The Beer Hall Putsch, also known as the Munich Putsch, was a failed coup d'état by Nazi Party ( or NSDAP) leader Adolf Hitler,  Erich Ludendorff and other  leaders in Munich, Bavaria, on , during the Weimar Republic. Approximately two thousand Nazis marched on the , in the city centre, but were confronted by a police cordon, which resulted in the deaths of 16 Nazis, four police officers, and one bystander.

Hitler escaped immediate arrest and was spirited off to safety in the countryside. After two days, he was arrested and charged with treason.

The putsch brought Hitler to the attention of the German nation for the first time and generated front-page headlines in newspapers around the world. His arrest was followed by a 24-day trial, which was widely publicised and gave him a platform to express his nationalist sentiments to the nation. Hitler was found guilty of treason and sentenced to five years in Landsberg Prison, where he dictated  to fellow prisoners Emil Maurice and Rudolf Hess. On 20 December 1924, having served only nine months, Hitler was released. Once released, Hitler redirected his focus towards obtaining power through legal means rather than by revolution or force, and accordingly changed his tactics, further developing Nazi propaganda.

Background
In the early 20th century, many of the larger cities of southern Germany had beer halls, where hundreds, and sometimes thousands, of people would socialise in the evenings, drink beer and participate in political and social debates. Such beer halls also became the hosts of occasional political rallies. One of Munich's largest beer halls was the , which became the site where the putsch began.

After the Treaty of Versailles, which ended World War I, Germany declined as a major European power. Like many Germans of the period, Hitler, who had fought in the German Army but still held Austrian citizenship at the time, believed the treaty to be a betrayal, with the country having been "stabbed in the back" by its own government, particularly as the German Army was popularly thought to have been undefeated in the field. For the defeat, Hitler scapegoated civilian leaders, Jews and Marxists, later called the "November Criminals".

Hitler remained in the army in Munich after the war. He participated in various "national thinking" courses, organised by the Education and Propaganda Department of the Bavarian Army under Captain Karl Mayr, of which Hitler became an agent. Captain Mayr ordered Hitler, then an army  (not the equivalent of lance corporal, but a special class of private) and holder of the Iron Cross, First Class, to infiltrate the tiny  ("German Workers' Party", abbreviated DAP). Hitler joined the DAP on 12 September 1919. He soon realised that he was in agreement with many of the underlying tenets of the DAP, and rose to its top post in the ensuing chaotic political atmosphere of postwar Munich. By agreement, Hitler assumed the political leadership of a number of Bavarian revanchist "patriotic associations", called the . This political base extended to include about 15,000 members of the  (SA, literally "Storm Detachment"), the paramilitary wing of the NSDAP.

On 26 September 1923, following a period of turmoil and political violence, Bavarian Prime Minister  declared a state of emergency, and  was appointed  ("state commissioner"), with dictatorial powers to govern the state. In addition to , Bavarian state police chief Colonel  and  General  formed a ruling triumvirate. Hitler announced that he would hold 14 mass meetings beginning on 27 September 1923. Afraid of the potential disruption, one of 's first actions was to ban the announced meetings, placing Hitler under pressure to act. The Nazis, with other leaders in the , felt they had to march upon Berlin and seize power or their followers would turn to the communists. Hitler enlisted the help of World War I general  in an attempt to gain the support of  and his triumvirate. However,  had his own plan with  and  to install a nationalist dictatorship without Hitler.

The putsch

The putsch was inspired by Benito Mussolini's successful March on Rome. From 22 to 29 October 1922, Hitler and his associates planned to use Munich as a base for a march against Germany's Weimar Republic government. But circumstances differed from those in Italy. Hitler came to the realisation that Kahr sought to control him and was not ready to act against the government in Berlin. Hitler wanted to seize a critical moment for successful popular agitation and support. He decided to take matters into his own hands. Hitler, along with a large detachment of SA, marched on the Bürgerbräukeller, where Kahr was making a speech in front of 3,000 people.

In the evening of 8 November 1923, 603 SA surrounded the beer hall and a machine gun was set up in the auditorium. Hitler, surrounded by his associates Hermann Göring, Alfred Rosenberg, Rudolf Hess, Ernst Hanfstaengl, Ulrich Graf, Johann Aigner, Adolf Lenk, Max Amann, Max Erwin von Scheubner-Richter, Wilhelm Adam, Robert Wagner and others (some 20 in all), advanced through the crowded auditorium. Unable to be heard above the crowd, Hitler fired a shot into the ceiling and jumped on a chair, yelling: "The national revolution has broken out! The hall is surrounded by six hundred men. Nobody is allowed to leave." He went on to state that the Bavarian government was deposed and declared the formation of a new government with Ludendorff.

Hitler, accompanied by Hess, Lenk, and Graf, ordered the triumvirate of Kahr, Seisser and Lossow into an adjoining room at gunpoint and demanded they support the putsch and accept the government positions he assigned them. Hitler had promised Lossow a few days earlier that he would not attempt a coup, but now thought that he would get an immediate response of affirmation from them, imploring Kahr to accept the position of Regent of Bavaria. Kahr replied that he could not be expected to collaborate, especially as he had been taken out of the auditorium under heavy guard.

Heinz Pernet, Johann Aigne and Scheubner-Richter were dispatched to pick up Ludendorff, whose personal prestige was being harnessed to give the Nazis credibility. A telephone call was made from the kitchen by Hermann Kriebel to Ernst Röhm, who was waiting with his Bund Reichskriegsflagge in the Löwenbräukeller, another beer hall, and he was ordered to seize key buildings throughout the city. At the same time, co-conspirators under Gerhard Rossbach mobilised the students of a nearby infantry officers' school to seize other objectives.

Hitler became irritated by Kahr and summoned Ernst Pöhner, Friedrich Weber, and Hermann Kriebel to stand in for him while he returned to the auditorium flanked by Rudolf Hess and Adolf Lenk. He followed up on Göring's speech and stated that the action was not directed at the police and Reichswehr, but against "the Berlin Jew government and the November criminals of 1918". Dr. Karl Alexander von Mueller, a professor of modern history and political science at the University of Munich and a supporter of Kahr, was an eyewitness. He reported

I cannot remember in my entire life such a change in the attitude of a crowd in a few minutes, almost a few seconds ... Hitler had turned them inside out, as one turns a glove inside out, with a few sentences. It had almost something of hocus-pocus, or magic about it.
Hitler ended his speech with: "Outside are Kahr, Lossow and Seisser. They are struggling hard to reach a decision. May I say to them that you will stand behind them?"

The crowd in the hall backed Hitler with a roar of approval. He finished:

You can see that what motivates us is neither self-conceit nor self-interest, but only a burning desire to join the battle in this grave eleventh hour for our German Fatherland ... One last thing I can tell you. Either the German revolution begins tonight or we will all be dead by dawn!

Hitler, Ludendorff, et al., returned to the main hall's podium, where they gave speeches and shook hands. The crowd was then allowed to leave the hall. In a tactical mistake, Hitler decided to leave the Bürgerbräukeller shortly thereafter to deal with a crisis elsewhere. Around 22:30, Ludendorff released Kahr and his associates.

The Bund Oberland, under the command of Max Ritter von Müller, was sent to seize weapons from the Army Engineer Barracks under the pretense of performing training maneuvers. Oskar Cantzler, captain of the 1st company of the 7th Engineer Battalion, did not believe them, but allowed them to perform the maneuvers inside the building. He locked the building with the 400 men inside and positioned two machine guns at the entrance. Hitler attempted to have the men released, but Cantzler refused. Hitler considered using artillery to destroy the building, but chose not to.

The night was marked by confusion and unrest among government officials, armed forces, police units, and individuals deciding where their loyalties lay. Units of the Kampfbund were scurrying around to arm themselves from secret caches, and seizing buildings. At around 03:00, the first casualties of the putsch occurred when the local garrison of the Reichswehr spotted Röhm's men coming out of the beer hall. They were ambushed while trying to reach the Reichswehr barracks by soldiers and state police; shots were fired, but there were no fatalities on either side. Encountering heavy resistance, Röhm and his men were forced to fall back. In the meantime, the Reichswehr officers put the whole garrison on alert and called for reinforcements.

In the morning, Hitler ordered the seizure of the  as hostages.

By mid-morning on 9 November, Hitler realised that the putsch was going nowhere. The putschists did not know what to do and were about to give up. At this moment, Ludendorff cried out, "Wir marschieren!" ('We will march!'). Röhm's force together with Hitler's (a total of approximately 2000 men) marched out – but with no specific destination. On the spur of the moment, Ludendorff led them to the Bavarian Defence Ministry. However, at the Odeonsplatz in front of the Feldherrnhalle, they met a force of 130 soldiers blocking the way under the command of State Police Senior Lieutenant . The two groups exchanged fire, which resulted in the deaths of 16 Nazis, four police officers, and one bystander.

Although their defeat by the government forces forced Hitler and Ludendorff to flee Munich, it was the origin of the Blutfahne ('blood flag'), which was stained with the blood of two SA members who were shot: the flag bearer Heinrich Trambauer, who was badly wounded, and Andreas Bauriedl, who fell dead onto the fallen flag. A bullet killed Scheubner-Richter. Göring was shot in the leg, but escaped. The rest of the Nazis scattered or were arrested. Hitler was arrested two days later.

In a description of Ludendorff's funeral at the Feldherrnhalle in 1937 (which Hitler attended but without speaking) William L. Shirer wrote: "The World War [One] hero [Ludendorff] had refused to have anything to do with him [Hitler] ever since he had fled from in front of the Feldherrnhalle after the volley of bullets during the Beer Hall Putsch." However, when a consignment of papers relating to Landsberg prison (including the visitor book) were later sold at auction, it was noted that Ludendorff had visited Hitler a number of times. The case of the resurfacing papers was reported in Der Spiegel on 23 June 2006; the new information (which came out more than 30 years after Shirer wrote his book, and which Shirer did not have access to) nullifies Shirer's statement.

Counterattack
Police units were first notified of trouble by three police detectives stationed at the Löwenbräukeller. These reports reached Major Sigmund von Imhoff of the state police. He immediately called all his green police units and had them seize the central telegraph office and the telephone exchange, although his most important act was to notify Major-General Jakob von Danner, the Reichswehr city commandant of Munich. As a proud war hero, Danner loathed the "little corporal" and those "Freikorps bands of rowdies". He also did not much like his commanding officer, Generalleutnant Otto von Lossow, "a sorry figure of a man". He was determined to put down the putsch with or without Lossow. Danner set up a command post at the 19th Infantry Regiment barracks and alerted all military units.

Meanwhile, Captain Karl Wild, learning of the putsch from marchers, mobilised his command to guard Kahr's government building, the Commissariat, with orders to shoot.

Around 23:00, Major-General von Danner, along with fellow generals  and Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressenstein, compelled Lossow to repudiate the putsch.

