In mathematics, particularly the branch called category theory, a 2-group is a groupoid with a way to multiply objects, making it resemble  a group.  They are part of a larger hierarchy of n-groups.
They were introduced by Hoàng Xuân Sính in the late 1960s under the name gr-categories, and they are also known as categorical groups.

Definition
A 2-group is a monoidal category G in which every morphism is invertible and every object has a weak inverse.  (Here, a weak inverse of an object x is an object y such that xy and yx are both isomorphic to the unit object.)

Strict 2-groups
Much of the literature focuses on strict 2-groups.  A strict 2-group is a strict monoidal category in which every morphism is invertible and every object has a strict inverse (so that xy and yx are actually equal to the unit object).

A strict 2-group is a group object in a category of categories; as such, they could be called groupal categories.  Conversely, a strict 2-group is a category object in the category of groups; as such, they are also called categorical groups.  They can also be identified with crossed modules, and are most often studied in that form.  Thus, 2-groups in general can be seen as a weakening of crossed modules.

Every 2-group is equivalent to a strict 2-group, although this can't be done coherently: it doesn't extend to 2-group homomorphisms.

Properties
Weak inverses can always be assigned coherently: one can define a functor on any 2-group G that assigns a weak inverse to each object and makes that object an adjoint equivalence in the monoidal category G.

Given a bicategory B and an object x of B, there is an automorphism 2-group of x in B, written AutB(x).  The objects are the automorphisms of x, with multiplication given by composition, and the morphisms are the invertible 2-morphisms between these.  If B is a 2-groupoid (so all objects and morphisms are weakly invertible) and x is its only object, then AutB(x) is the only data left in B.  Thus, 2-groups may be identified with one-object 2-groupoids, much as groups may be identified with one-object groupoids and monoidal categories may be identified with one-object bicategories.

If G is a strict 2-group, then the objects of G form a group, called the underlying group of G and written G0.  This will not work for arbitrary 2-groups; however, if one identifies isomorphic objects, then the equivalence classes form a group, called the fundamental group of G and written π1(G).  (Note that even for a strict 2-group, the fundamental group will only be a quotient group of the underlying group.)

As a monoidal category, any 2-group G has a unit object IG.  The automorphism group of IG is an abelian group by the Eckmann–Hilton argument, written Aut(IG) or π2(G).

The fundamental group of G acts on either side of π2(G), and the associator of G (as a monoidal category) defines an element of the cohomology group H3(π1(G),π2(G)).  In fact, 2-groups are classified in this way: given a group π1, an abelian group π2, a group action of π1 on π2, and an element of H3(π1,π2), there is a unique (up to equivalence) 2-group G with π1(G) isomorphic to π1, π2(G) isomorphic to π2, and the other data corresponding.

The element of H3(π1,π2) associated to a 2-group is sometimes called its Sinh invariant, as it was developed by Grothendieck's student Hoàng Xuân Sính.

Fundamental 2-group
Given a topological space X and a point x in that space, there is a fundamental 2-group of X at x, written Π2(X,x).  As a monoidal category, the objects are loops at x, with multiplication given by concatenation, and the morphisms are basepoint-preserving homotopies between loops, with these morphisms identified if they are themselves homotopic.

Conversely, given any 2-group G, one can find a unique (up to weak homotopy equivalence) pointed connected space (X,x) whose fundamental 2-group is G and whose homotopy groups πn are trivial for n > 2.  In this way, 2-groups classify pointed connected weak homotopy 2-types.  This is a generalisation of the construction of Eilenberg–Mac Lane spaces.

If X is a topological space with basepoint x, then the fundamental group of X at x is the same as the fundamental group of the fundamental 2-group of X at x; that is,

This fact is the origin of the term "fundamental" in both of its 2-group instances.

Similarly,

Thus, both the first and second homotopy groups of a space are contained within its fundamental 2-group.  As this 2-group also defines an action of π1(X,x) on π2(X,x) and an element of the cohomology group H3(π1(X,x),π2(X,x)), this is precisely the data needed to form the Postnikov tower of X if X is a pointed connected homotopy 2-type.

See also

 N-group (category theory)
Abelian 2-group

Notes

References

External links

 2008 Workshop on Categorical Groups at the Centre de Recerca Matemàtica

Group theory
Higher category theory
Homotopy theory

2-group


Augustana Swedish Lutheran Church is a historic church in Claremont, South Dakota.  It was built in 1899 and was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1988.

History
Swedes were among the many European ethnic immigrant groups that came to the Dakotas in the 1880s. Some settled in Brown County, South Dakota, where they soon formed the Swedish Evangelical Lutheran Augustana Church. A sister congregation began building the church in 1899 and soon after dedicated it in March, 1900. A bell for the belfry was purchased in 1903, and a full basement, coal furnace, and pipe organ were added in 1911.

Swedish was the only language used for services until 1925.  Other symbols of Swedish-Lutheran ethnicity remain, however, including the raised pulpit and Gothic-style elements such as the tall steeple with a cross at the peak.

References

Lutheran churches in South Dakota
Churches on the National Register of Historic Places in South Dakota
Churches completed in 1899
Churches in Brown County, South Dakota
Swedish-American culture in South Dakota
National Register of Historic Places in Brown County, South Dakota

Augustana Swedish Lutheran Church


Kajan is a village and a former municipality in the Elbasan County, central Albania. At the 2015 local government reform it became a subdivision of the municipality Belsh. The population at the 2011 census was 3,925. The municipal unit consists of the villages Dragot-Fushë, Lisaj, Kajan, Dragot, Gjinuk, Gjolene, Turbull, Çestije, Merhoj and Idriz.

References

Administrative units of Belsh
Former municipalities in Elbasan County
Villages in Elbasan County

Kajan


Many metals, particularly heavy metals are toxic, but some heavy metals are essential, and some, such as bismuth, have a low toxicity. Most often the definition of toxic metals includes at least cadmium, manganese, lead, mercuryand the radioactive metals.These are quite harmful and hazardous.

Harmful effects of metals:

The main threats to human health from heavy metals are associated with exposure to lead, cadmium, mercury and arsenic. These metals have been extensively studied and their effects on human health regularly reviewed by international bodies such as the WHO. Heavy metals have been used by humans for thousands of years.

Heavy Metal Poisoning

Heavy metal poisoning is the accumulation of heavy metals, in toxic amounts, in the soft tissues of the body. ... The heavy metals most commonly associated with poisoning of humans are lead, mercury, arsenic and cadmium.

How do you know if you have heavy metals in your body?

 diarrhea.
 nausea.
 abdominal pain.
 vomiting.
 shortness of breath.
 tingling in your hands and feet.
 chills.
 weakness. Note- It is not necessary that all people who have these problems must be having heavy metal poisoning.

Toxic metals


Gallicanism is the belief that popular civil authority—often represented by the monarch's or the state's authority—over the Catholic Church is comparable to that of the pope. Gallicanism is a rejection of ultramontanism; it has something in common with Anglicanism, but is nuanced, in that it plays down the authority of the Pope in church without denying that there are some authoritative elements to the office associated with being primus inter pares ("first among equals"). Other terms for the same or similar doctrines include Erastianism, Febronianism, and Josephinism.

Gallicanism originated in France (the term derives from Gallia, the Latin name of Gaul), and is unrelated to the first-millennium Catholic Gallican Rite. In the 18th century it spread to the Low Countries, especially the Netherlands. The University of Notre Dame professor John McGreevy defines it as "the notion that national customs might trump Roman (Catholic Church) regulations."

Background
Gallicanism is a group of religious opinions that was for some time peculiar to the Catholic Church in France. These opinions were in opposition to the ideas which were called ultramontane, which means "across the mountains" (the Alps). Ultramontanism affirmed the authority of the pope over the temporal kingdoms of the rest of Europe, particularly emphasizing a supreme episcopate for the pope holding universal immediate jurisdiction. This eventually led to the definition by the Roman Catholic Church of the dogma of papal infallibility at the First Vatican Council.

Gallicanism tended to restrain the pope's authority in favour of that of bishops and the people's representatives in the State, or the monarch. But the most respected proponents of Gallican ideas did not contest the pope's primacy in the Church, merely his supremacy and doctrinal infallibility. They believed their way of regarding the authority of the pope—more in line with that of the Conciliar movement and akin to the Orthodox and Anglicans—was more in conformity with Holy Scripture and tradition. At the same time, they believed their theory did not transgress the limits of free opinions.

General notions
The Declaration of the Clergy of France of 1682 is made up of four articles:

St. Peter and the popes, his successors, and the Church itself have dominion from God only over things spiritual and not over things temporal and civil. Therefore, kings and sovereigns are not beholden to the church in deciding temporal things. They cannot be deposed by the church and their subjects cannot be absolved by the church from their oaths of allegiance.
The authority in things spiritual belongs to the Holy See and the successors of St. Peter, and does not affect the decrees of the Council of Constance contained in the fourth and fifth sessions of that council, which is observed by the Gallican Church. The Gallicans do not approve of casting slurs on those decrees.
The exercise of this Apostolic authority (puissance) must be regulated in accordance with canons (rules) established by the Holy Spirit through the centuries of Church history.
 Although the pope has the chief part in questions of faith, and his decrees apply to all the Churches, and to each Church in particular, yet his judgment is not irreformable, at least pending the consent of the Church.

According to the initial Gallican theory, then, papal primacy was limited first by the temporal power of monarchs, which, by divine will, was inviolable. Secondly, it was limited by the authority of the general councils and the bishops, and lastly by the canons and customs of particular churches, which the pope was bound to take into account when he exercised his authority.

Gallicanism was more than pure theory – the bishops and magistrates of France used it, the former to increase power in the government of dioceses, the latter to extend their jurisdiction so as to cover ecclesiastical affairs. There also was an episcopal and political Gallicanism, and a parliamentary or judicial Gallicanism. The former lessened the doctrinal authority of the pope in favour of that of the bishops, to the degree marked by the Declaration of 1682, and the latter augmented the rights of the state.

There were eighty-three "Liberties of the Gallican Church", according to a collection drawn up by the jurisconsults Guy Coquille and Pierre Pithou. Besides the four articles cited above, which were incorporated, these Liberties included the following:
The Kings of France had the right to assemble councils in their dominions, and to make laws and regulations touching ecclesiastical matters.
The pope's legates could not be sent into France, or exercise their power within that kingdom, except at the king's request or with his consent.
Bishops, even when commanded by the pope, could not go out of the kingdom without the king's consent.
Royal officers could not be excommunicated for any act performed in the discharge of their official duties.
The pope could not authorize the alienation of any landed estate of the Churches, or the diminishing of any foundations.
His bulls and letters might not be executed without the pareatis of the king or his officers.
He could not issue dispensations to the prejudice of the laudable customs and statutes of the cathedral Churches.
It was lawful to appeal from him to a future council, or to have recourse to the "appeal as from an abuse" against acts of the ecclesiastical power.

