusumanjali Book World, Jodhpur (India), 2005.
 Sims-Williams, Nicholas (1998): "Further notes on the Bactrian inscription of Rabatak, with an Appendix on the names of Kujula Kadphises and Vima Taktu in Chinese." Proceedings of the Third European Conference of Iranian Studies Part 1: Old and Middle Iranian Studies. Edited by Nicholas Sims-Williams. Wiesbaden. 1998, pp. 79–93.
 Sims-Williams, Nicholas (2008). "The Bactrian Inscription of Rabatak: A New Reading." Bulletin of the Asia Institute 18, 2008, pp. 53–68.

External links
Sims-Williams on the Rabatak inscription
Photograph of the Rabatak inscription
Indian inscriptions
Greek transcription

2nd-century inscriptions
Bactrian inscriptions
Linguistic history of India
Kushan Empire
1993 archaeological discoveries
Archaeological discoveries in Afghanistan

Rabatak inscription


The Population Reference Bureau (PRB) is a private, nonprofit organization specializing in collecting and supplying statistics necessary for research and/or academic purposes focused on the environment, and health and structure of populations. The PRB works in the United States and internationally with a wide range of partners in the government, nonprofit, research, business, and philanthropy sectors.

History

In the early 1930s, the Population Reference Bureau (PRB) shared office space with the Population Association of America, which was created in May 1931 in New York City. This association focuses its work around many aspects, such as reproductive health and fertility, children and families, global health, urbanization, and more.

Funding and partners

The PRB receives support from a number of foundations, non-governmental organizations, and government agencies. Examples of such funding include the Annie E. Casey Foundation, the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, the United States Census Bureau, and the World Health Organization.

The PRB partners with about 80 other organizations all around the world, in countries like Sudan, Egypt, and Uganda, to name a few. These partners vary in foci and location, ranging from renowned research institutions such as the International Center for Research on Women to public education institutions such as the University of South Florida.

Capabilities

The Population Reference Bureau has many capabilities in providing information to individuals all around the world regarding population, health, and the environment. The organization specializes in the translation of the population demographics and health research, the analysis of the United States and international demographics, social and economic trends, and expanding the platform for general database research.

Services
The Population Reference Bureau offers an annual World Population Data Sheet, which is a chart containing data from 200 countries concerning important demographic and health variables, such as total population, fertility rates, infant mortality rates, HIV/AIDS prevalence, and contraceptive use.

The PRB's online data allows users to search a database of hundreds of demographic, health, economic, and environmental variables for countries and regions all around the world, such as the Middle East, Latin America, and Sub-Saharan Africa. The database provides scholarly articles about an assortment of topics, ranging from noncommunicable diseases and nutrition to the labor force and family planning.

The PRB also publishes a Population Bulletins, information about demographic concepts to help in educating the public on population studies.

Among these, other data and population tools available to the public from the PRB include population bulletins and customizable training and educational materials, presented through visual, written and online publications.

Programs and projects

The method used by the Population Reference Bureau involves focusing on educating people within the project areas, and then utilizing them to make changes within populations.

The Population Reference Bureau has both past and current programs and service projects around the globe, mainly focused in the United States, and parts of the developing world including Sub-Saharan Africa and the Middle East. Projects in the United States vary from analyses of demographic and economic data, projects aiding collecting data for the American Community Survey, and studying factors of aging and factors of health in children. International projects focus on learning about health and disease for at risk populations, family planning and reproductive health, and further using this learned knowledge to establish programs to improve communities. Current projects of the Population Reference Bureau include; Demographic and Socioeconomic Trends in the Appalachian region of the United States, Combatting Noncommunicable Disease Risk Factors in Youth across Latin America and the Caribbean, North Africa and the Middle East, Asia, and Africa, and their current featured project; Evidence to End Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting across the globe.

See also
 Population Association of America
 Institut national d'études démographiques
 Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research
 List of population concern organizations

Notes

External links

Environmental organizations based in Washington, D.C.
Research institutes established in 1929
Population concern advocacy groups
Population research organizations

Population Reference Bureau


Didymus the Blind (alternatively spelled Dedimus or Didymous) (398) was a Christian theologian in the Church of Alexandria, where he taught for about half a century. He was a student of Origen, and, after the Second Council of Constantinople condemned Origen, Didymus's works were not copied. Many of his writings are lost, but some of his commentaries and essays survive. He was seen as intelligent and a good teacher.

Early life and education
Didymus became blind at the age of four, before he had learned to read. He was a loyal follower of Origen, and opposed Arian and Macedonian teachings.

Despite his blindness, Didymus excelled in scholarship because of his incredible memory. He found ways to help blind people to read, experimenting with carved wooden letters similar to Braille systems used by the blind today. He recalled and contemplated information while others slept.

Teacher in Alexandria
According to Rufinus, Didymus was "a teacher in the Church school", who was "approved by Bishop Athanasius" and other learned churchmen. Later scholars believed he was the head of the Catechetical School of Alexandria. However, the Catechetical School of Alexandria may not have existed in Didymus' time, and Rufinus may have been referring to a different school. Didymus remained a layman all his life and became one of the most learned ascetics of his time. He was the first Alexandrian Christian who made use of Hermetica as pagan prophecy of the coming of the Christ. Palladius, Rufinus, and Jerome were among his pupils.