There was one member of the cabinet who was not at the Bürgerbräukeller: Franz Matt, the vice-premier and minister of education and culture. A staunchly conservative Roman Catholic, he was having dinner with the Archbishop of Munich, Cardinal Michael von Faulhaber and with the Nuncio to Bavaria, Archbishop Eugenio Pacelli (who would later become Pope Pius XII), when he learned of the putsch. He immediately telephoned Kahr. When he found the man vacillating and unsure, Matt made plans to set up a rump government-in-exile in Regensburg and composed a proclamation calling upon all police officers, members of the armed forces, and civil servants to remain loyal to the government. The action of these few men spelled doom for those attempting the putsch. The next day the archbishop and Rupprecht visited Kahr and persuaded him to repudiate Hitler.

Three thousand students from the University of Munich rioted and marched to the Feldherrnhalle to lay wreaths. They continued to riot until 9 November, when they learned of Hitler's arrest. Kahr and Lossow were called Judases and traitors.

Trial and prison

Two days after the putsch, Hitler was arrested and charged with high treason in the special People's Court. Some of his fellow conspirators, including Rudolf Hess, were also arrested, while others, including Hermann Göring and Ernst Hanfstaengl, escaped to Austria. The Nazi Party's headquarters was raided, and its newspaper, the Völkischer Beobachter (The People's Observer), was banned. In January 1924, the Emminger Reform, an emergency decree, abolished the jury as trier of fact and replaced it with a mixed system of judges and lay judges in Germany's judiciary.

This was not the first time Hitler had been in trouble with the law. In an incident in September 1921, he and some men of the SA had disrupted a meeting of the Bayernbund ('Bavaria Union') which Otto Ballerstedt, a Bavarian federalist, was to have addressed, and the Nazi troublemakers were arrested as a result. Hitler ended up serving just over a month of a three-month jail sentence. Judge Georg Neithardt was the presiding judge at both of Hitler's trials.

Hitler's trial began on 26 February 1924 and lasted until 1 April 1924. Lossow acted as chief witness for the prosecution. Hitler moderated his tone for the trial, centering his defence on his selfless devotion to the good of the people and the need for bold action to save them, dropping his usual anti-Semitism. He claimed the putsch had been his sole responsibility, inspiring the title Führer or 'leader'. The lay judges were fanatically pro-Nazi and had to be dissuaded by the presiding Judge, Georg Neithardt, from acquitting Hitler outright. Hitler and Hess were both sentenced to five years in  ('fortress confinement') for treason. Festungshaft was the mildest of the three types of jail sentence available in German law at the time; it excluded forced labour, provided reasonably comfortable cells, and allowed the prisoner to receive visitors almost daily for many hours. This was the customary sentence for those whom the judge believed to have had honourable but misguided motives, and it did not carry the stigma of a sentence of Gefängnis (common prison) or Zuchthaus (disciplinary prison). In the end, Hitler served just over eight months of this sentence before his early release for good behaviour. Prison officials allegedly wanted to give Hitler deaf guards, to prevent him from persuading them to free him.

Although the trial was the first time that Hitler's oratory was insufficient, he used the trial as an opportunity to spread his ideas by giving speeches to the court room. The event was extensively covered in the newspapers the next day. The judges were impressed (Presiding Judge Neithardt was inclined to favouritism towards the defendants prior to the trial), and as a result, Hitler served just over eight months in prison and was fined . Due to Ludendorff's story that he was present by accident, an explanation he had also used in the Kapp Putsch, along with his war service and connections, Ludendorff was acquitted. Both Röhm and Wilhelm Frick, though found guilty, were released. Göring, meanwhile, had fled after suffering a bullet wound to his leg, which led him to become increasingly dependent on morphine and other painkilling drugs. This addiction continued throughout his life.

One of Hitler's greatest worries at the trial was that he was at risk of being deported back to his native Austria by the Bavarian government. The trial judge, Neithardt, was sympathetic toward Hitler and held that the relevant laws of the Weimar Republic could not be applied to a man "who thinks and feels like a German, as Hitler does." The result was that the Nazi leader remained in Germany.

Though Hitler failed to achieve his immediate goal, the putsch did give the Nazis their first national attention and propaganda victory. While serving their "fortress confinement" sentences at Landsberg am Lech, Hitler, Emil Maurice and Rudolf Hess wrote Mein Kampf. The putsch had changed Hitler's outlook on violent revolution to effect change. From then his modus operandi was to do everything "strictly legal".

The process of "combination", wherein the conservative-nationalist-monarchist group thought that its members could piggyback on, and control, the National Socialist movement to garner the seats of power, was to repeat itself ten years later in 1933 when Franz von Papen asked Hitler to form a legal coalition government.

Fatalities

Bavarian police officers
 Friedrich Fink
 Nikolaus Hollweg
 Max Schoberth
 Rudolf Schraut

Putschists

The 15 deceased are listed in Hitler's dedication to Mein Kampf.
 Felix Allfarth, merchant, born 5 July 1901 in Leipzig. Alfarth had studied merchandising at the Siemens-Schuckert Works and moved to Munich in 1923 to begin his career.
 Andreas Bauriedl, hatter and World War I veteran, born 4 May 1879 in Aschaffenburg. Bauriedl was hit in the abdomen, killing him and causing him to fall on the Nazi flag, which had fallen to the ground when its flagbearer, Heinrich Trambauer, was severely wounded. Bauriedl's blood-soaked flag later became the Nazi relic known as the Blutfahne. Member of the Nazi Party.
 Theodor Casella, bank clerk and World War I veteran, born 8 August 1900. Member of the Freikorps and Nazi Party.
 Wilhelm Ehrlich, bank clerk and World War I veteran, born 8 August 1894. Member of the Freikorps and Nazi Party. Previous participant in the Kapp Putsch.
 Martin Faust, bank clerk and World War I veteran, born 4 January 1901.
 Anton Hechenberger, locksmith, born 28 September 1902. Member of the Nazi Party and Sturmabteilung.
 Oskar Körner, businessman and World War I veteran, born 4 January 1875 in Ober-Peilau. Member of the German Workers' Party and Nazi Party.
 Karl Laforce, engineering student, born 28 October 1904; the youngest to die in the putsch. Member of the Nazi Party, Sturmabteilung, and Stoßtrupp-Hitler.
 Kurt Neubauer, valet for Erich Ludendorff and World War I veteran, born 27 March 1899 in Hopfengarten, Kreis Bernberg. Member of the Freikorps.
 Klaus von Pape, businessman, born 16 August 1904 in Oschatz.
 Theodor von der Pfordten, judge and World War I veteran, born 14 May 1873 in Bayreuth. Member of the German National People's Party. During his time as the commandant of a prisoner of war camp in Traunstein, Pfordten was implicated in the abuse of prisoners of war, particularly Russians.
 Johann Rickmers, retired cavalry captain and World War I veteran; born 7 May 1881 in Bremen. Member of the Freikorps.
 Max Erwin von Scheubner-Richter, Nazi leader, born 21 January 1884 in Riga. Member of the Nazi Party. Previous participant in the Kapp Putsch.
 Lorenz Ritter von Stransky-Griffenfeld, engineer and World War I veteran, born 14 March 1889. Member of the Freikorps, Nazi Party, and Sturmabteilung.
 Wilhelm Wolf, businessman and World War I veteran, born 19 October 1898. Member of the Freikorps and Nazi Party.

Scheubner-Richter was walking arm-in-arm with Hitler during the putsch; he was shot in the lungs and died instantly. He brought Hitler down and dislocated Hitler's shoulder when he fell. He was the only significant Nazi leader to die during the putsch. Of all the party members who died in the putsch, Hitler claimed Scheubner-Richter to be the only "irreplaceable loss".

According to Ernst Röhm, Martin Faust and Theodor Casella, both members of the armed militia organisation Reichskriegsflagge, were shot down accidentally in a burst of machine gun fire during the occupation of the War Ministry as the result of a misunderstanding with II/Infantry Regiment 19.

Also honored as a martyr in Mein Kampf was Karl Kuhn (born 7 July 1875), a head waiter in a restaurant. Allegedly he took part in the putsch as a member of the Freikorps Oberland, and was fatally shot by the police. In reality, Kuhn was an innocent bystander. He was working as waiter in a nearby restaurant when he stepped outside to watch, after which he was killed in the crossfire.

Legacy

The 15 fallen insurgents, as well as the bystander Karl Kuhn, were regarded as the first "blood martyrs" of the Nazi Party and were remembered by Hitler in the foreword of Mein Kampf. The Nazi flag they carried, which in the course of events had been stained with blood, came to be known as the Blutfahne ('blood flag') and was brought out for the swearing-in of new recruits in front of the Feldherrnhalle when Hitler was in power.

Shortly after he came to power, a memorial was placed at the south side of the Feldherrnhalle crowned with a swastika. The back of the memorial read Und ihr habt doch gesiegt! ('And you triumphed nevertheless!'). Behind it flowers were laid, and either policemen or the SS stood guard between a lower plaque. Passers-by were required to give the Nazi salute. The putsch was also commemorated on three sets of stamps. Mein Kampf was dedicated to the fallen and, in the book Ich Kämpfe (given to those joining the party c. 1943), they are listed first even though the book lists hundreds of other dead. The header text in the book read "Though they are dead for their acts they will live on forever." The army had a division named the Feldherrnhalle Regiment, and there was also an SA Feldherrnhalle Division.

Der neunte Elfte (9 November, literally 'the ninth of the eleventh') became one of the most important dates on the Nazi calendar, especially following the seizure of power in 1933. Annually until the fall of Nazi Germany, the putsch would be commemorated nationwide, with the major events taking place in Munich. On the night of 8 November, Hitler would address the Alte Kämpfer ('Old Fighters') in the Bürgerbräukeller (after 1939, the Löwenbräu, in 1944 in the Circus Krone Building), followed the next day by a re-enactment of the march through the streets of Munich. The event would climax with a ceremony recalling the 16 killed on the Königsplatz.

The anniversary could be a time of tension in Nazi Germany. The ceremony was cancelled in 1934, coming as it did after the so-called Night of the Long Knives. In 1938, it coincided with the Kristallnacht, and in 1939 with the attempted assassination of Hitler by Johann Georg Elser. With the outbreak of war in 1939, security concerns caused the re-enactment of the march to be suspended, never to be resumed. However, Hitler continued to deliver his 8 November speech through 1943. In 1944, Hitler skipped the event and Heinrich Himmler spoke in his place. As the war went on, residents of Munich came increasingly to dread the approach of the anniversary, concerned that the presence of the top Nazi leaders in their city would act as a magnet for Allied bombers.

Every Gau (administrative region of Germany) was also expected to hold a small remembrance ceremony. As material given to propagandists said, the 16 fallen were the first losses and the ceremony was an occasion to commemorate everyone who had died for the movement.