Parliamentary Gallicanism, therefore, was of much wider scope than episcopal; indeed, it was often disavowed by the bishops of France, and about twenty of them condemned Pierre Pithou's book when a new edition of it was published, in 1638, by the brothers Dupuy.

History
John Kilcullen wrote, in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, that "in France conciliarism was one of the sources of Gallicanism."

Proponents of Gallicanism presented a number of theories as to its origin.

 The more moderate held that Gallican ideas and liberties were simply privileges – concessions made by the popes, who had been quite willing to divest themselves of a part of their authority in favour of the bishops or kings of France. Thus the extension of the king's authority ecclesiastical matters was not new. This idea appeared as early as the reign of King Philip IV, in some of the protests of that monarch against the policy of Pope Boniface VIII. In the view of some partisans of the theory, the popes had always thought fit to show especial consideration for the ancient customs of the Gallican Church, which in every age had distinguished itself by its exactitude in the preservation of the Faith and the maintenance of ecclesiastical discipline.
 Others dated the Gallican approach to the time of the early Carolingians, and explaining them somewhat differently, when the popes found it necessary to delegate certain prerogatives to the king in order that some control be exerted on the Frankish nobles who had taken possession of episcopal sees. The popes had, therefore, granted to Carloman, Pepin, and Charlemagne a spiritual authority which they were to exercise only under papal control; which authority had been inherited by their successors, the Kings of France.

The majority of Gallicans rejected the first theory that described the Gallican liberties as time-honored privileges, since a privilege can always be revoked by the authority which granted it. This was unacceptable, as they maintained that the pope had no power to revoke them.    The Ultramontanes pointed out that in that case, such liberties would also be claimed by the German emperors, also heirs of Charlemagne, and that was not the case. Moreover, some privileges the pope cannot grant, such as allowing any kings the privilege of suppressing or curtailing his liberty of communicating with the faithful in a particular territory.

Most of its partisans regarded Gallicanism as a revival of the most ancient traditions of Christianity, found in the conciliar decrees of the earliest centuries or in canon laws of the general and local councils, and the decretals, ancient and modern, which were received in France. "Of all Christian countries", says Fleury, "France has been the most careful to conserve the liberty of her Church and oppose the novelties introduced by Ultramontane canonists". They argued that the popes had extended to their own primacy based upon the false Decretals rather than Divine law. What the Gallicans maintained in 1682 was said to be not a collection of novelties, but a body of beliefs as old as the Church, the discipline of the first centuries. The Church of France had upheld and practised them at all times; the Church Universal had believed and practised them in the past, until about the tenth century; St. Louis had supported, but not created, them by the Pragmatic Sanction; the Council of Constance had taught them with the pope's approbation. Gallican ideas, then, must have had no other origin than that of Christian dogma and ecclesiastical discipline.

The early Middle Ages

To the similarity of the historical vicissitudes through which they passed, their common political allegiance, and the early appearance of a national sentiment, the Churches of France owed it that they very soon formed an individual, compact, and homogeneous body. From the end of the fourth century the popes themselves recognized this solidarity. It was to the "Gallican" bishops that Pope Damasus I addressed the most ancient decretal which has been preserved to our times (Babut 1904). Two centuries later St. Gregory the Great pointed out the Gallican Church to his envoy Augustine, the Apostle of England, as one of those whose customs he might accept as of equal stability with those of the Roman Church or of any other whatsoever. But already (if we credit Babut's findings) a Council of Turin, at which bishops of the Gauls took part, had given the first manifestation of Gallican sentiment. Unfortunately for Babut's thesis, all the significance which he attaches to this council depends upon the date, 417, ascribed to it by him, on the mere strength of a personal conjecture, in opposition to the most competent historians. Besides, it is not at all plain how a council of the Province of Milan is to be taken as representing the ideas of the Gallican Church.

In truth, that Church, during the Merovingian period, testifies the same deference to the Holy See as do all the others. Ordinary questions of discipline are in the ordinary course settled in councils, often held with the assent of the kings, but on great occasions – the Council of Epaone (517), Vaison (529), Valence (529), Orléans (538), Tours (567) – the bishops declare that they are acting under the impulse of the Holy See, or defer to its admonitions; they take pride in the approbation of the pope; they cause his name to be read aloud in the churches, just as is done in Italy and in Africa they cite his decretals as a source of canon law; they show indignation at the mere idea that anyone should fail in consideration for them. Bishops condemned in councils (like Salonius of Embrun, Sagittarius of Gap, Contumeliosus of Riez) have no difficulty in appealing to the pope, who, after examination, either confirms or rectifies the sentence pronounced against them.

From Pepin to the Reformation
The accession of the Carolingian dynasty is marked by a splendid act of homage paid in France to the power of the papacy: before assuming the title of king, Pepin made the point of securing the assent of Pope Zachary. Without exaggerating the significance of this act, the bearing of which the Gallicans have done every thing to minimize, one may still see it as evidence that, even before Gregory VII, public opinion in France was not hostile to the intervention of the pope in political affairs. From that time on, the advances of the Roman primacy find no serious opponents in France before Hincmar, Archbishop of Reims. With him there appears the idea that the pope must limit his activity to ecclesiastical matters, and not intrude in those pertaining to the State, which concern kings only; that his supremacy is bound to respect the prescriptions of the ancient canons and the privileges of the Churches; and that his decretals must not be placed upon the same footing as the canons of the councils. His attitude stands out as isolated. The Council of Troyes (867) proclaims that no bishop can be deposed without reference to the Holy See, and the Council of Douzy (871) condemns Hincmar of Laon only under reserve of the rights of the pope.

With the first Capets the secular relations between the pope and the Gallican Church appeared to be momentarily strained. At the Councils of Saint-Basle de Verzy (991) and of Chelles (c. 993), in the discourses of Arnoul, Bishop of Orléans, in the letters of Gerbert, afterwards Pope Sylvester II, sentiments of violent hostility to the Holy See are manifested, and an evident determination to elude the authority in matters of discipline which had until then been recognized as belonging to it. But the papacy at that period, given over to the tyranny of Crescentius and other local barons, was in a period of temporary decline. When it regained its independence, its old authority in France came back to it, the work of the Councils of Saint-Basle and of Chelles was undone; princes like Hugh Capet, bishops like Gerbert, held no attitude but that of submission. It has been said that during the early Capetian period the pope was more powerful in France than he had ever been. Under Gregory VII the pope's legates traversed France from north to south, they convoked and presided over numerous councils, and, in spite of sporadic and incoherent acts of resistance, they deposed bishops and excommunicated princes just as in Germany and Spain.

In the following two centuries we can still see no clear evidence of Gallicanism. The pontifical power attains its apogee in France as elsewhere, St. Bernard  and St. Thomas Aquinas outline the theory of that power, and their opinion is that of the school in accepting the attitude of Gregory VII and his successors in regard to delinquent princes. St. Louis IX, whom some tried to represent as a patron of the Gallican system, is still ignorant of it – for the fact is now established that the Pragmatic Sanction of 1269, long attributed to him, was a wholesale fabrication put together (about 1445) in the purlieus of the Royal Chancellery of Charles VII to lend countenance to the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges. (Löffler 1911)

At the opening of the fourteenth century, however, the conflict between Philip IV and Boniface VIII brought out the first glimmerings of the Gallican ideas. That king did not confine himself to maintaining that, as sovereign, he was the sole and independent master of his temporalities; he proclaimed that, in virtue of the concession made by the pope, with the assent of a general council to Charlemagne and his successors, he had the right to dispose of vacant ecclesiastical benefices. With the consent of the nobility, the Third Estate, and a great part of the clergy, he appealed in the matter from Boniface VIII to a future general council – the implication being that the council is superior to the pope. The same ideas and others still more hostile to the Holy See reappeared in the struggle of Fratricelles and Louis of Bavaria against Pope John XXII; they were expressed by the pens of William of Occam, of John of Jandun, and of Marsilius of Padua, professors in the University of Paris. Among other things, they denied the divine origin of the papal primacy, and subject the exercise of it to the good pleasure of the temporal ruler. Following the pope, the University of Paris condemned these views; but for all that they did not entirely disappear from the memory, or from the disputations, of the schools, for the principal work of Marsilius, Defensor Pacis, was translated into French in 1375, probably by a professor of the University of Paris. The Western Schism reawakened them suddenly.

The idea of a council naturally suggested itself as a means of healing that unfortunate division of Christendom. Upon that idea was soon grafted the conciliary theory, which sets the council above the pope, making it the sole representative of the Church, the sole organ of infallibility. Timidly sketched by two professors of the University of Paris, Conrad of Gelnhausen and Henry of Langenstein, this theory was completed and noisily interpreted to the public by Pierre d'Ailly and Gerson. At the same time the clergy of France, disgusted with Benedict XIII, withdrew from his obedience. It was in the assembly which voted on this measure (1398) that for the first time there was any question of bringing back the Church of France to its ancient liberties and customs – of giving its prelates once more the right of conferring and disposing of benefices. The same idea comes into the foreground in the claims put forward in 1406 by another assembly of the French clergy; to win the votes of the assembly, certain orators cited the example of what was happening in England. Johannes Haller concluded from this that these so-called Ancient Liberties were of English origin, that the Gallican Church really borrowed them from its neighbour, only imagining them to be a revival of its own past. This opinion does not seem well founded. The precedents cited by Haller go back to the parliament held at Carlisle in 1307, at which date the tendencies of reaction against papal reservations had already manifested themselves in the assemblies convoked by Philip the Fair in 1302 and 1303. The most that we can admit is, that the same ideas received parallel development from both sides of the channel.