Rufinus was Didymus's pupil for eight years. When he translated Origen's De principiis into Latin, he referenced Didymus's commentary on it. Jerome mentions Didymus's contributions to his ideas in the prefaces of many of his books, and called Didymus "Didymus the Seer." Rufinus remained loyal to Didymus after Jerome condemned Didymus and Origen. Didymus was viewed as an orthodox Christian teacher and was greatly respected and admired up until at least 553. Socrates of Constantinople compared Didymus's faithfulness to the Nicene Creed to Basil of Caesarea and Gregory of Nazianzus. In his position as a teacher, he held discussions and learned from Jews, pagans, Manichees, and other Christian teachers. Records of Didymus's lectures and the questions students asked show that he taught the same educated pupils multiple times.

Several Oriental Orthodox Churches refer to him as Saint Didymus the Blind.

Second Council of Constantinople
In 553 the Second Council of Constantinople condemned his works, along with those of Origen and Evagrius, but not his person. In the Third Council of Constantinople in 680, and in the 787 Second Council of Nicaea, Didymus was again linked with and condemned with Origen. Many unconventional views became associated with Origen, and the 15 anathemas attributed to the council condemn a form of apocatastasis along with the pre-existence of the soul, animism (in this context, a heterodox Christology), and a denial of real and lasting resurrection of the body.

In spite of the condemnation of his works, he is still listed as "St. Didymus the Blind" in the Serbian Orthodox Prologue of Ochrid which gives his feast date as October 18.

Works
As a result of his condemnation, many of his works were not copied during the Middle Ages and were subsequently lost. Of his lost compositions we can gather a partial list from the citations of ancient authors which includes On Dogmas, On The Death of Young Children, Against the Arians, First Word, and others. One of Didymus's lost works is a commentary on Origen's First Principles which, according to Jerome, tried to interpret an orthodox understanding of the Trinity from Origen's theology. In it, he assumed the pre-existence of souls and Apocatastasis. He staunchly defended the doctrine of the Trinity. He argued that Christ's body and soul were human, but that Christ was sinless.

Excerpts from Didymus's Biblical commentary have been found in the Catena.

Modern knowledge of Didymus has been greatly increased by a group of 6th or 7th century papyrus codices discovered in 1941 at a munitions dump near Toura, Egypt (south of Cairo). These include his commentaries on Zechariah, Genesis 1–17, part of Job and parts (of uncertain authenticity) on Ecclesiastes and Psalms 20–46. In these commentaries, Didymus discusses long quotations from the Bible, and refrains from speculation, which he considered sophistry. However, he interprets scriptures allegorically, seeing symbols everywhere. For example, he wrote that the mountains in Zachariah represented the two Testaments of the Bible. Didymus saw an individual's movement towards virtue as emerging from their interaction with scripture.

Didymus probably wrote the treatise On The Holy Spirit (written sometime before 381 in Greek), which was preserved in a Latin translation by Jerome. Commentary on the Catholic Epistles also is dubiously attributed to Didymus. The treatise Against the Manichees was also probably written by Didymus. There has been greater doubt over two further works traditionally attributed to Didymus. On The Trinity, identified in the eighteenth century as being Didymus' work, saw twentieth-century doubts, largely on grounds of lack of 'provenance' and alleged inconsistencies with the commentaries discovered at Tura in 1941, but many would still see this as Didymus' work. Additionally, scholars do not believe that Didymus authored the work preserved as books 4 and 5 of Basil's Against Eunomius.

Within the Commentary on Zechariah, Didymus shows himself to be a thoroughly intertextual reader of scripture. He moves from the text he is commenting on to a wide variety of other passages, quoting less frequently from the historical books which do not suit his allegorical method. Besides the gift of having a mind like a concordance, he also shows familiarity with philosophical terms and categories of the Stoics, Epicureans, and Pythagoreans (from whom, with Philo, he derives his occasional number symbolism hermeneutic). His works also seem to cite passages from the deuterocanonical books of the Old Testament as well as Barnabas, the Shepherd of Hermas and the Acts of John. According to Bart Ehrman, his canon extended to at least include Barnabas and the Shepherd. It has been suggested by R.M. Grant regarding Origen's similarly expanded canon that while he lived in Alexandria he accepted the broader tradition of the church in Alexandria, but upon moving to Caesarea and finding the books were not accepted there henceforth manifested greater reserve towards them. Why Didymus would not have inherited his teachers later hesitation is unclear. Among his peers his hermeneutical method seems to have been met with mixed reactions. Jerome, who requested his commentary and considered him a mentor, is still baffled by Didymus's use of what he considered apocryphal works. Readers such as Diodore in Antioch found his hermeneutical approach somewhat gratuitous and arbitrary. What none seem to deny, however, is that Didymus was unhindered by blindness in his remarkable ability to recall the sacred text.

A commentary attributed to Didymus that survives only in Latin suggests the epistle 2 Peter was forged, anticipating the beliefs of later scholars who would agree with the position that Peter was not the author of the letter.  That said, it is doubtful that Didymus was the true author, as his other writings treat 2 Peter as canonical.

The no longer extant treatise On The Death of Young Children was addressed to Tyrannius Rufinus to answer his question "Why do infants die?". According to Jerome, Didymus's answer was that these infants "had not sinned much [in the pre-existence], and therefore it was enough punishment for them just to have touched their bodily prisons".

Thought
Thoroughly Trinitarian, Didymus' makes God completely transcendent and only capable of being spoken of by images and apophatic means. He repeatedly emphasizes that God's essence is beyond essence, and uses a term only seen otherwise in Cyril of Alexandria, "without quantity." There can be seen in his works influence from the Cappadocian Fathers, focusing the concept of Hypostasis (philosophy) to express the independent reality of the three persons of the Trinity rather than beginning with the one divine substance (ουσια) as his starting point. Within these three persons, the Father is the root of the Divinity, the Spirit proceeds from the Father, and the Son is generated. Didymus seemed very concerned with stressing the equality of the persons of the Trinity. In Georges Florovsky's opinion, "Didymus does not strive for precision in his formulations. This is a general feature of the school of Alexandria."