On 9 November 1935, the dead were taken from their graves and to the Feldherrnhalle. The SA and SS carried them down to the Königsplatz, where two Ehrentempel ('honour temples') had been constructed. In each of the structures eight of the dead Nazis were interred in a sarcophagus bearing their name.

In June 1945 the Allied Commission removed the bodies from the Ehrentempels and contacted their families. They were given the option of having their loved ones buried in Munich cemeteries in unmarked graves or having them cremated, common practice in Germany for unclaimed bodies. On 9 January 1947, the upper parts of the structures were blown up.

Since 1994, a commemorative plaque embedded in the pavement in front of the Feldherrnhalle contains the names of the four Bavarian policemen who died in the fight against the Nazis. The plaque reads:

Supporters of the Putsch

Key supporters

 Adolf Hitler
 Rudolf Hess
 Hermann Göring
 Alfred Rosenberg
 Erich Ludendorff
 Ernst Röhm
 Julius Streicher
 Hermann Kriebel
 Friedrich Weber
 Max Erwin von Scheubner-Richter
 Ulrich Graf
 Hermann Esser
 Ernst Hanfstaengl
 Gottfried Feder
 Joseph Berchtold
 Ernst Pöhner
 Emil Maurice
 Max Amann
 Heinz Pernet
 Wilhelm Brückner
 Lt. Robert Wagner

Other notable supporters

 Heinrich Himmler
 Edmund Heines
 Gerhard Roßbach
 Hans Frank
 Julius Schaub
 Walther Hewel
 Dietrich Eckart
 Wilhelm Frick
 Julius Schreck
 Josef 'Sepp' Dietrich
 Philipp Bouhler
 Franz Pfeffer von Salomon
 Gustav Adolf Lenk
 Gregor Strasser
 Hans Kallenbach
 Ernst Rüdiger Starhemberg
 Adolf Wagner
 Jakob Grimminger
 Heinrich Trambauer
 Karl Beggel
 Rudolf Jung
 Rudolf Buttmann
 Albrecht von Graefe
 Hans Ulrich Klintzsch
 Heinrich Hoffmann
 Josef Gerum
 Capt. Eduard Dietl
 Hans Georg Hofmann
 Matthaeus Hofmann
 Helmut Klotz
 Adolf Hühnlein
 Max Neunzert
 Michael Ried
 Karl Fischer von Treuenfeld
 Theodor Oberländer
 Eleonore Baur

At the front of the march
In the vanguard were four flag bearers followed by Adolf Lenk and Kurt Neubauer, Ludendorff's servant. Behind those two came more flag bearers, then the leadership in two rows.

Hitler was in the centre, slouch hat in hand, the collar of his trenchcoat turned up against the cold. To his left, in civilian clothes, a green felt hat, and a loose loden coat, was Ludendorff. To Hitler's right was Scheubner-Richter. To his right came Alfred Rosenberg. On either side of these men were Ulrich Graf, Hermann Kriebel, Friedrich Weber, Julius Streicher, Hermann Göring, and Wilhelm Brückner.

Behind these came the second string of Heinz Pernet, Johann Aigner (Scheubner-Richter's servant), Gottfried Feder, Theodor von der Pfordten, Wilhelm Kolb, Rolf Reiner, Hans Streck, and Heinrich Bennecke, Brückner's adjutant.

Behind this row marched the Stoßtrupp-Hitler, the SA, the Infantry School, and the Oberländer.

Chief defendants in the "Ludendorff–Hitler" trial

 Wilhelm Brückner
 Wilhelm Frick
 Adolf Hitler
 Hermann Kriebel
 Erich Ludendorff

 Heinz Pernet
 Ernst Röhm
 Lt. Robert Wagner
 Friedrich Weber

See also

 2022 German coup d'état plot
 Bavarian Soviet Republic
 Blood Order – A commemorative award given to participants
 Blutfahne
 German October
 German Revolution
 Hamburg Uprising
 Kapp Putsch
 March Action
 Early Nazism timeline
 Spartacist Uprising
 Weimar Republic timeline

 People given posthumous fame by the Nazis:
 Wilhelm Gustloff
 Horst Wessel
 Herbert Norkus

References
Informational notes

Citations

Bibliography

 Dornberg, John (1982). Munich 1923: The Story of Hitler's First Grab for Power. New York: Harper & Row.

 Gordon, Harold J., Jr. (1972). Hitler and the Beer Hall Putsch. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
 Gordon, Harold J., Jr. (1976). The Hitler Trial Before the People's Court in Munich. University Publications of America.

 Large, David Clay (1997). Where Ghosts Walked, Munich's Road to the Third Reich. New York: W.W. Norton.

 Snyder, Louis Leo (1961). Hitler and Nazism. New York: Franklin Watts.

External links

 Map of Europe at time of Beer Hall Putsch at omniatlas.com
 The Feldherrnhalle with the plaque to the four Bavarians killed, now removed
 "Munich: Part 3 – Nazi Party Buildings on the Königsplatz Third Reich in Ruins

Rebellions in Germany
Adolf Hitler
Attempted coups in Germany
1920s coups d'état and coup attempts
Conflicts in 1923
1923 in Germany
1924 in Germany
Military operations involving Germany
November 1923 events in Europe
1920s in Munich
Fascist revolts

Beer Hall Putsch


The Belfast suburban rail commuter network serves the metropolitan area of Greater Belfast and some of its commuter towns with three lines. The network is owned by Translink and operated by its subsidiary NI Railways.

Larne line

Stations - Belfast Great Victoria Street, City Hospital, Botanic, Lanyon Place, Yorkgate, Whiteabbey, Jordanstown, Greenisland, Trooperslane, Clipperstown, Carrickfergus, Downshire, Whitehead, Ballycarry, Magheramorne, Glynn, Larne Town, Larne Harbour.

Portadown line

Stations - Belfast Great Victoria Street, Adelaide, Balmoral, Finaghy, Dunmurry, Derriaghy, Lambeg, Hilden, Lisburn, Moira, Lurgan, Portadown.

This line has the potential to be extended from Portadown to Armagh city centre by reopening the railway line. Government Minister for the Department for Regional Development, Danny Kennedy MLA indicates railway restoration plans of the line from Portadown to Armagh.

Bangor line

Stations - Belfast Great Victoria Street, , , , Titanic Quarter, Sydenham, Holywood, Marino, Cultra, Seahill, Helen's Bay, Carnalea, Bangor West, Bangor.

Other information

Most trains run directly from Bangor to Portadown and vice versa (stopping at all stations on the way), though some follow only the routes shown above.
The typical off-peak service on this route is 2tph (trains per hour). The last train of the day arrives in Bangor and Portadown shortly after midnight.
 Services Belfast to Whitehead are typically every 30 mins daytime and hourly evenings and weekends.  Trains extend to Larne typically every hour.
 The concept of Suburban was a Northern Ireland Railways marketing campaign in the late 1980s and early 90s when the network was divided into Suburban (near Belfast) and Intercity (beyond), leaving the odd concept of Intercity trains running between Coleraine and the seaside town of Portrush (details).  This division is no longer recognised.

See also

Metro
Translink
Northern Ireland Railways
Dublin Suburban Rail
Cork Suburban Rail
Galway Suburban Rail
Limerick Suburban Rail

References

External links
Northern Ireland Railways

Transport in Belfast
Railway lines in Northern Ireland

Belfast suburban rail


Henry Liu (June 3, 1936 – December 1, 2009) was an American civil engineer and the president of Freight Pipeline Company (FPC), now known as EcologicTech.

Liu earned his PhD in civil engineering from Colorado State University with research on fluid mechanics, and then worked as a professor of civil engineering at University of Missouri (MU) in Columbia, Missouri for over 20 years. At MU, he was also director of the Capsule Pipeline Research Center, a joint state/industry initiative funded by the National Science Foundation to develop capsule pipeline technology to transport freight; an innovative application of pipelines to transfer solids instead of fluids.

In 2001, after his retirement, Liu founded FPC, the company which developed a new type of Fly ash brick, a building brick made from a waste by-product of coal power plants, using an environmentally sustainable manufacturing process.

Liu had spent most of his working career compressing industrial freight using hydraulic presses. In 1999, he was given some fly ash by a client, and decided to compress it "just to see what would come out." Liu mixed the fly ash with water and applied 4,000 psi (28 MPa) of pressure. After two weeks, he found that the mixture had set into blocks with the strength of concrete. Owing to the high concentration of calcium oxide in fly ash, the bricks can be described as "self-cementing".

Liu used a National Science Foundation grant of $600,000 to perfect the manufacturing technique over an eight-year period, discovering that by adding an air entrainment agent, which generates microscopic bubbles in the hardened brick that better accommodate the expansion of freezing water, he was able to produce a brick which could withstand over 100 freeze-thaw cycles, thereby comfortably meeting US federal safety standards.

Since the manufacturing method uses a waste by-product rather than clay, and solidification takes place under pressure rather than heat, it offers has several environmental benefits. It saves energy, reduces mercury pollution, alleviates the need for landfill disposal of fly ash, and costs 20% less than traditional methods. The bricks are now manufactured under license by Calstar Products in California.

In October 2009, Liu was awarded the $100,000 Purpose Prize award for his fly brick invention.

Liu died on December 1, 2009 in a car accident at age 73.

References

American civil engineers
People from Columbia, Missouri
University of Missouri faculty
Place of birth missing
1936 births
2009 deaths
Colorado State University alumni
Chinese emigrants to the United States
20th-century American engineers
Engineers from Missouri
American company founders
Road incident deaths in Missouri
21st-century American businesspeople
Businesspeople from Missouri

Henry Liu (civil engineer)


Captain Alexander Smollett is the fictional captain of the schooner Hispaniola in Robert Louis Stevenson's 1883 novel Treasure Island. He plays an important part in disciplining the main characters on the ship as the story progresses, and helps the protagonists survive against the pirates later on.

In the novel
He first appears to the reader as a strict, bitter man who finds fault with everything and is never satisfied. However, he quickly reveals that not all is well aboard the ship, and his first conversation with Jim Hawkins, Dr. Livesey, and Squire Trelawney foreshadows the eventual mutiny of many of the Hispaniolas members under the leadership of Long John Silver, a cunning and wealthy one-legged pirate. When the Hispaniola finally reaches its destination and the pirates rebel, he organizes the faithful crew's flight from the Hispaniola onto the shores of the island and helps in gaining a stockade. The next day, he attempts to negotiate with "Captain" Long John Silver, but the negotiations fail due to the arrogance of Silver and the stubbornness of Smollett. (Indeed, Smollett admits that he has goaded Silver on purpose, reasoning that battle is probably inevitable and might as well be fought sooner rather than later, while they are alert and fresh.) As a result, Silver storms off in a rage, and Smollett is left to organize the defence of the stockade. In the battle of the stockade, he is seriously wounded by two bullets, though neither incapacitates him, and he disappears from the story for the most part. In the end, he and the faithful crew sail back to Bristol laden with treasure, and he retires from seafaring.

