Li Ezi (; 536–588), later Buddhist nun name Changbei (), was an empress dowager of the Xianbei-led Chinese Northern Zhou dynasty. She was the mother of Emperor Xuan.

Background
Li Ezi was born in 536, around the Jiangling region, then ruled by Liang dynasty.  In 554, Northern Zhou's predecessor state Western Wei's general Yu Jin () launched a major attack on Jiangling, then the capital of Liang's Emperor Yuan, capturing it and killing Emperor Yuan.  While Western Wei then declared Emperor Yuan's nephew Xiao Cha Liang's emperor (as Emperor Xuan), to be a vassal of Western Wei, when Yu withdrew, he captured most of the population of Jiangling and the surrounding region back to the Western Wei capital Chang'an as spoils of war.  Western Wei's paramount general Yuwen Tai awarded Li Ezi to his son Yuwen Yong, then the Duke of Fucheng,  to be Yuwen Yong's concubine.  She was seven years older than Yuwen Yong.

Empress dowager
After Yuwen Tai's death in 556, his son Yuwen Jue took the throne from Emperor Gong of Western Wei in 557, ending Western Wei and establishing Northern Zhou as its Emperor Xiaomin.  As the emperor's brother, Yuwen Yong continued to carry the title of duke, although he was promoted to the Duke of Lu by another brother, Emperor Ming, who succeeded Emperor Xiaomin after the powerful regent Yuwen Hu deposed and killed Emperor Xiaomin later in 557.  In 559, Lady Li gave birth to Yuwen Yong's oldest son Yuwen Yun.  (She would later bear him another son, his second son Yuwen Zan (), although the date of Yuwen Zan's birth is not known to history.)

In 560, Emperor Ming was poisoned by Yuwen Hu, and Yuwen Yong became emperor (as Emperor Wu).  He created Yuwen Yun the Duke of Lu.  He did not create Consort Li empress, and immediately began overtures to pursue formal marital relations with Tujue, commencing in marrying the daughter of Tujue's Muqan Qaghan, in 568 as his empress. However, Empress Ashina did not bear a son, and in 572, after Emperor Wu killed Yuwen Hu and personally took power, he created Yuwen Yun crown prince.  In summer 578, Emperor Wu died, and Yuwen Yun became emperor (as Emperor Xuan).  He honored both Empress Ashina and Consort Li as empress dowagers (with Consort Li carrying the secondary title of Di Taihou (), to distinguish her from Empress Ashina's greater title of Huang Taihou ().

Grand empress dowager
In spring 579, the erratic Emperor Xuan formally passed the throne to his young son Yuwen Chan (as Emperor Jing), and he took an atypical title for a retired emperor — "Emperor Tianyuan" (天元皇帝, Tianyuan Huangdi).  He thereafter changed her title several times — to Tianyuan Di Taihou () in spring 579, then Tian Huang Taihou in summer 579, and Tianyuan Sheng Huang Taihou in spring 580.  In summer 580, Emperor Xuan died, and Emperor Jing, then under the control of the regent Yang Jian, honored both Empress Dowager Ashina and her as grand empress dowagers — but with the title Tai Di Taihou () to distinguish her from the greater title of Tai Huang Taihou () that Empress Dowager Ashina carried.

In 581, Yang Jian seized the throne from Emperor Jing, ending Northern Zhou and established the Sui Dynasty (as its Emperor Wen).  Emperor Jing and other members of Northern Zhou's imperial Yuwen clan were soon killed. In March or April 581, Grand Empress Dowager Li became a Buddhist nun, and changed her name to Changbei (literally meaning "frequent sorrow"). She died in 588, and was buried only with ceremony due a Buddhist nun, south of Chang'an.

References

 Book of Zhou, vol. 9.
 History of the Northern Dynasties, vol. 14.
 Zizhi Tongjian, vols. 173, 174.

People from Jingzhou
Liang dynasty Buddhists
Northern Wei Buddhists
Northern Zhou Buddhists
Northern Zhou empresses dowager
Sui dynasty Buddhists
Chinese Buddhist nuns
6th-century Buddhist nuns
536 births
588 deaths

Li Ezi


The Chaplet of Saint Michael the Archangel, also called the Rosary of the Angels, is a chaplet approved by Pope Pius IX in 1851.

Antónia d'Astónaco

Antónia d'Astónaco was a Portuguese Carmelite nun who reported a private revelation by Saint Michael the Archangel in 1750.

