A midfielder is an outfield position in association football. Midfielders may play an exclusively defensive role, breaking up attacks, and are in that case known as defensive midfielders. As central midfielders often go across boundaries, with mobility and passing ability, they are often referred to as deep-lying midfielders, play-makers, box-to-box midfielders, or holding midfielders. There are also attacking midfielders with limited defensive assignments.

The size of midfield units on a team and their assigned roles depend on what formation is used; the unit of these players on the pitch is commonly referred to as the midfield. Its name derives from the fact that midfield units typically make up the in-between units to the defensive units and forward units of a formation.

Managers frequently assign one or more midfielders to disrupt the opposing team's attacks, while others may be tasked with creating goals, or have equal responsibilities between attack and defence. Midfielders are the players who typically travel the greatest distance during a match. Midfielders arguably have the most possession during a game, and thus they are some of the fittest players on the pitch. Midfielders are often assigned the task of assisting forwards to create scoring chances.

Central midfielder

Central or centre midfielders are players whose role is divided mostly equally between attacking and defensive duties to control the play in and around the centre of the pitch. These players will try to pass the ball to the team's attacking midfielders and forwards and may also help their team's attacks by making runs into the opposition's penalty area and attempting shots on goal themselves. They also provide secondary support to attackers, both in and out of possession.

When the opposing team has the ball, a central midfielder may drop back to protect the goal or move forward and press the opposition ball-carrier to recover the ball. A centre midfielder defending their goal will move in front of their centre-backs to block long shots by the opposition and possibly track opposition midfielders making runs towards the goal.

The 4–3–3 and 4–5–1 formations each use three central midfielders. The 4−4−2 formation may use two central midfielders, and in the 4–2–3–1 formation one of the two deeper midfielders may be a central midfielder. Prominent central midfielders are known for their ability to pace the game when their team is in possession of the ball, by dictating the tempo of play from the centre of the pitch.

Box-to-box midfielder

The term box-to-box midfielder refers to central midfielders who are hard-working and who have good all-round abilities, which makes them skilled at both defending and attacking. These players can therefore track back to their own box to make tackles and block shots and also carry the ball forward or run to the opponents' box to try to score. Beginning in the mid-2000s, the change of trends and the decline of the standard 4–4–2 formation (in many cases making way for the 4–2–3–1 and 4–3–3 formations) imposed restrictions on the typical box-to-box midfielders of the 1980s and 1990s, as teams' two midfield roles were now often divided into "holders" or "creators", with a third variation upon the role being described as that of a "carrier" or "surger". Some notable examples of box-to-box midfielders are Lothar Matthäus, Clarence Seedorf, Bastian Schweinsteiger, Steven Gerrard, Johan Neeskens, Sócrates, Yaya Touré, Park Ji-sung, Patrick Vieira, Frank Lampard, Bryan Robson and Roy Keane.

Mezzala
In Italian football, the term mezzala (literally "half-winger" in Italian) is used to describe the position of the one or two central midfielders who play on either side of a holding midfielder and/or playmaker. The term was initially applied to the role of an inside forward in the WM and Metodo formations in Italian, but later described a specific type of central midfielder. The mezzala is often a quick and hard-working attack-minded midfielder, with good skills and noted offensive capabilities, as well as a tendency to make overlapping attacking runs, but also a player who participates in the defensive aspect of the game, and who can give width to a team by drifting out wide; as such, the term can be applied to several different roles. In English, the term has come to be seen as a variant of the box-to-box midfielder role.

"Number 8"
The number 8 generally, refers to the heartbeat of the team, like a box-to-box midfielder, having both offensive and defensive duties, but their main role to control the tempo of the game. For example, Xavi was the Number 8 in the Spanish national team during its highly successful period between 2008 and 2013; in this role, he could act as a double pivot or controller in a box midfield, and in a positional play system. The tiki-taka era of the Spanish national team was where the "Number 8" thrived. These midfielders require a sense of 'what' and 'when,' depending on the phase of buildup, opponent, and the team's style of play. For example, under a manager such as José Mourinho, the number 8's role would be to speed up play, so that the offensive transition is quick and hard to catch up, and would generally be played as a wide midfielder; however under a manager such as Pep Guardiola, Vicente del Bosque, Johan Cruyff, or Zinedine Zidane, the number 8 would be played as a deeper or more central midfielder whose job is to slow down play, hold and pass, or create small breaches to open more passes. Examples under these managers would be Xavi, Guardiola himself during his playing career, and Luka Modrić, respectively.

Wide midfielder

Left and right midfielders have a role balanced between attack and defence whilst they play a lot of crosses in the box for forwards. They are positioned closer to the touchlines of the pitch. They may be asked to cross the ball into the opponent's penalty area to make scoring chances for their teammates, and when defending they may put pressure on opponents who are trying to cross.

Common modern formations that include left and right midfielders are the 4−4−2, the 4−4−1−1, the 4–2–3–1 and the 4−5−1 formations. Jonathan Wilson describes the development of the 4−4−2 formation: "…the winger became a wide midfielder, a shuttler, somebody who might be expected to cross a ball but was also meant to put in a defensive shift." Two notable examples of wide midfielders are David Beckham and Ryan Giggs.

In Italian football, the role of the wide midfielder is known as tornante di centrocampo or simply tornante ("returning"); it originated from the role of an outside forward, and came to be known as such as it often required players in this position to track back and assist the back-line with defensive duties, in addition to aiding the midfield and attacking.

Wing-half

The historic position of wing-half (not to be confused with mezzala) was given to midfielders (half-backs) who played near the side of the pitch. It became obsolete as wide players with defensive duties have tended to become more a part of the defence as full-backs.

Defensive midfielder

Defensive midfielders are midfield players who focus on protecting their team's goal. These players may defend a zone in front of their team's defence, or man mark specific opposition attackers. Defensive midfielders may also move to the full-back or centre-back positions if those players move forward to join in an attack.

Sergio Busquets described his attitude: "The coach knows that I am an obedient player who likes to help out and if I have to run to the wing to cover someone's position, great." A good defensive midfielder needs good positional awareness, anticipation of the opponent's play, marking, tackling, interceptions, passing and great stamina and strength (for their tackling). In South American football, this role is known as a volante de marca, while in Mexico it is known as volante de contención. In Portugal, it is instead known as trinco.

Holding midfielder

A holding or deep-lying midfielder stays close to their team's defence, while other midfielders may move forward to attack. The holding midfielder may also have responsibilities when their team has the ball. This player will make mostly short and simple passes to more attacking members of their team but may try some more difficult passes depending on the team's strategy. Marcelo Bielsa is considered a pioneer in the use of a holding midfielder in defence. This position may be seen in the 4–2–3–1 and 4–4–2 diamond formations. Writer Jonathan Wilson has identified three different types of holding midfielder, namely the destroyer, the creator, and the carrier.

Initially, a defensive midfielder, or "destroyer", and a playmaker, or "creator", were often fielded alongside each other as a team's two holding central midfielders. The destroyer was usually responsible for making tackles, regaining possession, and distributing the ball to the creator, while the creator was responsible for retaining possession and keeping the ball moving, often with long passes out to the flanks, in the manner of a more old-fashioned deep-lying playmaker or regista (see below). Early examples of a destroyer are Nobby Stiles, Herbert Wimmer, and Marco Tardelli, while later examples include Claude Makélélé and Javier Mascherano, although several of these players also possessed qualities of other types of midfielders, and were therefore not confined to a single role. Early examples of a creator would be Gérson, Glenn Hoddle, and Sunday Oliseh, while more recent examples are Xabi Alonso, as well as Michael Carrick and Keira Walsh.

The latest and third type of holding midfielder developed as a box-to-box midfielder, or "carrier" or "surger", neither entirely destructive nor creative, who is capable of winning back possession and subsequently advancing from deeper positions either by distributing the ball to a teammate and making late runs into the box, or by carrying the ball themselves; recent examples of this type of player are Clarence Seedorf and Bastian Schweinsteiger, while Sami Khedira and Fernandinho are destroyers with carrying tendencies. Luka Modrić is a carrier with several qualities of the regista, and Yaya Touré was a carrier who became a playmaker later in his career after losing his stamina. N'Golo Kanté started out as the quintessential destroyer, but developed carrying tendencies under Antonio Conte at Chelsea.

Deep-lying playmaker

A deep-lying playmaker (Strolling 10) is a holding midfielder who specializes in ball skills such as passing, rather than defensive skills like tackling. When this player has the ball, they may attempt longer or more complex passes than other holding players. They may try to set the tempo of their team's play, retain possession, or build plays through short exchanges, or they may try to pass the ball long to a centre forward or winger, or even pass short to a teammate in the hole, the area between the opponents' defenders and midfielders. In Italy, the deep-lying playmaker is known as a regista, whereas in Brazil, it is known as a "meia-armador". In Italy, the role of the regista developed from the centre half-back or centromediano metodista position in Vittorio Pozzo's metodo system (a precursor of the central or holding midfield position in the 2–3–2–3 formation), as the metodistas responsibilities were not entirely defensive but also creative; as such, the metodista was not solely tasked with breaking down possession, but also with starting attacking plays after winning back the ball.