Captain Smollett's role in the story is crucial, but he is usually remembered for his temperamental personality. He is obsessed with duty and expects all his orders to be followed to the letter. When the stockade's defences break down during his negotiations with Silver, he explodes, venting his rage on the Doctor and Squire Trelawney for abandoning their stations to watch the negotiations. Yet, he doesn't fail to reward those who perform well and praises Abraham Gray, a mutineer who defects to their side, for staying at his post dutifully.

Film adaptations
 Buddy Messinger in the 1918 version.
 Harry Holden in the 1920 version.
 Lewis Stone in the 1934 version.
 Basil Sydney in the 1950 Disney live-action version.
 Rik Battaglia in the 1972 live-action version.
 Richard Beale in the 1977 version.
  in the 1982 version.
 Klaus Löwitsch in the 1987 outer space version.
 Viktor Andriyenko in the 1988 Soviet version.
Clive Wood in the 1990 version.
 In the 1996 Disney Muppets version, the character was renamed Captain Abraham Smollett (Kermit the Frog as performed by Steve Whitmire) by Brian Henson and the scriptwriters. Here, the character has a much larger role and is more benevolent, suiting his portrayer, as well as being the former fiancé of Benjamina Gunn (Miss Piggy).
 Malcolm Stoddard in the 1999 version.
 In the 2002 Disney film Treasure Planet, the character is replaced with Captain Amelia, a female cat-like alien. She is voiced by Emma Thompson.
 In the 2006 film Pirates of Treasure Island by The Asylum, the character is depicted as a Frenchman trading with the then-new United States.
 Philip Glenister in 2012 version.

References

 Stevenson, Robert Louis (1883) Treasure Island.

External links
 Treasure Island Book Review

Treasure Island characters
Literary characters introduced in 1883
Fictional characters from the 18th century
Fictional military captains
Fictional English people
Adventure film characters

Captain Alexander Smollett


Leonid Sokov (, October 11, 1941, Tver region – April 4, 2018 in Copake, New York, United States) was a Russian nonconformist artist and sculptor. He primarily lived and worked in New York City.

Life and work
Sokov was born in Mikhalevo in the Tver region, Russia in 1941 and graduated from the Stroganov Institute now called the Moscow School of Art and Industry, in 1969. He emigrated to the United States in 1980. His compositions are in the Pop style, adapted to Socialist Realism through the use of ideology as an object of consumption. He is closely related to the Sots art movement and he has worked with others in that genre including Dmitry Prigov, Alexander Kosolapov, and Rostislav Lebedev.

In 2001 he represented Russia at the Venice Biennale. He participated in the 2004 Gwangju Biennale in Gwangju, South Korea.

In 2012, the Moscow Museum of Modern Art (MMoMA) honored the artist's 70th birthday with a major retrospective and publication on the artist's career and work.

In 2016, The State Tretyakov Gallery in Moscow held a major retrospective museum show dedicated to the artist's life and work.

Public collections
 The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
 Centre Georges Pompidou, Paris, France
 The State Russian Museum, St. Petersburg, Russia
 The State Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow, Russia
 The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, Russia
 The Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York
 The Moscow Museum of Modern Art (MMoMA), Moscow, Russia
 The National Centre for Contemporary Arts, Moscow, Russia
 The ART4.RU Museum of Contemporary Russian Art, Moscow, Russia
 The Jane Voorhees Zimmerli Art Museum at Rutgers University, USA
 The Nasher Museum of Art at Duke University, USA
 The Cleveland Museum of Art, USA

References

 Leonid Sokov: Sculptures, Paintings, Objects, Installations, Documents, Articles, Moscow: The State Russian Museum, Palace Editions, 2000.

1941 births
2018 deaths
21st-century Russian sculptors
20th-century Russian sculptors
20th-century Russian male artists
Russian male sculptors
Soviet Nonconformist Art
Russian contemporary artists
Soviet emigrants to the United States
People from Rzhevsky District
21st-century Russian male artists
Stroganov Moscow State Academy of Arts and Industry alumni

Leonid Sokov


Ludovic Stewart, 2nd Duke of Lennox and 1st Duke of Richmond (29 September 157416 February 1624), lord of the Manor of Cobham, Kent, was a Scottish nobleman who through their paternal lines was a second cousin of King James VI of Scotland and I of England. He was involved in the Plantation of Ulster in Ireland and the colonization of Maine in New England. Richmond's Island and Cape Richmond as well as Richmond, Maine (formerly Fort Richmond), are named after him. His magnificent monument with effigies survives in Westminster Abbey.

Origins

He was the eldest son of Esmé Stewart, 1st Duke of Lennox (1542-1583), a Frenchman of Scottish ancestry, by his wife Catherine de Balsac (d.post-1630), a daughter of Guillaume de Balsac, Sieur d'Entragues, by his wife Louise d'Humières. Ludovic's father was a favourite and first cousin once removed of King James VI of Scotland I of England (the King's father Henry Stewart, Lord Darnley having been Esmé's first cousin). Ludovic was therefore himself a paternal second cousin to the King

Career

Scotland
On 14 November 1583, after the death of his father, he returned from France and was taken to meet King James VI of Scotland at Kinneil House. He had surrendered the Seigneurie d'Aubigny to his younger brother, Esmé. Later in that month, the Earl of Arran installed him in Holyrood Palace, expelling Francis, Earl of Bothwell from his lodgings.

In December the king issued instructions for Ludovic's education and placed him in the royal household under the care of Mr Gilbert Moncreiff. On 23 December 1583 he was appointed as the High and Great Chamberlain of Scotland and first Gentleman of the King's Bedchamber, as his father had been, with Alexander Erskine of Gogar, Captain of Edinburgh Castle as his deputy. The role included taking oaths of fidelity to the King from the other officers, ushers, and varlets of the Bedchamber and Wardrobe.

On 4 October 1590 he played cards with the king for the stake of a new "black castor hat lined with velvet". James however became angry with Lennox because he wished to marry Lilias (or Sophie) Ruthven, a daughter of William Ruthven, 1st Earl of Gowrie. James wanted him to marry a daughter of the Earl of Morton or Arbella Stewart and had Lilias Ruthven shut up in Wemyss Castle. Despite this, Lennox rescued his bride from the castle and married her the next day. After 10 days the king's rage subsided and the couple were allowed to come to court. After the death of Lilias Ruthven in May 1592, the English diplomat Robert Bowes heard that the king often received Lennox in his bed when he was away from the court and his queen Anne of Denmark.

Robert Bowes, the English diplomat in Edinburgh, described a fight on Edinburgh's Royal Mile between Lennox and John Wemyss of Logie. Logie had upset or made Lennox jealous in an incident in the king's bed chamber. Bowes said the offence was Logie's "disobedience" to the Duke. Lennox confronted Logie on the street on 7 January 1591 and hit him on the head with his sword. King James, who was walking behind Logie, was dragged into a shop for safety. Lennox was commanded to leave the court for a while, for fighting near the king's person. Some further details were recorded by David Calderwood. In his version Logie's offence was to refuse to leave the bedchamber at Lennox's command, Alexander Lord Home helped Lennox attack Logie, and the king's refuge was a skinner's shop where he ''. Soon after, Lennox was returned to court by the queen's intercession.

In 1591 he was appointed to the post of Lord High Admiral of Scotland following the disgrace of Francis Stewart, 5th Earl of Bothwell. On 18 October he was playing golf on the sands of Leith with the Earl of Huntly and they attempted to arrest Bothwell, who escaped, but Bothwell's horse "Valentine" was captured with Robert Scott brother of the Laird of Balwearie. Lennox arrested Michael Balfour of Burleigh and John Wemyss of Logie on 8 August 1592 on suspicion of conspiracy with Bothwell. They were interrogated at Dalkeith Palace. Burleigh was released and Logie escaped with the help of his Danish girlfriend Margaret Winstar.

On 13 February 1593 Lennox decided to play golf with Sir James Sandilands at Leith. On their way they met John Graham, a Lord of Session, who thought Sandilands was attacking him. They had a feud over land ownership. The two groups of attendants fired on each other with pistols and John Graham and Sir Alexander Stewart, a companion of the duke, were killed.

On 6 May 1593 the Duke and 15 friends subscribed to a frivolous legal document swearing to abstain from wearing gold and silver trimmings on their clothes for a year, and the defaulters were to pay for a banquet for all at John Kinloch's house. This "passement bond" was in part inspired by cheap counterfeit gold and silver thread used in "passements great or small, plain or à jour, bissets, lilykins, cordons, and fringes" which quickly discoloured. The signatories included Lord Home, the Earl of Mar, Lord Spynie, the Master of Glamis, Sir Thomas Erskine, Walter Stewart of Blantyre, Sir George Home, David Seton of Parbroath, and Sir William Keith of Delny.

As Great Admiral of Scotland, on 12 October 1593 Lennox gave Daniel Leyne a warrant to seize a ship captained by James Keeler of London, which was loading salt at Prestonpans. The ship was taken in recompense for the Bruce of Leith of George Bruce of Carnock, captured by English privateers off the coast of Spain. Soon after, as Lennox was now out of favour with James VI, he went to St Andrews in October 1593 and considered returning to France.

As the baptism of Prince Henry drew near, John Colville reported a rumour at the Scottish court that James VI had conceived jealousy against Anne of Denmark, and even thought that Lennox might be the father of Prince Henry. This disagreement was probably part of a wider factional struggle. Lennox remained in the king's favour, and at the tournament at Prince Henry's baptism in August 1594 Lennox rode in a Turkish costume.

Lennox was made the King's Lieutenant of the North, and took a force to the north of Scotland against the Earls of Huntly and Erroll. The castles of Ruthven in Badenoch and Inverness surrendered to him, and he held justice courts in Elgin. The wages of his soldiers were paid from money given by Queen Elizabeth to James VI. He ordered his sister the Countess of Huntly and the Countess of Erroll to go the court of James VI. On 8 February 1595 he came to Aberdeen, and was made a burgess of the town at the Mercat Cross. Several members of his retinue were also made burgesses, including Sir Robert Melville of Murdocairny and David Moysie secretary-depute to the king. When his horse was sick, Lennox wrote to the Laird of Kilravock to borrow his "black hackney nag".

As a New Year's day gift in 1596 James VI give him a jewel with a crown set with diamonds worth 90 crowns. In March 1597 James VI allowed Adam Bruntfield and James Carmichael, son of Sir John Carmichael, to fight in single combat on Cramond Island, or the nearby Links of Barnbougle, because Bruntfield accused Carmichael of killing his brother, Stephen Bruntfield, Captain of Tantallon, in treasonous circumstances. Lennox went to the island to be the judge of their fight with the Laird of Buccleuch and Sir James Sandilands. They wore lightweight clothes of satin and taffeta, one in blue, and one in red. Bruntfield killed Carmichael. There were said to be 5,000 spectators.