Sometime in the 1750s, d'Astónaco said that the Archangel Michael had indicated in an apparition that he would like to be honored, and God glorified, by the praying of nine special invocations. These nine invocations correspond to invocations to the nine choirs of angels and origins the Chaplet of Saint Michael. The prayers were approved by Pope Pius IX in 1851.

Chaplet
The prayers are generally prayed with a chaplet, counting the prayers with it as one would do with a rosary. For those who would recite the Chaplet daily, Saint Michael reportedly promised his continual assistance and that of all the holy angels during life. Praying the chaplet is also believed gradually to defeat demons and gain a pure heart, thus delivering the petitioner from Purgatory. These blessings extend to the direct family.

The chaplet begins with an act of contrition. Then there are nine salutations, one for each choir of angels, each one followed by an Our Father and three Hail Marys. These are followed by four Our Fathers, honoring Saints Michael, Gabriel, Raphael and the Guardian Angel. The chaplet concludes with a prayer to Saint Michael.

 Sign of the Cross (In the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit. Amen.)

 The chaplet begins with the following invitation: O God, come to my assistance. O Lord, make haste to help me. Glory be to the Father, to the Son, and to the Holy Spirit, as it was in the beginning, is now and will be forever, time without end. Amen."

(Say one Our Father and three Hail Marys after each of the following nine salutations in honor of the nine Choirs of Angels)
1. By the intercession of St. Michael and the celestial Choir of Seraphim may the Lord make us worthy to burn with the fire of perfect charity. Amen.(Our Father, Three Hail Marys)

2. By the intercession of St. Michael and the celestial Choir of Cherubim may the Lord grant us the grace to leave the ways of sin and run in the paths of Christian perfection. Amen.(Our Father, Three Hail Marys)

3. By the intercession of St. Michael and the celestial Choir of Thrones may the Lord infuse into our hearts a true and sincere spirit of humility. Amen.(Our Father, Three Hail Marys)

4. By the intercession of St. Michael and the celestial Choir of Dominions may the Lord give us grace to govern our senses and overcome any unruly passions. Amen.(Our Father, Three Hail Marys)

5. By the intercession of St. Michael and the celestial Choir of Virtues may the Lord preserve us from evil and falling into temptation. Amen.(Our Father, Three Hail Marys)

6. By the intercession of St. Michael and the celestial Choir of Powers may the Lord protect our souls against the snares and temptations of the devil. Amen. (Our Father, Three Hail Marys)

7. By the intercession of St. Michael and the celestial Choir of Principalities may God fill our souls with a true spirit of obedience. Amen. (Our Father, Three Hail Marys)

8. By the intercession of St. Michael and the celestial Choir of Archangels may the Lord give us perseverance in faith and in all good works in order that we may attain the glory of Heaven. Amen.(Our Father, Three Hail Marys)

9. By the intercession of St. Michael and the celestial Choir of Angels may the Lord grant us to be protected by them in this mortal life and conducted in the life to come to Heaven. Amen.(Our Father, Three Hail Marys)

(Four Our Fathers. One in honor of each of the following leading Angels: St. Michael, St. Gabriel, St. Raphael and our Guardian Angel.)

O glorious prince St. Michael, chief and commander of the heavenly hosts, guardian of souls, vanquisher of rebel spirits, servant in the house of the Divine King and our admirable guide, you who shine with excellence and superhuman virtue deliver us from all evil, who turn to you with confidence and enable us by your gracious protection to serve God more and more faithfully every day.

Pray for us, O glorious St. Michael, Prince of the Church of Jesus Christ, that we may be made worthy of His promises.

Almighty and Everlasting God, Who, by a prodigy of goodness and a merciful desire for the salvation of all men, has appointed the most glorious Archangel St. Michael Prince of Your Church, make us worthy, we ask You, to be delivered from all our enemies, that none of them may harass us at the hour of death, but that we may be conducted by him into Your Presence. This we ask through the merits of Jesus Christ Our Lord. Amen.

Promises
Saint Michael purportedly promised to those who recite these nine salutations, every day:

 That they will enjoy his continued assistance during this life and also after death, in purgatory.

 They will be accompanied by all the angels and will be, with all their loved ones and relatives freed from Purgatory.

