Louis Vico Žabkar (7 December 1914 – 15 September 1994) was an American Egyptologist who published a number of academic works and who participated in the 1960s in the UNESCO campaign to salvage the monuments threatened by the building of the Aswan Dam.

Louis Žabkar was born on the Dalmatian island of Lastovo, which was then part of Italy. He was born to a Slovenian father, Lieutenant Louis Franz Žabkar, who was stationed on the island, and Italian mother, Maria Carminatti. He immigrated to the United States in 1948.

He had eight years of classical studies at the classical gymnasium of Split, Yugoslavia and obtained master's degrees in Oriental history and languages from the Pontifical Biblical and Oriental Institute in Rome. He had mastery of German, French, Italian, Serbo-Croatian, ancient Greek and Latin, Egyptian, Coptic and Hebrew.

He received his Ph.D. in 1958 from the University of Chicago. After teaching in the history department of Loyola University Chicago and serving as Field Egyptologist for the Oriental Institute Expeditions to Egyptian and Sudanese Nubia, he became Field Director of The Oriental Institute Expedition to Semna South (1966–67, 1968) which excavated an ancient Egyptian Middle Kingdom Fortress and one of the largest Meroitic cemeteries.

In 1969, he became Professor of Egyptology in the Department of Mediterranean Studies at Brandeis University. He taught graduate courses in Egyptology and Nubian Studies, and retired in 1984 as the Joseph and Esther Foster Professor of Classical and Oriental Studies.

In 1976, during the UNESCO funded dismantling of monuments of the Island of Philae for reassembly on a higher adjacent island, he was able to photograph the earliest hymns to Isis in her temple just before it was dismantled. Later, in his book Hymns to Isis in her Temple at Philae, he edited and published the first translation of these hymns.

His interests and published works include Egyptian religion, Egyptian and Nubian archaeology, Ptolemaic language and history. See also his eulogy in the Journal of Near Eastern Studies.

His 1968 book on the concept of the ba in Ancient Egypt was the first in depth study of the subject. His Book on The Hymns to Isis in Her Temple at Philae was the first editing and translation of the earliest hymns to Isis.

Žabkar died in 1994 in Rockport, Massachusetts.

Select bibliography
Ausgrabungen von Khor-Dehmit bis Bet el-Wali (1967, contributor)
A Study of the Ba Concept in Ancient Egyptian Texts (1968)
Studies in Honor of John A. Wilson (1969, contributor)
Apedemak: Lion God of Meroe: A Study in Egyptian-Meroitic Syncretism (1975)
A Preliminary Report on the 1966-68 Excavations of the University of Chicago Oriental Institute Expedition to Sudanese Nubia JNES XIX (1982) (co-author: Joan Zabkar)
Hymns to Isis in her temple at Philae (1988)</ref>

Notes

1914 births
1994 deaths
Croatian archaeologists
Croatian Egyptologists
Yugoslav historians
Italian emigrants to the United States
20th-century American archaeologists

Louis Vico Žabkar


The Bureau of Indian Affairs Police, Office of Justice Services (BIA or BIA-OJS), also known as BIA Police, is the law enforcement arm of the United States Bureau of Indian Affairs. The BIA's official mission is to "uphold the constitutional sovereignty of the Federally recognized Tribes and preserve peace within Indian country". It provides police, investigative, corrections, technical assistance, and court services across the over 567 registered Indian tribes and reservations, especially those lacking their own police force; additionally, it oversees tribal police organizations. BIA services are provided through the Office of Justice Services Division of Law Enforcement.

In 2004 the agency employed 320 officers.

BIA Police are federal police officers who enforce all federal laws relating to Indian country, including Title 16 (conservation) Title 18 (criminal law and procedure) and Title 21 (food and drugs) of the United States Code, as well as the Code of Federal Regulations. The BIA has nationwide jurisdiction over crimes committed within or involving Indian Country, and its officers are usually based near Indian reservations. BIA Police officers may enforce tribal law if deputized by the tribe or provided for by tribal ordinance or statute. They may also be granted authority to enforce state laws by state statute.

The BIA has hiring preferences for Native Americans, but will hire non members who have the proper qualifications or educational requirements.

Operations

The Division of Operations consists of six regional districts with 208 bureau and tribal law enforcement programs employing 3,000 police officers. Of the 208 programs, 43 are operated by the Bureau of Indian Affairs.

The Operations Division consists of telecommunications, uniformed police, corrections and criminal investigations. Headquartered in Albuquerque, New Mexico, the district offices are located in Aberdeen, South Dakota (District I); Oklahoma City, Oklahoma (District II); Phoenix, Arizona (District III); Albuquerque, New Mexico (District IV); Billings, Montana (District V); and Nashville, Tennessee (District VI). All districts are headed by a Special Agent in Charge (SAC) and all Indian Agency and tribal police chiefs must be special agents.

Along with providing direct oversight of bureau programs, the operations division also provides technical assistance and some oversight to law enforcement programs contracted or compacted by tribes under the Self-Determination and Self-Government Policy.

Duties

Police Officers
The BIA Police Officers (Series 1801 as of April 2023) respond to calls concerning felonies and misdemeanors under Federal, State, local and tribal laws, they Investigate, apprehend, arrest, and detain all persons charged with violation of Title 18 of the United States Code. Career progression starts at 6/7/9/11.

They respond to calls concerning emergencies such as traffic accidents, domestic violence and disorderly conduct. They maintain law and order within the area of assignments by patrolling in a patrol vehicle, investigating suspicious situations, and taking action as appropriate. They perform such assignments as working radar on busy highways, participating in night surveillance in high crime areas, and participating in traffic and crowd control activities. They make arrests in cases of crime or misdemeanors which they personally witnessed; they take persons arrested to appropriate authorities for booking or formal charging.

BIA Officers also enforce all laws and regulations within his/her authority related to possession, use, distribution, trafficking and manufacturing of controlled substances.

BIA Police serve federal, state, or local or tribal warrants, subpoenas and other court papers; testifies at hearings and trials as an expert witness in federal, state, local or tribal courts as required; and prepares and submits reports of incidents or traffic accidents, daily and weekly activities, and narratives and statistical reports as required.

BIA Police officers also conduct, usually independently, investigative work.

Correctional Officers
The BIA Correctional Officers (Series 0007) are federal law enforcement officers responsible for the operation of BIA Correctional facilities. Most BIA run facilities fall under the supervision of the local BIA Police Chief. BIA Correction facilities house adults and juveniles depending on configuration. Inmates consist of sentenced individuals and individuals that have been arrested and await trial. Daily duties consist of maintaining order and security in their own facilities as well as transports to and from court, other BIA facilities, and tribal jail facilities. Correctional Officers on occasion have supported direct law enforcement with BIA Police but is up to the discretion of local officials
.

Special Agents
BIA Police Special Agents/Criminal Investigators (Series 1811) investigate a wide range of criminal activity including homicide, rape, sexual abuse, and assaults. These types of investigations may include activities such as surveillance, undercover operations, affecting arrests, evidence collection, search warrant execution, interviewing, Grand Jury appearances, case preparation, and trials involving criminal defendants in both federal and tribal court. Special Agents are also involved in various activities, such as special task forces combating illegal drugs, emergency operations task forces, and providing disaster relief and support to other agencies and departments.

Training and career advancement

Police Officer
BIA Police Officers begin their career with 13 weeks of formal training in police and criminal investigative techniques at the Federal Law Enforcement Training Center site in Artesia, New Mexico. Or a 3 week abbreviated academy based on active law enforcement lateral transfer who meet or exceed the requirments. This training includes courses in criminal law, use of force, rules of evidence, surveillance, arrest procedures, search warrant procedures, detention and arrest, use of firearms, vehicle operations, courtroom demeanor, and Indian Country law.

This classroom study is augmented with hands-on training in photography, crime scene investigation, foot and vehicle patrol, conducting raids, interviewing suspects and witnesses, searching for evidence, and collecting evidence.

Salaries for Police Officers begin at the GL-5/7/9/11 level. After gaining experience in the field, some Police Officers may decide to advance their careers and apply for management/Special Agent positions. These positions are located in various Agency Offices, and would include Chief of Police positions. The management/Special Agent/Chief of Police selection process is competitive and can provide advancement to the GS-9 through GS-12 levels.

Correctional Officers
BIA Correctional Officers begin their career on the jobs training period lasting up to one year prior to formal Indian Police Academy at Federal Law Enforcement Training Center. Indian Police Academy consists of 6 weeks of formal training in Corrections and Basic Law Enforcement. This training includes courses in correctional code, use of force, rules of evidence, arrest procedures, detention and arrest, vehicle operations, courtroom demeanor, and Indian Country law.

This classroom study is augmented with hands-on training in vehicle driving techniques, use of force training, searching of individuals and searching of cells.

Salaries for Correctional Officers begin at the GL-3/4/5/6/7. These levels consist of the main line officers responsible for day-to-day operations of facilities the GL-8 level is normally reserved for Sergeant responsible for the shift. Supervisory levels are GL-9/10 these consist of Lieutenants and Captains. Lieutenants and Captains are still operational officers but are often found in administrative duties. When there is a local BIA Police Chief Lieutenant will be the highest designated rank for corrections personnel. In the absence of local BIA Police and thus a BIA Police Chief the highest ranked Corrections Officer will be designated a Captain.

Special Agent
OJS Special Agents begin their career with 10 weeks of formal training in criminal investigative techniques at the Federal Law Enforcement Training Center. This training includes courses in criminal law, use of force, rules of evidence, surveillance, arrest procedures, search warrant procedures, detention and arrest, use of firearms, vehicle operations, and courtroom demeanor.

This classroom study is augmented with hands-on training in photography, crime scene investigation, foot and vehicle surveillance, conducting raids, interviewing suspects and witnesses, searching for evidence, and collecting evidence.

Salaries for Special Agents can begin at the GL-7/9/11 level, or the GL-9/11/12 level, depending upon which positions are available. Special Agents receive an additional 25% in availability pay. After gaining experience in the field, some Special Agents may decide to advance their careers and apply for management positions. These positions are located in various District Offices, Central Office, and in some cases, at the agency level. The management selection process is competitive and can provide advancement to the GS-13, GS-14, and GS-15 levels.