Lennox hosted a banquet for the Duke of Holstein, brother of Anna of Denmark, on 25 May 1598. Lennox joined with the "Gentleman Adventurers of Fife" in a controversial project to resettle the Isle of Lewis. The king gave him the title Lieutenant within the bounds of Lewis, Ronalewis, and Trouternes. Lennox intended to go to Lewis in October 1598, and in December he was at the Bog o'Gight with the Earl of Huntly and planning to go to Lewis when the other adventurers or Lewisers arrived there.

England
Following his accession to the English throne in 1603, King James (now also known as James I of England) created him Lord Settrington and Earl of Richmond (1613), and Earl of Newcastle and Duke of Richmond (1623), all these titles being in the Peerage of England.

King James was displeased with Lennox in June 1603 over the management of Anne of Denmark's business. He felt that Lennox should have persuaded her not to appoint one Kennedy as her chamberlain, when he preferred George Carew. The King objected to some of her other appointments and sent Lennox back to Scotland, where she remained, to amend matters. Lennox travelled with her to England. Her large crowd of followers was disorderly, and Lennox, with the Earls of Shrewsbury and Cumberland made a proclamation at Worksop Manor on 19 June that her followers should put aside any private quarrels, and hangers-on without formal roles should leave.

In November 1603 the Spanish ambassador, the Count of Villamediana, invited the Duke of Lennox and the Earl of Mar to dinner, and according to Arbella Stuart asked them "to bring the Scottish ladies for he was desirous to see some natural beauties." These included Jean Drummond and Anna Hay, with Elizabeth Carey. On 1 January 1604 Lennox organised and performed at Hampton Court in The Masque of Indian and China Knights.

Lennox was a conduit for patronage and court appointments, and those hoping to place their allies at court would solicit his favour. However, Lennox claimed that placing more Scottish people in the king's household had become difficult. He wrote to Sir William Livingstone of Kilsyth who had asked for a place for a Napier of Merchiston Castle;"although the King has this long time promised Merchiston ever the next vacant place, yet many has been placed over him and in this has found great impediments; for believe that a stranger shall find great difficulty to obtain any such place so long as there is any English man that does aim at it; for it is thought by them all that there is already too many Scots here in such places."

He went as ambassador to Paris in January 1605. His cousin, the Marquise de Verneuil, was under house arrest, and was moved to different lodging far from the Duke's apartments. In July 1606 Lennox was sent to Gravesend to welcome Christian IV of Denmark-Norway, the younger brother of the queen Anne of Denmark, to England. His companions included Sir Robert Gordon of Gordonstoun. In August 1605 he joined the King and Queen at Drayton House in Northamptonshire.

New Draperies
In 1605 King James granted Lennox a patent for the "New Draperies" which had been resigned by Sir George Delves and William Fitzwilliam. He was much better placed than these men to exploit the grant and litigate with provincial traders and craftsmen. He employed the London lawyers Anthony Gibson and Richard Hadsor to uphold the rights of his agents in Norwich, who searched and checked textiles sent to London. In 1614 he extended his efforts to claim dues from stockings made in Richmond, Yorkshire. Several Members of Parliament protested against his exactions.

Scotland in 1607
Lennox was in Scotland as High Commissioner of the Parliament from July 1607. His account of household expenses details his movements and the food he and his retainers consumed. He stayed at first at Holyrood Palace and his servant Walter Murray nailed his tapestries to the walls of his lodging. He also stayed in John Kinloch's house in Edinburgh. He spent time with Mary Ruthven, Countess of Atholl, a sister of his first wife, and gave her money. He visited St Andrews and was in Stirling with his daughter Elizabeth in November. His master cook William Murkie had worked for Anne of Denmark.

Lennox made a brief visit to Scotland in August 1616. He was escorting the Marquis of Huntly home.

England again
On 9 February 1608 he performed in the masque The Hue and Cry After Cupid at Whitehall Palace as a sign of the zodiac, to celebrate the wedding of John Ramsay, Viscount Haddington to Elizabeth Radclyffe.

Lennox acquired the royal patent to mint copper farthings in 1614, which he held until his death in 1624.

As part of the Plantation of Ulster, in 1608 Lennox was granted lands at Portlough in the Barony of Raphoe in County Donegal. The Pynnar Survey of 1618 records Lennox as the chief undertaker for 2,000 acres in the Portlough area and as represented locally by his agent Sir Aulant Aula. Newtownstewart in County Tyrone, now in Northern Ireland, may have been named after him. In the Muster Rolls of 1631, his nephew and eventual heir James Stewart, 1st Duke of Richmond, 4th Duke of Lennox is described as being an undertaker of 4,000 acres. Mongavlin Castle was built by his son Sir John Stewart, who was also Governor of Dumbarton Castle.

Ludovic was involved in the colonization of Maine in New England, through his seat on the Plymouth Company.  Richmond Island and Cape Richmond, as well as Richmond, Maine (formerly Fort Richmond), are named after him.

On 16 October 1612 Lennox was involved in welcoming the Palsgrave, Frederick V of the Palatinate, the husband-to-be of Princess Elizabeth. Lennox and ten other noblemen met him at Gravesend and brought him to London in a convoy of barges. They were met by the Duke of York on the Thames near the Tower of London. They alighted at Whitehall Palace and brought the Palsgrave into the royal presence in the Banqueting Hall.

In March 1614 thieves broke into his lodgings at Whitehall Palace and stole a gold collar set with pearls and diamonds worth £300, a silver warming pan, a silver inkstand, and some linen. A bed in his lodgings at the gatehouse of Whitehall Palace had belonged to "Lady Lennox", Margaret Douglas, Countess of Lennox, who had "worked" or embroidered the curtains. In 1620 he wrote to Sir Robert Gordon in Paris asking him to buy a dozen masks and a dozen gloves for gentlewomen, engaging the help of Madame de Gie and the Marquise de Vermont if possible.

Marriages and family

King James VI of Scotland had discussed with Thomas Fowler the possibility of the Duke marrying Arbella Stuart, but the scheme was not proceeded with. He married three times.
 In April 1591, Lennox released Sophia Ruthven, a daughter of William Ruthven, 1st Earl of Gowrie and Dorothea Stewart, from Wemyss Castle and married her on 15 April 1591 (her age being around 16). She died in May 1592 and was buried in Trinity College Kirk in Edinburgh.
 On 3 September 1598, he married Jean Campbell, a great-granddaughter of King James IV of Scotland. The wedding banquet, attended by the king, was at Sorn Castle. Lennox wrote in April 1605 to William Livingstone of Kilsyth, who managed some of his Scottish estates, that he wished to "rid me of her" and "be quit of her." In December 1610 after Jean's death, her brother Hugh Campbell of Loudon complained that the Duke had taken her fine things to England, leaving her "drowned in great debt" with only an old silver basin, three little cups, and their children. They had a daughter, Lady Elizabeth Stewart. In September 1607 Lennox complained that Dame Jean Campbell kept Elizabeth away from him and also neglected her education.
 On 16 June 1621, he married Frances Howard, the daughter of Thomas Howard, 1st Viscount Howard of Bindon.

Lennox also had a son with a mistress whose name is unknown:
 Sir John Stewart of Methven, governor of Dumbarton Castle and builder of Mongavlin Castle.

Death and burial

Stewart died suddenly in bed in his lodging at Whitehall Palace on the morning of 16 February 1624 aged 49 without a legitimate male issue. A funeral hearse with his effigy on a bed of state was displayed at Hatton House.

Stewart was buried in Westminster Abbey, in the Richmond Vault in the Henry VII Chapel (that king formerly having been Earl of Richmond) above which is his domed black marble monument by Hubert Le Sueur with gilt-bronze recumbent effigies of himself and his wife. The Latin inscription may be translated as follows:Here lies the body of the most illustrious and most excellent prince, Ludovic, son of Esme Stuart, Duke of Lennox, grandson of John, nephew (sic, 2nd cousin) to the serene Prince King James I, Duke of Richmond and Lennox, Earl of Newcastle upon Tyne and Darnley, Chamberlain and Hereditary Admiral of Scotland, Lord High Steward of the Household, first Gentleman of the Bedchamber and Privy Counsellor to his sacred Majesty King James, Knight of the Garter, Ambassador from Scotland to France; a prince born to every thing that was great and good, but gone to far better. He lived 49 years, 4 months and 17 days. The most illustrious and most excellent princess Frances Duchess of Richmond and Lennox, daughter of Thomas Lord Howard of Bindon, son to the Duke of Norfolk by Elizabeth daughter of Edward, Duke of Buckingham, wife of Ludovic Stuart, Duke of Richmond and Lennox, who, ever mindful of this her dearest lord, hath to him who so well deserved it, and to herself, erected this monument. She died the 8th of October A.D. 1639''.

The Latin of the Biblical quotation (2. Samuel 3, 38: "Know ye not that a prince and a great man is this day dead") contains a chronogram forming the Roman numerals of 1623 (old style, 1624 new style), the year of his death.

Titles
On 6 October 1613 he was created Baron of Settrington (of Yorkshire) and Earl of Richmond (of Yorkshire), and on 17 May 1623 Earl of Newcastle-Upon-Tyne and Duke of Richmond.

On his death the title of Duke of Richmond became extinct, but the paternal Scottish title of Duke of Lennox passed to his younger brother, Esmé Stewart, 3rd Duke of Lennox (1579-1624).

See also
Earl of Newcastle
Plymouth Council for New England

References

1574 births
1624 deaths
Burials at Westminster Abbey
102
101
Peers of England created by James I
Ludovic Stewart, 2nd Duke of Lennox
Lords High Commissioner to the Parliament of Scotland
Lord High Chamberlains of Scotland
Lord-Lieutenants of Kent
Priors of St Andrews
Members of the Parliament of Scotland 1617
16th-century Scottish peers
17th-century Scottish peers
17th-century English diplomats

Ludovic Stewart, 2nd Duke of Lennox


Sugar Camp is a town in Oneida County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was 1,694 at the 2010 census. The unincorporated community of Sugar Camp is located in the town

History
Sugar Camp was known as 'Robbins' until the 1940s.

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, and other sources, the town has a total area of 98.0 square miles (253.9 km2), of which, 88.9 square miles (230.2 km2) of it is land and 9.1 square miles (23.7 km2) of it (9.33%) is water.

Education
The community is served by Sugar Camp Elementary School, which is part of the Three Lakes School District.

Demographics
As of the census of 2010, there were 1,694 people, and 729 households residing in the town. The population density was 17.2 people per square mile (6.7/km2). There were 1,579 housing units at an average density of 16.1 per square mile (6.2/km2). The racial makeup of the town was 97.9% White, 0.3% Native American, 0.1% Asian, 0.2% Black and 0.6% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.9% of the population.