Indulgences

The indulgences granted by Pope Pius IX were superseded by the 1968 Enchiridion Indulgentiarum. Although the chaplet is not specifically mentioned in either the Enchiridion or the later Directory on Popular Piety and the Liturgy, the Enchiridion provides:
 "35. Use of Articles of Devotion. (Verbatim follows:) "The faithful, who devoutly use an article of devotion (crucifix or cross, rosary, scapular or medal) properly blessed by any priest, obtain a partial indulgence..." and
 "54. Veneration of the Saints.  Partial indulgence granted to those who on the feast of any Saint recite in his honor the oration of the Missal or any other approved by legitimate Authority."

See also
 Saint Michael in the Catholic Church
 Scapular of Saint Michael the Archangel
 Novena to Saint Michael

References

External links

 site with the Chaplet
 EWTN Chaplet of Saint Michael Video

Roman Catholic prayers
Michael (archangel)
Carmelite nuns
Angelic visionaries
18th-century Portuguese nuns
Prayer beads
Rosary
Spiritual warfare

Chaplet of Saint Michael


Hegge Stave Church () is a 13th-century stave church in Norway. It is a parish church of the Church of Norway in Øystre Slidre Municipality in Innlandet county. It is located in the village of Hegge. It is the church for the Hegge parish which is part of the Valdres prosti (deanery) in the Diocese of Hamar. The brown, wooden church was built in a long church design around the year 1216 using plans drawn up by an unknown architect. The church seats about 150 people.

History
The earliest existing historical records of the church date back to the year 1322, but the church was not new that year. The church at Hegge is a wooden stave church that was built during the early 13th century. Modern dendrochronological dating of some of the logs in the church indicates that the church was built around the year 1215-1216. It is a basilica type church with 8 free-standing interior columns called staves that form an arcade, surrounding a central area with a raised roof.  A runic inscription on the church reads:  which is translated as Erling Arnason wrote these runes. Externally, the church is fairly similar to the nearby Lomen Stave Church. It is a long church with a rectangular nave with a smaller, narrower choir. There is a tower on the roof of the nave and there were open-air corridors surrounding the church.

After the Protestant Reformation, ridge turrets were raised, which changed the external appearances. After an inspection on 23 January 1665, it is stated that the church was very dilapidated. Soon after this, an extensive restoration and renovation project was carried out. In 1706 and in 1712, some repair work repairs were made on the church. The altarpiece was carved by a local artist in 1780. The choir was expanded in 1807, giving it a rectangular floor plan. In 1844, the nave was extended to the west. Also at that time, open-air corridors on the sides of the church were incorporated into the nave which provided more room for seating. A sacristy was built to the east of the choir in 1864. Major repair was carried out in 1924-1925 to repair rot damage and the settling of the foundation. This project was led by the architect Arnstein Arneberg, who later conducted extensive renovation of the Hamar Cathedral. The church got a new foundation and the rotting parts of the structure were replaced. The church porch was enlarged. Also at this time, new, smaller windows were installed.

Inventory
The 13th-century baptismal font is externally decorated with ornaments of knots, trees, human figures, and stars. A vestment at the church, made of coarse linen dates from 1686, and a painting of Isaac's Sacrifice was presented to the church in 1643.

Media gallery

See also
List of churches in Hamar

References

Further reading

External links
 Hegge Stave Church at Stavkirke.info

Øystre Slidre
Churches in Innlandet
Stave churches in Norway
Long churches in Norway
Wooden churches in Norway
13th-century churches in Norway
13th-century establishments in Norway

Hegge Stave Church


Springfield is a town in St. Croix County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was 808 at the 2000 census. The unincorporated community of Hersey is located in the town.

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 34.4 square miles (89.0 km2), of which, 34.2 square miles (88.7 km2) of it is land and 0.2 square miles (0.4 km2) of it (0.44%) is water.

Demographics

As of the census of 2000, there were 808 people, 285 households, and 220 families residing in the town. The population density was . There were 299 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the town was 95.17% White, 0.12% African American, 0.12% Native American, 2.97% Asian, 0.37% from other races, and 1.24% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.50% of the population.

There were 285 households, out of which 34.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 67.0% were married couples living together, 6.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 22.5% were non-families. 16.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 3.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.84 and the average family size was 3.20.

In the town, the population was spread out, with 27.2% under the age of 18, 8.3% from 18 to 24, 29.2% from 25 to 44, 24.8% from 45 to 64, and 10.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females, there were 109.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 110.8 males.

The median income for a household in the town was $54,886, and the median income for a family was $56,154. Males had a median income of $36,932 versus $22,241 for females. The per capita income for the town was $21,303. About 0.9% of families and 2.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including none of those under age 18 and 3.4% of those age 65 or over.