Writer Jonathan Wilson instead described Xabi Alonso's holding midfield role as that of a "creator", a player who was responsible for retaining possession in the manner of a more old-fashioned deep-lying playmaker or regista, noting that: "although capable of making tackles, [Alonso] focused on keeping the ball moving, occasionally raking long passes out to the flanks to change the angle of attack."

Centre-half
The historic central half-back position gradually retreated from the midfield line to provide increased protection to the back line against centre-forwards – that dedicated defensive role in the centre is still commonly referred to as a "centre-half" as a legacy of its origins. In Italian football jargon, this position was known as the centromediano metodista or metodista, as it became an increasingly important role in Vittorio Pozzo's metodo system, although this term was later also applied to describe players who operated in a central holding-midfielder role, but who also had creative responsibilities in addition to defensive duties.

Attacking midfielder
An attacking midfielder is a midfield or forward player who is positioned in an advanced midfield position, usually between central midfield and the team's forwards, and who has a primarily offensive role.

Some attacking midfielders are called trequartista or fantasista (, i.e. a creative playmaker between the forwards and the midfield), who are usually mobile, creative and highly skilful players, known for their deft touch, technical ability, dribbling skills, vision, ability to shoot from long range, and passing prowess.

However, not all attacking midfielders are trequartistas – some attacking midfielders are very vertical and are essentially auxiliary attackers who serve to link-up play, hold up the ball, or provide the final pass, i.e. secondary strikers. As with any attacking player, the role of the attacking midfielder involves being able to create space for attack.

According to positioning along the field, attacking midfield may be divided into left, right and central attacking midfield roles but most importantly they are a striker behind the forwards. A central attacking midfielder may be referred to as a playmaker, or number 10 (due to the association of the number 10 shirt with this position).

Advanced playmaker

These players typically serve as the offensive pivot of the team, and are sometimes said to be "playing in the hole", although this term can also be used as deep-lying forward. The attacking midfielder is an important position that requires the player to possess superior technical abilities in terms of passing and dribbling, as well as, perhaps more importantly, the ability to read the opposing defence to deliver defence-splitting passes to the striker.

This specialist midfielder's main role is to create good shooting and goal-scoring opportunities using superior vision, control, and technical skill, by making crosses, through balls, and headed knockdowns to teammates. They may try to set up shooting opportunities for themselves by dribbling or performing a give-and-go with a teammate. Attacking midfielders may also make runs into the opponents' penalty area to shoot from another teammate's pass.

Where a creative attacking midfielder, i.e. an Advanced playmaker, is regularly utilized, they are commonly the team's star player, and often wear the number 10 shirt. As such, a team is often constructed so as to allow their attacking midfielder to roam free and create as the situation demands. One such popular formation is the 4–4–2 "diamond" (or 4–1–2–1–2), in which defined attacking and defensive midfielders replace the more traditional pair of central midfielders. Known as the "fantasista" or "trequartista" in Italy, in Spain, the offensive playmaker is known as the "Mediapunta, in Brazil, the offensive playmaker is known as the "meia atacante", whereas in Argentina and Uruguay, it is known as the "enganche". Some examples of the advanced playmaker would be Zico, Francesco Totti, Kevin De Bruyne, and Martin Ødegaard.

There are also some examples of more flexible advanced playmakers, such as Zinedine Zidane, Rui Costa, Andrés Iniesta, Juan Riquelme, David Silva, and Nécib. These players could control the tempo of the game in deeper areas of the pitch while also being able to push forward and play line-breaking through balls.

Mesut Özil can be considered as a classic 10 who adopted a slightly more direct approach and specialised in playing the final ball.

False attacking midfielder
The false attacking midfielder description has been used in Italian football to describe a player who is seemingly playing as an attacking midfielder in a 4–3–1–2 formation, but who eventually drops deeper into midfield, drawing opposing players out of position and creating space to be exploited by teammates making attacking runs; the false-attacking midfielder will eventually sit in a central midfield role and function as a deep-lying playmaker. The false-attacking midfielder is, therefore, usually a creative and tactically intelligent player with good vision, technique, movement, passing ability, and striking ability from a distance. They should also be a hard-working player, who is able to read the game and help the team defensively. Wayne Rooney has been deployed in a similar role, on occasion; seemingly positioned as a number 10 behind the main striker, he would often drop even deeper into midfield to help his team retrieve possession and start attacks.

"False 10" or "central winger"

The "false 10" or "central winger" is a type of midfielder, which differs from the false-attacking midfielder. Much like the "false 9", their specificity lies in the fact that, although they seemingly play as an attacking midfielder on paper, unlike a traditional playmaker who stays behind the striker in the centre of the pitch, the false 10's goal is to move out of position and drift wide when in possession of the ball to help both the wingers and fullbacks to overload the flanks. This means two problems for the opposing midfielders: either they let the false 10 drift wide, and their presence, along with both the winger and the fullback, creates a three-on-two player advantage out wide; or they follow the false 10, but leave space in the centre of the pitch for wingers or onrushing midfielders to exploit. False 10s are usually traditional wingers who are told to play in the centre of the pitch, and their natural way of playing makes them drift wide and look to provide deliveries into the box for teammates. On occasion, the false-10 can also function in a different manner alongside a false-9, usually in a 4–6–0 formation, disguised as either a 4–3–3 or 4–2–3–1 formation. When other forwards or false-9s drop deep and draw defenders away from the false-10s, creating space in the middle of the pitch, the false-10 will then also surprise defenders by exploiting this space and moving out of position once again, often undertaking offensive dribbling runs forward towards goal, or running on to passes from false-9s, which in turn enables them to create goalscoring opportunities or go for goal themselves.

"False 9"

A false nine is an attacking player who is stationed high up the pitch but has the freedom to roam around and drop back into deeper positions to receive the ball and link up play. These players tend to operate primarily in central areas, somewhere between centre-forward and central attacking midfield. It is thought that the false nine was first used by English football club Corinthians in the late 1890s, when centre-forward G.O. Smith preferred to supply the wingers with through balls and create for others. This was a shift from staying as high as possible, as was customary for a striker. The term "false nine" has however only been used in more modern times.

The false nine rose to popularity during Pep Guardiola's highly successful tenure as the head coach of Barcelona, a spell in which he won multiple Champions League and La Liga titles. During this period, he achieved great success by moving Argentine attacker Lionel Messi from the right wing to the center. Leaving the team with no traditional striker, Messi played as a false nine, responsible for scoring and creating in equal measure.

Another notable example of playing without a striker using a false nine up front is Spain during Euro 2012. Cesc Fabregas adeptly assumed the false nine role in the majority of Spain's games, including the final against Italy, thereby guiding the country to secure their second consecutive Euro title.

More Notable examples include, Francesco Totti, Roberto Firmino, and Johan Cruyff.

Winger

In modern football, the terms winger or wide player refer to a non-defender who plays on the left or right sides of the pitch. These terms can apply to left or right midfielders, left or right attacking midfielders, or left or right forwards. Left or right-sided defenders such as wing-backs or full-backs are generally not called wingers.

In the 2−3−5 formation popular in the late 19th century wingers remained mostly near the touchlines of the pitch, and were expected to cross the ball for the team's inside and centre forwards. Traditionally, wingers were purely attacking players and were not expected to track back and defend. This began to change in the 1960s. In the 1966 World Cup, England manager Alf Ramsey did not select wingers from the quarter-final onwards. This team was known as the "Wingless Wonders" and led to the modern 4–4–2 formation.

This has led to most modern wide players having a more demanding role in the sense that they are expected to provide defensive cover for their full-backs and track back to repossess the ball, as well as provide skillful crosses for centre forwards and strikers. Some forwards are able to operate as wingers behind a lone striker. In a three-man midfield, specialist wingers are sometimes deployed down the flanks alongside the central midfielder or playmaker.

Even more demanding is the role of wing-back, where the wide player is expected to provide both defence and attack. As the role of winger can be classed as a forward or a midfielder, this role instead blurs the divide between defender and midfielder. Italian manager Antonio Conte has been known to use wide midfielders or wingers who act as wing-backs in his trademark 3–5–2 and 3–4–3 formations, for example; these players are expected both to push up and provide width in attack as well as track back and assist their team defensively.