There were 729 households, out of which 23.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 66.1% were married couples living together, 6.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 23.9% were non-families. 18.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.52 and the average family size was 2.87.

In the town, the population was spread out, with 19.7% under the age of 18, 5.1% from 18 to 24, 26.1% from 25 to 44, 28.5% from 45 to 64, and 16.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 42 years. For every 100 females, there were 101.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 103.3 males.

The median income for a household in the town was $37,118, and the median income for a family was $44,635. Males had a median income of $35,156 versus $24,405 for females. The per capita income for the town was $18,135. About 4.0% of families and 4.3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 3.8% of those under age 18 and 4.8% of those age 65 or over.

Transportation
The Rhinelander-Oneida County Airport (KRHI) serves Sugar Camp, the county and surrounding communities with both scheduled commercial jet service and general aviation services.

References

External links
Town of Sugar Camp, Wisconsin website
Sugar Camp Community website

Towns in Oneida County, Wisconsin
Towns in Wisconsin

Sugar Camp, Wisconsin


Otto Wallach (; 27 March 1847 – 26 February 1931) was a German chemist and recipient of the 1910 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work on alicyclic compounds.

Biography
Wallach was born in Königsberg, the son of a Prussian civil servant. His father, Gerhard Wallach, descended from a Jewish family that had converted to Lutheranism. His mother, Otillie (Thoma), was an ethnic German of Protestant religion. Wallach's father was transferred to Stettin (Szczecin) and later to Potsdam. Otto Wallach went to school, a Gymnasium, in Potsdam, where he learned about literature and the history of art, two subjects he was interested his whole life. At this time he also started private chemical experiments at the house of his parents.

In 1867 he started studying chemistry at the University of Göttingen, where at this time Friedrich Wöhler was head of organic chemistry. After one semester at the University of Berlin with August Wilhelm von Hofmann, Wallach received his Doctoral degree from the University of Göttingen in 1869, and worked as a professor in the University of Bonn (1870–89) and the University of Göttingen (1889–1915). Two of his doctoral students were Adolf Sieverts and Walter Haworth. Wallach died at Göttingen. In 1912, he was awarded the Davy Medal.

He died on February 26, 1931, and was buried in the Göttingen.

Major works
During his work with Friedrich Kekulé in Bonn he started a systematic analysis of the terpenes present in essential oils. Up to this time only a few had been isolated in pure form, and structural information was sparse. Melting point comparison and the measurement of mixtures was one of the methods to confirm identical substances. For this method the mostly liquid terpenes had to be transformed into crystalline compounds. With stepwise derivatisation, especially additions to the double bond present in some of the terpenes, he achieved the goal of obtaining crystalline compounds. The investigation of the rearrangement reactions of cyclic unsaturated terpenes made it possible to obtain the structure of an unknown terpene by following the rearrangement to a known structure of a terpene. With these principal methods he opened the path to systematic research on terpenes.

He was responsible for naming terpene and pinene, and for undertaking the first systematic study of pinene.

He wrote a book about the chemistry of terpenes, "Terpene und Campher" (1909).

Otto Wallach is known for Wallach's rule, Wallach degradation, the Leuckart-Wallach reaction (which he developed along with Rudolf Leuckart) and the Wallach rearrangement.

Works
 Tabellen zur chemischen Analyse. Weber, Bonn 1880. Digital edition of the University and State Library Düsseldorf.
 1. Verhalten der Elemente und ihrer Verbindungen. 1880
 2. Methoden zur Auffindung und Trennung der Elemente. 2. Aufl. von "Hülfstabellen für den chemisch-analytischen Unterricht" 1880
 Terpene und Campher : Zusammenfassung eigener Untersuchungen auf dem Gebiet der alicyclischen Kohlenstoffverbindungen. 2. Aufl. Leipzig : von Veit, 1914. Digital edition of the University and State Library Düsseldorf.

See also

 List of Jewish Nobel laureates

References

External links

  including the Nobel Lecture, December 12, 1910 Alicyclic Compounds

1847 births
1931 deaths
Scientists from Königsberg
Scientists from the Province of Prussia
19th-century German chemists
20th-century German chemists
University of Göttingen alumni
Humboldt University of Berlin alumni
Academic staff of the University of Göttingen
Academic staff of the University of Bonn
Nobel laureates in Chemistry
German Nobel laureates

Otto Wallach


Dennis L. Smith is an American television director, cinematographer and camera operator.

Smith began his career as a news photojournalists for ABC winning United Press InternatIonal and Associated Press "Best Newsfilm of the Year" awards for his Documentaries. He also contributed to winning two George Foster Peabody's from the University of Georgia.

As a camera operator he worked on the films Stir Crazy (1980), Revenge of the Nerds (1984), License to Drive (1988) and Home Alone and Home Alone 2: Lost in New York (1990). He continued his career as a cinematographer/director of photography on the David E. Kelley series Picket Fences (in which he made his directorial debut) and The Practice.

Some of Smith's other directing credits include episodes of: Boston Legal, JAG, Numb3rs, The Vampire Diaries, Fringe, NCIS, NCIS: Los Angeles and NCIS: New Orleans.

Televisionography
 Picket Fences (1996)
 The Practice (1998)
 JAG (2002)
 NCIS (2003)
 Dr. Vegas (2004)
 Boston Legal (2004)
 Numbers (2005)
 Just Legal (2006)
 Moonlight (2007)
 Fringe (2009)
 The Vampire Diaries (2010)
 Royal Pains (2010)
 90210 (2010)
 NCIS: Los Angeles (2010)
 Person of Interest (2011)
 King & Maxwell (2013)
 NCIS: New Orleans (2014)
 Victims of Silence (2016)
 Station 19 (2018)

References

External links

American cinematographers
American television directors
Living people
Place of birth missing (living people)
Year of birth missing (living people)

Dennis Smith (director)


The Louisville Assembly Plant is an automobile manufacturing plant owned by Ford Motor Company in Louisville, Kentucky. The  plant on 180 acres opened in 1955 and currently employs a total of 4,554 people. It is located adjacent to the Louisville International Airport on the south side of the city. Ford also operates another plant in Louisville, Kentucky Truck Assembly. The plant houses approximately  of conveyor belts.

History
Ford Motor Company began manufacturing Model T cars in Louisville in 1913, at 931 South Third Street. A new four story assembly plant at Third & Eastern Parkway opened in 1916. In 1925 Ford moved production to a new, one level assembly plant on Southwestern Parkway, on the Ohio River. The current plant on Fern Valley Road opened in 1955. Most Edsel automobiles (around 67%) were produced here in 1957–1959. Other models produced included Sunliners, Fairlanes & Galaxies. Louisville Assembly also produced heavy trucks as well as full-size cars on a separate assembly line. Heavy truck production ceased when the Kentucky Truck Plant opened on Chamberlain Lane in 1969. The factory continued with passenger car production that was augmented in 1973 with the addition of F-Series light trucks. F-Series/LTD passenger car production continued until 1981 when the plant was shut down for retooling for the new compact pickup, the Ranger, and its SUV cousin, the Bronco II. Production began in January 1982. Ford produced its two millionth Ranger/Bronco II at the plant on April 26, 1988. On February 14, 1990, Ford began producing the Explorer SUV in Louisville after investing $563 million at the plant. It produced one million Explorers as of August 27, 1993. Production of the similar Mercury Mountaineer began in April 1996, and Ranger production gave way in April 1999 to the Ford Explorer Sport Trac.

Production of the Explorer and Mountaineer ended in December 2010. The Explorer moved to Ford's Chicago Assembly plant, and the Mountaineer was discontinued with the demise of the Mercury brand. On April 4, 2012, Louisville Assembly began producing the Ford Escape, which was previously housed at Kansas City Assembly, and on August 25, 2014, the Lincoln MKC.  In 2019, production of the new Lincoln Corsair (MKC replacement) began.

Products made

Current (model years)
Ford Escape (2013–Present)
Lincoln Corsair (2020–Present)

Past (model years)
Ford LTD (1967-1981)
Ford F-Series (1973-1982)
Ford Ranger (1983-1999)
Ford Bronco II (1984-1990)
Ford Explorer (1991-2010)
Mazda Navajo (1991-1994)
Mercury Mountaineer (1997-2010)
Ford Explorer Sport Trac (2001-2010)
Lincoln MKC (2015–2019)

See also
 List of major employers in Louisville, Kentucky

References

Ford factories
Motor vehicle assembly plants in Kentucky
Economy of Louisville, Kentucky
Buildings and structures in Louisville, Kentucky

Louisville Assembly Plant


In object-oriented programming, in languages such as C++, and Object Pascal, a virtual function or virtual method is an inheritable and overridable function or method for which dynamic dispatch is facilitated. This concept is an important part of the (runtime) polymorphism portion of object-oriented programming (OOP). In short, a virtual function defines a target function to be executed, but the target might not be known at compile time.

Most programming languages, such as JavaScript, PHP and Python, treat all methods as virtual by default and do not provide a modifier to change this behavior. However, some languages provide modifiers to prevent methods from being overridden by derived classes (such as the final and private keywords in Java and PHP).

Purpose

The need of the virtual function or abstract method can be understood as follows:

A class is a user-defined data type. It is used to model an identified Entity in the problem domain. The information required of an entity becomes fields or data members of the class, The actions required of the entity becomes member functions or methods of the class. However, in some situations, It is not possible to provide definition to one or more methods of the class. Let us understand the concept in the following scenario.

The identified Entity is Two-dimensional figure. It has two dimensions. Its area is required to be computed. Triangle, Rectangle, Square, Circle etc. are all two-dimensional figures. However the formula to compute area is different for each of the figures.

In C++, the abstract function is defined as a Pure Virtual Function. A class is a abstract class in C++ if it at least has one pure virtual function. Now in C++, the two-dimensional figure class is implemented as follows:class TwoDFigure {
  protected:
    int d1;
    int d2;

  public:
    TwoDFigure(int d1, int d2) {
      this->d1 = d1;
      this->d2 = d2;
    }
  // Pure Virtual Function
  // abstract function as no definition
  virtual void computeArea() = 0;
};The object or an instance of abstract class cannot be created. In other words, it cannot be instantiated. It makes Inheritance and Overriding compulsory.

The concept of the virtual function solves the following problem:

In object-oriented programming, when a derived class inherits from a base class, an object of the derived class may be referred to via a pointer or reference of the base class type instead of the derived class type. If there are base class methods overridden by the derived class, the method actually called by such a reference or pointer can be bound (linked) either 'early' (by the compiler), according to the declared type of the pointer or reference, or 'late' (i.e., by the runtime system of the language), according to the actual type of the object is referred to.