References

Towns in St. Croix County, Wisconsin
Towns in Wisconsin

Springfield, St. Croix County, Wisconsin


The Wright brothers patent war centers on the patent that the Wright brothers received for their method of airplane flight control. They were two Americans who are widely credited with inventing and building the world's first flyable airplane and making the first controlled, powered, and sustained heavier-than-air human flight on December 17, 1903.

In 1906, the Wrights received a U.S. patent for their method of flight control. In 1909, they sold the patent to the newly-formed Wright Company in return for $100,000 in cash, 40% of the company's stock, and a 10% royalty on all aircraft sold. Investors who contributed $1,000,000 to the company included Cornelius Vanderbilt, Theodore P. Shonts, Allan A. Ryan, and Morton F. Plant. That company that waged the patent war, initially in an attempt to secure a monopoly on U.S. aircraft manufacturing. Unable to do so, it adjusted its legal strategy by suing foreign and domestic aviators and companies, especially another U.S. aviation pioneer, Glenn Curtiss, in an attempt to collect licensing fees.

In 1910, they won their initial lawsuit against Curtiss, when Federal Judge John Hazel ruled:

Of the nine suits brought by them and three against them, the Wright brothers eventually won every case in U.S. courts.
Even after Wilbur Wright had died, and Orville Wright had retired in 1916 (selling the rights to their patent to a successor company, the Wright-Martin Corp.), the patent war continued, and even expanded, as other manufacturers launched lawsuits of their own—creating a growing crisis in the U.S. aviation industry.

Many historians believe the patent war stalled development of the U.S. aviation industry, but others dispute this claim. Perhaps as a consequence, airplane development in the United States fell so far behind Europe that in World War I, American pilots were forced to fly European combat aircraft instead. After the war began, the U.S. Government pressured the aviation industry to form an organization to share patents.

Patent
During their experiments in 1902 the Wrights succeeded in controlling their glider in all three axes of flight: pitch, roll and yaw. Their breakthrough discovery was the simultaneous use of roll control with wing-warping and yaw control with a rear rudder. A forward elevator controlled pitch. In March 1903 they applied for a patent on their method of control. The application, which they wrote themselves, was rejected. In early 1904, they hired Ohio patent attorney Henry Toulmin, and on May 22, 1906, they were granted , for a "Flying Machine".

The patent's importance lies in its claim of a new and useful method of controlling a flying machine, powered or not. The technique of wing-warping is described, but the patent explicitly states that other methods instead of wing-warping including ailerons, which would eventually become the most common method, could be used for adjusting the outer portions of a machine's wings to different angles on the right and left sides to achieve lateral roll control. The concept of lateral control became essential to successful flight and nearly all airplane designs,
with the exception of some types of ultralight aircraft.

Letters that Wilbur Wright wrote to Octave Chanute in January 1910 offer a glimpse into the Wrights' feeling about their proprietary work:

"It is not disputed that every person who is using this system today owes it to us and to us alone. The French aviators freely admit it." In another letter Wilbur said:
"It is our view that morally the world owes its almost universal use of our system of lateral control entirely to us. It is also our opinion that legally it owes it to us."

The broad protection intended by this patent succeeded when the Wrights won patent infringement lawsuits against Glenn Curtiss and other early aviators who used ailerons to emulate lateral control described in the patent and demonstrated by the Wrights in their 1908 public flights. U.S. courts decided that ailerons were also covered by the patent.

Patent war

Soon after the Wright brothers demonstrated their airplane, numerous others involved in similar efforts at the time sought to gain credit for their achievements, whether justified or not. As noted in the New York Times in 1910, "a highly significant fact that, until the Wright brothers succeeded, all attempts with heavier-than-air machines were dismal failures, but since they showed that the thing could be done everybody seems to be able to do it." This competition quickly devolved into a patent war including 12 major lawsuits, extensive media coverage and a secret effort by Glenn Curtiss and the Smithsonian Institution to discredit the Wright brothers.

In 1908, the Wrights warned Glenn Curtiss not to infringe their patent by profiting from flying or selling aircraft that used ailerons. Curtiss refused to pay license fees to the Wrights and sold an airplane to the Aeronautic Society of New York in 1909. The Wrights filed a lawsuit, beginning a years-long legal conflict.