Together with the restoration of the "Ancient Liberties" the assembly of the clergy in 1406 intended to maintain the superiority of the council to the pope, and the fallibility of the latter. However widely they may have been accepted at the time, these were only individual opinions or opinions of a school, when the Council of Constance came to give them the sanction of its high authority. In its fourth and fifth sessions it declared that the council represented the Church and that every person, no matter of what dignity, even the pope, was bound to obey it in what concerned the extirpation of the schism and the reform of the Church; that even the pope, if he resisted obstinately, might be constrained by process of law to obey it in the above-mentioned points. This was the birth or, if we prefer to call it so, the legitimation of Gallicanism. So far we had encountered in the history of the Gallican Church recriminations of malcontent bishops, or a violent gesture of some prince discomforted in his avaricious designs; but these were only fits of resentment or ill humor, accidents with no attendant consequences; this time the provisions made against exercise of the pontifical authority had a lasting effect. Gallicanism had implanted itself in the minds of men as a national doctrine and it only remained to apply it in practice. This is to be the work of the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges. In that instrument the clergy of France inserted the articles of Constance repeated at Basle, and upon that warrant assumed authority to regulate the collation of benefices and the temporal administration of the Churches on the sole basis of the common law, under the king's patronage, and independently of the pope's action. From Eugene IV to Leo X the popes did not cease to protest against the Pragmatic Sanction, until it was replaced by the Concordat of Bologna in 1516. But, if its provisions disappeared from the laws of France, the principles it embodied for a time nonetheless continued to inspire the schools of theology and parliamentary jurisprudence. Those principles even appeared at the Council of Trent, where the ambassadors, theologians, and bishops of France repeatedly championed them, notably when the council discussed whether episcopal jurisdiction comes immediately from God or through the pope, whether or not the council ought to ask confirmation of its decrees from the sovereign pontiff, etc. Then again, it was in the name of the Liberties of the Gallican Church that a part of the clergy and the Parlementaires opposed the publication of the Council of Trent; and the crown decided to detach from it and publish what seemed good, in the form of ordinances emanating from the royal authority.

After the Reformation
The assassination of Henry IV, which was exploited to move public opinion against Ultramontanism and the activity of Edmond Richer, syndic of the Sorbonne, brought about, at the beginning of the seventeenth century, a revival of Gallicanism. In 1663 the Sorbonne declared that it admitted no authority of the pope over the king's temporal dominion, nor his superiority to a general council, nor infallibility apart from the Church's consent.

In 1682, Louis XIV having decided to extend to all the Churches of his kingdom the droit de regale, or right of receiving the revenue of vacant sees, and of conferring the sees themselves at his pleasure, Pope Innocent XI opposed the king's designs. The king assembled the clergy of France and, on 19 March 1682, the thirty-six prelates and thirty-four deputies of the second order who constituted that assembly adopted the four articles summarized above and transmitted them to all the other bishops and archbishops of France. Three days later the king commanded the registration of the articles in all the schools and faculties of theology; no one could be admitted to degrees in theology without having maintained this doctrine in one of his theses and it was forbidden to write anything against them. Pope Innocent XI issued the Rescript of 11 April 1682, in which he voided and annulled all that the assembly had done in regard to the regale; he also refused Bulls to all members of the assembly who were proposed for vacant bishoprics.

In the same way Alexander VIII, by a Constitution dated 4 August 1690, quashed as detrimental to the Holy See the proceedings both in the matter of the regale and in that of the declaration on the ecclesiastical power and jurisdiction, which had been prejudicial to the clerical estate and order. The bishops designate to whom Bulls had been refused received them at length, in 1693, only after addressing to Pope Innocent XII a letter in which they disavowed everything that had been decreed in that assembly in regard to the ecclesiastical power and the pontifical authority. The king himself wrote to the pope (14 September 1693) to announce that a royal order had been issued against the execution of the edict of 23 March 1682.

In spite of these disavowals, the Declaration of 1682 remained thenceforward the living symbol of Gallicanism, professed by the great majority of the French clergy, obligatorily defended in the faculties of theology, schools, and seminaries, guarded from the lukewarmness of French theologians and the attacks of foreigners by the inquisitorial vigilance of the French parliaments, which never failed to condemn to suppression every work that seemed hostile to the principles of the Declaration.

From France Gallicanism spread, about the middle of the eighteenth century, into the Low Countries, thanks to the works of the jurisconsult Zeger Bernhard van Espen. Under the pseudonym of Febronius, Hontheim introduced it into Germany where it took the forms of Febronianism and Josephism. The Synod of Pistoia (1786) even tried to acclimatize it in Italy. But its diffusion was sharply arrested by the French Revolution, which took away its chief support by overturning the thrones of kings. Against the Revolution that drove them out and wrecked their sees, nothing was left to the bishops of France but to link themselves closely with the Holy See. After the Concordat of 1801 French Governments made some pretence of reviving, in the Organic Articles, the "Ancient Gallican Liberties" and the obligation of teaching the articles of 1682, but ecclesiastical Gallicanism was never again resuscitated except in the form of a vague mistrust of Rome. On the fall of Napoleon and the Bourbons, the work of Lamennais, of "L'Avenir" and other publications devoted to Roman ideas, the influence of Dom Guéranger, and the effects of religious teaching ever increasingly deprived it of its partisans.

When the First Vatican Council opened, in 1869, it had in France only timid defenders. When that council declared that the pope has in the Church the plenitude of jurisdiction in matters of faith, morals discipline, and in administration, that his decisions ex cathedra are of themselves, and without the assent of the Church, infallible and irreformable, it dealt Gallicanism a fatal blow. Three of the four articles were directly condemned. As to the remaining one, the first, the council made no specific declaration; but an important indication of the Catholic doctrine was given in the condemnation fulminated by Pope Pius IX against the 24th proposition of the Syllabus of Errors, in which it was asserted that the Church cannot have recourse to force and is without any temporal authority, direct or indirect. Pope Leo XIII shed more direct light upon the question in his Encyclical Immortale Dei (12 November 1885), where we read: "God has apportioned the government of the human race between two powers, the ecclesiastical and the civil, the former set over things divine, the latter over things human. Each is restricted within limits which are perfectly determined and defined in conformity with its own nature and special aim. There is therefore, as it were a circumscribed sphere in which each exercises its functions jure proprio". And in the Encyclical Sapientiae Christianae (10 January 1890), the same pontiff adds: "The Church and the State have each its own power, and neither of the two powers is subject to the other."

See also

References

Sources
 Website of the Gallican Church (l'Eglise Gallicane )

 P. Babut, "La plus ancienne décrétale", Paris, 1904 (in French, referenced implicitly by the Catholic Encyclopedia article).
 Cardinal Giovanni Battista De Luca: Nepotism in the Seventeenth-century Catholic Church and De Luca's Efforts to Prohibit the Practice
 Rothrock, George A. "The French Crown and the Estates General of 1614". French Historical Studies, vol. 1, no. 3, 1960, pp. 295–318. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/285971.
 Thompson, D. (1986). General Ricci and the Suppression of the Jesuit Order in France 1760–4. The Journal of Ecclesiastical History, 37(3), 426–441. doi:10.1017/S0022046900021485

15th-century Catholicism
Religion in the Ancien Régime
History of Catholicism in France
Political history of the Ancien Régime

Gallicanism


Bhutanitis ludlowi, the Ludlow's Bhutan swallowtail, is a species of butterfly in the family Papilionidae, endemic to Bhutan and recently recorded in India. It belongs to the subfamily Parnassiinae subfamily which also contains the Apollo butterflies.

History
Until recently, Bhutanitis ludlowi was poorly known, and despite recent studies, its biology and distribution are still not entirely known. The taxon was originally known from a series of five specimens collected in Bhutan during 1933-1934 by the botanists Frank Ludlow and George Sheriff. Four of these specimens were referred to in the type description, which contained little information on the species' biology other than they were collected at an altitudinal range of 2000–2200 metres in forest.

In 1992, Chou claimed that a specimen of B. ludlowi had been collected in Yunnan and had been lodged in a Chinese collection.  Although this record was questioned by subsequent authors, a later publication by Chou (2000) did not provide additional information. Although Chou (2000) illustrated a specimen, it was later determined to be a retouched photo of the type specimen in the British Museum (Natural History). As no specimen has demonstrably been collected in China, Bollino and Racheli (2012) argued that the record was a misidentification of Bhutanitis lidderdalii spinosa.

In August 2009, Karma Wangdi, a Bhutanese forestry officer, collected a specimen of B. ludlowi in the Bumdeling Wildlife Sanctuary, located in Bhutan's remote Trashiyangtse Valley. This specimen provided the first unambiguous evidence in some 75 years that the species was extant. In August 2011, some mating [IUCN] pairs of B. ludlowi were sighted and captured at Bumdelling Wildlife Sanctuary in Bhutan by a research team from Bhutan in collaboration with the Butterfly Society of Japan (BSJ) and NHK Japan (Bhutan government official release 2011; Kuenzang 2011). Amazingly, the expedition sighted their first B. ludlowi on August 12, the same date that Ludlow and Sheriff took the first specimen in 1933. Bhutanitis ludlowi subsequently became the national butterfly of Bhutan.

Biology
The 2011 expedition also revealed considerable biological information about B. ludlowi (Choden, 2011). Its host plant is Aristolochia griffithi, which is also utilised as a host plant by other Bhutanitis taxa. Bhutanitis ludlowi eggs are smaller than in other Bhutanitis and are laid on top of each other in a stacked pile arrangement. Video footage of live adults (external links 3 and 4) show that their flight is rapid with a deep wingbeat and frequent gliding. The forewings provide all propulsion, while the hindwings are unpowered during normal flight and trail behind the butterfly. Unlike many swallowtail butterflies, B. ludlowi does not continuously flutter its wings while feeding. Viburnum cylindricum flowers were the most commonly used adult food source.

In 2012, a photograph was taken of a live specimen of B. ludlowi in or adjacent to the Eaglenest Wildlife Sanctuary, Arunachal Pradesh (Padmanabhan, 2012). This record comes from an area where Bhutanitis lidderdalii lidderdalii also occurs, suggesting these taxa are sympatric, or at least nearly so (based on data from photographs of B. lidderdalii shown on the Indian Foundation for Butterflies, Butterflies of India website).

As so few specimens are known, B. ludlowi is rarely illustrated. It is similar in appearance to the allied B. lidderdalii but has broader wings with the transverse bands grey instead of white (Chou, 2000). The distribution of both B. ludlowi and B. lidderdalii may overlap in Bhutan and Yunnan, China (Chou 2000), although it is unknown whether they co-occur in the same habitat.

Status
As with all other members of the genus Bhutanitis, B. ludlowi is listed on Appendix II of CITES, restricting any international trade. As of 2011, there were no reports of the species having entered trade, but it is highly sought after by collectors. Its most recent IUCN assessment is vulnerable (Gimenez Dixon, 1996). Although collecting butterflies in Bhutan is prohibited, the BSJ is building butterfly rearing capacity with the Bhutanese government for B. ludlowi and other species. Sustainable commercial rearing of this species has potential to eliminate the need for specimens to be continually harvested from wild populations, or to at least reduce the impact of harvesting so it is negligible. As with similar butterfly ranching programs in Indonesia and Papua New Guinea, sustainable harvesting may also provide wealth to remote communities with few other sources of legitimate income.