In combating the heresies of the Manichaean Docetists and Apollinarians, we should not be surprised to find Didymus insisting on the fullness of the human nature of Christ. He concludes there must be two natures united in Christ, not speculating on precisely how these work together but restricting himself to the expression "a single Christ." In his atonement theory, Didymus does not mention deification, but rather focuses on the ransom and the restoration of the image and the likeness. The fragmentary nature of his writing at this point does not allow us to draw definite conclusions, but he does speak of "universal salvation." Jerome, probably correctly, accused Didymus of confessing the ultimate restoration of the devil.

Didymus seems to have also accepted the pre-existence of souls, and considers the afterlife as a process of purification, though, according to Florovsky, he rejects metempsychosis. He describes the Day of the Lord as an internal illumination of the soul, and in the future world he believes that evil "as a quality" will no longer exist. For him, as in Clement and Origen, the true gnostics possess a divine philosophy, one which allows them to defend themselves against heretics by giving a clear confession of the faith. Throughout his theology the influence of Origen is revealed, various aspects of which, particularly his eschatology, must have led to the condemnation of his works.

In literature
Didymus the Blind is portrayed in Flow Down Like Silver, Hypatia of Alexandria by Ki Longfellow.

References

Further reading
 Ayres, Lewis, DelCogliano, Mark & Radde-Gallwitz, Andrew (2012). Works on the Spirit: St. Athanasius the Great and Didymus the Blind. St. Vladimir's Seminary Press [contains the only English translation of On the Holy Spirit]
  Contains the only English translation of the Commentary on Zechariah.

  Also available at Wikisource.

External links
Didymus Commentary on Psalms, L. Tom Perry Special Collections, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University

Christian anti-Gnosticism
Egyptian blind people
Christian universalist clergy
Christian universalist theologians
Church Fathers
Deans of the Catechetical School of Alexandria
Roman-era Alexandrians
Saints from Roman Egypt
Egyptian theologians
4th-century Christian saints
4th-century Romans
4th-century Christian theologians
4th-century Christian universalists
313 births
398 deaths
4th-century writers
Harold B. Lee Library-related rare books articles
Blind clergy
Blind writers
Philosophers in ancient Alexandria

Didymus the Blind


The Khitan people (Khitan small script: ; ) were a historical nomadic people from Northeast Asia who, from the 4th century, inhabited an area corresponding to parts of modern Mongolia, Northeast China and the Russian Far East.

As a people descended from the proto-Mongols through the Xianbei, Khitans spoke the now-extinct Khitan language, a Para-Mongolic language related to the Mongolic languages. The Khitan people founded and led the Liao dynasty (916–1125), which dominated a vast area of Siberia, Mongolia and Northern China. The Khitans of the Liao dynasty used two independent writing systems for their language: Khitan small script and Khitan large script.

After the fall of the Liao dynasty in 1125 following the Jurchen invasion, many Khitans followed Yelü Dashi's group westward to establish the Qara Khitai or Western Liao dynasty, in Central Asia, which lasted nearly a century before falling to the Mongol Empire in 1218. Other regimes founded by the Khitans included the Northern Liao, Eastern Liao and Later Liao in China, as well as the Qutlugh-Khanid dynasty in Persia. The modern-day Daur people, a recognized minority ethnic group in Northeast China, are the genetic descendants of Khitans.

The historical name for China, Cathay, originates from the word Khitan.

Etymology

There is no consensus on the etymology of the name of Khitan. There are basically three speculations. Feng Jiasheng argues that it comes from the Yuwen chieftains' names. Zhao Zhenji thinks that the term originated from Xianbei and means "a place where Xianbei had resided". Japanese scholar Otagi Matsuo believes that Khitan's original name was "Xidan", which means "the people who are similar to the Xi people" or "the people who inhabit among the Xi people".

In Slavic languages such as Russian and Ukrainian, "China" is called "". These names are derived from the Chinese Liao dynasty, which was established by the Khitan in northern China.

China
Due to the dominance of the Khitans during the Liao dynasty in Manchuria and Mongolia and later the Qara Khitai in Central Asia where they were seen as Chinese, the term "Khitai" came to mean "China" to people near them in Central Asia, Russia and northwestern China. The name was then introduced to medieval Europe via Islamic and Russian sources, and became "Cathay". In the modern era, words related to Khitay are still used as a name for China by Turkic peoples, such as the Uyghurs in China's Xinjiang region and the Kazakhs of Kazakhstan and areas adjoining it, and by some Slavic peoples, such as the Russians and Bulgarians. The Han Chinese consider the ethnonym derived from Khitay as applied to them by the Uyghurs to be pejorative and the Chinese government has tried to ban its use.

History

Origin myth
According to the History of Liao compiled in the 14th century, a "sacred man" (shen-ren) on a white horse had eight sons with a "heavenly woman" (tiannü) who rode in a cart pulled by a grey ox. The man came from the Tu River (Lao Ha river in modern-day Jilin, Manchuria) and the woman from the Huang River (modern-day Xar Moron river in Inner Mongolia). The pair met where the two rivers join, and the eight sons born of their union became eight tribes.