They also sued foreign aviators who flew at U.S. exhibitions, including the leading French aviator Louis Paulhan.  The Curtiss people derisively suggested that if someone jumped in the air and waved his arms, the Wrights would sue.

European companies, which owned foreign patents the Wrights obtained and licensed to them, sued manufacturers in their countries. The European lawsuits were only partly successful. Despite a pro-Wright ruling in France, legal maneuvering dragged on until the patent expired in 1917. A German court ruled the patent not valid due to prior disclosure in speeches by Wilbur Wright in 1901 and Octave Chanute in 1903.

In the U.S. the Wrights made an agreement with the Aero Club of America to license airshows which the Club approved, freeing participating pilots from a legal threat. Promoters of approved shows paid fees to the Wrights.

The Wright brothers won their initial case against Curtiss in February 1913, but the decision was appealed.
The brothers wrote to Samuel F Cody in the UK, making a claim that he had infringed their patents but Cody stated that he had used wing-warping on his man-carrying kites before their flights.

The Wrights' preoccupation with the legal issue hindered their development of new aircraft designs, and by 1910 Wright aircraft were inferior to those made by other firms in Europe. Aviation development in the U.S. was suppressed to such an extent that, when the country entered World War I, no acceptable American-designed aircraft were available, and U.S. forces were compelled to use French airplanes.

This claim has been disputed by researchers Katznelson and Howells, who assert that before World War I "aircraft manufacturers faced no patent barriers." Contemporary and respected observers also supported the Wright brothers. In April 1910 the Christian Science Monitor wrote, "The insistence of Professor Bell upon his rights did not retard the growth in the use of the telephone. Thomas Edison's numerous suits for protection of his inventions have not kept any of them out of the market".

In January 1914, a U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals upheld the verdict in favor of the Wrights against the Curtiss company, which continued to avoid penalties through legal tactics.

In light of these setbacks and to discredit the Wright brothers, Glenn Curtiss in 1914 helped the head of the Smithsonian, Charles Doolittle Walcott, secretly make major modifications to a failed aeroplane built in 1903 by Professor Samuel Langley to make it appear able to fly. After the flight demonstrations, Walcott ordered the Langley machine be restored to its 1903 condition to cover up the deception before it was put on display. It took until 1928 for the Smithsonian Board of Regents to pass a resolution acknowledging that the Wright brothers deserved the credit for "the first successful flight with a power-propelled heavier-than-air machine carrying a man."

Beginning in 2011, Russell Klingaman—a prominent Wisconsin aviation/patent attorney, aviation law journalist, and instructor in Aviation Law at Marquette University Law School—researched, prepared and delivered a series of lectures, at major aviation events and lawyers' organizations, analyzing and decrying the events and outcomes of the Wright-Curtiss lawsuit, citing numerous examples of error or misconduct by various parties to the suit, including attorneys and the judge. Klingaman found that the judge in the case allowed the Wrights' attorney to make his case in a private ("ex-parte") hearing with the judge, without the opposing side present, and discovered other misconduct which he believes led to a legally inappropriate outcome.

Post-Wright patent battles
Some time after Wilbur Wright's death, Orville Wright retired from their company in 1916, and sold his rights in their critical patent, for over $1,000,000, to the Wright-Martin Corporation—which had merged his company with that of fellow aircraft manufacturing pioneer Glenn L. Martin. Anxious to recoup their investment in the Wright patent, the Wright-Martin firm continued the pursuit of patent-infringement battles, and royalty demands, in battles with other planemakers.

At the same time (and in response, some suggest) Glenn Curtiss and his company did the same with their numerous, and arguably important, aviation patents—driving up the cost of American aircraft.

Lawsuits, and lawsuit threats, frightened many would-be aircraft manufacturers out of the business—just as the growing war in Europe stimulated U.S. military demand for aircraft, in anticipation of eventual U.S. involvement in the war. The U.S. Army and Navy were finding it difficult to get aircraft manufacturers to produce enough to meet the military's demand.

In December 1916, Wright-Martin began demanding that other aircraft manufacturers pay a royalty of five percent on each aircraft sold—and meet an annual minimum royalty payment of $10,000 per manufacturer. They demanded that royalty on all aircraft, regardless of whether they achieved differential lifting by then obsolete wing-warping technique of the Wrights, or by the far more popular ailerons also patented in 1906 by the Wright brothers and used by Curtiss.