Virtual functions are resolved 'late'. If the function in question is 'virtual' in the base class, the most-derived class's implementation of the function is called according to the actual type of the object referred to, regardless of the declared type of the pointer or reference. If it is not 'virtual', the method is resolved 'early' and selected according to the declared type of the pointer or reference.

Virtual functions allow a program to call methods that don't necessarily even exist at the moment the code is compiled.

In C++, virtual methods are declared by prepending the  keyword to the function's declaration in the base class. This modifier is inherited by all implementations of that method in derived classes, meaning that they can continue to over-ride each other and be late-bound. And even if methods owned by the base class call the virtual method, they will instead be calling the derived method. Overloading occurs when two or more methods in one class have the same method name but different parameters. Overriding means having two methods with the same method name and parameters. Overloading is also referred to as function matching, and overriding as dynamic function mapping.

Example

C++

For example, a base class Animal could have a virtual function Eat. Subclass Llama would implement Eat differently than subclass Wolf, but one can invoke Eat on any class instance referred to as Animal, and get the Eat behavior of the specific subclass.

class Animal {
 public:
  // Intentionally not virtual:
  void Move() {
    std::cout << "This animal moves in some way" << std::endl;
  }
  virtual void Eat() = 0;
};

// The class "Animal" may possess a definition for Eat if desired.
class Llama : public Animal {
 public:
  // The non virtual function Move is inherited but not overridden.
  void Eat() override {
    std::cout << "Llamas eat grass!" << std::endl;
  }
};

This allows a programmer to process a list of objects of class Animal, telling each in turn to eat (by calling Eat), without needing to know what kind of animal may be in the list, how each animal eats, or what the complete set of possible animal types might be.

In C, the mechanism behind virtual functions could be provided in the following manner:
#include <stdio.h>

/* an object points to its class... */
struct Animal {
    const struct AnimalClass * class;
};

/* which contains the virtual function Animal.Eat */
struct AnimalClass {
    void (*Eat)(struct Animal *); // 'virtual' function
};

/* Since Animal.Move is not a virtual function
   it is not in the structure above. */
void Move(struct Animal * self)
{
    printf("<Animal at %p> moved in some way\n", (void *) self);
}

/* unlike Move, which executes Animal.Move directly,
   Eat cannot know which function (if any) to call at compile time.
   Animal.Eat can only be resolved at run time when Eat is called. */
void Eat(struct Animal * self)
{
    const struct AnimalClass * class = *(const void **) self;
    if (class->Eat)
        class->Eat(self); // execute Animal.Eat
    else
        fprintf(stderr, "Eat not implemented\n");
}

/* implementation of Llama.Eat this is the target function
   to be called by 'void Eat(struct Animal *).' */
static void _Llama_eat(struct Animal * self)
{
    printf("<Llama at %p> Llama's eat grass!\n", (void *) self);
}

/* initialize class */
const struct AnimalClass Animal = {(void *) 0}; // base class does not implement Animal.Eat
const struct AnimalClass Llama = {_Llama_eat};  // but the derived class does

int main(void)
{
   /* init objects as instance of its class */
   struct Animal animal = {& Animal};
   struct Animal llama = {& Llama};
   Move(& animal); // Animal.Move
   Move(& llama);  // Llama.Move
   Eat(& animal);  // cannot resolve Animal.Eat so print "Not Implemented" to stderr
   Eat(& llama);   // resolves Llama.Eat and executes
}

Abstract classes and pure virtual functions
A pure virtual function or pure virtual method is a virtual function that is required to be implemented by a derived class if the derived class is not abstract. Classes containing pure virtual methods are termed "abstract" and they cannot be instantiated directly.  A subclass of an abstract class can only be instantiated directly if all inherited pure virtual methods have been implemented by that class or a parent class. Pure virtual methods typically have a declaration (signature) and no definition (implementation).

As an example, an abstract base class MathSymbol may provide a pure virtual function doOperation(), and derived classes Plus and Minus implement doOperation() to provide concrete implementations. Implementing doOperation() would not make sense in the MathSymbol class, as MathSymbol is an abstract concept whose behaviour is defined solely for each given kind (subclass) of MathSymbol. Similarly, a given subclass of MathSymbol would not be complete without an implementation of
doOperation().

Although pure virtual methods typically have no implementation in the class that declares them, pure virtual methods in some languages (e.g. C++ and Python) are permitted to contain an implementation in their declaring class, providing fallback or default behaviour that a derived class can delegate to, if appropriate.

Pure virtual functions can also be used where the method declarations are being used to define an interface - similar to what the interface keyword in Java explicitly specifies. In such a use, derived classes will supply all implementations. In such a design pattern, the abstract class which serves as an interface will contain only pure virtual functions, but no data members or ordinary methods. In C++, using such purely abstract classes as interfaces works because C++ supports multiple inheritance. However, because many OOP languages do not support multiple inheritance, they often provide a separate interface mechanism. An example is the Java programming language.

Behavior during construction and destruction
Languages differ in their behavior while the constructor or destructor of an object is running. For this reason, calling virtual functions in constructors is generally discouraged.

In C++, the "base" function is called. Specifically, the most derived function that is not more derived than the current constructor or destructor's class is called. If that function is a pure virtual function, then undefined behavior occurs. This is true even if the class contains an implementation for that pure virtual function, since a call to a pure virtual function must be explicitly qualified. A conforming C++ implementation is not required (and generally not able) to detect indirect calls to pure virtual functions at compile time or link time. Some runtime systems will issue a pure virtual function call error when encountering a call to a pure virtual function at run time.

In Java and C#, the derived implementation is called, but some fields are not yet initialized by the derived constructor (although they are initialized to their default zero values). Some design patterns, such as the Abstract Factory Pattern, actively promote this usage in languages supporting this ability.

Virtual destructors
Object-oriented languages typically manage memory allocation and de-allocation automatically when objects are created and destroyed. However, some object-oriented languages allow a custom destructor method to be implemented, if desired. If the language in question uses automatic memory management, the custom destructor (generally called a finalizer in this context) that is called is certain to be the appropriate one for the object in question. For example, if an object of type Wolf that inherits Animal is created, and both have custom destructors, the one called will be the one declared in Wolf.

In manual memory management contexts, the situation can be more complex, particularly in relation to static dispatch. If an object of type Wolf is created but pointed to by an Animal pointer, and it is this Animal pointer type that is deleted, the destructor called may actually be the one defined for Animal and not the one for Wolf, unless the destructor is virtual. This is particularly the case with C++, where the behavior is a common source of programming errors if destructors are not virtual.

See also
 Abstract method
 Inheritance (object-oriented programming)
 Superclass (computer science)
 Virtual inheritance
 Virtual class
 Interface (object oriented programming)
 Component object model
 Virtual method table

References

C++
Articles with example C++ code
Method (computer programming)
Object-oriented programming

sv:Funktion (programmering)#Virtuell funktion

Virtual function


Raymond Douglas Bare (April 15, 1949 – March 29, 1994) was a right-handed professional baseball pitcher. He played all or part of five seasons in Major League Baseball with the St. Louis Cardinals (1972, 1974) and Detroit Tigers (1975–77).

Amateur career
Born in Miami, Florida, Bare was drafted four times before finally signing. In June 1967, he was drafted out of Southwest Miami High School by the Washington Senators in the 14th round of the amateur draft, but did not sign. In January 1968, and again in June 1968, he was drafted by the Cleveland Indians, but did not sign either time. He finally signed with the Cardinals after being drafted in February 1969.

Professional career

Early years with St. Louis
In 1972, Bare appeared in 14 games as a relief pitcher for the Cardinals, allowing only one earned run for a minuscule 0.54 ERA. Bare spent most of the 1973 and 1974 seasons with the Tulsa Oilers of the American Association. In 1974, Bare went 12–4 for the Oilers with a league-best 2.34 ERA. He was then called up to the Cardinals and had a 1–2 record (5.92 ERA) for the 1974 Cardinals.

With the Tigers

1975 season
On April 4, 1975, Bare was selected off waivers by the Detroit Tigers. Bare was put into the starting rotation for the pitching-starved 1975 Detroit Tigers – a team that lost 102 games. Bare had an 8–13 record and a 4.48 ERA in 150 innings for the Tigers in 1975. On May 1, Bare got his first decision in a 17–3 loss to the Milwaukee Brewers; Bare gave five earned runs in just two innings, allowing two triples and two doubles (by Hank Aaron and Robin Yount). The following week, Bare got his first win for Detroit, a 6–4 decision against the same Brewers team.

On June 4, pitched a strong game against the Angels, giving up only six hits and two earned runs, but taking the loss as the Tigers scored only once. On June 19, Bare lost, 9–2, to Catfish Hunter and the Yankees, as Bare gave up 13 hits and six earned runs in 6 innings. Bare took a tough loss on June 29, as he allowed only four hits and two earned runs in 7 innings, but the Orioles won, 2–1. On August 16, Bare pitched his best game of the season, a two-hit complete game shutout against the Angels, with the Tigers scoring eight runs to back him up. This game also ended a 19-game losing streak for the Tigers.

1976 season
Bare returned to the Tigers starting lineup in 1976 with a 7–8 record and 3.70 ERA in 134 innings. On April 18, Bare got a win in his first start of the season, a 6–2 decision over the Angels. In his next start, Bare gave up six runs in 6 innings on April 23, then was crushed by the White Sox, 8–4, on April 30, giving up five earned runs in four innings. Then, after two poor starts, Bare pitched the best game of his career on May 7, a complete game one-hit shutout against the Chicago White Sox. The White Sox only hit off Bare was a single by Ralph Garr in the fourth inning. Continuing his inconsistent pitching, Bare did not make it out of the first inning in his next start, giving up four runs, including a home run by Graig Nettles in  of an inning. On May 21, Bare failed to make it out of the first inning yet again, giving up three hits, two walks, and six runs (including a Doug DeCinces home run) in  of an inning against the Orioles. Five days later, Bare held the same Orioles squad to two earned runs and got the win in a 6–2 Tigers victory. Bare had a strong outing against the White Sox on July 22, 1976, as the Tigers won 5–1, and Bare allowed only five hits and one run in 7 innings.

Bare got his final major league win on September 10, 1976, at Fenway Park.  He shut out the Red Sox in a rain-shortened five-inning game, as the Tigers won, 1–0. Ben Oglivie hit a home run to win it for Bare and the Tigers.

1977 season
In 1977, Bare's ERA ballooned to 12.56 in 14 innings. On April 9, in the second game of the Tigers season, Bare gave up five runs in two innings against the Royals, as the Royals went on to beat the Tigers, 16–2. On April 14, Bare pitched well, giving up only one earned run in seven innings, but the Tigers lost the game as John Hiller gave up three runs in relief of Bare. In his third start of the season on April 19, Bare was blasted, allowing five earned runs in only 1 innings against the Red Sox. Bare got his final Major League start on April 27, allowing six earned runs in four innings against the White Sox.