Pre-dynastic

The earliest written reference to the Khitan is from an official history of the Xianbei-led Northern Wei dynasty dating to the period of the Six Dynasties. Most scholars believe the Khitan tribe splintered from the Xianbei, and some scholars believe they may have been a mixed group who also included former members of the Xiongnu tribal confederation. The Khitan shaved their heads, leaving hair on their temples which grew down to the chest, in a similar fashion to the related Kumo Xi, Shiwei, and Xianbei whom they are believed to be descended from.

During their early history the Khitan were composed of eight tribes. Their territory was between the present-day Xar Moron River and Chaoyang, Liaoning. The Khitan's territory bordered Goguryeo, the Central Plains, and the lands of the Eastern Turks.

Between the 6th and 9th centuries, they were successively dominated by the Eastern Turkic Khaganate, the Uyghur Khaganate, and the Tang dynasty. The Khitans were less politically united than the Turkic tribes, but often found themselves involved in the power games between the Turks and the Sui and Tang dynasties. It is estimated the Khitans had only around 43,000 soldiersa fraction of the Turkic Khaganates. In 605, the Khitans raided the Sui dynasty, but the Emperor Yang of Sui was able to convince the Turks to send 20,000 horsemen to aid Sui against the Khitans. In 628, under the leadership of tribal chief Dahe Moui, the Khitan submitted to the Tang dynasty, as they had earlier submitted to the Eastern Turks. The Khagan of the Eastern Turks, Jiali Khan, offered to exchange the rebel Liang Shidu for the Khitans, but Emperor Taizong would not agree to the exchange.

During the reign of Empress Wu, nearly one century later, the Second Turkic Khaganate raided along northern China's borderlands. The Tang Empress, in what scholars consider a major strategic error, formed an ill-fated alliance with the Turkic leader Qapaghan Qaghan to punish the Khitan for raiding Hebei province. Khitan territory was much closer to northern China proper than Turkic lands, and the Turks used it to launch their own raids into Hebei.

Like the Tuyuhun and Tangut, the Khitan remained an intermediate power along the borderlands through the 7th and 8th centuries. The Khitans rose to prominence in a power vacuum that developed in the wake of the Kyrgyz takeover of the Uyghur Khaganate, and the collapse of the Tang dynasty.

Liao dynasty

Abaoji, who had been successful in uniting the Khitan tribes, founded the Liao dynasty in 907. The Liao territory included modern day northern and northeastern China, Mongolia, and parts of Central Asia and Siberia. Although transition to an imperial social and political organization was a significant change for the Khitans, the Khitan language, origin myth, shamanic religion and nomadic lifestyle endured.

China was in chaos after the fall of the Tang dynasty in 907. Known as the Wudai Shiguo period, Five Dynasties ruled northern China in rapid succession with only nominal support from the Ten Kingdoms of southern China. The Tang dynasty had been supported by Shatuo Turks until Zhu Wen murdered the last Tang emperor and founded the Later Liang dynasty. The Shatuo Turks, who had been allied with the Khitans since 905, defeated the Later Liang and founded the Later Tang dynasty in 923, but by 926 the former allies had grown apart.  In 934 Yelü Bei, Abaoji's son, wrote to his brother Emperor Taizong of Liao from the Later Tang court: "Li Cong Ke has slain his liege-lord, why not attack him?" In 936, the Khitans supported Shi Jing Tangs rebellion against the Later Tang Emperor Li Cong Ke. Shi Jing Tang became emperor of the Later Jin dynasty and, in exchange for their support, the Khitans gained sixteen new prefectures.

The Later Jin dynasty remained a vassal of the Khitans until the death of Shi Jing Tang in 942, but when the new emperor ascended, he indicated that he would not honor his predecessor's arrangement. The Khitans launched a military invasion against the Later Jin in 944. In January 947, the Emperor of the Later Jin dynasty surrendered to the Khitans. The Khitan emperor left the conquered city of Kaifeng and unexpectedly died from an illness while travelling in May 947.

Relations between Goryeo and the Khitans were hostile after the Khitans destroyed Balhae. Goryeo would not recognize the Liao dynasty and supported the fledgling Song dynasty, which had formed south of the Khitans' territory. Though the Khitans would have preferred to attack China, they invaded Goryeo in 993. Khitan forces failed to advance beyond the Chongchon River and were persuaded to withdraw, though Khitan dissatisfaction with Goryeo's conquest of the Jurchen prompted a second invasion in 1010. This time the Khitans, led by their emperor, sacked the capital city Kaesong. A third and final invasion in 1018 was repelled by Goryeo's forces, bringing an end to 30 years of war between the rivals.

The Liao dynasty proved to be a significant power north of the Chinese plain, continuously moving south and west, gaining control over former Chinese and Turk-Uyghur territories. In 1005 Chanyuan Treaty was signed, and peace remained between the Liao dynasty and the Song dynasty for the next 120 years. During the reign of the Emperor Daozong of Liao, corruption was a major problem and prompted dissatisfaction among many people, including the Jurchens. The Liao dynasty eventually fell to the Jin dynasty of the Jurchen in 1125, who defeated and absorbed the Khitans to their military benefit. The Khitans considered the Khamag Mongols as their last hope when the Liao dynasty was invaded by the Jin, Song dynasty and Western Xia Empires.

To defend against the Jurchens and Khitans, a Long Wall was built by Goryeo in 1033–1034, along with many border forts.