Patent pool solution

In 1917, the two major patent holders, the Wright Company and the Curtiss Company, had effectively blocked the building of new airplanes in the United States, which were desperately needed at the onset of World War I. The U.S. government, as a result of a recommendation from the newly established National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, pressured the industry to form a cross-licensing organization (in other terms a patent pool), the Manufacturer's Aircraft Association.

All aircraft manufacturers were required to join the association, and each member was required to pay a comparatively small blanket fee (for the use of aviation patents) for each airplane manufactured; of that the major part would go to the Wright-Martin and Curtiss companies, until their respective patents expired. This arrangement was designed to last only for the duration of the war, but in 1918 the litigation was never renewed. By this time, Wilbur had died (in May 1912) and Orville had sold his interest in the Wright Company to a group of New York financiers (in October 1915) and retired from the business.

Aftermath
The lawsuits damaged the public image of the Wright brothers, who previously had been generally regarded as heroes. Critics said the brothers' actions may have retarded the development of aviation, and compared their actions unfavorably to European inventors, who worked more openly.

The Manufacturers Aircraft Association was an early example of a government-enforced patent pool. It has been used as an example in recent cases, such as dealing with HIV antiretroviral drug patents to give access to otherwise expensive treatments in Africa.

The Curtiss and Wright organisations merged in 1929 to form the Curtiss-Wright Corporation, which exists to this day.

Prior art

There are conflicting claims over who first invented the aileron as a method for lateral flight control. In 1868, before the advent of powered,  heavier-than-air aircraft — and within eleven years distant in time from the birth of all three of the involved parties in the American lawsuit — English inventor Matthew Piers Watt Boulton first patented ailerons. Boulton's patent, No. 392, awarded in 1868 some 40 years before ailerons were 'reinvented', became forgotten until the aileron was in general use. Aviation historian Charles Gibbs-Smith wrote in 1956 that if Boulton's ailerons had been revealed at the time of the Wright brothers' patent filings, the brothers might not have been able to claim priority of invention for lateral control of flying machines. U.S. District Judge John R. Hazel, who heard the Wright lawsuit against Curtiss, found to the contrary, ruling in 1913 that Boulton's "assertions and suggestions were altogether too conjectural to teach others how to reduce them to practice, and therefore his patent is not anticipatory."

American John J. Montgomery invented and experimented with controllable spring-loaded trailing edge "flaps" on his second glider (1885) for roll control. Roll control was later expanded on his third glider (1886) to rotation of the entire wing as a wingeron. Later, Montgomery independently devised a system for wing warping, using model gliders first and then man-carrying machines with wing warping as early as 1903 through 1905 such as those used on The Santa Clara glider (1905). Montgomery patented this system of wing warping at precisely the same time as the Wrights, and was routinely requested during the middle of the Wright brothers patent war to make the Montgomery patent available more broadly to other aviators for the specific purpose of avoiding the Wright brothers' patent.

New Zealander Richard Pearse may have made a powered flight in a monoplane that included small ailerons as early as 1902, but his claims are controversial (and sometimes inconsistent), and, even by his own reports, his aircraft were not well controlled.

Robert Esnault-Pelterie, a Frenchman, built a Wright-style glider in 1904 that used ailerons in lieu of wing-warping. Although Boulton had described and patented ailerons in 1868, no one had actually built them until Esnault-Pelterie's glider, almost 40 years later.

The Santos-Dumont 14-bis canard biplane was modified to add ailerons in late 1906, though it was never fully controllable in flight, likely due to its unconventional surfaces arrangement. The Blériot VIII, the first aircraft to ever use what became the modern joystick and rudder "bar"-based aircraft flight control system, used wingtip ailerons for its roll control in its flights in France in 1908. Henri Farman's single-acting ailerons on the Farman III of April 1909 were the first to resemble ailerons on modern aircraft, and have a reasonable claim as the ancestor of the modern aileron.

In 1908, U.S. inventor, businessman and engine builder Glenn Curtiss flew an aileron-controlled aircraft. Curtiss was a member of the Aerial Experiment Association, headed by Alexander Graham Bell. The Association developed ailerons for their June Bug aircraft, in which Curtiss made the first officially recognized kilometer-plus flight in the U.S. In 1911, the AEA's version of ailerons received a patent.