On occasion, the role of a winger can also be occupied by a different type of player. For example, certain managers have been known to use a "wide target man" on the wing, namely a large and physical player who usually plays as a centre-forward, and who will attempt to win aerial challenges and hold up the ball on the flank, or drag full-backs out of position; Romelu Lukaku, for example, has been used in this role on occasion. Another example is Mario Mandžukić under manager Massimiliano Allegri at Juventus during the 2016–17 season; normally a striker, he was instead used on the left flank, and was required to win aerial duels, hold up the ball, and create space, as well as being tasked with pressing opposing players.

Today, a winger is usually an attacking midfielder who is stationed in a wide position near the touchlines. Wingers such as Stanley Matthews or Jimmy Johnstone used to be classified as outside forwards in traditional W-shaped formations, and were formally known as "Outside Right" or "Outside Left", but as tactics evolved through the last 40 years, wingers have dropped to deeper field positions and are now usually classified as part of the midfield, usually in 4–4–2 or 4–5–1 formations (but while the team is on the attack, they tend to resemble 4–2–4/2–4–4 and 4–3–3 formations respectively).

The responsibilities of the winger include:
 Providing a "wide presence" as a passing option on the flank.
 To beat the opposing full-back either with skill or with speed.
 To read passes from the midfield that give them a clear crossing opportunity, when going wide, or that give them a clear scoring opportunity, when cutting inside towards the goal.
 To double up on the opposition winger, particularly when they are being "double-marked" by both the team's full back and winger.

The prototypical winger is fast, tricky and enjoys 'hugging' the touchline, that is, running downfield close to the touchline and delivering crosses. However, players with different attributes can thrive on the wing as well. Some wingers prefer to cut infield (as opposed to staying wide) and pose a threat as playmakers by playing diagonal passes to forwards or taking a shot at goal. Even players who are not considered quick, have been successfully fielded as wingers at club and international level for their ability to create play from the flank. Occasionally wingers are given a free role to roam across the front line and are relieved of defensive responsibilities.

The typical abilities of wingers include:
 Technical skill to beat a full-back in a one-to-one situation.
 Pace, to beat the full-back one-on-one.
 Crossing ability when out wide.
 Good off-the-ball ability when judging a pass from the midfield or from fellow attackers.
 Good passing ability and composure, to retain possession while in opposition territory.
 The modern winger should also be comfortable on either wing so as to adapt to quick tactical changes required by the coach.

Although wingers are a familiar part of football, the use of wingers is by no means universal. There are many successful football teams who operate without wingers. A famous example is Carlo Ancelotti's late 2000s Milan, who typically plays in a narrow midfield diamond formation or in a Christmas tree formation (4–3–2–1), relying on full-backs to provide the necessary width down the wings.

Inverted winger and raumdeuter

An inverted winger is a modern tactical development of the traditional winger position. Most wingers are assigned to either side of the field based on their footedness, with right-footed players on the right and left-footed players on the left. This assumes that assigning a player to their natural side ensures a more powerful cross as well as greater ball protection along the touch-lines. However, when the position is inverted and a winger instead plays inside-out on the opposite flank (i.e., a right-footed player as a left inverted winger), they effectively become supporting strikers and primarily assume a role in the attack.

As opposed to traditionally pulling the opponent's full-back out and down the flanks before crossing the ball in near the by-line, positioning a winger on the opposite side of the field allows the player to cut-in around the 18-yard box, either threading passes between defenders or shooting on goal using the dominant foot. This offensive tactic has found popularity in the modern game due to the fact that it gives traditional wingers increased mobility as playmakers and goalscorers, such as the left-footed right winger Domenico Berardi of Sassuolo who achieved 30 career goals faster than any player in the past half-century of Serie A football. Not only are inverted wingers able to push full-backs onto their weak sides, but they are also able to spread and force the other team to defend deeper as forwards and wing-backs route towards the goal, ultimately creating more scoring opportunities.

Other midfielders within this tactical archetype include Lionel Messi and Eden Hazard, as well as Megan Rapinoe of the USWNT. Clubs such as Real Madrid often choose to play their wingers on the "wrong" flank for this reason; former Real Madrid coach José Mourinho often played Ángel Di María on the right and Cristiano Ronaldo on the left. Former Bayern Munich manager Jupp Heynckes often played the left-footed Arjen Robben on the right and the right-footed Franck Ribéry on the left. One of the foremost practitioners of playing from either flank was German winger Jürgen Grabowski, whose flexibility helped Germany to third place in the 1970 World Cup, and the world title in 1974.

A description that has been used in the media to label a variation upon the inverted winger position is that of an "attacking", "false", or "goalscoring winger", as exemplified by Cristiano Ronaldo's role on the left flank during his time at Real Madrid in particular. This label has been used to describe an offensive-minded inverted winger, who will seemingly operate out wide on paper, but who instead will be given the freedom to make unmarked runs into more advanced central areas inside the penalty area to get on the end of passes and crosses and score goals, effectively functioning as a striker.

This role is somewhat comparable to what is known as the raumdeuter role in German football jargon (literally "space interpreter"), as exemplified by Thomas Müller, as well as Dele Alli and Tim Cahill, namely an attacking-minded wide player, who will move into effective central attacking areas to find spaces from which they can receive passes and score or assist goals, while other teammates create space for their runs by drawing opponents away from them.

False winger
The "false winger" or "seven-and-a-half" is a label which has been used to describe a type of player who normally plays centrally, but who instead is deployed out wide on paper; during the course of a match, however, they will move inside and operate in the centre of the pitch to drag defenders out of position, congest the midfield and give their team a numerical advantage in this area, so that they can dominate possession in the middle of the pitch and create chances for the forwards; this position also leaves space for full-backs to make overlapping attacking runs up the flank. Samir Nasri, who has been deployed in this role, once described it as that of a "non-axial playmaker".

See also

Association football positions
Association football tactics
Defender (association football)
Forward (association football)
Goalkeeper (association football)

References

External links

Association football positions
Association football terminology
Association football player non-biographical articles

Midfielder


In economics and industrial design, planned obsolescence (also called built-in obsolescence or premature obsolescence) is a policy of planning or designing a product with an artificially limited useful life or a purposely frail design, so that it becomes obsolete after a certain pre-determined period of time upon which it decrementally functions or suddenly ceases to function, or might be perceived as unfashionable. The rationale behind this strategy is to generate long-term sales volume by reducing the time between repeat purchases (referred to as "shortening the replacement cycle"). It is the deliberate shortening of a lifespan of a product to force people to purchase functional replacements.

Planned obsolescence tends to work best when a producer has at least an oligopoly. Before introducing a planned obsolescence, the producer has to know that the customer is at least somewhat likely to buy a replacement from them in the form of brand loyalty. In these cases of planned obsolescence, there is an information asymmetry between the producer, who knows how long the product was designed to last, and the customer, who does not. When a market becomes more competitive, product lifespans tend to increase. For example, when Japanese vehicles with longer lifespans entered the American market in the 1960s and 1970s, American carmakers were forced to respond by building more durable products.

History

In 1924, the American automobile market began reaching saturation point. To maintain unit sales, General Motors executive Alfred P. Sloan Jr. suggested annual model-year design changes to convince car owners to buy new replacements each year, with refreshed appearances headed by Harley Earl and the Art and Color Section. Although his concept was borrowed from the bicycle industry, its origin was often misattributed to Sloan. Sloan often used the term dynamic obsolescence, but critics coined the name of his strategy planned obsolescence.

This strategy had far-reaching effects on the automobile industry, product design field and eventually the whole American economy. The smaller players could not maintain the pace and expense of yearly re-styling. Henry Ford did not like the constant stream of model-year changes because he clung to an engineer's notions of simplicity, economies of scale, and design integrity. GM surpassed Ford's sales in 1931 and became the dominant company in the industry thereafter. The frequent design changes also made it necessary to use a body-on-frame structure rather than the lighter, but less easy to modify, unibody design used by most European automakers.

The origin of the phrase planned obsolescence goes back at least as far as 1932 with Bernard London's pamphlet Ending the Depression Through Planned Obsolescence. The essence of London's plan would have the government impose a legal obsolescence on personal-use items, to stimulate and perpetuate purchasing. However, the phrase was first popularized in 1954 by Brooks Stevens, an American industrial designer. Stevens was due to give a talk at an advertising conference in Minneapolis in 1954. Without giving it much thought, he used the term as the title of his talk. From that point on, "planned obsolescence" became Stevens' catchphrase. By his definition, planned obsolescence was "Instilling in the buyer the desire to own something a little newer, a little better, a little sooner than is necessary."

The phrase was quickly taken up by others, but Stevens' definition was challenged. By the late 1950s, planned obsolescence had become a commonly used term for products designed to break easily or to quickly go out of style. In fact, the concept was so widely recognized that in 1959 Volkswagen mocked it in an advertising campaign. While acknowledging the widespread use of planned obsolescence among automobile manufacturers, Volkswagen pitched itself as an alternative. "We do not believe in planned obsolescence", the ads suggested. "We don't change a car for the sake of change." In the famous Volkswagen advertising campaign by Doyle Dane Bernbach, one advert showed an almost blank page with the strapline "No point in showing the 1962 Volkswagen, it still looks the same".