One of the causes of the Jurchen rebellion and the fall of the Liao was the custom of raping married Jurchen women and Jurchen girls by Khitan envoys, which caused resentment from the Jurchens. The custom of having sex with unmarried girls by Khitan was itself not a problem, since the practice of guest prostitution – giving female companions, food and shelter to guests – was common among Jurchens. Unmarried daughters of Jurchen families of lower and middle classes in Jurchen villages were provided to Khitan messengers for sex, as recorded by Hong Hao. Song envoys among the Jin were similarly entertained by singing girls in Guide, Henan. There is no evidence that guest prostitution of unmarried Jurchen girls to Khitan men was resented by the Jurchens. It was only when the Khitans forced aristocratic Jurchen families to give up their beautiful wives as guest prostitutes to Khitan messengers that the Jurchens became resentful. This suggests that in Jurchen upper classes, only a husband had the right to his married wife while among lower class Jurchens, the virginity of unmarried girls and sex with Khitan men did not impede their ability to marry later. The Jurchens and their Manchu descendants had Khitan linguistic and grammatical elements in their personal names like suffixes. Many Khitan names had a "ju" suffix.

Following the fall of the Liao dynasty, a number of the Khitan nobility escaped the area westwards towards Western Regions, establishing the short-lived Qara Khitai or Western Liao dynasty. After its fall, a small part under Buraq Hajib established a local dynasty in the southern Persian province of Kirman. These Khitans were absorbed by the local Turkic and Iranian populations, Islamized and left no influence behind them. As the Khitan language is still almost completely unintelligible, it is difficult to create a detailed history of their movements.

During the 13th century, the Mongol invasions and conquests had a large impact on shifting ethnic identities in the region. Most people of the Eurasian Steppe did not retain their pre-Mongol identities after the conquests. The Khitans were scattered across Eurasia and assimilated into the Mongol Empire in the early 13th century.

Fleeing from the Mongols, in 1216 the Khitans invaded Goryeo and won several battles, even reaching the gates of the capital, but were defeated by Goryeo General Kim Chwi-ryeo who pushed them back north to Pyongan, where the remaining Khitans were finished off by Goryeo forces in 1219.

Language and writing systems

The Khitan language is now extinct. Some scholars believe that Khitan is Proto-Mongolic, while others have suggested that it is a Para-Mongolic language.  Khitan has loanwords borrowed from the Turkic Old Uyghur language and Koreanic languages.

There were two writing systems for the Khitan language, known as the large script and the small script. These were functionally independent and appear to have been used simultaneously in the Liao dynasty. They were in use for some time after the fall of that dynasty. Examples of the scripts appeared most often on epitaphs and monuments, although other fragments sometimes surface. The Khitan scripts have not been fully deciphered and more research and discoveries will be necessary for a proficient understanding of them.

Economy

As nomadic Khitans originally engaged in stockbreeding, fishing, and hunting. Looting Chinese villages and towns as well as neighboring tribes was also a helpful source of slaves, Chinese handcraft, and food, especially in times of famine. Under the influence of China, and following the administrative need for a sedentary administration, the Khitans began to engage in farming, crop cultivation and the building of cities. Different from the Chinese and Balhae farmers, who cultivated wheat and sorghum millet, the Khitan farmers cultivated panicled millet. The ruling class of the Liao dynasty still undertook hunting campaigns in late summer in the tradition of their ancestors. After the fall of the Liao dynasty, the Khitans returned to a more nomadic life.

Religion

The Khitans practiced shamanism in which animals played an important role. Hunters offered a sacrifice to the spirit of the animal they were hunting and wore a pelt from the same animal during the hunt. There were festivals to mark the catching of the first fish and wild goose, and annual sacrifices of animals to the sky, earth, ancestors, mountains, rivers, and others. Every male member of the Khitan would sacrifice a white horse, white sheep, and white goose during the Winter solstice.

When a Khitan nobleman died, burnt offerings were sacrificed at the full and new moons. The body was exposed for three years in the mountains, after which the bones would be cremated. The Khitan believed that the souls of the dead rested at a place called the Black Mountain, near Rehe Province.

Khitan tents always faced east, and they revered the sun, but the moon did not have a large role in their religion. They also practiced a form of divination where they went to war if the shoulder blade of a white sheep cracked while being heated (scapulimancy).

Women
Khitan women hunted, rode horses and practiced archery. They did not practice foot binding, which started becoming popular among the Han during the Song dynasty. The Khitan practiced polygamy and generally preferred marriage within the tribe, but it was not unknown for an Emperor to take wives from other groups, such as the Han, Koreans, and Turkic tribes.

Genetics

A 2015 study postulated that elite Khitan males may have belonged to haplogroups C3c or N1, based on the distribution of these haplogroups in modern-day Eastern and Central Asian populations.

A 2020 study published in Cell analyzed the DNA of 3 Khitan elite burials from Bulgan Province, located in Northern Mongolia. The Khitan burials were found to be of predominantly Northeast Asian origin, with less than 10% West Eurasian ancestry. The two male specimens belonged to the West Eurasian paternal haplogroup J2. All three specimens carried maternal haplogroups associated with Northeast Asia, including haplogroups A24, D4 and haplogroup Y1. During the Khitan and Mongol empires, a male bias for East-Asian related ancestry is observed in the eastern steppe region.

Two studies found evidence of Khitan mtDNA ancestry in modern-day people of the Daur ethnicity. This was one of the most significant findings of ethnic studies in China. Another group of 100,000 descendants are found in some Blang people and Yi people in Baoshan and Ruili in southwestern Yunnan province, near Myanmar. These people with surnames of A., Mang and Jiang claim to be descendants of Khitans rather than Blang people or Yi people.