See also
 Patent troll
 Aileron
 Bleriot VIII, the first aircraft design (1908) to essentially use the complete aircraft flight control system still used today
 Elevator (aeronautics)
 Selden patent and ALAM, major parties of another vehicular technology patent lawsuit of the same time period

References

External links
  — Flying machine — O. & W. Wright

Discovery and invention controversies
Patent war
Aviation history of the United States
Transportation rivalries

Wright brothers patent war


Street newspapers (or street papers) are newspapers or magazines sold by homeless or poor people. They are created mostly to help these people. Most of these types of newspapers have information and news about homelessness and poverty-related issues. They also want to help homeless communities make friends. Street papers want to give these people job opportunities and a voice in their community. Many of these papers are sometimes produced and written by homeless people.

Newspapers

Street newspaper


Charles Jay Sykes (born November 11, 1954) is an American political commentator who is currently editor-in-chief of the website The Bulwark. From 1993 to 2016, Sykes hosted a conservative talk show on WTMJ in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. He was also the editor of Right Wisconsin which was co-owned with WTMJ's then-parent company E. W. Scripps. Sykes is a frequent columnist at MSNBC.

Early life and education
Charles Jay Sykes was born in 1954 in Seattle, Washington, and later grew up in New York and Fox Point, Wisconsin. He is the son of Katherine "Kay" Border and Jay G. Sykes, a lawyer who later worked as a journalist for several small newspapers in New York before settling with the Milwaukee Sentinel in 1962. Jay later became a lecturer in journalism at the University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee, a board member of the American Civil Liberties Union Wisconsin chapter, and ran for Lieutenant Governor of Wisconsin unsuccessfully against Martin J. Schreiber in the 1970 Democratic primary.

After graduating from Nicolet High School, Sykes enrolled at the University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee, where in 1975 he graduated summa cum laude with a bachelor's degree in English. While at Milwaukee, Sykes was a member of the Young Democrats, and following a nonreligious upbringing, Sykes converted to Roman Catholicism at age 18. In 1974, using the slogan "A Different Kind of Democrat" due to his opposition to abortion, Sykes challenged Republican incumbent Jim Sensenbrenner for Wisconsin State Assembly and lost. As Milwaukee Magazine profiled, "his pro-life campaign signaled a growing crack in his liberalism. And as elements within the antiwar movement became violent, he became increasingly disillusioned."

Career

Writing
Sykes began his career as a journalist, starting in 1975 with West Allis, Wisconsin weekly The Northeast Post for a year. In 1976, Sykes joined The Milwaukee Journal, starting with reporting on stories in the North Shore suburbs, before being promoted to the Milwaukee City Hall beat during the administration of Mayor Henry Maier.

After seven years of reporting in the Milwaukee area, Sykes moved to Cleveland in 1982 as a staff writer for Cleveland Magazine, but the magazine went out of business by the end of the year. In 1983 Sykes returned to Milwaukee as managing editor at Milwaukee Magazine and moved up to editor-in-chief in January 1984. Sykes wrote features, investigative articles, and commentary for Milwaukee Magazine.

Sykes is a published author, primarily concerning education. He made his book debut in 1988 with Profscam: Professors and the Demise of Higher Education, inspired by his father's essay published posthumously in the October 1985 Milwaukee Magazine recalling his experience teaching at the University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee.

In addition, Sykes has written commentary for Imprimis, The New York Times, The Wall Street Journal and has edited WI Interest, the magazine of the Badger Institute (formerly the Wisconsin Policy Research Institute) and the website Right Wisconsin.

Since December 2018, Sykes has been editor-in-chief of The Bulwark, on the heels of the folding of The Weekly Standard.

Radio and podcasting
In an era when the national success of Rush Limbaugh was inspiring similar call-in talk radio shows around the U.S., Sykes started hosting talk radio in 1989 as a substitute host for Mark Belling at WISN in Milwaukee. Sykes got his own show on WISN by 1992. Lacking a contract with WISN, Sykes jumped to WTMJ within a year and hosted a morning show there until December 19, 2016.

In 2002, Sykes and fellow WTMJ host Jeff Wagner gained prominence in leading a campaign to recall Milwaukee County Executive Tom Ament, who was embroiled in scandal for changing the county pension policy to give himself and close aides large payouts; Ament controversially retired at the end of February 2002, rather than resign, to retain his pension.

In a 2005 speech, Jay Heck, executive director of the Wisconsin branch of the liberal political advocacy group Common Cause referred to Sykes's influence on local politicians. "The Sykes Republicans from southeastern Wisconsin are worried that he will castigate them by calling them RINOs, 'Republicans in name only.' So (he makes it) very difficult for Republicans to be independent of the party line on any issue."