References

 Choden, K. (2011). New findings on Ludlow's Bhutan Glory. August 27, 2011.
 Chou, Y. (ed.)  1994.  Zhongguo die lei zhi / Zhou Yao zhu bian = Monographia rhopalocerorum sinensium = Monograph of Chinese butterflies. Henan ke xue ji shu chu ban she, Zhengzhou shi.
 Chou, I. (ed.) 2000. Monographia Rhopalocerorum Sinensium (Monograph of Chinese Butterflies). Revised Edition. Henan Scientific and Technological Publishing House, China. Two volumes.
 Chou, L. 1992. A study on the rare butterflies of the genus Bhutantis (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae) with descriptions of two new species. Entomotaxonomia 14(1): 48-54, 1 plate.
 Coote, L. 2000. CITES identification guide - Butterflies: Guide to the Identification of Butterfly Species Controlled Under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora. . Downloaded 5 March 2010.
 Bhutan Government official release 2011. First ever evidence of Ludlow's Bhutan Swallowtail mating. Wildlife Conservation Division, Ministry of Agriculture and Forests, Royal Government of Bhutan, August 17, 2011.
 Kuenzang Choden 2011. New findings on Ludlow's Bhutan Glory. Bhutan Times, August 27, 2011.
 Padmanabhan, S. 2012. The butterfly effect. The Hindu, 30 December 2012.
 Indian Foundation for Butterflies. Bhutanitis lidderdalii Atkinson, 1873 - Bhutan Glory. Butterflies of India website.
 Bollino, M and Racheli, T. 2012. Supplement 20. Parnassiinae (Partim) Parnassiini (Partim); Luehdorfiini; Zerynthiini (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae). In Bauer, E. and Frankenbach, T. (eds). Butterflies of the World. Goecke & Evers: Keltern.

External links

 TOL Taxonomic discussion. (Rare) photograph
   Questions the validity of specimen figured by Chou (1994).
  NHK footage of the Bhutan-Japan expedition, showing the initial Ludlow collection in the British Museum and flight of adult B. ludlowi at natural speed
  Shows slowed footage of live adults.

L
Endemic fauna of Bhutan
Butterflies of Asia
Insects of Bhutan
Butterflies described in 1942
Vulnerable fauna of Asia
Taxonomy articles created by Polbot

Bhutanitis ludlowi


Tadali is a village in Chandrapur district of Nagpur Division of Maharashtra, India.

The village is served by Tadali Junction which is a railway junction station under Nagpur division of Central Railway zone of Indian Railways. It is on the New Delhi–Chennai main line with a line to Ghugus which branches off to the south-west.

References

Villages in Chandrapur district

Tadali


Zopiclone, sold under the brand name Imovane among others, is a nonbenzodiazepine used to treat difficulty sleeping. Zopiclone is molecularly distinct from benzodiazepine drugs and is classed as a cyclopyrrolone. However, zopiclone increases the normal transmission of the neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) in the central nervous system, via modulating GABAA receptors similarly to the way benzodiazepine drugs do.

Zopiclone is a sedative. It works by causing a depression or tranquilization of the central nervous system.  After prolonged use, the body can become accustomed to the effects of zopiclone. When the dose is then reduced or the drug is abruptly stopped, withdrawal symptoms may result. These can include a range of symptoms similar to those of benzodiazepine withdrawal. Although withdrawal symptoms from therapeutic doses of zopiclone and its isomers (i.e., eszopiclone) do not typically present with convulsions and are therefore not considered life-threatening, patients may experience such significant agitation or anxiety that they seek emergency medical attention.

In the United States, zopiclone is not commercially available, although its active stereoisomer, eszopiclone, is. Zopiclone is a controlled substance in the United States, Japan, Brazil, New Zealand and some European countries, and may be illegal to possess without a prescription.

Zopiclone is known colloquially as a "Z-drug". Other Z-drugs include zaleplon and zolpidem and were initially thought to be less addictive than benzodiazepines. However, this appraisal has shifted somewhat in the last few years as cases of addiction and habituation have been presented. Zopiclone is recommended to be taken at the lowest effective dose, with a duration of 2–3 weeks for short-term insomnia. Daily or continuous use of the drug is not usually advised, and caution must be taken when the compound is used in conjunction with antidepressants, sedatives or other drugs affecting the central nervous system.

Medical uses

Zopiclone is used for the short-term treatment of insomnia where sleep initiation or sleep maintenance are prominent symptoms. Long-term use is not recommended, as tolerance, dependence, and addiction can occur. One low-quality study found that zopiclone is ineffective in improving sleep quality or increasing sleep time in shift workers, and more research in this area has been recommended.

Cognitive behavioral therapy has been found to be superior to zopiclone in the treatment of insomnia and has been found to have lasting effects on sleep quality for at least a year after therapy.

Specific populations

Elderly
Zopiclone, similar to other benzodiazepines and nonbenzodiazepine hypnotic drugs, causes impairments in body balance and standing steadiness in individuals who wake up at night or the next morning. Falls and hip fractures are frequently reported. The combination with alcohol consumption increases these impairments. Partial, but incomplete tolerance develops to these impairments.
Zopiclone increases postural sway and increases the number of falls in older people, as well as cognitive side effects. Falls are a significant cause of death in older people.

An extensive review of the medical literature regarding the management of insomnia and the elderly found that considerable evidence of the effectiveness and lasting benefits of nondrug treatments for insomnia exist. Compared with the benzodiazepines, the nonbenzodiazepine sedative-hypnotics, such as zopiclone, offer few if any advantages in efficacy or tolerability in elderly persons. Newer agents such as the melatonin receptor agonists may be more suitable and effective for the management of chronic insomnia in elderly people. Long-term use of sedative-hypnotics for insomnia lacks an evidence base and is discouraged for reasons that include concerns about such potential adverse drug effects as cognitive impairment (anterograde amnesia), daytime sedation, motor incoordination, and increased risk of motor vehicle accidents and falls. In addition, the effectiveness and safety of long-term use of nonbenzodiazepine hypnotic drugs remains to be determined.

Liver disease
Patients with liver disease eliminate zopiclone much more slowly than normal patients and in addition experience exaggerated pharmacological effects of the drug.

Adverse reactions
Sleeping pills, including zopiclone, have been associated with an increased risk of death. The British National Formulary states adverse reactions as follows: "taste disturbance (some report a metallic like taste); less commonly nausea, vomiting, dizziness, drowsiness, dry mouth, headache; rarely amnesia, confusion, depression, hallucinations, nightmares; very rarely light headedness, incoordination, paradoxical effects [...] and sleep-walking also reported".

Contraindications
Zopiclone causes impaired driving skills similar to those of benzodiazepines. Long-term users of hypnotic drugs for sleep disorders develop only partial tolerance to adverse effects on driving, with users of hypnotic drugs even after one year of use still showing an increased motor vehicle accident rate. Patients who drive motor vehicles should not take zopiclone as there is a significantly increased risk of accidents in zopiclone users. Zopiclone induces impairment of psychomotor function. Driving or operating machinery should be avoided after taking zopiclone as effects can carry over to the next day, including impaired hand-eye coordination.

A double-blind study on the effect on performance of several hypnotic medications, relevant to military personnel who may have to be awakened to carry out duties, found that drugs listed in increasing order of performance impact duration were melatonin (with no impact), zaleplon, temazepam, and zopiclone. The effects on serial reaction time (SRT), logical reasoning (LRT), serial subtraction (SST), and multitask (MT) were measured. For zaleplon (10 mg), zopiclone (7.5 mg) and temazepam (15 mg) respectively the times to recover normal performance for SRT were 3.25, , and 5.25 hours; for LRT 3.25, , and 4.25 hours; for SST 2.25, , and 4.25 hours; and for MT 2.25, , and 3.25 hours. The study did not consider the effectiveness of the drugs on sleep.

EEG and sleep
It causes similar alterations on EEG readings and sleep architecture as benzodiazepines and causes disturbances in sleep architecture on withdrawal as part of its rebound effect. Zopiclone reduces both delta waves and the number of high-amplitude delta waves whilst increasing low-amplitude waves. Zopiclone reduces the total amount of time spent in REM sleep as well as delaying its onset. In EEG studies, zopiclone significantly increases the energy of the beta frequency band, increasing stage 2. Zopiclone is less selective to the α1 site and has higher affinity to the α2 site than zaleplon. Zopiclone is therefore very similar pharmacologically to benzodiazepines.

Overdose
Zopiclone is sometimes used as a method of suicide. It has a similar fatality index to that of  benzodiazepine drugs, apart from temazepam, which is particularly toxic in overdose. Deaths have occurred from zopiclone overdose, alone or in combination with other drugs. Overdose of zopiclone may present with excessive sedation and depressed respiratory function that may progress to coma and possibly death. Zopiclone combined with alcohol, opiates, or other central nervous system depressants may be even more likely to lead to fatal overdoses. Zopiclone overdosage can be treated with the GABAA receptor benzodiazepine site antagonist flumazenil, which displaces zopiclone from its binding site, thereby rapidly reversing its effects. Serious effects on the heart may also occur from a zopiclone overdose when combined with piperazine.

Death certificates show the number of zopiclone-related deaths is on the rise. When taken alone, it usually is not fatal, but when mixed with alcohol or other drugs such as opioids, or in patients with respiratory, or hepatic disorders, the risk of a serious and fatal overdose increases.

Interactions
Zopiclone also interacts with trimipramine and caffeine.

Alcohol has an additive effect when combined with zopiclone, enhancing the adverse effects including the overdose potential of zopiclone significantly. Due to these risks and the increased risk for dependence, alcohol should be avoided when using zopiclone.

Erythromycin appears to increase the absorption rate of zopiclone and prolong its elimination half-life, leading to increased plasma levels and more pronounced effects. Itraconazole has a similar effect on zopiclone pharmacokinetics as erythromycin. The elderly may be particularly sensitive to the erythromycin and itraconazole drug interaction with zopiclone. Temporary dosage reduction during combined therapy may be required, especially in the elderly.
Rifampicin causes a very notable reduction in half-life of zopiclone and peak plasma levels, which results in a large reduction in the hypnotic effect of zopiclone. Phenytoin and carbamazepine may also provoke similar interactions. Ketoconazole and sulfaphenazole interfere with the metabolism of zopiclone. Nefazodone impairs the metabolism of zopiclone leading to increased zopiclone levels and marked next-day sedation.