Line of duty deaths
Total line of duty deaths: 51
Aircraft accident: 1
Assault: 2
Automobile accident: 4
Drowned: 1
Gunfire: 39
Gunfire (accidental): 1
Stabbed: 2
Vehicular assault: 1

See also

 Outline of United States federal Indian law and policy
 Indian Country Crimes Unit
 United States Indian Police
 Indian agency police
 Indian tribal police
 Law enforcement in the United States
 United States Park Police

References

External links
 BIA Division of Law Enforcement
 Bureau of Indian Affairs Police car photos
 Examining Bureau of Indian Affairs and Tribal Police Recruitment, Training, Hiring, and Retention 2010

United States Bureau of Indian Affairs
Federal law enforcement agencies of the United States
Agency-specific police departments of the United States
Law enforcement agencies of indigenous peoples

Bureau of Indian Affairs Police


Frank Davis (born August 22, 1981) is a former gridiron football guard. He was signed by the Detroit Lions as an undrafted free agent in 2006. He played college football for the South Florida Bulls.

Davis was also a member of the Cincinnati Bengals and Las Vegas Locomotives.

Early years
He grew up in Panama and speaks Spanish as a first language. In Panama, he played varsity football for the Jaguars F.C. and doubled as an offensive and defensive lineman. Davis played on the Panamanian under-19 national team at the 2000 NFL Global Junior Championship in Atlanta, Ga. The NFL Global Junior Championship has been an official Super Bowl event for the past 10 years.
Here he  drew the attention of a Panamanian football coach, Guillermo Suarez. Who recruited Frank to play for the Panama Raptors Football team. Suarez became Davis' godfather and helped set him up at the University of South Florida in Tampa.

College career
Following his participation in the 2000 NFL Global Junior Championship, he was recruited by University of South Florida, and was offered an opportunity to join the Bulls' football program. Davis entered the program as a defensive lineman but was quickly converted to the offensive line.

As a redshirt freshman in 2002, Davis  played in nine games at left guard and left tackle and had one start that season. As a sophomore, he started five games at left guard, including the final four of the 2003 season. During his junior year, Davis  started the first six games until an ankle injury sidelined him until he returned for the final game in 2004.

As a senior, Davis was named second-team All-Big East after starting all 12 games (11 at left guard and one at left tackle). In back-to-back seasons, he was a main piece to a strong rushing attack. Davis helped pave the way for RB Andre Hall to set school single-season rushing records in 2004 and 2005, as well as the school's career rushing record.

Professional career

Detroit Lions
Davis was signed by the Detroit Lions following the 2006 NFL Draft, where he went undrafted. Davis surprised many people by earning his way onto the Lions roster out of training camp. Davis played in eleven games, with three starts in 2006. His 2007 season was over before it started as he was placed on IR on September 2, 2007. He was waived by the team on August 30, 2008, during final cuts.

Cincinnati Bengals
A day after being let go by the Lions, Davis was claimed off waivers by the Cincinnati Bengals on August 31, 2008. He was inactive for the first two games of the season and waived on September 16.

Las Vegas Locomotives
Davis signed with the Las Vegas Locomotives of the United Football League on August 5, 2009.

References

External links
Just Sports Stats
South Florida Bulls bio

1981 births
Living people
Players of American football from New York City
Panamanian players of American football
American football offensive tackles
American football offensive guards
South Florida Bulls football players
Detroit Lions players
Cincinnati Bengals players
Las Vegas Locomotives players
University of South Florida alumni

Frank Davis (American football)


Rob McEwen, CM (born April 15, 1950) is a Canadian businessman. He is the chairman and chief executive officer of McEwen Mining and was the founder and former chairman and chief executive officer of Goldcorp. In January 2019, Goldcorp merged with Newmont creating Newmont Goldcorp Corporation, the second largest gold mining company in the world. McEwen followed his father into the investment industry and also developed a passion for gold.  As of 2016 he is one of the top one-hundred wealthiest Canadians, with an estimated personal net worth over $800 million.

McEwen devised an innovative approach to exploration when he published maps and geological data on one of Goldcorp's properties and invited scientists and engineers around the world to analyze the data and submit drilling plans to Goldcorp to help it find its next gold deposit. Normally such data is considered proprietary and confidential in the exploration and mining industry and some of Mr. McEwen's colleagues were horrified at the idea of publishing the company's proprietary data. Goldcorp offered prize money of $500,000 for the best drilling ideas. The response was overwhelming and more than 1400 participants submitted drilling plans to the company, leading to further gold discoveries.

A graduate of St. Andrew's College in 1969, McEwen later earned a Bachelor of Arts from the University of Western Ontario and a Master of Business Administration from the Schulich School of Business. Rob also holds an Honorary Doctor of Laws Degree from York University. McEwen is a member of WPO, the Canadian Council of Chief Executives and the Dean's Advisory Board, Schulich School of Business.  In 2008, McEwen was invested in the Order of Canada, the country's highest civilian honor.

With his wife, Cheryl, McEwen co-founded the McEwen Centre for Regenerative Medicine. Cheryl McEwen (née Mason) has served as Vice-Chair of the Toronto General & Western Hospital Foundation Board since 2005, which is part of the University Health Network, and is the founder of Make My Day Foods Inc., manufacturer of the Veggie Puck.

Rob McEwen was inducted into the Canadian Mining Hall of Fame in 2017.

References

External links

1950 births
Businesspeople from Toronto
Canadian people of Scottish descent
Canadian philanthropists
Living people
Members of the Order of Canada
Schulich School of Business alumni
University of Western Ontario alumni
York University alumni
St. Andrew's College (Aurora) alumni

Rob McEwen


Michael Rogers Oldfield Thomas (usually known as Oldfield Thomas) FRS (February 21, 1858 – June 16, 1929) was a British zoologist.

Thomas worked at the Natural History Museum in their mammals department. He described about 2,000 new species and sub-species for the first time. He was given a job in the Museum Secretary's office in 1876. In 1878 he moved to the Zoological Department. In 1891 Thomas married a woman who was an heiress to a large amount of money. Having this money allowed him to hire mammal collectors and to give their specimens to the museum. In 1896 when William Henry Flower took control of the Department he hired Richard Lydekker to rearrange the exhibitions. This gave Thomas the time to concentrate on these new specimens.  He committed suicide in 1929 when he was 71 years old. This was not long after the death of his wife.

References

1858 births
1929 deaths
British biologists
British zoologists
Fellows of the Royal Society
People who committed suicide

Oldfield Thomas


A mid-engine layout describes the location of an automobile engine between the front and rear axles.  A physics term, moment of inertia, shows how hard it is to turn a moving object. In a front engine front-wheel drive car, the drive wheels also have to steer the car, causing torque steer (pull to one side during Acceleration). Front-wheel drive can cause the vehicle to oversteer (turn more sharply than the driver expects) in a corner. A front engine rear-wheel drive can have good weight distribution (balance front to rear), but has a higher moment of inertia than mid engine layout. The mid-engine layout has none of these disadvantages. It has better weight distribution and a lower moment of inertia. Its main disadvantage is that the engine, mounted in the middle, leaves much less room for passengers and cargo. However, in racing there is usually only a driver so passengers and cargo are not an issue.

References

Automotive technologies

Mid-engine design


Ping Hai () was a light cruiser in the Chinese fleet before World War II and the second ship of the . The ship was laid down in China to the specifications supplied by the Japanese, and Japanese advisors were hired to oversee the construction. Compared to its sister ship Ning Hai, it had a lower-output powerplant and lacked seaplane facilities. Its anti-aircraft armament was also different from that of its sister.

The progress of its construction was affected by the Mukden Incident (18 September 1931) and the January 28 Incident (28 January – 3 March 1932). Disruption of parts supply and non-cooperation of Japanese advisors delayed its launch date from the originally planned 10 October 1933 to 28 September 1935. Blocked delivery of originally-specified anti-aircraft weapons meant that equivalent replacements of those weapons had to be bought via Germany.  When it was completed in 1936, official outbreak of war was barely a year away.

Service record
Ping Hai served as the flagship of the Republic of China Navy (ROCN) since April 1937.

As one of the most powerful surface combatants within the ROCN, Ping Hai was subjected to aerial attacks by the Imperial Japanese Navy since the Battle of Shanghai, but she was not until 23 September, during the Japanese assault on the Kiangyin Fortress (which guarded the segment of Yangtze River near Nanking), for Ping Hai to finally succumb with her sister ship to airstrikes launched from both the aircraft carrier  and airfields around occupied Shanghai.

She was then re-floated by the Japanese in 1938 as sunken ships would not be as badly corroded by river water as they would be by sea water. Originally the ship was to be transferred to the Collaborationist navy under Wang Jing-Wei, but the Japanese elected to seize her instead and had Ping Hai towed to Sasebo, outfitted first as a barracks hulk  and ultimately as the escort ship Yasoshima on 10 June 1944. She was re-rated first as a coastal defense ship and then as an escort vessel. The ship lost all cruiser armaments but received radar sets as well as standard Japanese dual-purpose and anti-aircraft weapons.

Yasoshima was deployed for combat operations on 25 September 1944, participating in the Battle of Leyte Gulf and escorting troop convoys. Aircraft from the carriers  and  caught her escorting two merchantmen west of Luzon and sank all three on 25 November 1944.

References

Bibliography

External links

 http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/japan/exchina-cl.htm
 https://web.archive.org/web/20100510015014/http://firstname.lastname@example.com
 http://www.history.navy.mil/photos/sh-fornv/japan/japsh-xz/yasoshma.htm

Ning Hai-class cruisers
Ships built in China
1931 ships
Second Sino-Japanese War cruisers of China
Cruisers sunk by aircraft
World War II cruisers of Japan
Captured ships
Maritime incidents in November 1944
Ships sunk by Japanese aircraft
Ships sunk by US aircraft
Shipwrecks of the Philippines
Shipwrecks in the South China Sea
Naval ships of the Republic of China captured by Japan during World War II

Chinese cruiser Ping Hai


A V6 engine, often just called a V6, is an internal combustion engine with six cylinders. The engine has three cylinders on each side called banks. The two banks form a "V" shaped angle. In most engines, the two banks are at a right angle (90°) or less to each other. All six pistons turn a common crankshaft. It is the second most common engine design in modern cars after the inline four. It can be powered by different types of fuels, including gasoline, diesel, natural gas and alcohol.

The V6 is a very compact engine design. It is shorter than the straight-4. Many V6 engines are narrower than the V8 engine. They work well and are well suited to the popular transverse engine front-wheel drive cars. It has largely replaced the inline-6, which is too long to fit in many modern cars. It is more complicated and not as smooth as the inline-6. The V6 is more compact, and more rigid, but also more prone to vibrations. It is also becoming a high performance engine. It has high power and torque output like the classic V8, but has good fuel economy.

History
Some of the first V6-cars were built in 1905 by the Marmon Motor Car Company.

Delahaye's design-engineer Amadee Varlet came up with a twin-cam V6, that went into series production as the Type 44, in 1911. It was not successful enough to remain in production after 1914, when the first World war interrupted French automobile manufacturing. (Information obtained through Club Delahaye, the recognized global authority and permanent holder of the registered Delahaye trademark).