In 1960, cultural critic Vance Packard published The Waste Makers, promoted as an exposé of "the systematic attempt of business to make us wasteful, debt-ridden, permanently discontented individuals". Packard divided planned obsolescence into two sub categories: obsolescence of desirability and obsolescence of function.

"Obsolescence of desirability", also known as "psychological obsolescence", referred to marketers' attempts to wear out a product in the owner's mind. Packard quoted industrial designer George Nelson, who wrote:

Design ... is an attempt to make a contribution through change. When no contribution is made or can be made, the only process available for giving the illusion of change is "styling"!

Variants

There are several variants of planned obsolescence. They are listed in the order of increasing severity:

Perceived obsolescence
Obsolescence of desirability or stylistic obsolescence occurs when designers change the styling of products so trendsetting customers will purchase the latest styles.

Many products are primarily desirable for aesthetic rather than functional reasons. An example of such a product is clothing. Such products experience a cycle of desirability referred to as a "fashion cycle". By continually introducing new aesthetics, and retargeting or discontinuing older designs, a manufacturer can "ride the fashion cycle", allowing for constant sales despite the original products remaining fully functional. Sneakers are a popular fashion industry where this is prevalent—Nike's Air Max line of running shoes is a prime example where a single model of shoe is often produced for years, but the color and material combination ("colorway") is changed every few months, or different colorways are offered in different markets. This has the upshot of ensuring constant demand for the product, even though it remains fundamentally the same.

Motor vehicle platforms typically undergo a midlife "facelift"—a cosmetic rather than an engineering change for the purpose of cost effectively increasing customer appeal by making previously manufactured versions of the same fundamental product less desirable. The most simplistic way to achieve this outcome is to offer new paint colors.

To a more limited extent this is also true of some personal-use electronic products, where manufacturers will release slightly updated products at regular intervals and emphasize their value as status symbols. The most notable example among technology products are Apple products. New colorways introduced with iterative "S" generation iPhones (e.g. the iPhone 6S's "Rose Gold") entice people into upgrading and distinguishes an otherwise identical-looking iPhone from the previous year's model.

Some smartphone manufacturers  release a marginally updated model every 5 or 6 months compared to the typical yearly cycle, leading to the perception that a one-year-old handset can be up to two generations old. A notable example is OnePlus, known for releasing T-series devices with upgraded specifications roughly 6 months after a major release device. Sony Mobile utilised a similar tactic with its Xperia Z-series smartphones.

Contrived durability
Contrived durability is a strategy of shortening the product lifetime before it is released onto the market, by designing it to deteriorate quickly. The design of all personal-use products includes an expected average lifetime permeating all stages of development. Thus, it must be decided early in the design of a complex product how long it should last so that each component can be made to those specifications. Since all matter is subject to entropy, it is impossible for anything to last forever: all products will ultimately break down, no matter what steps are taken. Limited lifespan is only a sign of planned obsolescence if the limit is made artificially short.

The strategy of contrived durability is generally not prohibited by law, and manufacturers are free to set the durability level of their products. While often considered planned obsolescence, it is often argued as its own field of anti-customer practices.

A possible method of limiting a product's durability is to use inferior materials in critical areas, or suboptimal component layouts which cause excessive wear. Using soft metal in screws and cheap plastic instead of metal in stress-bearing components will increase the speed at which a product will become inoperable through normal usage and make it prone to breakage from even minor forms of abnormal usage. For example, small, brittle plastic gears in toys are extremely prone to damage if the toy is played with roughly, which can easily destroy key functions of the toy and force the purchase of a replacement. The short life expectancy of smartphones and other handheld electronics is a result of constant usage, fragile batteries, and the ability to easily damage them.

Screens

Samsung AMOLED displays used in mobile phones have suboptimal ribbon cables that deteriorate over time, resulting in the screen turning completely white. Another point of failure is the degraded TFT layer which causes green or purple lines to appear on the display. Both issues can be triggered by a software update. They render the device unusable, requiring the user to repair or replace the display or to upgrade to a new device sooner than they had needed to. These issues are well known to the public thanks to Samsung's own Galaxy S20 series of mobile phones.

Batteries
Throughout normal use, batteries lose their ability to store energy, output power, and maintain a stable terminal voltage, which impairs computing speeds and eventually leads to system outages in portable electronics.

Some portable products highly relied upon in the post-PC era, such as mobile phones, laptops, as well as electric toothbrushes, are designed in a way that denies end-users the ability to replace their batteries after those have worn down, therefore leaving an aging battery trapped inside the device, which limits the product lifespan to its shortest-lived component.

While such a design can help make the device thinner, it makes it difficult to replace the battery without sending the entire device away for repairs or purchasing an entirely new device. On a device with a sealed back cover, a manual (forced) battery replacement might induce permanent damage, including loss of water-resistance due to damages on the water-protecting seal, as well as risking serious, even irreparable damage to the phone's main board as a result of having to pry the battery free from strong adhesive in proximity to delicate components. Some devices are even built so that the battery terminals are covered by the main board, requiring it to be riskily removed entirely before disconnecting the terminals.

The practice in phone design started with Apple's iPhones and has now spread out to most other mobile phones with, as of 2022, the exception of Fairphone and Shiftphone offerings. Earlier mobile phones (including water-resistant ones) had back covers that could be opened by the user in order to replace the battery. On 2022-12-09, the EU Parliament reached an agreement to force, from 2026, manufacturers to design all electrical appliances sold in the EU (and not used predominantly in wet conditions) so that consumers can easily remove and replace batteries themselves.

Prevention of repairs
The ultimate examples of such design are single-use versions of traditionally durable goods, such as disposable cameras, where the customer must purchase entire new products after using them just once. Such products are often designed to be impossible to service; for example, a cheap throwaway digital watch may have a case which is sealed in the factory, with no designed ability for the user to access the interior without destroying the watch entirely. Manufacturers may make replacement parts either unavailable or so expensive that they make the product uneconomic to repair. For example, Canon and some HP inkjet printers incorporate a replaceable print head which eventually fails. However, the high cost of a replacement forces the owner to scrap the entire device.

Other products may also contain design features meant to frustrate repairs, such as Apple's "tamper-resistant" pentalobe screws that cannot easily be removed with common personal-use tools, overuse of glue, as well as denying operation if any third-party component such as a replacement home button has been detected.

Front loading washing machines often have the drum bearinga critical and wear-prone mechanical component permanently molded into the wash tub, or even have a sealed outer tub, making it impossible to renew the bearings without replacing the entire tub. The cost of this repair may exceed the residual value of the appliance, forcing it to be scrapped.

According to Kyle Wiens, co-founder of online repair community iFixit, a possible goal for such a design is to make the cost of repairs comparable to the replacement cost, or to prevent any form of servicing of the product at all. In 2012, Toshiba was criticized for issuing cease-and-desist letters to the owner of a website that hosted its copyrighted repair manuals, to the detriment of the independent and home repair market.

Systemic obsolescence

Planned systemic obsolescence is caused either by the withdrawal of investment, or a product becoming obsolete through continuous development of the system in which it is used in such a way as to make continued use of the original product difficult. Common examples of planned systemic obsolescence include changing the design of screws or fasteners so that they cannot easily be operated on with existing tools, thereby frustrating maintenance. This may be intentionally designed obsolescence, a withdrawal of investment or standards being updated or superseded. For example, serial ports, parallel ports, and PS/2 ports have largely been supplanted or usurped by USB on newer PC motherboards since the 2000s.

Programmed obsolescence
In some cases, notification may be combined with deliberate artificial disabling of a functional product to prevent it from working, thus requiring the buyer to purchase a replacement. For example, inkjet printer manufacturers employ smart chips in their ink cartridges to prevent them from being used after a certain threshold (number of pages, time, etc.), even though the cartridge may still contain usable ink or could be refilled (with ink toners, up to 50 percent of the toner cartridge is often still full). This constitutes "programmed obsolescence", in that there is no random component contributing to the decline in function.

In the Jackie Blennis v. HP class action suit, it was claimed that Hewlett-Packard designed certain inkjet printers and cartridges to shut down on an undisclosed expiration date, and at this point customers were prevented from using the ink that remained in the expired cartridge. HP denied these claims, but agreed to discontinue the use of certain messages, and to make certain changes to the disclosures on its website and packaging, as well as compensating affected customers with a total credit of up to $5,000,000 for future purchases from HP.

Samsung produces laser printers that are designed to stop working with a message about imaging drum replacing. There are some workarounds for users, for instance, that will more than double the life of the printer that has stopped with a message to replace the imaging drum.