Pharmacology
The therapeutic pharmacological properties of zopiclone include hypnotic, anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, and myorelaxant properties. Zopiclone and benzodiazepines bind to the same sites on GABAA receptors, causing an enhancement of the actions of GABA to produce the therapeutic and adverse effects of zopiclone. The metabolite of zopiclone called desmethylzopiclone is also pharmacologically active, although it has predominately anxiolytic properties. One study found some slight selectivity for zopiclone on α1 and α5 subunits, although it is regarded as being unselective in its binding to GABAA receptors containing α1, α2, α3, and α5 subunits. Desmethylzopiclone has been found to have partial agonist properties, unlike the parent drug zopiclone, which is a full agonist. The mechanism of action of zopiclone is similar to benzodiazepines, with similar effects on locomotor activity and on dopamine and serotonin turnover.
A meta-analysis of randomised controlled clinical trials that compared benzodiazepines to zopiclone or other Z drugs such as zolpidem and zaleplon has found few clear and consistent differences between zopiclone and the benzodiazepines in sleep onset latency, total sleep duration, number of awakenings, quality of sleep, adverse events, tolerance, rebound insomnia, and daytime alertness.
Zopiclone is in the cyclopyrrolone family of drugs. Other cyclopyrrolone drugs include suriclone. Zopiclone, although molecularly different from benzodiazepines, shares an almost identical pharmacological profile as benzodiazepines, including anxiolytic properties. Its mechanism of action is by binding to the benzodiazepine site and acting as a full agonist, which in turn positively modulates benzodiazepine-sensitive GABAA receptors and enhances GABA binding at the GABAA receptors to produce zopiclone's pharmacological properties. In addition to zopiclone's benzodiazepine pharmacological properties, it also has some barbiturate-like properties.

Pharmacokinetics

After oral administration, zopiclone is rapidly absorbed, with a bioavailability around 75–80%. Time to peak plasma concentration is 1–2 hours. A high-fat meal preceding zopiclone administration does not change absorption (as measured by AUC), but reduces peak plasma levels and delays its occurrence, thus may delay the onset of therapeutic effects.

The plasma protein-binding of zopiclone has been reported to be weak, between 45 and 80% (mean 52–59%). It is rapidly and widely distributed to body tissues, including the brain, and is excreted in urine, saliva, and breast milk. Zopiclone is partly extensively metabolized in the liver to form an active N-demethylated derivative (N-desmethylzopiclone) and an inactive zopiclone-N-oxide. Hepatic enzymes playing the most significant role in zopiclone metabolism are CYP3A4 and CYP2E1. In addition, about 50% of the administered dose is decarboxylated and excreted via the lungs. In urine, the N-demethyl and N-oxide metabolites account for 30% of the initial dose. Between 7 and 10% of zopiclone is recovered from the urine, indicating extensive metabolism of the drug before excretion. The terminal elimination half-life of zopiclone ranges from 3.5 to 6.5 hours (5 hours on average).

The pharmacokinetics of zopiclone in humans are stereoselective. After oral administration of the racemic mixture, Cmax (time to maximum plasma concentration), area under the plasma time-concentration curve (AUC) and terminal elimination half-life values are higher for the dextrorotatory enantiomers, owing to the slower total clearance and smaller volume of distribution (corrected by the bioavailability), compared with the levorotatory enantiomer. In urine, the concentrations of the dextrorotatory enantiomers of the N-demethyl and N-oxide metabolites are higher than those of the respective antipodes.

The pharmacokinetics of zopiclone are altered by aging and are influenced by renal and hepatic functions. In severe chronic kidney failure, the area under the curve value for zopiclone was larger and the half-life associated with the elimination rate constant longer, but these changes were not considered to be clinically significant. Sex and race have not been found to interact with pharmacokinetics of zopiclone.

Chemistry
The melting point of zopiclone is 178 °C. Zopiclone's solubility in water, at room temperature (25 °C) are 0.151 mg/mL. The logP value of zopiclone is 0.8.

Detection in biological fluids
Zopiclone may be measured in blood, plasma, or urine by chromatographic methods. Plasma concentrations are typically less than 100 μg/L during therapeutic use, but frequently exceed 100 μg/L in automotive vehicle operators arrested for impaired driving ability and may exceed 1000 μg/L in acutely poisoned patients. Post mortem blood concentrations are usually in a range of 400 to 3900 μg/L in victims of fatal acute overdose.

History
Zopiclone was developed and first introduced in 1986 by Rhône-Poulenc S.A., now part of Sanofi, the main worldwide manufacturer. Initially, it was promoted as an improvement on benzodiazepines, but a recent meta-analysis found it was no better than benzodiazepines in any of the aspects assessed. On April 4, 2005, the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration listed zopiclone under schedule IV, due to evidence that the drug has addictive properties similar to benzodiazepines.

Zopiclone, as traditionally sold worldwide, is a racemic mixture of two stereoisomers, only one of which is active. In 2005, the pharmaceutical company Sepracor of Marlborough, Massachusetts, began marketing the active stereoisomer eszopiclone under the name Lunesta in the United States. This had the consequence of placing what is a generic drug in most of the world under patent control in the United States. Generic forms of Lunesta have since become available in the United States. Zopiclone is currently available off-patent in a number of European countries,  Brazil, Canada, Hong Kong, and New Zealand. The eszopiclone/zopiclone difference is in the dosage—the strongest eszopiclone dosage contains 3 mg of the therapeutic stereoisomer, whereas the highest zopiclone dosage (10 mg) contains 5 mg of the active stereoisomer. The two agents have not yet been studied in head-to-head clinical trials to determine the existence of any potential clinical differences (efficacy, side effects, developing dependence on the drug, safety, etc.).

Society and culture

Recreational use
Zopiclone has the potential for non-medical use, dosage escalation, and drug dependence. It is taken orally and sometimes intravenously when used non-medically, and often combined with alcohol to achieve euphoria. Patients abusing the drug are also at risk of dependence. Withdrawal symptoms can be seen after long-term use of normal doses even after a gradual reduction regimen. The Compendium of Pharmaceuticals and Specialties recommends zopiclone prescriptions not exceed 7 to 10 days, owing to concerns of addiction, tolerance, and physical dependence. Two types of drug misuse can occur: either recreational misuse, wherein the drug is taken to achieve a high, or when the drug is continued long-term against medical advice. Zopiclone may be more addictive than benzodiazepines. Those with a history of substance misuse or mental health disorders may be at an increased risk of high-dose zopiclone misuse. High dose misuse of zopiclone and increasing popularity amongst people who use substances who have been prescribed with zopiclone The symptoms of zopiclone addiction can include depression, dysphoria, hopelessness, slow thoughts, social isolation, worrying, sexual anhedonia, and nervousness.

Zopiclone and other sedative hypnotic drugs are detected frequently in cases of people suspected of driving under the influence of drugs. Other sedating drugs, including benzodiazepines and zolpidem, are also found in high numbers of suspected drugged drivers. Many drivers have blood levels far exceeding the therapeutic dose range and often in combination with alcohol, illegal, or addictive prescription drugs, suggesting a high degree of potential for non-medical use of benzodiazepines, zolpidem, and zopiclone. Zopiclone, which at prescribed doses causes moderate impairment the next day, has been estimated to increase the risk of vehicle accidents by 50%, causing an increase of 503 excess accidents per 100,000 persons. Zaleplon or other nonimpairing sleep aids were recommended be used instead of zopiclone to reduce traffic accidents. Zopiclone, as with other hypnotic drugs, is sometimes used to carry out criminal acts such as sexual assaults.

Zopiclone has crosstolerance with barbiturates and is able to suppress barbiturate withdrawal symptoms. It is frequently self-administered intravenously in studies on monkeys, suggesting a high risk of addictive potential.

Zopiclone is in the top ten medications obtained using a false prescription in France.

References

External links
 Detailed pharmacological information
 Scheduling recommendation (PDF file)
 Details on scheduling
 Erowid zopiclone vault
 Support for zopiclone dependency/addiction

Carbamates
Cyclopyrrolones
Lactams
Nonbenzodiazepines
Chloropyridines
Piperazines
Pyrrolopyrazines
Sanofi
GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulators

Zopiclone


Sadma () is a 1983 Indian Hindi-language tragedy romantic drama film, written and directed by Balu Mahendra. It stars Kamal Haasan and Sridevi in lead roles, with the music composed by Ilaiyaraaja. The film tells the story of Nehalata Malhotra, a young woman who regresses to childhood as result of retrograde amnesia after suffering a head injury in a car crash. She was lost, and ended up trapped in a brothel before being rescued by Somu, a lonely school teacher who falls in love with her. The film was released on 8 July 1983.

The film was a remake of Mahendra's own 1982 Tamil film Moondram Pirai, which also starred Kamal and Sridevi. Sadma was widely acclaimed by critics for its direction, screenplay, music and performances. Sridevi's performance as an amnesiac woman was widely praised. Although a commercial failure upon release, Sadma over the years has gained cult status.

At the 31st Filmfare Awards, Sadma received three nominations: Best Actor (Kamal Haasan) Best Actress (Sridevi) and Best Story (Mahendra).

Plot
Nehalata, a young woman, has a car accident while returning from a party and is hospitalized with severe head injuries. When she recovers, she is diagnosed with retrograde amnesia. Having mentally regressed to the state of her 6-year-old self, she fails to recognize her elderly parents. While she is undergoing treatment, she is kidnapped and sold to the madam of a brothel.
Somprakash, also known as Somu, visits the brothel with his old friend to relax. The madam sends Nehalata, renamed Reshmi, to his room. Somu realises that she is mentally a child and pities her upon learning how she came to the brothel. He questions her about her family and background, but due to her condition she is unable to reveal enough information for him to locate her parents.

Somu rescues Reshmi from the brothel, under the pretense of a pleasure trip. He takes her to his home in Ooty, where he works as a school teacher. His elderly neighbour, whom he refers to as Grandmother, helps him care for Reshmi. Although Somu is aware of Reshmi's physical beauty, their relationship is strictly that of a child and protective caregiver and she becomes trusting of him. Their bond is briefly threatened when Reshmi accidentally spills ink over Somu's documents, angering him, but they reconcile. Later, a local woodcutter named Balua lusts for Reshmi and nearly assaults her, but she manages to save herself. When Somu learns of it, he becomes livid with rage and almost kills Balua. In a side plot Soni, the lonely younger wife of Somu's middle-aged headmaster, repeatedly attempts and fails to seduce Somu, who does not reciprocate her feelings.

Reshmi's father, who was searching for her through the police, releases a newspaper advertisement about her. He is given a lead by a co-passenger of the train that Somu and Reshmi had taken to Ooty. Meanwhile, Somu takes Reshmi to a medicine man and leaves her with him for a day's treatment. The police arrive at Somu's house searching for Reshmi, eventually tracing her to the medicine man's home. Somu, fearing police action, does not follow them there. The treatment is successful, with Reshmi (now Nehalata again) regaining her memory, recognizing her parents and completely forgetting the period between her accident and recovery. She and her parents rejoice and prepare to leave Ooty. The medicine man informs her father that the man who had brought her to him had been taking good care of his daughter; her father withdraws his police complaint and the family begin their journey home.