The first series production V6 was introduced by Lancia in 1950. Other builders soon started using V6 engines. In 1959, General Motors built a heavy-duty 305 in3 (5 L) 60° V6 for use in their pickup trucks and Chevrolet Suburban. The engine was later enlarged to 478 in3 (7.8 L) for heavy truck and bus use.

In 1962, the Buick Special offered a 90° V6 with uneven firing intervals. Consumers did not like this engine because of the vibration.

Balance and smoothness
Due to the odd number of cylinders in each bank, V6 designs are unbalanced, whatever V-angle they use. Each bank in a V6 has an odd number of pistons. The V6 has an end-to-end rocking motion. Counterweights on the crankshaft and a counter rotating balancer shaft compensate for some of the rocking motion.

The Lancia V6 in 1950 used a 60° angle between the cylinder banks and a six-throw crankshaft, to achieve equally spaced firing intervals of 120°. This still has some balance and secondary vibration problems. The first Buick V6 was a 90°, based on their 90° V8. This produced a rough-running design. This was unacceptable to many customers. Later designs have improved the engine and made it reasonably smooth.

V angles

60 degrees
The most efficient cylinder bank angle for a V6 is 60 degrees. This makes the smallest size engine and reduces vibration. 60° V6 engines are not as well balanced. Modern design has reduced most of the vibration. 60 degree V6 engines do not need balance shafts. This design works well in larger cars where four-cylinder engines do not have enough power.

90 degrees
Some 90° V6 engines are built. They are usually based on V8 engines. It takes little work to change a V8 into a V6 engine. The problem is these engines are wider and have more vibration than a 60° V6. More modern 90° V6 engine designs avoid vibration problems by changing the crankshaft's design and firing timing. Balancing shafts are often used to remove the remaining vibration.

120 degrees
120° could be thought of as the natural angle for a V6. Each cylinder fires a power stroke every 120° of crankshaft rotation. This allows pairs of pistons to share crank pins (a connection on the crankshaft). Unlike the V8, there is no way to arrange a V6 to balance the piston forces. Because of the odd number of cylinders in each bank, a balance shaft is needed.

The 120° design also creates a very wide engine. It is too wide for most cars. It is often used in race cars. Race cars are designed around the engine, and vibration is not as important.

180 degrees

The  flat-6 boxer engine (180°) is only slightly wider than the 120° V6, and it is fully balanced.

Odd and even firing
When the fuel in a cylinder is burned, it pushes the piston down and creates power. This is often referred to as firing.

Many early V6 engines were based on V8 engine designs. This made a firing pattern with groups of two cylinders with an odd-firing order. This resulting in rough-running engines with unpleasant vibrations at certain engine speeds.

More modern 90° V6 engines avoid this problem. They use a split crank pin where the piston connects to the crankshaft. This makes an even 120° firing pattern. A 'split' crank pin is weaker than a straight one. Modern metallurgical techniques can produce a crankshaft that is strong enough to not break.

Racing use
The V6 engine was introduced into racing by Lancia in the early 1950s. They had some good results. Then Ferrari built the Dino V6. Alfredo Ferrari, the son of Enzo Ferrari, was nicknamed Dino. He suggested building a 1.5 litre V6 engine for Formula Two racing. The Dino V6 was updated several times, and increased to a 2.4 litre engine. The Dino V6 was used in the Ferrari 246 Formula One car in 1958.

Motorcycle use
Laverda showed a 996 cc V6-engined motorcycle at the 1977 Milan show. The motorcycle was raced in the 1978 Bol d'Or 24 hour race.

Notes

References

Other websites

Understanding the odd-fire V6
AutoZine Technical School – V6 Engines

V-06

V6 engine


A language isolate is a language that is not known to be related to any other language.

Many languages are related to other languages by coming from an older language, and both are still similar. Languages that are related are language families. Most languages are known to belong to a language family. However, some are not known to be related to other languages and are called language isolates.

Some spoken language isolates are Basque, Zuni, Burushaski, Ainu and Mapudungun. Some extinct language isolates are Sumerian, Elamite and Urartian.

Language isolates

Language isolate


James Allen Hardie (May 5, 1823 – December 14, 1876) was an American soldier, serving in a number of important administrative positions in the Union Army during the American Civil War.

Early life
Hardie was born in New York City. He graduated from the United States Military Academy in 1843, 11th in a class of 39 cadets, and began serving with the 3rd U.S. Artillery Regiment. During the Mexican–American War, as a second lieutenant, he was detached from his regiment to serve with the 1st Regiment of New York Volunteers, for service in California and during the war with Mexico as a major. As such he became the military commandant of San Francisco. Returning to his regiment he participated in the campaigns against the Indians in Oregon and Washington Territory, and was an aide to Brig. Gen. John E. Wool. Hardie was in camp with General George Wright on Latah (Hangman's) Creek, near present-day Spokane, in 1858 when they lured Qualchan to camp and summarily hung him. Qualchan's father, Chief Owhi, who was in their custody, was later shot while trying to escape. Promoted to captain, he was serving as Adjutant General of the Department of Oregon when the American Civil War began.

Civil War
Promoted to lieutenant colonel on September 28, 1861, Hardie joined the staff of Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan. During the Peninsula, Maryland, and Fredericksburg campaigns of the Civil War he was acting adjutant general of the Army of the Potomac, and on November 29, 1862, was appointed brigadier general of volunteers, but it was not confirmed by the United States Senate and the promotion was revoked on January 22, 1863. In 1863 he was appointed assistant adjutant general with the rank of major on the staff of the regular army, and on May 24, 1864, was made inspector general with the rank of colonel. On March 3, 1865, President Abraham Lincoln nominated Hardie for appointment to the grade of brevet brigadier general in the regular army to rank from March 3, 1865 and the United States Senate confirmed the appointment on March 9, 1865.

Hardie played an important administrative role in two key incidents during the war. During the Battle of Fredericksburg, he delivered the attack orders to Maj. Gen. William B. Franklin on December 13, 1862. Franklin did not conduct his attack to Maj. Gen. Ambrose E. Burnside's expectations, and Hardie has been criticized for not ensuring that the two generals understood each other correctly. On June 28, 1863, Hardie was the officer who delivered the surprise order to Maj. Gen. George G. Meade at Frederick, Maryland, appointing him commander of the Army of the Potomac, three days prior to the Battle of Gettysburg.

On March 8, 1866, President Andrew Johnson nominated Hardie to the grade of brevet major general in the regular army, to rank from March 13, 1865. The United States Senate confirmed the nomination on May 4, 1866 and reconfirmed it on July 14, 1866.

Postbellum life
After the Civil War, Hardie served as one of the inspector generals of the Army. His military career lasted for 37 years until his death on active duty. In 1876 he was elected as a Companion of the Pennsylvania Commandery of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States.

He died in Washington, D.C., and is buried in Green-Wood Cemetery, Brooklyn, New York.

Notes

References
 Eicher, John H., and David J. Eicher. Civil War High Commands. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2001. .
 O'Reilly, Francis Augustín. The Fredericksburg Campaign: Winter War on the Rappahannock. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2003. .
 Sears, Stephen W. Gettysburg. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2003. .

External links

United States Military Academy alumni
United States Army colonels
American military personnel of the Mexican–American War
1823 births
1876 deaths
Union Army colonels

James Allen Hardie


General Sir Edward Selby Smyth,  (31 March 1819 22 September 1896) was a British General. He served as the first General Officer Commanding the Militia of Canada from 1874 to 1880.

Military career
Educated at Putney College in Surrey, Smyth was commissioned in to the 2nd Queen's Royal Regiment in 1841. He went straight to India only returning with his Regiment to England as Adjutant of his Battalion in 1846. He went to South Africa in 1851 to protect the administration of the Orange River Sovereignty from attack by the Basotho and Khoikhoi people.

In 1853 he was made Deputy Adjutant and Quartermaster-General of the 2nd Division in South Africa and then Adjutant and Quartermaster-General at British Army Headquarters in South Africa.

In 1861 he was appointed Inspector-General of the Militia in Ireland and was involved in suppressing the early stages of the Fenian Rising. He was appointed General Officer Commanding British Troops in Mauritius in 1870.

He was made General Officer Commanding the Militia of Canada in 1874: he carried out the role successfully and was thanked by the Governor-General of Canada for protecting Montreal from rioting.

Family
In 1848 he married Lucy Sophia Julia Campbell, daughter of Major-General Sir Guy Campbell, 1st Baronet and Pamela FitzGerald.

References

|-

|-

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1819 births
1896 deaths
Military personnel from Belfast
British Army generals
Canadian generals
Knights Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George
Queen's Royal Regiment officers
Commanders of the Canadian Army

Edward Selby Smyth


The Battle of Demotika was a battle that took place during the Byzantine civil war which began in 1352 between the forces of the Ottoman Empire and those of the Serbian Empire and Second Bulgarian Empire.

Background
John Palaiologos obtained the help of Serbia, while John Kantakouzenos sought help from Orhan, the Ottoman bey. Kantakouzenos marched into Thrace to rescue his son, Matthew, who was attacked by Palaiologos shortly after being given this appanage and then refusing to recognize John Palaiologos as heir to the throne. Ottoman troops retook some cities that had surrendered to John Palaiologos, and Kantakouzenos allowed the troops to plunder the cities, including Adrianople. Thus it seemed that Kantakouzenos was defeating John Palaiologos, who now retreated to Serbia.

Battle
Emperor Stefan Dušan sent Palaiologos a cavalry force of 4,000 or 6,000 under the command of Gradislav Borilović while Orhan provided Kantakouzenos 10,000 horsemen. Also Bulgarian tsar Ivan Alexander sent an unknown number of troops to support Palaiologos and Dušan. The two armies met at an open-field battle near Demotika (modern Didymoteicho) in October 1352, which would decide the fate of the Byzantine Empire, without the direct involvement of the Byzantines. The more numerous Ottomans decisively defeated the Serbs and Bulgarians, and Kantakouzenos retained power, while Palaiologos fled to Venetian Tenedos. According to Kantakouzenos about 7,000 Serbs fell at the battle (deemed exaggerated), while Nikephoros Gregoras (1295–1360) gave the number as 4,000.

Aftermath
The battle was the first major battle of the Ottomans on European soil, and it made Stefan Dušan realize the major threat of the Ottomans to Eastern Europe.

References

Sources

, chapter 40

1350s in the Byzantine Empire
1352 in the Ottoman Empire
Serbian Empire
Demotika
Demotika
Demotika
Demotika
Demotika
History of Didymoteicho

Battle of Demotika


John Elroy Sanford (much better known as Redd Foxx (December 9, 1922 – October 11, 1991) was a television program actor and stand up comedian who also starred in movies. He was born in St. Louis. He acted in numerous television sitcoms.