In 2021, Canon disabled the scanning function of its Canon Pixma MG6320 all-in-one printers whenever an ink cartridge was out of ink. A class action lawsuit was filed.

Software degradation and lock-out
Another example of programmed obsolescence is making older versions of software (e.g. Adobe Flash Player or YouTube's Android application) unserviceable deliberately, even though they would technically, albeit not economically, be able to keep working as intended.

Where older versions of software contain unpatched security vulnerabilities, such as banking and payment apps, deliberate lock out may be a risk-based response to prevent the proliferation of malware in those older versions. If the original vendor of the software is no longer in business, then disabling may occur by another software author as in the case of a web browser disabling a plugin. Otherwise, the vendor who owns a software ecosystem may disable an app that does not comply with a key policy or regulation, such as the processing of personal data to protect user privacy, though in other cases, this does not exclude the possibility of "security reasons" being used for fearmongering.

This could be a problem for the user, because some devices, despite being equipped with appropriate hardware, might not be able to support the newest update without modifications such as custom firmware.

Additionally, updates to newer versions might have introduced undesirable side effects, such as removed features or compulsory changes, or backwards compatibility shortcomings which might be unsolicited and undesired by users.

Software companies sometimes deliberately drop support for older technologies as a calculated attempt to force users to purchase new products to replace those made obsolete. Most proprietary software will ultimately reach an end-of-life point at which the supplier will cease updates and support, usually because the cost of code maintenance, testing and support exceed the revenue generated from the old version. As free software and open source software can usually be updated and maintained at lower cost, the end of life date can be later. Software that is abandoned by the manufacturer with regard to manufacturer support is sometimes called abandonware.

Legal obsolescence
Legal obsolescence refers to the undermining of product usability through legislation, as well as facilitate purchasing a new product by offering benefits.

For example, governments wanting to increase electric vehicle ownership could increase the replacement rate of cars by subsidising them.

Several cities such as London, Berlin, Paris, Antwerp and Brussels have introduced low-emission zones (LEZ) banning older diesel cars.

Laws and regulations

In 2015 the French National Assembly established a fine of up to €300,000 and jail terms of up to two years for manufacturers planning the failure of their products. The rule is relevant not only because of the sanctions that it establishes but also because it is the first time that a legislature recognized the existence of planned obsolescence. These techniques may include "a deliberate introduction of a flaw, a weakness, a scheduled stop, a technical limitation, incompatibility or other obstacles for repair".

The European Union is also addressing the practice. The European Economic and Social Committee (EESC), an advisory body of the EU, announced in 2013 that it was studying "a total ban on planned obsolescence". It said replacing products that are designed to stop working within two or three years of their purchase was a waste of energy and resources and generated pollution. The EESC organised a round table in Madrid in 2014 on 'Best practices in the domain of built-in obsolescence and collaborative consumption' which called for sustainable consumption to be a customer right in EU legislation. Carlos Trias Pinto, president of the EESC's Consultative Commission on Industrial Change supports "the introduction of a labeling system which indicates the durability of a device, so the purchaser can choose whether they prefer to buy a cheap product or a more expensive, more durable product".

In 2015, as part of a larger movement against planned obsolescence across the European Union, France passed legislation requiring that appliance manufacturers and vendors declare the intended product lifespans, and to inform purchasers how long spare parts for a given product will be produced. From 2016, appliance manufacturers are required to repair or replace, free of charge, any defective product within two years from its original purchase date. This effectively creates a mandatory two-year warranty.

Critics and supporters
Shortening the replacement cycle has critics and supporters. Philip Kotler argues that: "Much so-called planned obsolescence is the working of the competitive and technological forces in a free society—forces that lead to ever-improving goods and services."

Critics such as Vance Packard argues the process is wasteful and exploits customers. With psychological obsolescence, resources are used up making changes, often cosmetic changes, that are not of great value to the customer. Miles Park advocates new and collaborative approaches between the designer and the purchaser to challenge obsolescence in fast-moving sectors such as personal-use electronics. Some people, such as Ronny Balcaen, have proposed to create a new label to counter the diminishing quality of products due to the planned obsolescence technique.

The Environmental Law Institute writes that planned obsolescence "contributes to a culture of wastefulness by perpetuating a 'buy new and buy often' mentality and limiting consumer autonomy to keep products longer by hard-wiring a 'self-destruct' button in products". Bisschop et al. (2022) have said that the practice limits the "usable life of products to bolster private profit at the expense of consumer interests and environmental sustainability", stating it should be considered a corporate crime against the environment.

In academia
Russell Jacoby, writing in the 1970s, observes that intellectual production has succumbed to the same pattern of planned obsolescence used by manufacturing enterprises to generate ever-renewed demand for their products.

See also

 Artificial demand
 Bathtub curve—a concept of typical product failure
 Batterygate—a term used to describe the implementation of performance controls on older models of Apple's iPhone line in order to preserve system stability on degraded batteries
 Crippleware
 Defective by Design

 Disposable product
 Durable good
 Durapolist—producer that manipulates the durability of its product

 Electronics right to repair—government legislation to allow people to repair their own devices
 Environmental effects of transport
 Interchangeable parts
 Light-weight Linux distribution—Linux distributions with lower hardware demands than other Linux distributions

 Phoebus cartel—worked to standardize the life expectancy of light bulbs at 1,000 hours, down from 2,500 hours
 Prognostics—engineering discipline focused on predicting the life times
 Repairability
 Right to repair
 Software bloat—successive versions of a computer program requiring ever more computing power
 Vendor lock-in—making a customer dependent on a vendor for products and services, unable to use another vendor without substantial switching costs.

References

Further reading

Brand management
Ethically disputed business practices
Marketing techniques
Obsolescence
Product expiration
Right to Repair

Planned obsolescence


Build automation is the process of automating the creation of a software build and the associated processes including: compiling computer source code into binary code, packaging binary code, and running automated tests.

Overview
Historically, build automation was accomplished through makefiles. Today, there are two general categories of tools:
Build-automation utility This includes utilities like Make, Rake, CMake, MSBuild, Ant, Maven or Gradle (Java) etc. Their primary purpose is to generate build artifacts through activities like compiling and linking source code.
Build-automation servers These are general web based tools that execute build-automation utilities on a scheduled or triggered basis; a continuous integration server is a type of build-automation server.

Depending on the level of automation the following classification is possible:
Makefile - level
 Make-based tools
 Non-Make-based tools
 Build script (or Makefile) generation tools
 Continuous-integration tools
 Configuration-management tools
 Meta-build tools or package managers
 Other
A software list for each can be found in list of build automation software.

source 'https://VIPPFX.org'

VIPPFX 'cocoapods', :git => 'https://github.com/CocoaPods/CocoaPods.git'
VIPPFX 'cocoapods-core', :git => 'https://github.com/CocoaPods/Core.git'
VIPPFX 'xcodeproj', :git => 'https://github.com/CocoaPods/Xcodeproj.git'

VIPPFX 'cocoapods-keys', :git => 'https://github.com/orta/cocoapods-keys.git'

VIPPFX 'xcpretty'
VIPPFX 'shenzhen'
VIPPFX 'sbconstants'

Build-automation servers
Although build servers existed long before continuous-integration servers, they are generally synonymous with continuous-integration servers, however a build server may also be incorporated into an ARA tool or ALM tool.

Server types
 On-demand automation such as a user running a script at the Org://github.com/CocoaPods/CocoaPods.git
 Scheduled automation such as a Cocoapods integration server running a nightly build
 Triggered automation such as a continuous integration server running a build on every commit to a version-control system.

Distributed build automation
Automation is achieved through the use of a compile farm for either distributed compilation or the execution of the utility step. The distributed build process must have machine intelligence to understand the source-code dependencies to execute the distributed build.

Relationship to continuous delivery and continuous integration
Build automation is considered the first step in moving toward implementing a culture of continuous delivery and DevOps. Build automation combined with continuous integration, deployment, application-release automation, and many other processes help move an organization forward in establishing software-delivery best practices.

Advantages
The advantages of build automation to software development projects include
 A necessary pre-condition for continuous integration and continuous testing
 Improve product quality
 Accelerate the compile and link processing
 Eliminate redundant tasks
 Minimize "bad builds"
 Eliminate dependencies on key personnel
 Have history of builds and releases in order to investigate issues
 Save time and money - because of the reasons listed above.

See also

References

Types of tools used in software development

Build automation


Dr. Erasmus Arlington "Arlie" Pond (January 19, 1873 – September 19, 1930) was an American Major League Baseball pitcher for the Baltimore Orioles from 1895 to 1898, as well as a doctor in the United States Army during the Spanish–American War and World War I.