After the police leave, Somu chases the car in which Nehalata is traveling, falling and severely injuring himself in the process. Covered in mud, he limps after them to the railway station and tries to get Reshmi's attention at her train seat window, but she does not remember him. Somu repeatedly calls out to her and mimics a dancing monkey that she had developed a liking for but Nehalata, unable to comprehend, thinks he is insane and begging for food. He continues his futile attempts, but the train eventually leaves with Nehalata not recognising him. Somu is left alone at the station, heartbroken.

Cast
 Kamal Haasan as Somprakash "Somu"
 Sridevi as Nehalata Malhotra / Reshmi
 Gulshan Grover as Balua
 Silk Smitha as Soni
 Paintal as Paintal
 Arvind Deshpande as J.K. Malhotra
 Ashalata Wabgaonkar  as Rajeshwari Malhotra
 Shreeram Lagoo as Dr. Khandeparkar
 Viju Khote as Inspector David
 Birbal as Shyamu
 Leela Mishra as Somu's Neighbour
 Padma Chavan as Brothel Madam

Soundtrack

The music was composed by Ilaiyaraaja, in his Bollywood debut, and the lyrics were penned by Gulzar.Ilaiyaraaja retained two of his compositions from the original Tamil version. The song "Vaanengum Thanga Vinmeengal" was tuned differently for the Hindi version as "Yeh Hawa Yeh Fiza". The song "Narikkathai" was replaced with the song "Ek Dafa Ek Jungle Tha" in the Hindi version. The song "Poongatru Puthithanathu" was replaced with slightly different "Ae Zindagi Gale Laga Le" which itself also was used in 1984 Tamil movie Thambikku Entha Ooru sung by SPB. "Ae Zindagi Gale Laga Le" was first remade for the film Prague (2013) by Atif Afzal. It was again remade for the film Dear Zindagi (2016) by Amit Trivedi. Music director A. R. Rahman worked as a keyboard player for this film.

Release
Sadma was released on 8 July 1983. In 2015, Sadma was screened at the Habitat Film Festival.

Critical reception
Sadma received widespread critical acclaim with major appreciation drawn towards Sridevi's performance. It is included in iDiva's list of '10 Must Watch Movies That Weren't Blockbusters'. Sridevi's performance as a child-woman suffering from amnesia was called by Indian Express "a milestone in her illustrious career". Sridevi also featured in the Mid-Day list of 'Challenging Roles played by Bollywood Actors' describing her act in the film as "her best performance ever". In 2012, when Barfi! was being promoted, Anurag Basu said "People might feel so because the last film that featured the actress in a mentally challenged role was of Sadma. But the comparisons are only on the basis of the promo...once you see the film upon its release everything would be clear.". That same year, Adil Hussain, Sridevi's co-star in English Vinglish revealed that he became a fan of the actress after watching her in Sadma. The Sridevi-Kamal Haasan pair also appeared on the CNN-IBN list of 'Greatest Romantic Couples on Celluloid'. The climax of Sadma is included in the CNN-IBN list of 'Bollywood's 50 Most Memorable Scenes of All Time'.

Awards and nominations

31st Filmfare Awards
Nominated
 Best Actor – Kamal Haasan
 Best Actress – Sridevi
Best Story – Balu Mahendra

References

External links

1980s Hindi-language films
1983 films
Hindi remakes of Tamil films
Films directed by Balu Mahendra
Films shot in Ooty
Films scored by Ilaiyaraaja
Films about amnesia

Sadma


Nacional III is a Spanish comedy film from 1982 directed by Luis García Berlanga and written by him together with Rafael Azcona, the third part of the trilogy about the Leguineche family after La escopeta nacional (1978) and Patrimonio nacional (1981).

It was shot in Madrid, Ciudad Real and Biarritz (France), and tells the story of how, after the coup d'état of 23 February and the imminent electoral victory of the Socialists, the Leguineche decide to take their money out of Spain to protect it.

He proposed to make a fourth part about the Leguineche saga, but was frustrated for various reasons. Rafael Azcona and Luis Garcia Berlanga decided to shoot La vaquilla (another film about the Spanish Civil War) first, and the death of the main actor in the saga, Luis Escobar Kirkpatrick, put an end to the project.

Story
The Marquess of Leguineche has sold his palace for a very humble amount of money and has moved with Luis José, his son, to a flat he has bought next to the Retiro, in Alfonso XII street. They are accompanied by Segundo and Viti, his usual servants, and Father Calvo. Luis José has been separated from his wife, Chus, who is in Extremadura, on his father's estate for some years.

The story begins on 23 February 1981, in the middle of a coup d'état. While Luis José and Segundo plan to patent the "Platoespaña" that will leave them many benefits with the World Cup, Father Calvo longs for a triumph of the coup and Viti, turned from a servant into a lover of the marquess (with the total indifference of her husband), takes care of the house as the owner in pectore that she is.

A telegram notifies them of the sudden death of Chus' father. The whole family moves to Extremadura, to attend the funeral and see if they can get something out of the inheritance. Luis José and Chus reconcile.

Fearing that the socialists would come to power, Chus, following Luis José's instructions, decides to sell his part of the inheritance, convert it into cash and evade the capital to France. They try to do this through a convent and a specialized courier, but finally they will try to camouflage it in the plaster of Luis José, who will travel to Lourdes on a pilgrimage for the sick.

External links

 Nacional III entry at Berlanga Film Museum

References

1982 comedy-drama films
1982 films
Spanish comedy-drama films
Films directed by Luis García Berlanga
1980s Spanish-language films
Catalan-language films
1982 comedy films
1982 drama films
1980s Spanish films

Nacional III


Simone Raineri (born 7 February 1977 in Bozzolo, Mantua) is an Italian competition rower and Olympic champion.

He received a gold medal in quadruple sculls at the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney, together with Agostino Abbagnale, Rossano Galtarossa, and Alessio Sartori.

References

External links

1977 births
Living people
Italian male rowers
Olympic rowers for Italy
Olympic gold medalists for Italy
Olympic silver medalists for Italy
Rowers at the 2000 Summer Olympics
Rowers at the 2004 Summer Olympics
Rowers at the 2008 Summer Olympics
Rowers at the 2012 Summer Olympics
Olympic medalists in rowing
Medalists at the 2008 Summer Olympics
World Rowing Championships medalists for Italy
Medalists at the 2000 Summer Olympics
Mediterranean Games gold medalists for Italy
Competitors at the 2005 Mediterranean Games
Sportspeople from the Province of Mantua
Mediterranean Games medalists in rowing
Rowers of Fiamme Gialle
European Rowing Championships medalists

Simone Raineri


Montmartre is a hill 130 metres high and is also the name of the district which surrounds the hill. It is in north Paris and famous for its nightlife.

Many artists had studios or worked around the community of Montmartre such as Salvador Dalí, Claude Monet, Pablo Picasso and Vincent van Gogh.

Name origin
Montmartre means 'mountain of the martyr.' The name comes from the martyrdom of Saint Denis, who was decapitated on the hill around 250 AD. Saint Denis was the Bishop of Paris and is the patron saint of France.

The hill's religious symbolism is thought to be even older. It may have been a druidic holy place because it is the highest point in the area.

Related pages
 Bohemianism

References

Paris

Montmartre


Jean-Jacques Burnel (born 21 February 1952) is an English musician, producer and songwriter, best known as the bass guitarist and co-lead vocalist with the English rock band The Stranglers. He is the last founding member to remain in the band.

Life and career

Jean-Jacques Burnel was born in Notting Hill, London, to French parents. His family owned a restaurant where his father worked as a chef. As a child, as the son of French immigrants, he was often the victim of mockery from his schoolmates, which later led him to call himself John to disguise his French origins. This early encounter with xenophobia would also have an impact on his explosive temper in life and on stage as well as on the way he plays.

He moved with his parents to Godalming, Surrey, when he was 12 years old and attended the Royal Grammar School, Guildford, subsequently reading history at the University of Bradford and Huddersfield Polytechnic. Burnel originally trained as a classical guitarist, but adopted the bass guitar as his instrument within The Stranglers. He has provided lead vocals on nearly a third of the band's songs, though Burnel later explained he often sang lyrics written by Hugh Cornwell (or vice versa) depending on "who had the best voice for that particular song."

Burnel has been a member of the Stranglers since the group's inception in 1974, but has also made two solo albums: Euroman Cometh in 1979, and Un Jour Parfait in 1988, as well as a collaborative album with fellow Stranglers member Dave Greenfield, Fire and Water (Ecoutez Vos Murs) in 1983. Burnel has also produced and appeared as a guest musician for a number of artists, such as Lizard and ARB from Japan, Polyphonic Size (from Belgium) and Taxi Girl's album Seppuku in 1981, as well as Laurent Sinclair's "Devant le Miroir" maxi single. Burnel also formed a rhythm and blues covers band, the Purple Helmets, who played a number of concerts and released two albums in the late 1980s.

As a holder of French citizenship, Burnel received his call-up papers for national service in France. He succeeded in avoiding it with a novel defence, arguing that his absence would indirectly damage the Stranglers as a band, and therefore the careers of the other members. This was in accordance with Burnel's claim that only the "bourgeois" would ever agree to serve their country's military.

Burnel composed and performed music for the anime Gankutsuou: The Count of Monte Cristo, including both the opening and ending themes, "We Were Lovers", and "You Won't See Me Coming" respectively.

Burnel is fluent in French and writes many of his songs in the language.

Equipment and sound

Burnel is noted for his distinctive bass guitar sound and melodic bass lines. These are particularly prominent on earlier Stranglers recordings produced by Martin Rushent, such as the hit singles "No More Heroes" and "Peaches".

In the early days, Burnel's distinctive aggressive sound was created using a Fender Precision Bass with RotoSound roundwound strings played with a plectrum very close to the bridge, through Hiwatt all-valve amplification. However, the defining factor was the use of a Marshall 4x12 speaker cabinet in which the speaker cones were ripped, creating a distorted sound.

Later, he used a Yamaha BB2000, a Steinberger L2 (headless), and a Kinkade acoustic bass. He currently plays Shuker JJ Burnel signature basses custom-built in England by Jon Shuker.

He was one of the first bass guitarists to use Trace Elliot amplification when the company began production in 1980. He now uses amplification by Ashdown Engineering who have honoured him with his own JJ500 signature amps.

Personal life
As of 2015, Burnel was a 7th degree black belt (nanadan) in Shidokan Karate and is head of Shidokan UK. He is also a motorcyclist and has owned many Triumph motorbikes.