Gallery

See also

 History of the Khitans
 List of Khitan rulers
 Yelü
 Liao dynasty
 Northern Liao
 Qara Khitai (Western Liao dynasty)
 Eastern Liao
 Later Liao
 Qutlugh-Khanids
 Cathay
 Mongol mythology

References

Citations

Sources

 Works cited

 Other webpages
 Khitans
 Khitans on scholar.google.com
 Exhibition of Khitan artifacts
 Khitan gers

Ancient peoples of China

Khitan people


The Police Athletic League (PAL) is an organization in many American police departments in which members of the police force coach young people, both boys and girls, in sports, and help with homework and other school-related activities. The purpose is to build character, help strengthen police-community relations, and keep children off illegal drugs.

Most PAL programs now call themselves "Police Activities Leagues" because many of the programs are now focused on youth enrichment, educational and youth leadership programs and not just sports.  Some organizations are also called Sheriff Activities Leagues (SAL) because their sponsoring agency is a Sheriff's Department.

According to local Police Athletic Leagues, the program generally solicits funds, equipment, and volunteer help from members of the community, so that the cost to taxpayers is small while the returns are great. Participants in the League's activities are supposedly much less likely to engage in crime, far more likely to praise the character of the police force, and discourage their friends from either committing crimes or covering up criminal activity.

Police Athletic League programs usually have a competitive component. Although the vast majority of the League's contests are with other youths in the same city, there are regularly scheduled national contests between teams in different parts of the country. For many of the young people who participate, it is their first chance to travel to where the contests are held.

The Police Athletic League provides participation in many sports. These include Soccer, Basketball, Football, and many other sports throughout the U.S.

The National Association of Police Athletics/Activities Leagues, Inc. is based in Jupiter, Florida.

See also
 Drug Abuse Resistance Education
 Gang Resistance Education and Training
 Police Athletic League of New York City

References

External links

Law enforcement non-governmental organizations in the United States
Sports organizations of the United States
Youth sport in the United States
Charities based in the United States
Sports charities

Police Athletic League


An aviation ministry is a cabinet level department of a government which is concerned with matters of aviation within a particular country's airspace. An aviation ministry may also be involved with a nation's air force, either to a limited degree or in direct command.

For example, India has the Ministry of Civil Aviation of Government of India.

One of the more well known aviation ministries was the aviation ministry of Nazi Germany which formed the Luftwaffe under Hermann Göring. Other nations, for instance the United States, do not have a cabinet or state level department for aviation, but rather civilian or federally sponsored civilian agencies, one of the better known being the Federal Aviation Administration.

Notes

Aviation ministries
Civil aviation authorities
Public safety ministries

Aviation ministry


Daman district , is one of the four districts of the Indian union territory of Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu by the west coast of India, surrounded by Valsad district of Gujarat state on the north, east and south and the Arabian Sea to the west. The district has an area of , and a population of 191,173 at the 2011 census, an increase of 69.256% from the preceding 2001 Census. The district headquarters is Daman. The previous territorial headquarters were in Panjim when it was jointly administered as Goa, Damaon & Diu until the time of the Konkani language agitation.

Daman lies at the mouth of the Daman Ganga River.  Major industries have units here. The closest railway station is Vapi (7 km). It is also famous for its beach, Portuguese colonial architecture, churches, and for the scenic beauty in the twin towns of Nani-Daman and Moti-Daman, which lie opposite each other across the Daman Ganga. The city of Surat lies to the north, and Bombay (Mumbai) lies approximately 160 km (100 mi) to the south in the Konkan division of Maharashtra.

History
The edict of the Emperor Ashoka (273 to 136 BC) was found in Saurashtra and Sopara near Bombay. Satrya Kshatrapas under the Kushana emperor seemed to have ruled over Daman District during the 1st century, AD. The coins of Bhumaka and Nahapan, the kshaharata rulers were discovered in the surrounding areas of Surat District. Ushavadatta, son-in-law of Nahapan, is said to have provided ferries on rivers Dhanuha Dhamana, Parada and Tapi.

This is the earliest reference of these rivers and the names of the places, i.e. Dahanu, Daman and Pardi, remained unchanged for the last 2000 years. The District seems to have been subjected to the rule of Gautamaputra Satakarnin, about 125 AD, who drove away the Kshaharatas. But Satavahana's rule was short lived.

Rudraman I, grandson of Chastan of Kadamaka branch of Kshatrapas reconquered a large part of Western India including the seaboard from the river Mahi in Gujarat to Ratnagiri by about 150 AD from Satavahana ruler, Satakarni, and Daman district again passed under the rule of Kshatrapa Vijayasen (234-239 AD) who seems to have ruled over the district till 249 AD. Abhir king Ishwarasena of Nasik, who conquered the western part of the Deccan from the Satavahanas seems to have been laid by Gautamaputra Yajnashri, campaigns the Kshatrapas from 180 to 200 AD.

The District seems to have been subjected to the rule of traikutakas during the 5th century, AD. The Lata Country was ruled by Rashtrakutas of Malkhed in the Deccan directly till 808 by the successors, Govinda II (575- 795 AD), Druvaraja - I (795-800) and Govinda III (800-808).