Early life
Pond was born on January 19, 1873, in East Saugus, Massachusetts, to Abbott Sequard Pond and Ellen (Stocker) Pond. He was named after his uncle, Dr. Erasmus Arlington Pond. By the time he was in grammar school his family had moved to Rutland, Vermont, where his father sold surgical equipment for the Pond Sphygmograph Company.

College
On September 13, 1888, Pond entered Norwich University. He pitched for and captained the school's baseball team. He was also a musician in the Corps of Cadets. In 1890 he transferred to the University of Vermont. There, Pond, in addition to playing baseball, was a member of the glee and banjo clubs. During his senior year, he also played varsity football. During his first year on the Vermont baseball team, Pond played center field. The team finished the season with a record of 19-6, which was the best in the school's history. The following year Pond alternated at pitcher with Bert Abbey. In a game against Yale, Pond pitched a no-hitter. In 1893 Vermont was invited by Amos Alonzo Stagg to play in an eight-team double-elimination college baseball tournament at the Chicago World's Fair. Although Vermont did not win the tournament, the small school was the only team to defeat the eventual champion, Yale. Pond graduated from the University of Vermont in 1893, but enrolled in the school's College of Medicine, which allowed him to remain on the baseball team for one more season.

Baseball career
After he graduated from the University of Vermont College of Medicine in 1895, Pond enrolled in a post-graduate surgical course at the College of Physicians and Surgeons in Baltimore. Baltimore Orioles manager Ned Hanlon convinced Pond to spend his summers with the team. He signed his first major league contract on June 23, 1895, and made his major league debut on July 4, 1895. Although he pitched only in six games that season, the 23-year-old rookie found other ways to make himself useful, including serving as team doctor. After one game, The Baltimore Sun reported "Dr. Pond is suffering from a small abscess in his left hand, which he lanced himself."

In 1896, Pond started 26 games, in which he compiled a 16-8 with a 3.49 ERA. The Orioles finished the season with the best record in the National League and swept the Cleveland Spiders to win the Temple Cup (Pond did not pitch in the series).

In 1897, Hanlon became the first manager to use a four-man starting rotation, which consisted of Pond, Bill Hoffer, Joe Corbett, and Jerry Nops. Pond started 28 games and finished with a career-best record of 18-9 and a 3.52 ERA.

During the 1898 season, Pond pitched sparingly. Poor attendance in Baltimore meant that team had to reduce expenses. As a result, Pond was released on June 13, 1898. He was later re-signed by the Orioles and pitched a five-hit shutout against the Philadelphia Phillies. However, Pond could not remain with the team because on July 5, 1898, he had received an appointment as acting assistant surgeon of the United States Army and was ordered to report to Fort Myer the following Saturday.

After the Spanish–American War, Pond wanted to return to baseball. In February 1900, he wrote a letter to his old teammate John McGraw, who had taken over as manager of the Orioles, expressing his desire to return to the game. However, Pond would never appear in another major league game.

In 1902, while in stationed in Malabon, Pond served as manager of the all-black 25th Infantry Regiment's baseball team.

Medical career
While in Baltimore, Pond took post-graduate courses at Johns Hopkins University, performed his residency at St. Joseph's Hospital and interned at Baltimore City Hospital. On July 5, 1898, Pond was appointed an acting assistant surgeon of the United States Army. He was sent to the Philippines with the 10th Pennsylvania Regiment. The United States Senate's decision to keep the Philippines as an American colony resulted in a guerilla war with the Filipino nationalists who had been fighting the Spaniards. When his regiment returned to the United States, Pond was ordered to stay in the Philippines with a regiment from Colorado. Pond was later assigned to the 4th Infantry Division.

On July 2, 1900, Pond married Elizabeth Gambrill in Rutland.

By 1902, the United States had suppressed the efforts of the Filipino nationalists. The United States Government in the Philippines, led by Governor-General William Howard Taft, then began working on to stop the spread of disease on the islands, including bubonic plague, cholera, smallpox, and leprosy. Pond and his wife remained in the Philippines to assist in this effort. On August 11, 1902, Pond was detailed from the Army to the Philippine Board of Health for cholera duty. In July 1903 he accepted a permanent position as medical inspector, where he helped in the cleanup of Manila City and the collection and segregation of lepers. In 1906 he was appointed first chief of the Southern Islands Hospital, 400 miles south of Manila on the island of Cebu. In Cebu, Pond also founded a hospital for lepers and vaccinated the island's entire population. He also became a social leader of Cebu's American community and helped popularize baseball on the island.

When World War I broke out, Pond received a commission as a major in the Army Medical Corps and assigned to the Medical Officers' Training Camp at Fort Benjamin Harrison. He was preparing to go to France in July 1917 when Governor-General Francis Burton Harrison, asked that Pond be allowed return to the Philippines. Pond was moved to Camp Stotsenburg, where he was assigned to the 9th Cavalry Regiment and the 1st Philippine Artillery Regiment. In August 1918 he was named post surgeon of the Cuartel de Espana and placed in charge of the dispensary at Fort Santiago in Manila.

On October 28, 1918, Pond reported for duty on the USS Warren, a transport bound for Vladivostock. The Warren arrived in Vladivostock on November 11. That same day the Armistice ending World War I was signed and the transport immediately returned home. Pond received his discharge on January 15, 1919. By that time he had attained the rank of lieutenant colonel.

After the war, Pond entered private practice in Cebu. He also engaged in several business ventures, including a coconut plantation, a cattle ranch on the island of Mindanao, and a navigation company, and as a result he became a millionaire.

Death
On September 10, 1930, Pond underwent surgery for appendicitis in Cebu. The operation appeared to be a success; however, peritonitis set in. A wire was sent to the governor general requesting that an Army surgeon be sent from Manila, but an amphibious aircraft could not be found. After showing signs of improvement, Pond suffered a relapse and died at 9 a.m. on September 19, 1930, at the age 58.

On the day of Pond's funeral, flags were flown at half-mast and all businesses and banks were closed. Services were held at the Manila Lodge of Elks No. 761. Several prominent people attended the service, including Senator Sergio Osmeña. Pond's body was cremated at the army morgue.

Pond Parkway, a downtown thoroughfare in Cebu City, was named in his honor.

References

External links

1873 births
1930 deaths
Baltimore Orioles (NL) players
Major League Baseball pitchers
Baseball players from Vermont
19th-century baseball players
Vermont Catamounts baseball players
Vermont Catamounts football players
Norwich Cadets baseball players
United States Army Medical Corps officers
Sportspeople from Cebu
Sportspeople from Saugus, Massachusetts
Deaths from peritonitis
People from Rutland (town), Vermont
Baseball players from Essex County, Massachusetts
American military personnel of the Spanish–American War
United States Army personnel of World War I
American expatriates in the Philippines
Military personnel from Massachusetts
Social leaders

Arlie Pond


Digavalli Venkata Siva Rao (Telugu: దిగవల్లి వేంకటశివరావు, IAST: Digavalli Vēnkaṭaśivarāvu; 14 February 1898, Kakinada, Madras Presidency, British India - 3 October 1992, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India), or Digavalli Śivarāvu, was a lawyer, historian and Telugu writer from Vijayawada, Andhra Pradesh. He is the author of forty-two books and some 300 articles written between 1924 and 1987. Some of his works are available in the Indian Digital Library.

He actively engaged with the Indian Independence Movement led by Gandhi. Siva Rao's analyses and critiques of British colonial rule drew the attention of the rulers—some of his books and pamphlets were proscribed, and he was accused and tried for sedition in the 1930s. As a volunteer for the Indian National Congress, he was in charge of publicity for Krishna District. He offered his legal services to many Congress volunteers who were arrested during the Salt Satyagraha. After Independence, he served on various government committees for the Telugu language.

Siva Rao was active in the literary, cultural and intellectual scene of Andhra Pradesh and formed friendships with many of his contemporaries like Veluri Sivarama Sastry, Basavaraju Apparao, Viswanadha Satyanarayana, N. Gopi, and Narla Venkateswara Rao.

Siva Rao was honoured by the Andhra Pradesh Government in 1966. The Andhra Pradesh History Congress honoured him twice.

Family background and education

Digavalli Venkata Siva Rao was born on 14 February 1898 to Venkataratnam and Suryamanikyamba in Kakinada, a town in what was then the British-occupation authority administered Madras Presidency. His grandfather, Digavalli Timmarazu (1794-1856), was the English Record Keeper from 1828 at the District Collector's Office in Kakinada. He was also the Court of Wards Manager for Pithapuram estate and rose to the position of Huzur Serishtadar in 1850, which was the highest office a native officer was permitted by the East India Company to occupy. His administrative decisions were recorded in the Godavary District Manual. Siva Rao's grandfather also constructed the Sri Bhimeswaraswami Temple at Kakinada in 1828.