Discography

The Stranglers

Albums
 Euroman Cometh (1979) No. 40 (UK Albums Chart)
 Fire and Water (Ecoutez Vos Murs) (with Dave Greenfield) (1983) No. 94 (UK Albums Chart)
 Un Jour Parfait (1988)
 Gankutsuou: The Count of Monte Cristo – Original Soundtrack (with Kasamatsu Kouji) (2005)

Singles
 "Freddie Laker (Concorde & Eurobus)" (1979), B-side "Ozymandias"
 "Girl from the Snow Country" (1981) deleted prior to release due to dispute with record label, but also released as a bootleg on "Karate Records".
 "Rain & Dole and Tea"/"Consequences" (1984) (with Dave Greenfield)
 "Goebbels, Mosley, God & Ingrams" (1988) flexi-disc release of an outtake from Euroman Cometh sessions
 "Le Whiskey"/"El Whiskey" (1988)
 "Reves"/"Crazy (She Drives Me)" (1988)

Production and other appearances
Burnel has also produced and or appeared either as a member of the group (Mutations, Purple Helmets) or as a 'guest' musician on a number of recordings, as follows:
 Celia and the Mutations – "Mony Mony / Mean to Me" single (1977) : bass and backing vocals
 Celia and the Mutations – "You Better Believe Me" single (1978) : bass
 Lizard – Lizard album (1979) : production, backing vocals
 Lizard – TV Magic single (1980) : production
 Polyphonic Size – "Nagasaki Mon Amour" single (1980) : production
 Sirens – "It Doesn't Really Matter" single (1980) : production
 Taxi Girl – "Les Armees de la Nuit" single (1981) : production & original theme
 Taxi Girl – "Vivian Vog" single (1981)
 Taxi Girl – "La Femme Ecarlate" single (1981) : production
 Taxi Girl –  "Les Armées de la Nuit"/"Musée Tong"/"La Femme Ếcarlate" single (1981) : production
 Taxi Girl – Seppuku album (1981) : production, chorus vocals on UK bonus track "Find the Boy"
 Polyphonic Size – Live for Each Moment album (1982) : production, bass and backing vocals, lead vocals on two tracks, joint composer of one track
 Polyphonic Size – "Winston & Julia"/"Je T'ai Toujours Aimée"/"Parties Dance" single (1982) : production, lead vocals on all tracks, bass on "Je T'ai Toujours Aimée"
 Polyphonic Size – "Mother's Little Helper"/"Men and Construction"/"RDA RFA"/"Kyoto"/"Nagasaki Mon Amour" single (1982) : production
 Polyphonic Size – Mother's Little Helper"/"Girlscout"/"Men and Construction"/"On the Way to Medora"/"Saison" single (1982) : production
 Polyphonic Size – "Night is Coming On" single (1982) : production
 Polyphonic Size – "Je T'ai Toujours Aimee" single (1982) : production, lead vocals and bass on A-side
 Polyphonic Size – Walking Everywhere album (1983) : production, vocals on three tracks which he jointly composed, including lead vocals on Walking Class Hero.
 Polyphonic Size – "Walking Class Hero" single (1983) : production, lead vocal, joint composer
 ARB – Yellow Blood album (1984) : bass guitar on two tracks, "Yellow Blood" and "Fight it Out"
 Beranek – Trigger album (1984) : production, bass and backing vocals on track "All Through the Night"
 Beranek – "Some Boys Like Dolls"/"Why Don't You Wanna Dance" single (1984) : production
 Play Group – Love Goes Round album (1984) : production
 Laurent Sinclair – "Devant le Miroir" single (1985) : production and bass
 Dave Howard Singers – "Rock On" single (1985) : production
 Beranek – Daylight in the Dark album (1986) : production, bass and backing vocals
 Beranek – "Dancing in the Wind"/"Teardrop" single (1986) : production, bass and backing vocals
 Ping Pop – Just Another Lazy Day album (1986) : production and backing vocals
 Fools Dance – "They'll Never Know" single (1987) : bass
 Jacques Dutronc – CQFD album (1987) : bass on five of the tracks
 Mona Mur – Mona Mur album (1987) : production, bass, guitars and percussion
 Mona Mur – "Bastard" single (1987) : production, bass, guitars and percussion
 Mona Mur – "Ritz" single (1987) : production, bass, guitars, percussion
 Revenge – Sweet and Sour album (1987) : production, sound mixing and recording, backing vocals
 Revenge – Wartime album (1987) : mixing
 The Purple Helmets – Ride Again album (1988) : bass and vocals
 The Purple Helmets – "We Gotta Get Out of This Place"/"I'm a Man" single (1989) : bass and vocals
 The Purple Helmets – Rise Again album (1989) : bass and vocals
 The Purple Helmets – "Brand New Cadillac"/"Under the Sun" single (1989) : bass and vocals
 Dani – N Comme Never Again album (1993) : production, mixing, bass, vocals and guitars
 Magic De Spell – Holiday in Sarajevo album (1993) : production
 Magic De Spell – Nipsonanoimimata Mi Monan Opsin album (1995) : production
 Pat Dinizio – Songs and Sounds album (1997) : bass and vocals
 Pat Dinizio – "124mph" single (1997) : bass and vocals
 Pat Dinizio – "A World Apart" single (1997) : bass and vocals
 Schindler – "Time" single (1999) : production, keyboards and backing vocals
 Temple of Sound - "Dojo kun (jamais laisser tomber)" on the album First edition (2002) : vocals
 3 Men and Black – Acoustic album (2004) : bass and vocals
 Teasing Lulu – "Infatuation"/"You Ain't My Baby" single (2006) : production
 Teasing Lulu – "Waste of Time"/"The Ex Factor" (from the motion picture 'Reverb') single (2007) : production
 Teasing Lulu – Black Summer album (2008) : production
 Dani - "Me & you" on the album Le Paris de Dani (2010) : vocals, song written by JJ

References

Bibliography

 Buckley, David. No Mercy – The Authorised and Uncensored Biography of The Stranglers. London. Hodder and Stoughton. 1997.

Further reading
 Cornwell, Hugh, A Multitude of Sins. London. Harper Collins Publishers, 2004.
 Cornwell, Hugh and Drury, Jim. The Stranglers – Song by Song. London. Sanctuary Publishing Ltd. 2001

External links
Ode to Joy: Issue 4; The Burning Up Times PDF: free online publication devoted to JJ Burnel's 1979 debut album, Euroman Cometh. 30 years on, JJ Burnel and John Ellis are interviewed, alongside fans' live Eurotour reviews and exclusive images
 JJ Burnel & Stranglers interviews, news and reviews at www.strangled.co.uk

1952 births
Living people
The Stranglers members
People from Notting Hill
People educated at Royal Grammar School, Guildford
English bass guitarists
English male guitarists
Male bass guitarists
English male songwriters
English male singers
English new wave musicians
English record producers
British male karateka
English people of French descent
Alumni of the University of Bradford

Jean-Jacques Burnel


Saint symbolism has been used from the very beginnings of the religion. Each saint is said to have led an exemplary life and symbols have been used to tell these stories throughout the history of the Church. A number of Christian saints are traditionally represented by a symbol or iconic motif associated with their life, termed an attribute or emblem, to identify them. The study of these forms part of iconography in art history. They were particularly used so that the illiterate could recognize a scene, and to give each of the Saints something of a personality in art. They are often carried in the hand by the Saint.

Attributes often vary with either time or geography, especially between Eastern Christianity and the West. Orthodox images more often contained inscriptions with the names of saints, so the Eastern repertoire of attributes is generally smaller than the Western. Many of the most prominent saints, like Saint Peter and Saint John the Evangelist can also be recognised by a distinctive facial type. Some attributes are general, such as the martyr's palm. The use of a symbol in a work of art depicting a Saint reminds people who is being shown and of their story. The following is a list of some of these attributes.

Saints listed by name

Saints (A–H)

Saints (I–P)

Q

R

S

T

U

V

W

X

Y

Z

See also
 Christian symbolism
 Arma Christi
 Animals in Christian art
 Plants in Christian iconography

Notes

References

External links

Symbology Q-Z
Christian iconography
Religious symbols
Heraldic charges

Saint symbolism: Saints (Q–Z)


Samuel Bronston Productions was an independent American film production company, founded by Samuel Bronston in 1943.

The company produced several epic films, the most notable of which are, John Paul Jones (1959), King of Kings (1961), El Cid (1961), 55 Days at Peking (1963) and The Fall of the Roman Empire (1964).

The films were made in Spain in the company's newly created studios in Las Rozas, near Madrid.

Due to financial difficulties, the company ceased its business activities in 1964. During the ensuing bankruptcy proceedings, Bronston's answer that the company had once had a bank account in Zurich in response to a question under oath about whether he personally had had a Swiss bank account led to his prosecution for perjury. He was convicted, and the case was ultimately appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court, which ruled in Bronston v. United States that literally truthful, but technically misleading, answers cannot be prosecuted.

List of Samuel Bronston Productions films

Film production companies of the United States
Samuel Bronston Productions films

Samuel Bronston Productions


George Frederick "Peaches" Graham (March 23, 1877 – July 25, 1939) was a baseball catcher for the Cleveland Bronchos, Chicago Cubs, Boston Doves/Rustlers, and Philadelphia Phillies.

Born in Aledo, Illinois, Graham played seven seasons of Major League Baseball over the span of eleven years. He debuted in  with the Bronchos as a second baseman, and came back in  with the Cubs as a pitcher, but only pitched in one game, a loss. After a five-year hiatus, Graham returned in 1908 as a utility player with the Braves. He started games as a catcher, second baseman, outfielder, third baseman, and shortstop, but was predominantly a catcher. Graham was traded mid-season  to the Cubs, but only played there for three months before being traded for Dick Cotter to Philadelphia, where he would finish his major league career after the  season at the age of thirty-five.

He had a son, Jack, born in 1916, who would go on to play professional baseball. Graham died in Long Beach, California at the age of sixty-two.

References

External links

Peaches Graham at Baseball Almanac

1877 births
1939 deaths
Major League Baseball catchers
Cleveland Bronchos players
Chicago Cubs players
Boston Doves players
Boston Rustlers players
Philadelphia Phillies players
Rock Island Islanders players
Colorado Springs Millionaires players
Minneapolis Millers (baseball) players
Scranton Miners players
Toronto Maple Leafs (International League) players
Wichita Witches players
Des Moines Boosters players
Davenport Blue Sox players
Hannibal Mules players
Baseball players from Illinois
People from Aledo, Illinois

Peaches Graham


Jennifer Lynne Brown (born March 23, 1981) is an American sports broadcaster and television host. A former Division I collegiate athlete for the University of Florida, she spent eight years as a reporter and host for ESPN and American Ninja Warrior.

Brown spent two years working for the NFL Network as a studio host and reporter. She also served as a reporter for College GameDay, the College World Series, Little League World Series, Summer and Winter X Games, and the ESPYs. She was a Los Angeles-based Bureau reporter for ESPN contributing interviews and reports for ESPN's news-gathering operation for SportsCenter, College GameDay and College Football Live. She co-hosted ESPNU's college football show RoadTrip with Jonathan Drubner.