Govinda III handed over the Lata kingdom to his brother Indra about 808 and was given the title Lateswaramandalasya or the protector of Latamandala. Indra was succeeded by his son Karka who seems to have ruled Latamandala with his brother, Govinda jointly till 826. Druva II, son of Karka came to the throne about 835 and was succeeded by Akalavarsha in 867. The District was passed to Tailappa II of the Chalupas of Kalyani in 973. Tailappa II placed Lata Country in the hands of his relative and general Barrpa alias Dvarappa Chalukya. By the middle of the 13th century, a Rajput prince Ramsingh alias Ramashah seems to have defeated the koli chief Nathorat and established himself in the hilly tract at Asheri of Asserseta near Daman about 1262. Ramsingh was succeeded by his son Somanath in 1295. The newly founded Ramnagar at the foot of the ghats flourished under Somnath (1335-1360) and Daram shah (1360-1391). Jagatshah succeeded Gopushah and ruled during 1432 to 1470. The Portuguese from Shah of Gujarat acquired Daman. They noticed the port of Daman for the first time in 1523. A Portuguese enclave for four centuries and a half till the close of the colonial rule in 1961; Daman has been a coveted prize for which princes, monarchs and alien powers waged wars. Muted memories of history lie vaulted in the monuments of Daman. It had been a melting pot, where races and cultures met and mixed to bring forth a multi-coloured identity.

Daman was occupied by the Portuguese in 1531, and was formally ceded to Portugal in 1539 by the Sultan of Gujarat.

Mirroring the system of administrative division in European Portugal, Daman district (Distrito de Damão) was established as an administrative division of the Portuguese State of India (Estado da Índia) in the first half of the 19th century. The District was made up of the Portuguese territories of Daman, Dadra and Nagar Haveli. It was headed by a district governor, subordinate to the governor-general of Portuguese India in Goa. The district was divided in the two municipalities of Daman and Nagar Haveli, which were further subdivided into civil parishes.

The Dadra and Nagar Haveli landlocked parts of the Daman district were occupied by pro-Indian Union forces in 1954. In 1961, Dadra and Nagar Haveli was officially annexed by India, forming a union territory separated from Daman.

The rest of the District remained under Portuguese rule until it was annexed by Indian forces on 19 December 1961. From 1961 to 1987, it was a part of the union territory of Goa, Daman and Diu. In 1987, it became a part of the newly formed union territory of Daman and Diu.

On 3 November 2019, Daman Collector  Rakesh Minhas issued a Section 144 order banning peaceful assembly of four or more persons, slogan-shouting and the use of loudspeakers across the entire district and ordered the conversion of  High School, Bhimpore and the Sarvottam High School, Moti Daman into 'temporary jails'. This was in response to a land ownership dispute between the local indigenous fishing community and the local administration that had confiscated their land and bulldozed their homes. The ensuing 2019 Daman Indigenous Land Clearing Protests resulted with the detention of 70 protesters in the 'temporary jails' and another 8 arrests. Few of the adivasi fisherfolk were rehoused whilst most languished traumatised and homeless on the streets near the rubble of their razed homes.

Divisions
Daman district has only one tehsil - Daman. The territory of the whole district is part of Daman and Diu Lok Sabha constituency.

Demographics
The district is infamous for having the least balanced sex ratio in the country. According to the 2011 census Daman District, India has a population of 191,173, roughly equal to the nation of Samoa.  This gives it a ranking of 592nd in India (out of a total of 640). The district has a population density of  . Its population growth rate over the decade 2001-2011 was  69.256%. Daman has a sex ratio of 533 females for every 1,000 males, and a literacy rate of 88.06%.

Transport
Daman is connected by roads and is 12 km from Vapi, 125 km from Surat, and 195 km from Mumbai. Vapi railway station on the Western Railway is the station nearest to Daman, and connects to all major cities. Daman Airport has a Coast Guard air base.

A bridge over the Daman Ganga between Moti Daman and Nani Daman collapsed during a monsoon on 28 August 2003, killing 27 school children and one teacher when their vehicles plunged into the river.  A new bridge was constructed at a cost of about 90 million rupees, but that partially collapsed in August 2004. No casualties occurred. The collapse was attributed to heavy flooding on river Damanganga.
Now the new bridge, known as Rajeev Gandhi Setu for Heavy Vehicles, has been completed, and the old bridges are to be kept closed forever.

Education
In Daman, the most popular schools are Divya Jyoti English Higher Secondary School, Institute of Our Lady of Fátima located in Moti Daman, Coast Guard Public School in Nani Daman, Sarvajanik Vidyalaya in Nani Daman, Shri Macchi Mahajan High School in Nani Daman, and other government institutions. There is also a college named Government College, Daman which has most of the educational facilities.

Sister cities
Daman is a twin town of the city of Coimbra, Portugal.

References

Further reading
 Andrada (undated). The Life of Dom John de Castro: The Fourth Vice Roy of India. Jacinto Freire de Andrada. Translated into English by Peter Wyche. (1664). Henry Herrington, New Exchange, London. Facsimile edition (1994) AES Reprint, New Delhi. .

External links
Government of the Union Territory of Daman and Diu
Daman District Administration

Districts of Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu

Daman district, India


Civil courage is a type of courage, related closely to heroism, with which a person acts bravely to intervene or take a stand in a social situation. It is courage shown by a person by representing human values (e.g., human dignity, justice, helping people in need) in public (e.g., towards authorities, superiors, strangers, or perpetrators, regardless of possible personal social and physical consequences).

Overview
Italian journalist and writer  (1925–1996) wrote, "" ("The more citizens with civil courage a country has, the fewer heroes it needs").

Contemporary use

Civil courage was referred to by psychologist Tobias Greitemeyer as constituting acts of bravery, carried out with the objective of enforcing a societal or ethical standard, without concern for the effect these acts might have on one's own social position. Civil courage is often punished and the courageous person risks ostracism. In this way, it is distinguished from those altruistic behaviors and other forms of courage that meet with social approval.