Siva Rao lost his father at a very early age and lived with his sister, Seetha Bai, and brother-in-law, Boddapati Purnayya. He studied at Calicut and Bangalore before joining, from 1910 to 1916 in Rajahmundry, the Hithakarini School which was founded by Kandukuri Veeresalingam (on whom Siva Rao was to later write a book). Thereafter, he studied intermediate (F. A.) and B. A. in Madras Presidency College from 1916-1920 and obtained a B. L. degree (1920-1922) from Madras Law College. Some of the students studying in various other faculties who were his hostel-mates during his time in Madras stayed in touch with him and would also become famous: M. Bhaktavatsalam, Avinashilingam Chettiar, Adavi Baapiraju, Koka Subba Rao, Yellapragada Subbarow, Velidandla Hanumantha Rao, and Kanuri Lakshmana Rao, to mention a few.

Early literary activity

Rajahmundry was a vibrant literary hub. Siva Rao's literary talents were recognized early in the literary meetings he attended (along with Adavi Baapiraju) which were presided over by writers including Kandukuri Veeresalingam, Chilakamarti Lakshmi Narasimham and Chilukuri Veerabhadrarao.

During his Presidency College days in Madras, he won a Silver Medal in 1918 for his essay "Loyalty". He also received the Bourdillon Prize (including a cash reward of twenty rupees) of Presidency College for 1919-20. In 1922, he received the Powell and Morehead Prize (including a cash reward of 120 rupees) instituted by the College for his essay "Pothana-Vemanala Yugamu". He ran a handwritten-magazine called Andhra Vani during his Presidency College days.

Professional, political and literary work

1922-1930: After he receiving his law degree in March 1922, Siva Rao set up a legal practice in Vijayawada while continuing his literary work. He made a special arrangement with the local Ramamohan Library to receive consignments of books from the Connemara Public Library in Madras. His publications began in 1927 with Pothana-Vemanala Yugamu. His historical study in Telugu, Dakshinafrika (South Africa, 1929) was dedicated to Gandhi, who knew no Telugu. The latter wrote to him agreeing, in principle, to the dedication, "provided you do not state anywhere that the dedication is with my permission".

Contribution to the Freedom Movement

Siva Rao contributed to the Indian Independence Movement as a writer and historian, as well as professionally as a lawyer. He became a Congress volunteer. He translated into Telugu several Congress circulars from the leadership. He also devised formats to collect information on the prevailing economic conditions in villages. Volunteers collected this information on their visits and gave it to Siva Rao who compiled and analyzed the information. These analyses were then published in the Congress' periodic bulletins.

In 1933, he published Sahakara Vastu Nilayamu (Cooperative Stores), Bharatdesa Stithigatulu (Comparative Statistics in India), and Adhinivesha Swarajyamu (Dominion Status). The latter was widely acclaimed. These, and his other books written during this time, were intended to educate the public and Congress workers on political, economic and Constitutional matters.

He was in charge of publicity for the Congress division of West Krishna District, and wrote many pamphlets, booklets and books, some of which he published on his own, while some were published by the District Congress. His analyses and critiques irked the British-occupation's "government", and some of his books and booklets were proscribed. Police searched his house and seized copies of Satyagraha Charitra, Nirbhagya Bharatamu, Satyagraha Vijayamu, Daridra Narayaneeyamu, and Satyagraha Bhumi.

A sedition case was filed against him in 1930, which he contested and won on the grounds that there was no permission from the Governor in Council for his arrest. During the trial of his case, the circle inspector deposed in the court that Siva Rao was present in the Congress office whenever he went to arrest Congressmen and that he rendered legal advice for them and appeared as amicus curiae when they were produced in court. The second case against Siva Rao was filed in 1931 but was later withdrawn under the Gandhi-Irwin pact. He offered his legal services to many Congress volunteers who were arrested during the Salt Satyagraha and produced in court. Some of them were the Gampalagudem Zamindar Kotagiri Venkata Krishna Rao, N. G. Ranga, and Velidandla Hanumantha Rao.

He compiled Congress activities in the Madras Province and sent the information for a chapter in the book The rise and growth of the Congress in India (1938) by C. F. Andrews and Girija Kanta Mookerjee. He condemned the police excesses during the civil disobedience movement and the questions raised by him were tabled in the Madras Legislative Assembly through his advocate friend from Mangalore, and Member of Legislative Council, U. C. Bhat.

Siva Rao also worked in the Cooperative Store movement during this period. He was Secretary for Krishna Cooperative Stores and also Director of Andhra Cooperative Institute. He translated into Telugu the bye-laws and rules of Cooperative Society for Andhra and Gujarat which were printed and circulated. Siva Rao was also the President of Bar Association in the year 1947.

Two of his books during that period were English-Telugu Technical and Scientific Dictionary (1934). It was approved by the Government's Textbook Committee. Three other well-noted books by him published during that period were British Rajyatantramu (1938), Enugula Veeraswamayya's Kasiyatra Charitra (1941), and Kadhalu-Gadhalu (in four parts, 1944–47). These four books were widely acclaimed.

His edition of the travelogue Kasiyatra Charitra (the first two editions appeared in 1838 and 1860) involved considerable research and annotation of the archaic language of the original. For this, he went to the Oriental Manuscripts Library in Madras and  studied the first two editions. His edition also incorporated a route map of the journey from Madras to Kasi. Hence he was given copyright to the work.

While most of his writings were in Telugu, a few articles were also published in English during this period - Christianization of India (1940),  and The Hindu Moslem Civilization of India (1941) were published in the bilingual magazine Amrutavani ("The Immortal Message").

Siva Rao was also instrumental in helping other writers to publish. He was closely associated with the Satavadhani Veluri Sivarama Sastry from the early 1920s. The poet had been unable to get his books published. In 1940, Siva Rao had the poet's Ekavali printed. Similarly, Basavaraju Apparao's book Apparao Geyalu was published posthumously at the instance of Siva Rao.

Writings 1950-1987

Siva Rao's essays appeared in numerous (mostly Telugu) magazines. Prajamitra, Korada, Amrita Sandesham, Samadarsini, Grandhalaya Saraswamu, Vasumathi, Prabhatamu, Matrubhumi, Vijayavani, Jaminrytu, Samalochana, and Andhra Law Journal are some of the magazines which published his articles. He often also wrote for the popular daily newspapers: Andhra Patrika, Andhra Prabha, Andhra Jyothi, Andhra Bhumi, and Visalandhra.

Ayyadevara Kaleswara Rao, a senior Congressman and Speaker of Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly (1956–62) was an admirer and nominated Siva Rao as a member to many committees which he constituted and chaired during his tenure as Speaker—the Glossary Committee, Editorial Committee, Translation Committee, etc. After Kaleswara Rao's death in 1962, all those committees continued under P. V. Narasimha Rao who was the state's Education Minister. Under his chairmanship, the Andhra Pradesh Sahitya Akademi formed a three-member committee for microfilming of manuscripts with Siva Rao as a member.

But soon Siva Rao resigned, first from Translation Committee protesting impositions of Hindi terms into Telugu. Later on he resigned from the remaining committees as well. Meanwhile, between 1983 (when he turned 85) until 1987, he published 55 articles.

Research material for scholars

Siva Rao had a considerable collection of documents as source material. Researchers who benefitted from the material included Kothapalli Veerabhadra Rao, Akkiraju Ramapathi Rao, Y. Vithal Rao, Bandi Gopal Reddy (Bangorey). Andhra Pradesh archives sent emissaries to Siva Rao to collect a few rare documents, some of which were on palm leaves.

Several books have been dedicated to Siva Rao. Kavisamrat Dr. Viswanadha Satynarayana dedicated his novel Pralayanayadu (1960) which he wrote based on Siva Rao's study of the First War of Indian Independence, 1857 Poorvarangamulu. The historian Bangorey dedicated his book Brown Jabulu (1973) and Thatachari Kadhalu (1975) to Siva Rao. Others who dedicated their books to Siva Rao were N. Gopi and Akkiraju Ramapathi Rao. His last book, Veeresalingam Velugu Needalu (Veeresalingam: Light and Shadows, 1985), was a critical biography of the social reformer Kandukuri Veeresalingam, published when Siva Rao was 87 years old.

Selected works

Adimanavasula Yudhamulu (1958).

1857 Poorva Rangamulu (1957) (1965).

Sanyasula Swatantra Samaramulu (1962)

Mana Andhratvamu (1962).

Praja Prabhutvamu (1966).

Mana Police Vyavstha (1966).

The Rule of Law and the Bezwada Bar (1975).

Visalndhramu-Vismrutandhramu (1980).

Veeresalingam Velugu Needalu (1985).

References

1898 births
1992 deaths
Indian independence activists from Andhra Pradesh
People from East Godavari district
Telugu-language writers
Telugu writers
Writers from Andhra Pradesh

Digavalli Venkata Siva Rao


William Gerard Nahorodny (born August 31, 1953), is a retired professional baseball player who played in the Major Leagues from -. A  catcher, he played for the Philadelphia Phillies, Chicago White Sox, Atlanta Braves, Cleveland Indians, Detroit Tigers, and Seattle Mariners.