Redd Foxx is one of the best-known comedians and actors of the late twentieth century. He was often vulgar, raunchy, and politically incorrect, but to millions of Americans, he was also the funniest person on television. His standup routines were huge hits, influencing scores of comedians to follow. His crass performances drew the ire of critics long before the likes of Eddie Murphy and Chris Rock, but the role that made his a household name was that of Fred Sanford on the show Sanford and Son. The TV show was a huge hit at a time when there were few black stars on television.

Foxx's comedic talent was showcased early in life as he worked the nightclubs around St. Louis as a teenager.  He left home at sixteen and got into trouble with the law on numerous occasions, especially after he joined a New York street gang. It was during this time that he befriended another up-and-coming black man who would later become known as Malcolm X.  He worked every nightclub he could find as he developed his style during the early 1940s. Part of the reputation he developed in the clubs was that of a foul mouth, which was a big draw for some crowds but limited his appeal to larger audiences.

He worked the so-called "chitlin' circuit," where black clubs became the training grounds for larger venues that he would later sell out. He came up with a new stage name in the clubs, combining his nickname "Red" with the last name of the baseball star Jimmie Foxx.

During the 1950s and 1960s, Sanford drew larger audiences to his shows and sold a large number of comedy albums. His audience was still largely African American men, but times were changing and his comedy was beginning to reach people from all walks of life. He landed a movie role in the film Cotton Comes to Harlem in 1970, which was the springboard he needed to finally become a household name.

Soon after his first movie role, television producer Norman Lear approached Sanford about starring in his own show. The show was based on a popular British comedy, but in America it took the name of Sanford and Son. The show was set in the Watts neighborhood of Los Angeles and gave many white Americans their first real look inside the lives of black families. He played Fred Sanford, the lovable junk dealer who was always bickering with his son. The show was an hit across racial lines, lasting 5 years and leading to more roles and more stardom.

Sanford went on to star in a number of other TV shows, including The Redd Foxx Comedy Hour and The Redd Foxx Show. He used his immense popularity to garner even more movie roles for himself. In the late 1980s, he starred with Eddie Murphy in the critically acclaimed Harlem Nights, and worked the Las Vegas comedy circuit. His life came to a sudden end doing what he loved to do. He was shooting a new sitcom, The Royal Family, when he died from a heart attack in 1991.

Sanford's body of work continues to entertain a new generation of fans even today while continuing to rack up accolades. During his life, he became one of the small number of performers to have the lead role in a television show on each of the big three networks, Sanford and Son on NBC, The Royal Family on CBS, and The Redd Foxx Comedy Hour on ABC. His character, Fred Sanford on Sanford and Son, was ranked No. 42 in TV Guide's list of the "50 Greatest TV Dads of All Time."

Foxx died in Los Angeles at age 68 from a heart attack.

Actors from St. Louis, Missouri
American television actors
Comedians from St. Louis, Missouri
Deaths from myocardial infarction
1922 births
1991 deaths

Redd Foxx


Sukkah (, hut) is a tractate of the Mishnah and Talmud. Its laws are discussed as well in the Tosefta and both the Babylonian Talmud and Jerusalem Talmud. In most editions it is the sixth volume of twelve in the Order (Mishnaic section) of Moed. Sukkah deals primarily with laws relating to the Jewish holiday of Sukkot. It has five chapters.

Mishnah
Mishnah Sukkah contains five chapters. Chapter one begins with a discussion in the first mishnah of the maximum and minimum height of a Sukkah, the required number of walls to make it kosher, and the amount of shade required in relation to sunlight. Other mishnayot (mishnayot 2-11) in chapter one discusses the time when the sukkah should appropriately be made for the holiday and the intentionality in building the sukkah, and the materials that may be used for the s'chach, or shade covering on the roof of the sukkah.
Chapter two discusses the obligation to reside in the sukkah and how one fulfills this obligation and who is exempt from the obligation. Included in the discussion of the mishnah are such subjects as sleeping in the sukkah(mishna 1), eating in the sukkah, and the extent to which inclement weather affects the mitzvah of residing in a sukkah. The mishna (5-7) notes that women, children, and slaves are exempt from the mitzvah of residing in the sukkah.
Chapter three begins with a discussion of the lulav or closed frond of the date palm tree. Mishnayot 1-3 of chapter three discuss the minimum requirements for the myrtle branch and the willow to fulfill the mitzvah of lulav. This is followed by a discussion of the laws of the kosher etrog, the laws of binding the lulav, and the prayers that were said in the Temple in the ceremonies surrounding the lulav on Sukkot.
Chapter four begins with the first mishnah on the number of days on which the rituals of sukkot were to be performed; i.e.,whether the mitzvah of lulav and/ or aravah should be performed also on the Sabbath day during the seven day holiday of Sukkot. The mishnah proceeds to discuss the manner in which the lulav mitzvah was performed in the Temple and then similarly discusses the aravah ceremony.  The fourth chapter concludes with a discussion of the water libation ceremony.
Chapter five continues to describe the water libation ceremony in the first mishna and discusses the prohibition to play the flute on the Sabbath and on the Yom Tov or festival day. The second mishnah of the fifth chapter emphasizes the great joy of the water libation ceremony. The subsequent mishnayot deal with the shofar blasts and then the sacrifices in the Temple on Sukkot.

Included in its scope are the topics of:
 The Sukkah, or hut, which is lived in during Sukkot
 Laws concerning each of the four species of vegetation which are waved during prayers over the holiday
 The Celebration of the Water-Drawing (, ) which took place at the Temple in Jerusalem on the nights of Sukkot.

Tosefta
The Tosefta of Sukkah is only four chapters. There are noteworthy aggadot included in Tosefta sukkah. Worthy of mention is the legend of the miraculous well in the desert (3:2) and likewise the description of the great synagogue of Alexandria in chapter four of the Tosefta (4:6) in which the various tradesmen in Alexandria are said to have sat alongside their colleagues during the prayers. The story of Bilga the daughter of Miriam who married a non-Jewish soldier is also told in the Tosefta (4:28). It relates that the ring of Bilgah in the Temple is stuck and closed forever because she apostasized and intermarried with a soldier from the kings of Greece. When the Gentile soldiers came and entered the Temple, Miriam struck the top of the altar. She cried out to it: "Lukos, Lukos" or "wolf, wolf," you have destroyed the wealth of Israel and do not help Israel in the time of its distress!

Talmud
Chapter one included discussion of the positions on the minimum and maximum height of the sukkah and the minimum requirements for its walls. The conclusion of the discussion is that the sukkah may be no less than ten tefachim, and no more than twenty amot/cubits in height. The shade in the sukkah must come from the s'chach and not the walls. The chapter includes extensive discussion of the number of walls and what constitutes a third wall. The s'chach must grow from the ground and not be an object that can become ritually impure. The rabbis note that as a result if the s'chach were branches that were manufactured for a purpose, such as using a flax plant to make linen clothing, they would be susceptible to impurity and could not be used for a sukkah covering.

Chapter two of sukkah opens with a discussion of the mishna's statement about sleeping in a bed in the sukkah. The gemara proceeds to discuss the ability of a tent to serve as a barrier for ritual impurity. Thereupon there is a discussion of Tractate Parah and the means by which priestly children were able to draw water from Pool of Siloam while maintaining their purity as they sat on the backs of oxen. The Talmud connects the discussion of the red heifer's ashes to the s'chach discussion by wondering whether the ritual impurity can be blocked by an ox in the same way that a bed may serve as a tent covering which would mean that it would interfere with the fulfillment of sitting in a sukkah if one sat under a bed.(21a-b) Sukkah 22a-b discusses the suitability of a sukkah whose shade is so thick that stars are not visible from within the sukkah. Sukkah 22b-23 discusses the efficacy of using a live animal as a base for a sukkah or as a wall of a sukkah. The position of Rabbi Meir is that a live animal cannot be used for the wall of a sukkah. His position is that a live animal also cannot be used for a symbolic lehi, or post, in an eruv for carrying on the Sabbath, nor for a covering for a grave. The amora Abaye explains that Rabbi Meir is concerned that the animal may die and that is why Rabbi Meir prohibits the use of a live animal as a wall. In contrast to Rabbi Meir, the tanna Rabbi Yehuda allows for the use of a live animal as a sukkah wall. The Talmud understand this specific argument about a sukkah wall as having larger meaning regarding whether we should be concerned about changes in the status quo, as Rabbi Meir would be concerned about death or a negative change, whereas Rabbi Yehuda would not be concerned. Sukkah 23b raises objections to the position of Abaye from passages elsewhere in which Abaye explains that Rabbi Meir is concerned about change in the status quo, but Rabbi Yehuda is not, which is the opposite of their approach in Sukkah 23a according to Abaye's explanation. To answer the inconsistency in the position of Abaye, the Talmud states that we should reverse the text so that Rabbi Meir's position elsewhere is consistent with his approach in Sukkah, namely that he is concerned about negative changes in the status quo. The Talmud also raises an objection from an inconsistency in Rabbi Yehuda's position because on Yom Kippur he worries that the wife of the high priest, kohen gadol, may die, but the answer is that Yom Kippur is an exceptional case. Sukkah 24b states in the Mishna that a tree enclosure may function as kosher walls for a sukkah. The Talmud explains that this is when the tree and its leaves are securely tied in place.

The third chapter of tractate sukkah is titled, "The Stolen Lulav," after the words that begin the Mishna to the third chapter. The chapter deals with the laws pertaining to the verse in Leviticus 23:40 that on the holiday one must take "the fruit of a beautiful tree, branches of a date palm, boughs of a dense-leaved tree, and willows of the brook." The Talmud seeks to determine the identity of these species to fulfill the commandment of the Torah. In addition, it discusses further laws regarding the obligation to take the species, including the number of species to take and the manner in which to take it. Branches of the date is understood to refer to the lulav, a dense leaved tree to the myrtle, and "willows of the brook" refers to the willow. The fruit of the beautiful tree is the etrog. On page 30, the Talmud discusses why a stolen lulav is unfit and explains that it is because it was acquired through transgression. As Rabbi Johanan explains the verse in Isaiah 61:8 states that the Lord hates robbery. On page 32 the story is told of Rav Nahman who was sitting in a sukkah that was built using branches taken from the property of an old lady. She said the sukkah was stolen, but he said the sukkah was valid but she has rights to the monetary value of the wood. On page 32, the Talmud continues the discussion of a lulav that was taken from the grounds of an idol worshipping city. Pursuant to the discussion, the Talmud notes that there is a dispute regarding whether a lulav, or palm branch, taken from the gates of hell, that is the valley of Hinnom by Jerusalem (Gei-Hinnom), may be used to fulfill the obligation. On 32b the Talmud proceeds with an identification of the dense-leaved tree as being synonymous with the myrtle branch. It rejects identification of this tree with an olive tree, an oriental plane tree, and oleander.