Early life and education

Brown was born in Gainesville, Florida and raised in Orlando, Florida. Her parents were Olympic gymnastics coaches, and her mother founded several gymnastics schools across the country that trained gymnasts to compete in the Olympics.

Brown grew up with a passion for sports. She played seven sports at Bishop Moore High School and broke the record for the most varsity letters by a male or female athlete with 14. Brown captained and played five sports in one year (diving, volleyball, basketball, softball and track). She was also chosen as one of the top 10 athletes in Central Florida in 1999.

On August 7, 2000, Brown's younger sister Carrie was killed in a car accident at the age of 13.

Brown went on to attend the University of Florida on an academic scholarship and played four years on the Florida Gators softball team. Brown captained the team her senior year, and she finished fifth on the team's career stolen base list.

Brown received several academic honors while at the University of Florida including being named a two time National Fastpitch Coaches Association (NFCA) Academic All-American, four time SEC Academic Honor Roll, National Society of Collegiate Honors, Verizon Academic All-District, two time academic Dean's List and two time academic President's List.

Brown graduated summa cum laude and was planning to attend law school to become a sports agent, but got her big break hosting a travel TV show on HDNet called The Wild Side, which was a remake of the famous show Wild On on E!.

Personal life
Brown resides in Los Angeles, California. She is married to actor Wes Chatham. Together they have two sons, John Nash, born in 2014, and Rhett Jameson, born in 2016.

Career

TV hosting
From 2003 to 2008, Brown has hosted various episodes of the Hdnet reality TV show, Bikini Destinations. Prior to ESPN, Brown worked for Showtime Sports as a reporter in 2008 and 2009. Brown was a special correspondent on Inside the NFL for 2 seasons, which won an Emmy Award for Outstanding Studio Show in 2008. She was also a live event reporter for boxing and MMA events for both Showtime Sports and CBS. In 2009, Brown was one of the hosts on ABC's Primetime show The Superstars.

Brown worked for E! Entertainment the summer of 2008 as a correspondent on E! News Now. Prior to joining E!, Brown hosted shows for networks like CBS, ESPN, CMT and HDNet. She was the host for a nationally syndicated Mountain Lifestyle show called 48 Straight, The Mountain Experience, which she hosted with Jonny Moseley. Brown also co-hosted with Moseley The Collegiate Nationals for CBS Sports. In 2007, she hosted the reality TV show I Want To Look Like a High School Cheerleader Again on Country Music Television.

She was a co-host on the NBC and Esquire Network summer primetime show American Ninja Warrior, as well as hosting A Football Life: Backstory and NFL GameDay Scoreboard on the NFL Network.

Acting work
Her acting credit includes Two Tickets to Paradise, which was written, produced, starred and directed by D. B. Sweeney. She's also appeared in 2 episodes of the TV show Kingdom on DirecTV playing herself.

Modeling
Brown has been featured in several ad campaigns for Under Armour's athletic clothing line.

See also

 Florida Gators
 List of University of Florida alumni

References

External links

 ESPN profile

1981 births
Living people
American television sports announcers
College basketball announcers in the United States
College football announcers
Florida Gators softball players
Sportspeople from Gainesville, Florida
Sportspeople from Orlando, Florida
People from Manhattan Beach, California
Female models from Florida
Softball players from Florida
Bishop Moore High School alumni

Jenn Brown


Henri Berestycki (born 25 March 1951) is a French mathematician who obtained his PhD from Université Paris VI – Pierre and Marie Curie University in 1975.  His Dissertation was titled Contributions à l'étude des problèmes elliptiques non linéaires, and his doctoral advisor was Haïm Brezis.  He was an L.E. Dickson Instructor in Mathematics at the University of Chicago from 1975–77, after which he returned to France to continue his research.  He has made many contributions in nonlinear analysis, ranging from nonlinear elliptic equations, hamiltonian systems, spectral theory of elliptic operators, and with applications to the description of mathematical modelling of fluid mechanics and combustion. His current research interests include the mathematical modelling of financial markets, mathematical models in biology and especially in ecology, and modelling in social sciences (in particular, urban planning and criminology). For these latter topics, he obtained an ERC Advanced grant in 2012.

He worked at the French National Center of Scientific Research (CNRS), then moved to an appointment as Professor at University Paris XIII (1983–1985). He became a Professor of Mathematics in 1988 at Université Pierre et Marie Curie,  Paris VI (1988–2001 of "exceptional class" since 1993), and became professor at École normale supérieure, Paris (1994–1999), and part-time professor at the École Polytechnique (1987–1999).  He is also a visiting Professor in the Department of Mathematics at the University of Chicago, and was also co-director of the Stevanovich Center of Financial Mathematics in Chicago. He is currently the Directeur d'études (Research Professor) at École des hautes études en sciences sociales (EHESS), since 2001.He is also the teacher of vice professor of Võ Hoàng Hưng

Services

 National Committee of French universities (1992 – 1995).
 Since 2002 director of Centre d'analyse et mathématique sociales (CAMS), CNRS – EHESS.
 Vice-president, EHESS (2004 – 2006).
 Member of the thesis prize committee of the Universities of Paris (since 2006).

Awards

   Carrière Prize(1988)
 Prix Sophie Germain of the French Academy of Sciences (2004),
 Humboldt Prize in Germany (2004)
 French Legion of Honor in 2010.
 American Mathematical Society Fellowship (2012).
 Foreign honorary member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 2013.

Articles
 Berestycki, Henri; Roquejoffre, Jean-Michel; Rossi, Luca; The influence of a line with fast diffusion on Fisher-KPP propagation. J. Math. Biol. 66 (2013), no. 4-5, 743–766.
 Barthélemy, Marc; Nadal, Jean-Pierre; Berestycki, Henri Disentangling collective trends from local dynamics. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 107 (2010), no. 17, 7629–7634.
 Berestycki, Henri; Hamel, François; Nadirashvili, Nikolai Elliptic eigenvalue problems with large drift and applications to nonlinear propagation phenomena. Comm. Math. Phys. 253 (2005), no. 2, 451–480.
 Berestycki, Henri; Hamel, François Front propagation in periodic excitable media. Comm. Pure Appl. Math. 55 (2002), no. 8, 949–1032.
 Berestycki, H.; Caffarelli, L. A.; Nirenberg, L. Inequalities for second-order elliptic equations with applications to unbounded domains. I. A celebration of John F. Nash, Jr. Duke Math. J. 81 (1996), no. 2, 467–494.
 Berestycki, H.; Nirenberg, L.; Varadhan, S. R. S. The principal eigenvalue and maximum principle for second-order elliptic operators in general domains. Comm. Pure Appl. Math. 47 (1994), no. 1, 47–92.
 Berestycki, H.; Lions, P.-L. Nonlinear scalar field equations. I. Existence of a ground state. Arch. Rational Mech. Anal. 82 (1983), no. 4, 313–345; II. Existence of infinitely many solutions,  Arch. Rational Mech. Anal. 82 (1983), no. 4, 347–375.
 Bahri, Abbas; Berestycki, Henri A perturbation method in critical point theory and applications. Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 267 (1981), no. 1, 1–32.

References

1951 births
Living people
PDE theorists
École Normale Supérieure alumni
Academic staff of the School for Advanced Studies in the Social Sciences
20th-century French mathematicians
21st-century French mathematicians
University of Chicago faculty
Pierre and Marie Curie University alumni
Fellows of the American Mathematical Society
Knights of the Legion of Honour
Scientists from Paris
Research directors of the French National Centre for Scientific Research
French people of Polish descent

Henri Berestycki


Bruno Edgar Siegheim (24 May 1875 in Berlin, Germany – 5 November 1952 in Johannesburg, South Africa) was a German–South African chess master.

He took 3rd, behind Julius Finn and Hermann Keidanski, at New York 1903 (The Rice Gambit tournament at the Manhattan Chess Club). Then, he twice won South African Chess Championship (1906 and 1912), and lost to Max Blieden in challenge (1910),
defeated Harry Duhan in challenge (1911), and defeated Henk Meihuizen in challenge (1912).

After World War I, he tied for 5-6th at Malvern 1921 (Frederick Yates won), and shared 2nd with Richard Réti, behind Akiba Rubinstein, at Hastings International Chess Congress in 1922/23. He also played a match with Mir Sultan Khan at London 1929.

References

External links

1875 births
1952 deaths
19th-century German Jews
German chess players
South African chess players
Jewish chess players
German emigrants to South Africa

Bruno Edgar Siegheim


The serpent dance is a traditional Cornish dance associated with the Midsummer festival of Golowan and Cornish cultural events such as nos lowen (earlier spelling noze looan).

detailed description of the Golowan serpent dance form An Daras the Cornish culture website.

Below is a description of the dance as performed in the Golowan fire festival in Penzance in the 19th century from J S Courtney's A Guide to Penzance and Its Neighbourhood (1845):

"The proceedings finished by the boys and girls from the quay, whose torches had by this time expired, dancing in a long line hand-in-hand through the streets, in and out and sometimes over the now low burning tar-barrels, crying out, "An eye, an eye". At this shout the top couple held up their arms and beginning with the last the others ran under them thus reversing their position."

Cornish culture
Penzance
European dances

Serpent dance


Dellys Starr (née Franke) (born 2 October 1976 in Melbourne) is a retired Australian amateur mountain biker. She has won two Australian national championship titles in the women's cross-country race (2006 and 2008), and later represented her nation Australia, as a 31-year-old veteran, at the 2006 Commonwealth Games in her home turf and at the 2008 Summer Olympics. Starr currently resides in Colorado Springs, Colorado, where she shares with her husband and American cyclist Ryan Starr.

Competing for the Australian cycling team since 1997, Starr soared higher on the international mountain biking scene, as she took home her first ever Australian national championship title in 2006. Strong results landed her a spot on the nation's official roster at the Commonwealth Games in Melbourne, where she finished fifth in the women's cross-country race.

Starr qualified for the Australian squad, as a lone female rider, in the women's cross-country race at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing by finishing first from the Australian Championships and by receiving an invitational berth from the Union Cycliste Internationale based on her best performance at the UCI World Championships. With only two laps left to go before crossing the finish line, Starr suffered a heat-related fatigue and instead pulled off directly from a 4.8-km sturdy, treacherous cross-country course, finishing only in twenty-sixth place.

References

External links
Australian Olympic Team Profile

1976 births
Living people
Australian female cyclists
Cross-country mountain bikers
Cyclists at the 2008 Summer Olympics
Cyclists at the 2006 Commonwealth Games
Olympic cyclists for Australia
Cyclists from Melbourne
Commonwealth Games competitors for Australia
Sportswomen from Victoria (state)

Dellys Starr