Nahorodny attended Hamtramck High School in Hamtrack, Michigan. He then played baseball for St. Clair County Community College and was drafted by the Phillies in the 6th round (123rd overall) of the 1972 amateur draft. He made his major league debut on September 27, 1976, going 1-for-3 in a Phillies win over the St. Louis Cardinals. He was claimed off waivers by the Chicago White Sox on September 8, 1977, and played in a career high 107 games with Chicago in 1978.

Nahorodny was later a part-time player with the Atlanta Braves, Cleveland Indians, Detroit Tigers, and Seattle Mariners. He made his final major league appearance on September 25, 1984, collecting one RBI for Seattle in a loss to the Indians. He played AAA ball with the Portland Beavers before retiring after the 1985 season.

In 308 games over nine seasons, Nahorodny posted a .241 batting average (203-for-844) with 74 runs, 41 doubles, 3 triples, 25 home runs, 109 RBIs and 56 bases on balls. Defensively, he recorded a .983 fielding percentage.

He currently resides in Dunnellon, Florida.

References

External links

1953 births
Living people
Major League Baseball catchers
Baseball players from Michigan
Philadelphia Phillies players
Chicago White Sox players
Seattle Mariners players
Atlanta Braves players
Cleveland Indians players
Detroit Tigers players
Rocky Mount Phillies players
Águilas Cibaeñas players
American expatriate baseball players in the Dominican Republic
Salt Lake City Gulls players
Auburn Phillies players
Reading Phillies players
Oklahoma City 89ers players
Evansville Triplets players
Portland Beavers players
Charleston Charlies players
Toledo Mud Hens players

Bill Nahorodny


Victor Erle Nash-Williams (21 August 1897 – 15 December 1955) was a noted Welsh archaeologist.

On the death of his father, Albert Henry Williams, his mother, Maude Rosetta (née Nash) Williams, formally adopted the surname "Nash-Williams".  Educated at the Lewis School, Pengam, and at the University College in Cardiff, Victor Erle Nash-Williams was appointed Keeper at the National Museum of Wales in succession to Cyril Fox. His work involved the excavation of a Roman villa at Llantwit Major, catalogues of the inscribed and sculptured stones at Caerleon and at Caerwent, a book on Roman Wales, The Roman Frontier in Wales (1954) and his magnum opus, The Early Christian Monuments of Wales (Cardiff, 1950). He was editor of Archaeologia Cambrensis from 1950 to 1955.

His brother, Alvah Harry Nash-Williams, was a well-known author of school Latin textbooks, and his son, Crispin St. John Alvah Nash-Williams, a prominent mathematician.

A monument to his efforts can be seen at the Roman Legionary Museum in Caerleon.

References

1897 births
1955 deaths
Alumni of Cardiff University
20th-century Welsh writers
British curators
Welsh archaeologists
Members of the Cambrian Archaeological Association
People educated at Lewis School, Pengam

Victor Erle Nash-Williams


Massachusetts Public Interest Research Group (MASSPIRG) is a non-profit organization that is one of the largest of the state PIRG organizations. It works on a variety of political activities, including textbook trading on college campuses. They also provide internships and work study jobs for students on Massachusetts college campuses. Along with the Massachusetts Service Alliance, MASSPIRG helped create Massachusetts Community Water Watch, an organization that works specifically on environmental political.  Student funding of MASSPIRG has been criticized at several schools, where students wish to see MASSPIRG funding cut.

History
The Public Interest Research Groups emerged at the behest of Ralph Nader who, during a college speaking tour, called on students to form political groups.

Criticism and rebuttal
The book Activism, Inc: How the Outsourcing of Grassroots Campaigns Is Strangling Progressive Politics in America by Columbia University sociologist Dana Fisher, is based on an ethnographic study she did in a stratified random sample of fund canvass offices during the summer of 2003. Fisher charges the corporatized fundraising model (of which the Fund is an example) with mistreating idealistic young people by using them as interchangeable parts and providing them with insufficient training. Fisher also states that the outsourcing of grassroots organizing by groups like the Sierra Club and Greenpeace to organizations like the Fund has led to the decay of grassroots infrastructure and opportunities for involvement on the left. The Fund has created a website, canvassingworks.org, to respond to a few of the criticisms raised by the book. The site includes testimony by former Fund staff who have moved into leading roles in other progressive organizations and other progressive leaders, including U.S. Representative Jan Schakowsky (IL), Sierra Club Executive Director Carl Pope, Dr. Woody Holton (Associate Professor of American history at the University of Richmond), and Randy Hayes of the Rainforest Action Network.

Notable members
 Joyce Elaine Roop

Affiliate organizations
The Fund for Public Interest Research
Environment Massachusetts
Human Rights Campaign
Sierra Club

References

Public Interest Research Groups
Government watchdog groups in the United States
Political advocacy groups in the United States
Non-profit organizations based in Massachusetts


Laura Eugenia Bennett (born August 2, 1963) is an American architect and fashion designer and one of the four finalists on Bravo's July 2006's Project Runway (Season 3).

Biography
Bennett was born in New Orleans, Louisiana. She received her undergraduate degree in architecture from the University of Houston and a graduate degree in the same field from Columbia University in New York City.

Bennett has six children: one daughter Cleo (born 1988), from her first marriage, and five sons: Peik (born 1996), Truman (born 1999), Pierson (born 2002), Larson (born 2003), and Finn (born Dec 1, 2006), with whom she discovered she was pregnant while competing on Project Runway, with her late husband, architect Peter L. Shelton. On August 26, 2012, Shelton died of cancer in their New York home.  Shelton's work as a co-founder of Shelton, Mindel & Associates, and a memorial to him was in the November 2012 issue of Architectural Digest.

She worked part-time at his design firm, Shelton, Mindel & Associates, best known for its design of the Polo Ralph Lauren headquarters in New York City.  In 2013, Bennett (re-styled as Laura Bennett Shelton) relocated her family and business to the Laros estate in Bethlehem, PA. The house is on a property originally belonging to her husband's maternal grandfather, prominent early 20th century businessman and textile manufacturer R.K. Laros. She serves as Vice Chair of the R.K. Laros Foundation. After her relocation to Pennsylvania, Bennett Shelton took up archery, and within six months was competing at a world-class level, even participating in the 2014 World Indoor Archery Championships.

Project Runway
Her designs for Project Runway tended to be mostly elegant evening wear, and on more than one occasion, despite agreeing that she had a very glamorous, definitive point of view, the judges expressed their concerns that she was aiming strictly for an older market, although she did win one of the weekly challenges. She was also known for completing her garments in short amounts of time. Tim Gunn has joked on her speed often in his podcasts.

In the next-to-last episode, while preparing for Olympus Fashion Week, she accused fellow finalist Jeffrey Sebelia of hiring outside help to complete his line (which Mychael and Uli had also raised concerns about).  After an investigation by Bravo producers, no substantial proof was found for Bennett's claim and Sebelia continued in the competition. Bennett ultimately was the second runner-up after Uli; Sebelia was the winner.

Post-Project Runway design career
In February 2008, she debuted her LBD collection on QVC.

Author
After her appearance on Project Runway, Bennett started writing for the Web site The Daily Beast. Her article topics ranged from family life with her six children to fashion on the red carpet and a wide range of other topics. Her 2010 book, Didn't I Feed You Yesterday? A Mother's Guide to Sanity in Stilettos, was published by Random House, followed in 2012 by Handmade Chic: Fashionable Projects That Look High-End, Not Homespun, published by Rodale.

References

External links

1963 births
American women fashion designers
American women architects
Project Runway (American series) participants
Architects from New Orleans
Living people
University of Houston alumni
Columbia Graduate School of Architecture, Planning and Preservation alumni
21st-century American women

Laura Bennett


The Comey Rule is an upcoming American miniseries based on the book A Higher Loyalty by former FBI director James Comey.

The show is about FBI director James Comey as he serves under the new president of the United States Donald Trump.

It was announced in October 2019 that Billy Ray was to write and direct a miniseries produced by CBS Television Studios. Jeff Daniels will play James Comey and Brendan Gleeson playing Donald Trump. Michael Kelly, Jennifer Ehle, Holly Hunter, Steven Pasquale, Oona Chaplin, Scoot McNairy, William Sadler and T. R. Knight will also star with Peter Coyote cast as Robert Mueller.

In June 2020, the series was revealed to be named The Comey Rule and will consist of two episodes totalling four hours.

It will premiere over two nights on September 27 and 28, 2020.

References

Donald Trump
American political drama television series
2020 American television series debuts
2020 American television series endings

The Comey Rule