On May 3, Bare gave up three earned runs pitching in relief against the Rangers without retiring a single batter. With that, the Tigers had enough, and Bare was sent down to the minor leagues, and finished the season with the Triple-A Evansville Triplets.

With the Orioles
The Tigers let Bare go after the season, and he was signed by the Baltimore Orioles. He pitched for their top farm club, the Rochester Red Wings, in 1978, compiling a record of 7–13 with a 4.05 ERA in what proved to be his last professional season.

Death
Bare died of leukemia at age 44 in Miami, Florida, on March 29, 1994.

References

External links

Major League Baseball pitchers
Detroit Tigers players
St. Louis Cardinals players
St. Petersburg Cardinals players
Arkansas Travelers players
Miami Dade Sharks baseball players
Tulsa Oilers (baseball) players
Evansville Triplets players
Rochester Red Wings players
Baseball players from Miami
Deaths from leukemia
Deaths from cancer in Florida
1949 births
1994 deaths
Southwest Miami Senior High School alumni

Ray Bare


Community economic development (CED) is a field of study that actively elicits community involvement when working with government, and private sectors to build strong communities, industries, and markets. It includes collaborative and participatory involvement of community dwellers in every area of development that affects their standard of living.

Community economic development encourages using local resources in a way that enhances economic opportunities while improving social conditions in a sustainable way. It equally facilitates the effective exploration and utilization of local resources for optimal community advantages. Often CED initiatives are implemented to overcome crises, and increase opportunities for communities who are disadvantaged. An aspect of "localizing economics," CED is a community-centered process that blends social and economic development to foster the economic, social, ecological and cultural well-being of communities. For example, neighborhood business organizations target growth in specific commercial areas by lobbying government authorities for special tax rates and real estate developments.

Community economic development is an alternative to conventional economic development. Its central tenet is that: "... problems facing communities—unemployment, poverty, job loss, environmental degradation and loss of community control—need to be addressed in a holistic and participatory way."

History
Economic development has existed even at a basic level since the earliest recorded communities. However, in the US and several other countries, the concept of Community economic development emerged "in response to tenacious poverty and the need for affordable housing, good jobs, affordable health care and quality of life matters needed for human existence."

CED in the US
In the late 19th century reformers discovered less than desirable areas of the country where communities were overcrowded, unhealthy, poor and centered near factories, docks and various other places of employment. In the early twentieth century during the Progressive Era reformers began making connections between the condition of communities and "social ills" such as crime and poverty and ways to improve upon them. The Progressive agenda of political, social, and physical reform swept the nation and led to comprehensive antipoverty strategies, embodied by New Deal programs and other grants in the 1930s. Policies during this time were top-down and citizens being affected had very little input to the changes being made. Once communities began to be revitalized, segregation policy followed to determine who was allowed to live where. Housing policy and real estate practices stifled upward mobility for non-whites and their communities developed with unique characteristics and problems as a result. These actions shaped communities until the 1960s, when President LBJ signed into law many anti-discriminatory laws such as the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and also declared a war on poverty which brought renewal and upward mobility for many people. More loan programs, grants and fair housing policies were implemented throughout the 60's and 70's but still failed to be non-discriminatory on the basis of race in some cases thus shaping communities in a particular fashion. Social investment gained momentum once again in the 80's and 90's bringing change to communities across America. Municipal governments become more representative of the communities they serve and the public is more involved and can interact with bureaucracies and elected officials with greater ease. Many initiatives existed at this time to renew inner cities and rural areas while also tackling social issues such as eradicating drugs and improving education. The modern day CED movement is focused on renewing urban and rural communities. Social justice is a key component to policy and conversation about changes to be made. Citizens are engaged with bureaucracies and their elected officials through a variety of mediums such as social media. Input from the people has gained more value due to increased demands for transparency.

CED around the world
In Nigeria CED is approached with a central focus on sustainability referred to as Sustainable Community Development. This concept combines economic, social and environmental practices and policies that promote sustainability for future generations. Much of this began in the 1980s, 2 decades after gaining independence, when the World Bank declared Nigeria eligible to receive funds from the International Development Association (IDA).

In Asia for the last 60 years the Asian Foundation has supported Asian initiatives to foster inclusive economic growth and broaden economic opportunities. The Foundation designs and implements economic programs in three core areas business environments for private sector growth, Entrepreneurship Development and Regional Economic Cooperation.

Economic development is not just limited to developing countries. Canada's provincial governments have been encouraging and funding municipal economic development efforts for decades.

Theories and strategies
The most significant aspect of community economic development, aside from the fact that it focuses on economic development in specific localities, is that focuses on the process of community building.  This "community" aspect of CED assumes that the community will play a dynamic role in economic development processes and that community development will contribute to sustained economic development and vice versa.  In this understanding, the community is considered both as an input and output in this CED equation.

Looking at CED from an economic viewpoint, the initial purpose of such an approach is the creation of local jobs and the stimulation of business activity.  Integrally linked to these purposes are strategies to increase access to capital, stimulate asset building, improve the general business climate, and link citywide economic development efforts to specific community development efforts.

Increasing access to capital is an extremely important strategy for community economic development.  Historically, residents in poor neighborhoods have experienced great difficulty finding access to capital because they are traditionally viewed as credit risks.  In places where banks do offer services, these residents face other structural barriers such as minimum deposit requirements, high service fees, and complex paperwork.  To solve these problems, a community economic development approach would develop alternate neighborhood community development financial institutions such as community development credit unions, community development banks, and community development venture capital funds.

Improving the general business climate is also integral to community economic development.  Strategies to do so would include improving the infrastructure and physical appearance of commercial areas, the quality of quantity of residential housing, and the transportation systems in a neighborhood.  While these may not directly effect economic activities, they serve to strengthen the economic well being of an area because it encourages businesses to locate there.

Objectives and goals
Community economic development exists in all developed countries but varies in the way it functions with the different systems of governments around the world. Research makes it apparent that there are common goals and objectives such as economic activities and programs that develop low-income communities. Community Development Corporations, reformers and other agencies have other common initiatives including services to fight homelessness, lack of jobs, drug abuse, violence and crime as well as quality medical and childcare and home ownership opportunities while also bringing economic prosperity. Another increasingly common objective is to preserve the character of communities and strong support for local business.

Countries across the globe participate in reinvestment and development through a bank such as the Community Reinvestment Act, World Bank and the IDA amongst many others. Another commonality for nations international is need to incorporate sustainability and the natural environment into the growth of societies.

Implementation
Several Communities across the United States have successfully crafted policy to create groups and corporations to assist in multiple facets of the communities economy and welfare. The following organizations are examples of Community Economic Development Initiatives.
  CPLC Southwest Inc Phoenix AZ
 Nogales Community Development Corporation Nogales AZ
 Enterprise + Economic Development Center, Inc. Fresno CA
 Valley Economic Development Center Van Nuys Ca
 Cornerstone West Community Development Corporation Wilmington DE
 Insight Development Corporation Indianapolis IN
 Kentucky Highlands Investment Corporation London KY
 The Good Work Network New Orleans LA
 EBCDC INC. East Boston MA
 Coastal Enterprises, Inc. (CEI) Brunswick ME
 Wayne State Univ. Research and Tech. Park in the City of Detroit Detroit MI
 Asian Economic Development Association Saint Paul MN
 Aurora-St. Anthony Neighborhood Development Corporation Saint Paul MN
 Hmong American Partnership Saint Paul MN
 Montana Community Development Corporation Missoula MT
 UDI Community Development Corporation Durham NC
 Intersect Fund Corporation New Brunswick NJ
 Capacity Builders, Inc. Farmington NM
 Business Outreach Center Network, Inc. Brooklyn NY
 Neighbors in the Strip, Inc. Pitsburg PA
 Westmoreland Human Opportunities dba West. Community Action Greensburg PA

The Western Australian Government Department of Commerce and Trade had an active Community Economic Development Branch working within Regional Development during the 1990s.  They ran programs in Small Town Economic Planning (STEP) program in which local communities were asked to bring together a cross section of influential groups representative of the community for a one- or two-day community planning event, after which they were given a grant of up to $15,000 for the implementation of initiatives identified, for a considerable number of the state's 158 Local Government Councils. They also ran a Community Auditing initiative and with the Office of the Minister of Agriculture, ran a Community Development Program, training local people in the skills of Community Economic Development.  The reorganisation of the Department in 2002 saw the name changed to Community Capacity Building and the Department itself was reorganised as the Department of Regional Development and Local Government until 2007 after which the Community Capacity Building Branch was disbanded.

In Brazil, the Banco Palmas has established Community Economic Development initiatives through the use and development of a community currency.  The community has prospered and has been widely adopted so that by 2011 there were 43 community banks within the country using the Banco Palmas model.  The Brazilian government has since encouraged the movement and in 2015 there were more than 100 initiatives in various parts of the country.

Obstacles
In the US, Community Economic Development projects are often funded by commercial banks within the structure of the Community Reinvestment Act.  This Act of Congress took effect in November, 1978. It is administered by banks and other financial institutions and has been instrumental in helping the owners of smaller businesses navigate the steps of obtaining loans for development projects.   A bank will operate a separate division within their loan department that focuses its expertise on small business services, as well as training and education.
Because projects brought to CRA bank departments are often from areas of lower economic standing and/or unproven consumer markets, they are a larger risk to lenders.  This heavier risk brings more stringent underwriting guidelines, in addition to often rigid government requirements. Many financial institutions state that these rules are cumbersome and difficult to comply with.

As a career
There are several CED corporations and nonprofits that employ Community Economic Development Officers to implement development plans.

Those involved in implementing a Community Economic Development Plan – not only the development officers, but also public administrators and small business owners – will serve different functions, as plans vary from community to community.  The community economic development officer will create studies to determine what a certain community's goals are and send them to the appropriate municipal offices or economic development committees.  A community economic development officer will assist in implementing a development plan by researching local zoning ordinances and laws, helping community partners acquire financing for economic development, acting as a liaison with various local, state, and federal agencies, making recommendations to the appropriate authorities on community economic development, and serving as an advocate within a community.

Most employers require a bachelor's degree in Economics or Community Development as a minimum.  For better opportunities, pursuing a Master of Public Planning, Urban Planning, Economic Development, or Community Economic Development is recommended. The annual median salary for a Community Economic Development Officer in the United States is $64,028.

See also
 List of community topics
 Community building
 Community development
 Community economic analysis
 Community engagement
 Community Futures
 Community practice
 Community service
 Social economy
 Urban planning

References

External links
 The Canadian CED Network
 Statement of CED Principles
 CED Gateway (index)
 Glen C. Pulver "father of community economics"
 Center for Community and Economic Development
 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services - Community Economic Development

Community development
Economic growth
Economic development

Community economic development