References

External links and resources
Mishna fulltext (Hebrew)
Talmud Bavli fulltext (Hebrew)
Mishna Translation with the commentary of Pinchas Kehati

Sukkah (Talmud)


London City Airport  is a single-runway airport, intended for use by STOL (short take-off and landing) planes, mainly serving the financial districts of London. It is on a former Docklands site, in the London Borough of Newham in East London. It is near Canary Wharf and the O2 arena in an area called Silvertown.

The airport serves European destinations, though there is one flight to New York JFK airport.

The airport has tough rules to limit the noise from aircraft operations. This limits the aircraft types that can be used, and so does the length of the runway and the steep glideslope. The steep 5.5 degree approache requires special training for crew. Only multi-engine, fixed-wing aircraft with special crew and aircraft certification can operate at London City Airport. London City Airport has a CAA Public Use Aerodrome Licence (Number P728).

London City Airport was developed by the engineering company Mowlem in 1986/87. It is the fifth-largest international airport in size serving the London area, after Heathrow, Gatwick, Stansted and Luton. London City Airport claims lower check-in times than any other airport in London.

The airport has produced a master plan outlining their vision for growth up to 2030. The plan shows a phased expansion of the airport to a maximum capacity of 8 million passengers per annum, without the addition of a second runway, or significant expansion of the current airport boundaries.

London City Airport was purchased in October 2006 by a consortium comprising AIG Financial Products Corp. and Global Infrastructure Partners (GIP) for an undisclosed sum. Speculation suggests the sale was valued at over £750 million. In 2007, London City Airport had 2.9 million passengers; by 2017 this had risen to 4,530,439.

Helicopters use another airport called London Heliport.

References

City
Buildings and structures in the London Borough of Newham

London City Airport


Café Metropole is a 1937 American romantic comedy movie directed by Edward H. Griffith and based on the original story by Gregory Ratoff (who also stars). It stars Loretta Young, Tyrone Power, Adolphe Menjou, Helen Westley and was distributed by 20th Century Fox.

Other websites

1937 romantic comedy movies
1937 romance movies
American romantic comedy movies
20th Century Fox movies
Movies directed by Edward H. Griffith

Café Metropole


The UK Profile of MHEG-5 is a technical specification describing how the MHEG-5 language is used to provide interactive television services.  It was developed to provide interactive services for the UK digital terrestrial television platform by a group of broadcasters including the BBC and ONdigital.  The specification has undergone a number of revisions.  Version 1.06 was published on 15 May 2003 but has since been amended with corrigenda.

External links
 MHEG-5 UK Profile, version 1.06 download, Digital TV Group

Interactive television
Digital television in the United Kingdom

UK Profile of MHEG-5


Tyrone Edmund Power, Jr. (May 5, 1914 – November 15, 1958) or Ty Power, was an American movie, television, radio and stage actor who appeared in dozens of movies from the 1930s to the 1950s, but is mostly known for his roles in The Mark of Zorro, Blood and Sand, The Black Swan, Prince of Foxes, The Black Rose, and Captain from Castile.

Power was born on May 5, 1914 in Cincinnati, Ohio. Power was married to Annebella from 1939 until they divorced in 1948. He was married to Linda Christian from 1949 until they divorced in 1956. He was married to Debbie Ann Minardos from 1958 until his death in 1958. He had two children with Christian, and one with Minardos. Power died on November 15, 1958 in Madrid, Spain from a heart attack, aged 44.

References

Other websites

Tyrone Power, King of 20th Century-Fox

1914 births
1958 deaths
Actors from Cincinnati
American movie actors
American radio actors
American stage actors
American television actors
Deaths from myocardial infarction

Tyrone Power


Wakken is a village and deelgemeente in Dentergem municipality, in the Belgian province of West Flanders. The village is located near the confluence of the rivers Lys and Mandel.

History

Wakken is one of the seven oldest parishes in West Flanders. A charter dated to 791 makes the first known mention of Wakken: "in villa noncupante Wackinio." The spelling of the name has changed several times throughout history: Wackine (870), Wackinna (1010), Wachines (1183), Wackene (1351), Wacken (1467) and Wakken (since 1915).

In the Middle Ages, Wakken was a city without city gates. The fiefdom was owned by the Lords of Harelbeke.

Antoine, bastard-son of Philip the Good, made the court of Wackene to his residence in 1480. His son, Antoine II, married the daughter of Andries Andriessen, knight and Lord of Wackene. Their son Adolf of Burgundy became Governor of Zeeland, Vice Admiral of Flanders and special envoy of Philip II of Spain.

The fiefdom Wackene became a barony in 1614 and a county in 1626. It had its own arrondissement until 1823, when it became part of the arrondissement of Tielt.

Notable citizens

 Joris Van Severen, founder and leader of Verdinaso
 Jodocus Hondius, cartographer, publisher and humanist
 Luc Verbeke, Flemish poet, author, flamingant, co-founder of the Committee for French Flanders
 Hugo Verriest, Flemish priest, author and flamingant
 Modest Huys, painter
 Maurice Meersman, cyclist

References

Populated places in West Flanders
Dentergem

Wakken


A politician (from Classical Greek πόλις, "polis") is a person active in party politics, or a person holding or seeking office in government.  In democratic countries, politicians seek elective positions within a government through elections or, at times, temporary appointment to replace politicians who have died, resigned or have been otherwise removed from office.  In non-democratic countries, they employ other means of reaching power through appointment, bribery, revolutions and intrigues.

Some politicians are experienced in the art or science of government.  Politicians propose, support and create laws or policies that govern the land and, by extension, its people.  The word politician is sometimes replaced with the euphemism statesman.  Basically, a "politician" can be anyone who seeks to achieve political power in any bureaucratic institution.

Politicians have always used language, as in speeches or campaign advertisements.  They use common themes to develop their political positions in terms familiar to the voters.  Politicians become experts at using the media   With the rise of mass media in the 19th century they made heavy use of newspapers, magazines, and pamphlets, as well as posters.  The 20th century brought radio and television, and television commercials became the single most expensive part of an election campaign.  In the 21st century, they have become increasingly involved with social media based on the Internet and smartphones.

Common political offices

 Alderman
 Assemblyman
 Chancellor
 City manager
 Congressperson
 Councillor
 County executive
 Governor
 Lieutenant governor
 Mayor
 Deputy mayor
 Member of Parliament
 Minister
 President
 Vice President
 Prime Minister
 Representative
 Senator

References

Other websites
 Noam Chomsky - Why Do Politicians Lie? YouTube
 Professor Colin Hay on 'Why we hate politics'; YouTube

Occupations

Politician


The BGM-71 TOW ("Tube-launched, Optically tracked, Wire-guided", pronounced ) is an American anti-tank missile. TOW replaced much smaller missiles like the SS.10 and ENTAC, offering roughly twice the effective range, a more powerful warhead, and a greatly improved semi-automatic command to line of sight (SACLOS) that could also be equipped with infrared cameras for night time use.

First produced in 1970, TOW is one of the most widely used anti-tank guided missiles. It can be found in a wide variety of manually carried and vehicle-mounted forms, as well as widespread use on helicopters. Originally designed by Hughes Aircraft in the 1960s, the weapon is currently produced by Raytheon.

History

Previous designs
Late in World War II, the German Army began experimenting with modified versions of the Ruhrstahl X-4 wire-guided missile. Originally developed for the Luftwaffe as an anti-bomber weapon, by changing the warhead to one using a high-explosive anti-tank (HEAT) design, the new X-7 version made an effective anti-armor weapon with a range of hundreds of metres. This would greatly improve the effectiveness of infantry anti-tank operations, which at that time were generally based on smaller weapons like the Panzerfaust and Panzerschreck, limited in the best case to ranges on the order of . X-7 was never fully developed before the war ended.

In the immediate post-war era, the design was picked up by development teams in France and Australia. In France, Nord Aviation's Jean Bastien-Thiry developed an updated version of the X-7 using a solid fuel rocket as the very small and highly portable SS.10. Development started in 1948, with the first rounds fired in 1952. Evaluations by the US Army in 1953 concluded it was not ready for operation, but that its progress should be tracked. The Army then instructed the Redstone Arsenal to develop its own version of the basic concept, which emerged as the SSM-A-23 Dart, a larger design with roughly twice the range of the SS.10. While the development of the Dart continued, Nord delivered a workable version of the SS.10, as well as the extended-range SS.11. In the summer of 1958, the development of the Dart was cancelled in favour of purchasing the two French designs.

During the same period, the British Army had been developing its own heavyweight long-range weapon with Australia, the Malkara, with a range of about . The tracking system, similar to the SS.11, proved difficult to use and a new project started under the codename Orange William. This system used a computer to calculate the impact point, sending commands to the missile using an infrared link. But the link was found not to work in smoke or dust, making it largely useless on the battlefield. A new design emerged, combining the guidance system of the small Vickers Vigilant with a new and highly maneuverable missile to produce Swingfire. The goal was to allow the launcher to remain completely undercover while a gunner took a portable sight forward to aim at the targets from a concealed location.

New concept
In the fall of 1958, the Army's Office of Ordnance Research and Development formed the Ad Hoc Working Group at the Ballistic Research Laboratories (BRL) to define a future replacement for the SS.10 and 11. The team included members from Picatinny Arsenal, Frankford Arsenal, Redstone Arsenal, Watervliet Arsenal, Detroit Arsenal and Harry Diamond Laboratories. The group almost immediately decided not to attempt to define a weapon concept, and instead spend the next two years studying the problem while researching the possibility of using alternative guidance systems and continually watching foreign developments where the US was lagging.

It was at some point during this early development that the British became aware of the US developments. Having approved Swingfire to some degree based on the possibility of foreign sales, the emergence of a possible US competitor was a concern. Meetings between Solly Zuckerman and John H. Rubel led to the July 1961 Rubel-Zuckerman agreement, wherein the UK would continue development of the long-range Swingfire while the US concentrated on shorter-range missiles, up to , with new guidance systems. The US agreed to not introduce a system that competed directly with Swingfire or Vigilant without prior consultation but was free to develop new unguided "assault weapons" to replace the LAW. Both the US and Canadian Army agreed to purchase Swingfire for the long-range role.

HAW
In spite of the efforts to reach an agreement over anti-tank missiles, in the early summer of 1961, the Chief of Ordnance asked BRL to deliver a formal definition for what was then known as the "Heavy Assault Weapon for the Long Range Time Period", or HAW for short. They asked for a weapon to be delivered sometime between 1965 and 1970. BRL assigned the work to the Armored Systems Evaluation Branch of the Weapon Systems Laboratory. David Hardison, the Branch Chief, reconvened the Ad Hoc panel to review a long list of twenty-seven design proposals, all of which were found lacking.