In the case of altruistic, helping behavior, an individual might expect to be praised or receive positive social consequences from having helped, despite possible financial or material loss. In actions where civil courage is demonstrated, the person carrying out the action may experience negative social consequences such as alienation, verbal abuse, or violence. Civil courage is displayed when a person, in spite of the perceived threat of such negative consequences, acts to intervene in a social context. This is demonstrated in the case of whistleblowers, who do not necessarily risk their lives but whose action could lead to prison time.

There are those who associate civil courage with non-violence as developed by Mahatma Gandhi and Martin Luther King Jr. and who cite such association as the cause why it faded as a model of conduct—due to the perception that it is uninteresting and boring when compared to violent revolution as a way of making social change.

Alexander Solzhenitsyn said of civil courage that "we have gotten used to regarding as valor only valor in war (or the kind that's needed for flying in outer space), the kind which jingle-jangles with medals. We have forgotten another concept of valor—civil valor. And that's all our society needs, just that, just that, just that!"

Learning civil courage
A study from 2021 showed that German citizens consider the following contexts relevant to learn civil courage: "at home and/or from family", "through volunteering", "in sports organizations", "in extracurricular activities", "in school", "in professional organizations", "from friends", and "in youth movements". The following contexts are not considered relevant: "from television", "from social media", and "from the internet".

See also

References

Civil society
Courage
Philosophy of love
Virtue

Civil courage


Roti is a type of Indian flatbread made using different flours. It is a staple food in many parts of India and other South Asian countries. Roti can be made from wheat flour, rice flour, millet flour, corn flour, or a combination of these. The dough is kneaded with water and sometimes salt, oil, or ghee. Then it is rolled into thin circles and cooked on a hot griddle or tawa. Roti can be eaten plain or with various accompaniments such as curries, dal, pickles, chutneys, or yogurt. Roti is also known by different names in different regions, such as chapati, phulka, paratha, naan, kulcha, or bhakri.

Roti


Fanuel Jariretundu Kozonguizi (26 January 1932 - 1 February 1995) was a Namibian lawyer and politician. He served as permanent petitioner to the United Nations on the issue of Namibian independence, and was a high-ranking administrator in South-West Africa prior to Namibian independence, both under South African administration and in the Transitional Government. In independent Namibia he was a member of Parliament and ombudsman. Kozonguizi was a founding  member and first president of the South West African National Union.

Biography
Kozonguizi was born in January 1932 in Windhoek Namibia and grew up in Warmbad in South Africa where he completed high school. He eventually earned his matric in 1953 and studied at Fort Hare, and Rhodes and University of Cape Town. He became a barrister and Inner Temple member in London in 1970.

In 1954 he began his career as an activist in Namibia, working to support contract labourers returning to Ovamboland. In that year he, Mburumba Kerina, Zedekia Ngavirue formed the South West Africa Students Organization at Fort Hare University. In 1956, Kozonguizi spoke before the United Nations on the issue of South West Africa along with Reverend Michael Scott, Mburumba Kerina, Hans Beukes, Markus Kooper, Sam Nujoma, Ismael Fortune, Jacob Kuhangua and Hosea Kutako. In 1958 he succeeded Reverend Scott as Herero Chief's Council's permanent petitioner to the UN.

In 1959, he was elected the first President of SWANU, which was the first political party in Namibian history. He lasted as SWANU's leader until 1966, when Kozonguizi stressed an ideologically pure commitment to socialism and anti-imperialism which made SWANU unpopular to some in comparison to the other major political party and liberation movement, the South West Africa People's Organization (SWAPO). This also led to the 1968 derecognition of SWANU by the Organization of African Unity.

After serving as a lawyer in London for a short time, Kozonguizi returned to Namibia in 1976 as legal advisor to Clemens Kapuuo and the OvaHerero delegation at the Turnhalle Constitutional Conference becoming an advocate in the process. He subsequently joined Kapuuo as member of the Democratic Turnhalle Alliance (DTA). He was appointed into a position at the Office of the Administrator-General in 1980, becoming "the highest-ranking black Namibian in the colonial government."

From 1980 until independence, Kozonguizi served in the transitional government of Namibia in various positions, including as the Minister of Justice, Information, Post and Telecommunication from June 1985 to 1988, and as Minister of Information from 1988 to 1989. Kozonguizi joined the National Unity Democratic Organisation (NUDO), a party that was part of the DTA at that time. Upon independence in 1990, he was elected into the 1st National Assembly of Namibia on a DTA ticket. He served as national ombudsman until his death in February 1995 at the age of 63.

References

Notes

Literature

Further reading
 Matthew ǁGoaseb (2007) Triumph of courage: Profiles of Namibian political heroes and heroines. Legacy Publications, Windhoek

1932 births
1995 deaths
Politicians from Windhoek
SWANU politicians
Members of the National Assembly (Namibia)
Namibian socialists

Fanuel Kozonguizi


San Pietro Apostolo, formerly known as Santi Pietro e Marone, is a Roman Catholic church located in the lower town of Civitanova Marche, in the province of Macerata, region of Marche, Italy.

History
The present church was rebuilt in Neoclassical style between 1841 and 1853, and served as the parish church of the lower town, Porto Civitanova. Restored in the 1990s, the facade has statues of both St Peter and St Marone on the second story. The brick frontage has elegant portals and ionic pilaster capitals in white stone. The main altar has a canvas depicting the Vergine della Misericordia.

References

Neoclassical architecture in le Marche
Roman Catholic churches in Civitanova Marche
19th-century Roman Catholic church buildings in Italy
Neoclassical church buildings in Italy

San Pietro Apostolo, Civitanova Marche