Hardison then began preparing a list of the ideal characteristics of a HAW weapon. Of primary importance was the adoption of some form of semi-automatic guidance, as the manual guidance systems (MCLOS) of earlier weapons like SS.11 were found to be difficult to use as the relative movements of the launcher and target increased; MCLOS worked well for stationary launchers and slow-moving targets, but had proven much more difficult to use from moving vehicles, and especially helicopters.

Experience with the MGM-51 Shillelagh missile demonstrated that the simplest solution to successfully tracking the missile was to optically track a flare attached to the missile using an infrared seeker. This was essentially identical to a heat seeking missile, but tracking its own missile rather than a separate target. Flares, however, were not ideal illumination sources, especially in the case where multiple rounds might be fired and the optical system might track the wrong one. In place of the flare, the panel selected an infrared (IR) lamp whose output would be modulated with a shutter so each missile would have a unique signal.

Using this style of guidance demanded that the missile be brought into the line-of-sight of the tracking system as soon as possible; in Shillelagh this was almost immediate because the missile was launched from a gun barrel directly into the view of the tracker. Earlier manual weapons like SS.10 and ENTAC flew upwards after launch to clear the ground when being launched by infantry lying on the ground, and thus would not be immediately visible along the line-of-sight. To ensure the HAW could be tracked successfully, it would have to be launched from a tube, like Shillelagh, but one that was lightweight to ensure mobility.

Finally, Shillelagh sent guidance commands to the missile using an infrared link, but as the British had discovered, this proved relatively unreliable in the field and was subject to countermeasures like random flashing IR lamps. For the shorter ranges envisioned for HAW, wire guidance was perfectly suitable and both much less expensive and largely immune to countermeasures.

TOW emerges

The resulting design was tube-launched, optically tracked, and wire-guided. BRL programmer Harry Reed immediately christened it "TOW", a name that the system carried into production.

One problem that was noted early on was that the tube launch would make it difficult for the missile to be launched from a helicopter unless it was pointed relatively directly toward the target. Earlier systems were manually guided and did not need to be "gathered" quickly, so these were easier to launch at high crossing angles. Seeing this might be a major problem in the short term, TOW simply dropped the helicopter-launch requirement.

When the BRL team returned the HAW/TOW study, the Pentagon gave them six months to come up with an actual requirement instead of a list of desirable features. Reed gathered submissions from industry and quickly selected three contractors for further details, Hughes Aircraft, Martin Marietta, and McDonnell Douglas. All three companies concluded the concept was able to be produced.

On 12 January 1962, the BRL officially assigned the development of the TOW concept to the U.S. Army Missile Command (MICOM), who in turn formed the Antitank/Aircraft Weapons Commodity Office on 19 November 1962. In December 1962, Hughes was instructed to continue development while a development contract was being drawn up. Budget approval for development was granted in January 1963 as the XM65 TOW, and the final development contract, the first 100 per cent cost-plus-incentive-fee, was signed on 3 May 1963. This led to the TOW Project Office opening on 1 October 1964.

The British learned of the TOW program when it was sent to MICOM. In May, the US suggested they abandon Swingfire in favor of TOW, pointing out that the French were also introducing a long-range missile, and with three similar weapons in the marketplace, the British would find foreign sales difficult. But the British Army was convinced that the launch vehicle would only survive if it was completely undercover, and TOW required the launcher to remain in sight of the target through the entire flight of the missile. They continued the development of Swingfire.

In 1969, the House Authorization Subcommittee considered ending the TOW program in favor of the Shillelagh. A series of presentations by both missile teams followed, and ultimately the decision was made to continue both programs in September 1970.

Designs
Three designs were returned for the initial selection, from Hughes, McDonnell and Martin. Hughes' design used pop-out fins and a gyroscope to allow it to automatically maintain an "up" direction. The wire spools were licensed from Bofors and the rocket motor was made by Hercules. Guidance would be via flare tracking, using an internally-designed IR sensor based on their AIM-4 Falcon efforts.

McDonnell's entry did not attempt to control the spin of the missile, deliberately allowing it to spin during launch and flight like an artillery shell to improve accuracy. Like the Hughes entry, a gyroscope was used to define the up direction; in this case, this constantly changed relative to the missile body as it spun. The IR detector was placed at the end of a vertical V-shaped channel in the launcher. As gravity pulled the missile downward, it would begin to be blocked by the lower side of the V, causing the system to send commands to pull the missile upward. When it reached the top of the view at the end of the V, it stopped the up commands. The result was that the missile bounced up and down  every  of flight.

Finally, Martin's missile used two side-mounted swept-back wings and a rocket that was split into two outlet tubes that were angled downward to give the missile natural lift during flight.

Hughes wins
The initial production contract was awarded to Hughes on 28 June 1968, and the final contract on 29 November 1968. On 10 June 1969, Chrysler's Huntsville Division was awarded the second-source contract.

A number of problems emerged with the initial design, notably the early versions of the rocket motors which sometimes ejected burning bits of fuel, presenting a hazard to the gunners. MICOM suggested a new motor using "head end suspended double base" fuel from the M72 LAW which solved this problem. The IR source had problems due to its use of a fine metal filament that ignited the arc lamp which often broke during firing. Repeated tests and modifications solved this. The launch tube was designed to be sealed at both ends, with the rear seal being blown off by the rocket motor and the front by pressurized gas released by the guidance system's gyroscope. In practice, both proved unreliable, but remedial action solved the problems.

Production began at USAF Plant #44 and the first production examples were delivered in August 1969. In September 1970 three training battalions had formed, and by 30 September 1970 the TOW had replaced the Army's existing heavy anti-tank weapon, the M40 recoilless rifle. It increasingly replaced the French ENTAC missiles purchased earlier.

Helicopter launch
In December 1963 the issue of helicopter launches was once again considered. The problem with the existing semi-automatic systems was that the missile had to be "gathered" by the optical tracker quickly in order for it to send commands to the missile. In contrast, earlier all-manual systems could be guided by the gunner at any time. With the TOW being launched from a tube, some other system would be needed to ensure it could be guided into the optics field of view after launch. This would be all the more difficult if the helicopter was not flying directly at the target, or was manoeuvring.

MICOM sent contracts to both Hughes and Philco Ford, makers of the Shillelagh, to develop stabilized launch sights for their respective missile designs. They were in the form of a complete system combining the sighting system, launcher tube assembly and all related equipment as the XM26 weapon system. Hughes won the contest in 1965 and was awarded a second development contract for XM26 in June 1966.

XM26 was initially developed by a separate organization within BRL, the Aircraft Weapons Commodity Office. This was assigned to the TOW Project Office on 5 April 1970.

Replacement
The U.S. Army is seeking a replacement for the TOW through the Close Combat Missile System-Heavy (CCMS-H) effort. Objectives are for a weapon with increased range out to  or more, as well as greater speed, the ability to fire on the move, and lock on before and after launch capability while retaining similar launcher size and arming distance. The Army hopes to field the CCMS-H sometime between 2028 and 2032.

Design
In 1997, Raytheon Co. purchased the missile systems division of Hughes Electronics from General Motors Corporation, so the development and production of TOW systems now come under the Raytheon brand. The weapon is used in anti-armor, anti-bunker, anti-fortification and anti-amphibious landing roles. TOW is in service with over 45 militaries and is integrated on over 15,000 ground, vehicle and helicopter platforms worldwide.

In its basic infantry form, the system breaks down into a number of modules: a folding tripod mount, a launch tube (into the rear of which encased missiles are inserted), a mandatory daylight tracker unit, which can be augmented with an optional AN/TAS-4 or AN/TAS-4/A gas-cooled night sight (or an all-in-one tracker unit on the M41 ITAS version), and a traversing unit, which mounts onto the tripod and carries the launch tube and sight, that also includes the weapon's trigger and the bridging clamp, which mates with the missile's umbilical data connector. In addition to this main assembly, there is a separate fire control system (FCS) module, which performs all guidance calculations, and a battery pack to power the system. These two modules link to each other, with the FCS then linked to the daylight tracker by a cable.

When the target is sighted and the trigger is pulled, there is a 1.5-second firing delay while the missile spins up its internal gyroscope and the thermal battery reaches operating temperature. Once this concludes, the launch motor fires through the rear nozzle propelling the missile from the tube: this soft-launch motor fires for only 0.05 seconds and burns out before the missile has exited the tube. As the missile exits the launch tube, the first four wings just forward of the flight motor spring open forwards, followed by four tail control surfaces, which flip open rearwards as the missile completely exits the launch tube. As the wings fully extend at about 7 metres from the launcher, the flight motor ignites, boosting the missile's speed to approximately 600 miles per hour (~1,000 kilometres per hour) during its burn time. At 0.18 seconds after launch, around 65 metres from the launcher, the warhead is armed by G-forces from acceleration by the flight motor, a safety feature intended to protect the operator if the flight motor fails to ignite. The flight motor burns out 1.6 seconds after launch, with the missile gliding for the remainder of its flight time. After the tracker captures the missile, IR sensors bore-sighted to the daylight tracker continuously monitor the position of an IR beacon on the missile's tail relative to the line-of-sight, with the FCS generating course corrections which are sent via the command link to the missile's integral flight control unit. The missile then corrects its flight path via the control surface actuators. The operator keeps the sight's crosshair centered over the target until impact: if the missile fails to strike a target, the command wires are automatically cut at 3,000 metres on the original TOW and 3,750 metres on most current-production TOWs. An automatic wire cut also occurs if the tracker fails to detect the missile's thermal beacon within 1.85 seconds of launching.

The TOW missile was continually upgraded, with an improved TOW missile (ITOW) appearing in 1978 that had a new warhead triggered by a long probe, which was extended after launch, that gave a stand-off distance of  for improved armor penetration. The 1983 TOW 2 featured a larger  warhead with a  extensible probe, improved resistance to jamming with a second, shorter wavelength xenon tracking beacon and optical encoders to randomly modulate the pulse frequency of both beacons, and a motor that provided around 30% more thrust. This was followed by the TOW 2A/B, which appeared in 1987.

Hughes developed a TOW missile with a wireless data link in 1989, referred to as TOW-2N, but this weapon was not adopted for use by the U.S. military. Raytheon continued to develop improvements to the TOW line, but its FOTT (Follow-On To TOW) program was cancelled in 1998, and its TOW-FF (TOW-Fire and Forget) program was cut short on 2002 because of funding limitations. In 2001 and 2002, Raytheon and the U.S. Army worked together on an extended range TOW-2B variant, initially referred to as TOW-2B (ER), but now called TOW-2B Aero, which has a special nose cap that increases range to 4.5 km. TOW-2B has top attack capability. Although this missile has been in production since 2004, no U.S. Army designation has yet been assigned. Wireless versions of the TOW-2A, TOW-2B and TOW-2B Aero have been developed that use a "stealthy" one-way radio link, identified with the suffix "RF". These missiles require no special alterations to the launcher since the RF transmitter is encased along with the missile and uses the standard umbilical data connector.

In 1999, TOW received the Improved Target Acquisition System (ITAS).

The TOW missile in its current variations is not a fire-and-forget weapon and like most second-generation wire-guided missiles has Semi-Automatic Command Line of Sight guidance. This means that the guidance system is directly linked to the platform, and requires that the target be kept in the shooter's line of sight until the missile impacts. A fire-and-forget TOW variant (TOW-FF) was under development but was cancelled by the Army in 2002.

In October 2012, Raytheon received a contract to produce 6,676 TOW (wireless-guided) missiles for the U.S. military. Missiles that will be produced include the BGM-71E TOW 2A, the BGM-71F TOW 2B, the TOW 2B Aero, and the BGM-71H TOW Bunker Buster. By 2013, the U.S. Marine Corps had retired the air-launched TOW missile.

Launch platforms

TOW is designated as a BGM by the U.S. military: a multiple launch environment (B) surface attack (G) guided missile (M). The B launch environment prefix is used only when the system can be used essentially unmodified when launched from a variety of launch platforms.

The M151 and M220 launchers are used by infantry, but can also be mounted on a number of vehicles, including the M151 jeep, the M113 APC, the M966 HMMWV and the M1045 HMMWV (which replaced the M966). These launchers are theoretically man-portable but are quite bulky. The updated M151 launcher was upgraded to include thermal optics to allow nighttime usage and had been simplified to reduce weight. The M220 was specifically developed to handle the TOW-2 series.

TOW systems have also been developed for vehicle-specific applications on the M2/M3 Bradley IFV/CFV, the LAV-AT, the M1134 Stryker ATGM carrier, and the now-retired M901 ITV (Improved TOW Vehicle); they are generally referred to as TOW Under Armor (TUA).

In helicopter applications, the M65 system used by the AH-1 series is the primary system deployed, but the XM26 system was developed for the UH-1, and a system was put into development for the later cancelled AH-56 helicopter. TOW has also been used with AH.1 (TOW) and AH.7 variants of Westland Lynx helicopters, with the attachment of two pylons, each carrying four missiles.

The M41 TOW improved target acquisition system (ITAS) is a block upgrade to the M220 ground/high-mobility multipurpose wheeled vehicle (HMMWV)-mounted TOW 2 missile system. The TOW ITAS is currently being fielded to airborne, air assault, and light infantry forces throughout the active and reserve components of the U.S. Army and U.S. Marine Corps (where it is called the SABER). The ITAS, in addition to providing better anti-armour capabilities to antitank units, also has capabilities that make it an integral part of the combined arms team. Even when organized in heavy—light task forces, where the preponderance of antiarmor capabilities traditionally has resided in the heavy elements, TOW ITAS-equipped antitank units can not only destroy threat targets but also provide superior reconnaissance, surveillance, and target acquisition (RSTA), rear area protection, and urban operations capabilities.

The TOW ITAS consists of three new line replaceable units: the target acquisition subsystem (TAS), the fire control subsystem (FCS), and the lithium battery box (LBB); a modified TOW 2 traversing unit; the existing TOW launch tube and tripod; and a TOW Humvee modification kit. The TAS integrates into a single housing the direct view optics and missile tracker, a second-generation forward looking infrared (FLIR) night vision sight (NVS), and a laser rangefinder. TAS electronics provide automatic boresighting for these components, eliminating both tactical collimation and 180-day verification requirements. The integral cooling system for the IR optics is a modern SADA-II electrically powered cryocooler, removing the need to carry a supply of high-pressure coolant gas cartridges as was necessary for the previous AN/TAS-4 and AN/TAS-4A night sights.

The most recent addition to the ITAS system is the ITAS-FTL (far target location), which incorporates a new module called PADS (position attitude determination subsystem), a device that attaches to the top of the ITAS sighting unit and uses differential GPS tracking to relay precise coordinate data to the operator.

Service history
In 1968, a contract for full-scale production was awarded to Hughes, and by 1970 the system was being fielded by the U.S. Army. When adopted, the BGM-71 series replaced the M40 106 mm recoilless rifle and the MGM-32 ENTAC missile system then in service. The missile also replaced the AGM-22B then in service as a heliborne anti-tank weapon.

1972: Vietnam: first combat use

On 24 April 1972, the U.S. 1st Combat Aerial TOW Team arrived in South Vietnam; the team's mission was to test the new anti-armor missile under combat conditions. The team consisted of three crews, technical representatives from Bell Helicopter and Hughes Aircraft, members of the United States Army Aviation and Missile Command, and two UH-1B helicopters; each mounting the XM26 TOW weapons system, which had been taken from storage. After displacing to the Central Highlands for aerial gunnery, the unit commenced daily searches for enemy armor. On 2 May 1972, U.S. Army UH-1 Huey helicopters firing TOWs destroyed North Vietnamese People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) tanks near An Loc. This was heralded as the first time a U.S. unit neutralized enemy armour using American-designed and built guided missiles (in this case, against a captured American-made M41 operated by the PAVN). On 9 May, elements of the PAVN's 203rd Armored Regiment assaulted Ben Het Camp held by Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) Rangers. The Rangers destroyed the first three PT-76 amphibious light tanks of the 203rd, thereby breaking up the attack. During the battle for the city of Kontum, the TOW missile had proven to be a significant weapon in disrupting PAVN tank attacks within the region. By the end of May, BGM-71 TOW missiles had accumulated 24 confirmed kills of both PT-76 light and T-54 main battle tanks.

On 19 August, the ARVN 5th Infantry Regiment, 2nd Division abandoned Firebase Ross in the Que Son Valley,  southwest of Da Nang, to the PAVN 711th Division. A dozen TOW missiles were left with abandoned equipment and fell into PAVN hands.

1982: Lebanon War
The Israel Defense Forces used TOW missiles during the 1982 Lebanon War. On 11 June, Israeli anti-tank teams armed with TOW ambushed Syrian armoured forces and destroyed a number of Syrian Soviet-made T-72 tanks. Estimates vary regarding the number of T-72s destroyed by TOWs (vs. the number destroyed by Merkava MBTs), with the lower end at nine and the high end attributing "the majority" of the 30 T-72s destroyed by Israeli forces in the war to Yossi Peled's anti-tank TOW units. This was probably the first encounter of the American anti-tank missile with the newer Soviet tank.

Iran–Iraq War

In the Iran–Iraq War of the 1980s, the Islamic Republic of Iran Army used TOW missiles purchased before the Iranian Revolution in 1979, as well as those purchased during the Iran–Contra affair.

Of the 202 AH-1J Internationals (export variant of the AH-1J SeaCobra) that Iran purchased from the US, 62 were TOW-capable. Iranian AH-1Js managed to slow down Iraqi tank advances into Iran. During the "dogfights" between Iranian SeaCobras and Iraqi Mil Mi-24s, Iranians achieved several "kills", usually using TOW missiles.

1991: Persian Gulf War
TOW was used in multiple engagements during Operation Desert Storm in the Persian Gulf War of 1991. During the war, both the M2 Bradley Infantry fighting vehicle (IFV) and the M3 Bradley Cavalry Fighting Vehicle (CFV) carried TOW missiles. The M2 can also carry seven additional rounds, while the M3 can carry twelve. The M2 and M3 medium-weight Bradley Fighting Vehicles destroyed more Iraqi tanks during the war than the M1A1 Abrams heavy Main Battle Tanks.

Both AT (TOW) Company, 2nd Tank Battalion, 2nd Marine Division and AT (TOW) Company, 3rd Tank Battalion, 1st Marine Division engaged Iraqi tanks with TOW missiles in their M1045/M1046 HMMWVs. These vehicles were configured with a roof-mounted TOW launcher and carried six rounds in the cargo compartment with an additional round in the tube.

The British Army also deployed TOW-armed, Westland Lynx helicopters to the conflict, where they were used to attack Iraqi armoured vehicles. This was the first recorded use of the TOW missile from a British helicopter.

1993: Somalia
On 5 June, 24 Pakistani soldiers were killed by members of Mohamed Farrah Aidid's Habr Gidr militia; some were skinned. Subsequently, the United Nations called for the arrest of those responsible. Weeks later they would formally place the blame on Aidid, leader of the Habr Gidr clan. Subsequently, U.N. troops hunted Aidid. Incidents between the two sides worsened, with fighting back and forth. On 12 July, three months prior to the Battle of Mogadishu, the United Nations and the United States attempted to defeat Aidid's organization by attacking a strategy meeting of his native Habr Gidr clan under Operation Michigan. The Washington Post described the event as a "slaughter" in which a "half-dozen" AH-1 Cobra attack helicopters fired 16 TOW missiles and 2,000 rounds from their 20 mm cannons into the meeting of the elders and senior combat commanders. The first TOW missile destroyed the stairs, preventing escape. In the aftermath, it was revealed that Aidid was not in the meeting. The Red Cross claimed that 54 people had been killed, Admiral Jonathan T. Howe reported that 20 had died, while Aidid's Somali National Alliance produced a list of 73 people who they claimed had been killed.

2001: War in Afghanistan
TOW missiles were used during the War in Afghanistan.

2003: Iraq War
Ten Humvee-mounted TOW missiles were used by U.S. forces in Iraq during the 22 July 2003 assault that killed Uday and Qusay Hussein. Although TOW missiles are generally used against armored vehicles, these missiles were used on the house where the two men were located.

2011: Syrian Civil War

The weapon was spotted as early as April 2014 in at least two videos that surfaced showing Syrian opposition forces in the Syrian civil war using BGM-71 TOWs, a weapon previously not seen in use by the opposition. Such a video, showing a BGM-71E-3B with the serial number removed, can be seen in a 27 May 2014 episode of the PBS series Frontline.

In February 2015, The Carter Center listed 23 groups within the Southern Front of the Free Syrian Army that have been documented using US-supplied TOWs.

A sudden influx of TOWs was supplied in May 2015, mostly to Free Syrian Army affiliated factions, but also independent Islamist battalions; as a requirement of being provided TOWs, these Syrian opposition groups are required to document the use of the missiles by filming their use, and are also required to save the spent missile casings. Groups provided with TOWs include the Hazzm Movement, the 13th Division, 1st Coastal Division, Syria Revolutionaries Front, Yarmouk Army, Knights of Justice Brigade, and the 101st Division. Free Syrian Army battalions widely and decisively used TOWs in the 2015 Jisr al-Shughur offensive. Russia attempted a rescue operation after a Su-24M was shot down at the Syria–Turkey border on 24 November 2015, a video of Free Syrian Army 1st Coastal Division using a TOW missile to destroy a disabled Russian helicopter on the ground after its crew had retreated was posted on YouTube. In October 2015, Saudi Arabia delivered 500 TOW missiles to anti-Assad rebels.
A video produced through Bulgarian Television provides evidence of non-rebel use of this weapon by Islamic affiliated fighters.

Reports indicate that small number of TOW missiles have ended up in the hands of al-Qaeda in Syria and Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant.

In August 2016 footage of the Syrian military inspecting a captured BGM-71E missile system in Bani Zeit district, Aleppo, was leaked online.
On 2 September 2016, rebels released a video of a BGM-71 TOW destroying a French-manufactured Syrian Arab Air Force Aérospatiale Gazelle as it was landing on an airstrip near Khattab in Northern Hama.

Reports say that the TOW missile has successfully hit Russian T-90s in Syria, which are equipped with active defences designed to defeat such missiles. However, a Russian report claims the tank shows "very little damage" and was still operable.

2022: Russian invasion of Ukraine
In August 2022 the U.S. Department of Defense announced that it would be sending 1,500 TOW missiles (presumably BGM-71, though not explicitly specified as such) to Ukraine as part of an additional $775m security assistance package to the "meet Ukraine's critical security and defense needs" as part of ongoing US military assistance following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.

In April 2023, videos posted to Twitter show Ukrainian forces using a TOW missiles to destroy Russian tanks in the Bakhmut area. Including their loading, use and mounting on a vehicle. A former National Security Council official said: "Such videos are just devastating. They show that even older weapons like TOW missiles can have a massive impact on Russian forces. These videos surely damage Russian morale as well."

On 19 July Hanna Maliar, Ukraine's deputy defense minister, claimed on Telegram that a M2 Bradley had killed Russian infantry during fighting Zaporizhzhia region. She further claimed that using TOW missiles the M2 Bradley was able to destroy two Russian T-72 tanks. The Bradley was assigned to the 47th Mechanized Brigade.These claims could not be independently verified.

Variants
Raytheon has taken over for Hughes in recent years, and now handles production of all current variants, as well as TOW development.

While the original armor penetration estimates were 600 mm for BGM-71A/B and 700–800 mm for BGM-71C, a now declassified CIA study shows the CIA's estimated penetration values against a vertical target are much lower—just 430 mm for the BGM-71A/B TOW and 630 mm for the BGM-71C Improved TOW.

The time to target at maximum range is 20 seconds, therefore, giving an average speed of 187.5 m/s.

International
Iran has reverse engineered the type from examples acquired before 1979 and currently manufactures duplicate TOW missiles. These carry the Iranian designation of Toophan.

Sweden had SAAB develop a helicopter launch system called HeliTow (Rbs 55H) for the Helikopter 9.

Operators

Current

: TOW-2.
: BGM-71A TOW.
: AgustaWestland AW109 A109 AH(L)-TOW helicopter only

: Mounted on Jeeps.
: 147 launchers in service in 2000

: Produced under license

 Free Syrian Army

:
  Hezbollah

 Local production under the name "Toophan" (طوفان)
: Iranian version
: Total of 432 launchers. 5,000 BGM-71 missiles and 130 launchers delivered in 1974; 10,000 missiles delivered in 1976–1978; 2,311 ITOWs delivered in 1982–1984; 6,629 BGM-71C ITOWs delivered in 1986–1989 for $67 million (of which 1,239 were practice missiles); 1,440 BGM-71D TOW2s for A129 Mangusta delivered in 1990–1996

:

 most carried by Humvee

: 70 launchers in service; 1,200 BGM-71-4B-RF TOW 2A RF missiles on order, approved for export on 8 December 2016

: Used by the Army and Marines.
: TOW-2A used by the Army and National Guard.

: To be replaced by Raybolt. Still used in MD 500 Defender
: TOW and TOW-2 variants used by the Army and Marines.

: Used by the Army and Marines.

: Mounted on Humvees.

: Used by the Army and Marine Corps.

 Houthis: Toophan.
 People's Defense Units (YPG)

Former

: The decision to replace the M47 Dragon (in use with reconnaissance units) and TOW (in use with mechanized infantry) with the "Gill MRAT" was made in 2001, with deliveries expected in 2002. The first Gill MRAT was actually issued in 2004 to the Regiment van Heutsz.
: Used during the Siad Barre era.
: Operated from Army Air Corps Westland Lynx helicopters

Failed Bids
: In the early 1980s, negotiations to supply Yugoslavia with modern United States-manufactured TOW anti-tank guided missiles broke down after the revelation that Yugoslavia had violated the terms of a prior [arms] transfer by sending M-47 tanks to the new revolutionary regime in Ethiopia in the early 1980s.

Gallery

See also
MAPATS
Nag ATGM
Swingfire
HOT (missile)
AT-5 Spandrel
AT-4 Spigot
AT-14 Kornet
OMTAS
Shershen
M47 Dragon
FGM-148 Javelin
ALAS (missile)
HJ-8
AGM-179 JAGM
History of UAVs decoys
List of U.S. Army Rocket Launchers By Model Number
Abu TOW

Notes

References

Sources

The TOW Family
TOW Improved Target Acquisition System (ITAS)
The TOW Anti-Tank Missile in Vietnam
Dunstan, Simon (1982). Vietnam Tracks-Armor in Battle. Osprey Publications. .
Gunston, Bill (1983). An Illustrated Guide to Modern Airborne Missiles. London: Salamander Books Ltd. .
Starry, Donn A. General. Mounted Combat in Vietnam. Vietnam Studies; Department of the Army. First printed 1978-CMH Pub 90–17.

External links

From early developmental XBGM-71 testing to the BGM-71A TOW
FM 3-22.34 US Marines Field Manual
M-220 Tube-launched, Optically tracked, Wire-guided missile (TOW)
More information at Designation Systems.net
Discovery Channel program on "Modern Missiles" with best video information on TOW today. TOW part starts at two minutes
TOW 2A Wireless
TOW 2B Aero Wireless
TOW Bunker Buster Wireless
Tube-Launched, Optically-Tracked, Wire-Guided (TOW) Missiles

BGM-071
BGM-071
Anti-tank guided missiles of the Cold War
Cold War missiles of the United States
Military equipment introduced in the 1970s

BGM-71 TOW


Alfred Dregger  (10 December 1920 – 29 June 2002) was a German politician and a leader of the Christian Democratic Union (CDU).

Dregger was born in Münster. After graduating from a school in Werl, he entered the German Wehrmacht in 1939. He was wounded four times and served until the end of the war, when he commanded a battalion on the Eastern Front at the rank of Captain. In 1946, he began studying law and government at the universities of Marburg and Tübingen, earning his doctorate in 1950.

Dregger served from 1956 to 1970 as Oberbürgermeister or mayor of Fulda; when first elected, he was the youngest mayor in West Germany. He also served from 1962 to 1972 as a member of the Landtag of Hesse. He was for a time leader of the CDU in that body, and, in 1967, became state party chairman, an office which he held until 1982. In 1969 he was also elected as a member of the national board of the party. From 1972 1998 he was a representative in the German Bundestag; from 1982 to 1991 he was Chairman of the CDU/CSU group there.

Dregger was known as a staunch conservative and was a prominent member of the so-called Stahlhelm-Fraktion, a National-Conservative wing of the CDU.

In the 1970s he was an outspoken proponent of outlawing the German Communist Party. He was responsible for the slogan "Freiheit statt Sozialismus" (Freedom instead of Socialism) with which the CDU had great success in the 1976 elections. In his eulogy, CDU/CSU parliamentary group leader Friedrich Merz said of him, "Few have so clearly and categorically opposed the Left for decades". He called for Germany to "come out of Hitler's shadow".

He resisted criticism of the Wehrmacht, strongly opposing a travelling exhibition called Die Verbrechen der Wehrmacht 1941 - 1944 (The Crimes of the Wehrmacht, 1941–1944) and writing to United States Senators that if they discouraged Ronald Reagan from his presidential visit to the Bitburg military cemetery, he would "consider this to be an insult to my brother and my comrades who were killed in action." He saw himself as a defender of Germany and the last representative of the war generation in the Bundestag.

Family
Alfred Dregger was married and had two sons; his elder son was killed in an accident in 1972.

References

Sources
 Michael Schwab. Alfred Dregger für Fulda und Deutschland: Stationen eines charismatischen Politikers. Fulda informiert: Dokumentationen zur Stadtgeschichte 26. Petersberg: Imhof, 2008. .

External links

1920 births
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Politicians from Münster
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Alfred Dregger


Primetime (also known as prime time) is a timeslot in the United States on most networks running from 8:00 to 11:00 p.m. Eastern and 7:00 to 10:00 p.m. Central and Mountain. It is the most watched timeslot on television. It is before late night television.

Time
Television

Primetime


George Stanley White,  (November 17, 1897 – January 6, 1977) was a Canadian parliamentarian and Speaker of the Senate of Canada from 1962 to 1963.

White was born in Madoc, Ontario. He received a law degree from Osgoode Hall Law School in Toronto and returned to Madoc to begin his legal practice after serving in World War I with the 44th Battalion of the Canadian Expeditionary Force.

White was first elected to the House of Commons of Canada in 1940. He was elected as a "National Government" candidate as that was the banner the Conservatives used for that election. The Tories subsequently changed their name to "Progressive Conservative" and he was re-elected under that banner for the riding of Hastings—Peterborough (known as Hastings—Frontenac after 1953).

As an Opposition MP, White promoted the cause of war veterans and helped write the legislation known as the "Veteran's Charter".

The 1957 election resulted in the first Progressive Conservative government in over two decades. In September of that year new Progressive Conservative Prime Minister John Diefenbaker made White his first appointment to the Senate so that Sidney Earle Smith, the newly appointed Secretary of State for External Affairs despite not being an MP could attempt to win a seat in the House of Commons through a by-election.

White served as the government's whip in the Senate from 1958 until September 1962 when he was appointed Speaker. He only served in the chair for a few months until the defeat of the Diefenbaker government in the 1963 federal election. He voluntarily retired from the Senate on November 17, 1972, when he turned 75.

References

External links

 Speaker of the Canadian Senate

1897 births
1977 deaths
Canadian senators from Ontario
Members of the House of Commons of Canada from Ontario
Members of the King's Privy Council for Canada
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Speakers of the Senate of Canada

George Stanley White