On July 26, 2005, WTMJ settled a libel lawsuit against Sykes for $5,000 with Spanish Journal editor Robert Miranda, over a November 2004 blog post by Sykes that alleged that Miranda in 1991 organized a protest that became violent in opposition to a "pro-American" rally at the University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee, information that Sykes later retracted.

Sykes did not support the Donald Trump presidential 2016 bid, campaigning against him and instead choosing to cast a write-in vote for independent conservative candidate Evan McMullin.

In October 2016, Sykes announced that he had decided late in 2015 to quit his radio show for unspecified personal reasons. In December 2016, Sykes wrote an op-ed for The New York Times suggesting that the conservative movement had lost its way during the 2016 campaign, saying "...as we learned this year, we had succeeded in persuading our audiences to ignore and discount any information from the mainstream media. Over time, we'd succeeded in delegitimizing the media altogether — all the normal guideposts were down, the referees discredited."

From January to April 2017, Sykes was part of a rotating set of hosts of Indivisible, a call-in talk show distributed by WNYC public radio in New York City, along with Brian Lehrer of WNYC and Kerri Miller of Minnesota Public Radio among others. The show analyzed and discussed the first 100 days of President Donald Trump's new administration.

In February 2018, Sykes became the new host of The Daily Standard, the revived podcast of The Weekly Standard magazine.

Sykes is the founder and editor-at-large of The Bulwark and currently the host of "The Bulwark Podcast."

Television
Sykes was an investigative reporter at WISN-TV in 1983. From 1993 to 2016, he hosted the local Sunday morning talk show Sunday Insight for WTMJ-TV. In 1994, Sykes contributed an essay to the ITVS series "Declarations: Essays on American Ideals", which was broadcast on PBS stations.

Personal life
In 1980, Sykes married Diane S. Sykes who went on to become a Wisconsin Supreme Court Justice and then a judge on the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit. The couple had two children and divorced in 1999.  In 2000, Sykes married Janet Riordan.

Bibliography

See also
List of Republicans opposing Donald Trump presidential campaign, 2016

References

Further reading

External links

1954 births
Living people
American bloggers
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American television journalists
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Charlie Sykes


Tang Zhongming (; 1897–1980) was a Chinese engineer and inventor. Zhong-Ming Tang was born to a poor family in 1897. He attended elementary and middle school in Henan province graduating from Huaiqing Middle School at age 19, when he then attended Kaifeng Teachers Training Institute and the Beijing French School. From June 1919 to 1926 he studied in France.

Zhong-Ming Tang returned to China in 1926 during the time of the world oil crisis. In China (Kaifeng and Zhengzhou) he worked to develop a charcoal powered car to aid in China's energy efficiency and independence, which had been an issue during World War I. In 1931, he created an internal combustion engine powered by charcoal  and mounted it in an automobile. In 1932 he founded Chung Ming Machinery Co., Ltd. in Shanghai, to produce commercially available charcoal fueled cars. During World War II (1937) the charcoal car grew in popularity due to the high price of oil.  His charcoal cars were popular until the early 1950s. Starting then, their popularity dropped, especially in Southwest China where inexpensive fuel was easily accessible. Thereafter, the rest of China stopped buying charcoal-powered cars as much as before.

External links
在开封研制成功的木炭汽车

References

Chinese automotive pioneers
20th-century Chinese inventors
Engineers from Henan
1980 deaths
1897 births

Tang Zhongming


Huang Runqiu (; born August 1963) is a Chinese geologist and politician currently serving as Minister of Ecology and Environment. He is a member of the Jiusan Society and the third minister from a non-Communist party since the reform and opening-up in late 1970s.

Biography
Huang was born in Changsha, Hunan, in August 1963. After high school, he studied (and obtained bachelor's, master's and doctoral degrees), and then taught, at what is now Chengdu University of Technology (former Chengdu Institute of Technology), becoming the vice-president of Chengdu University of Technology and the director of the State Key Laboratory of Geohazard Prevention and Geoenvironment Protection in November 2001.

In December 2007, he was elected a member of the Standing Committee of the Jiusan Society, one of the eight minor non-Communist parties in China. In January 2018, he was appointed vice chairman of the Sichuan Provincial Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC). In January 2014, he was appointed vice chairman of the Standing Committee of the Sichuan People's Congress, he remained in that position until March 2016, when he was transferred to Beijing and appointed as a vice minister of the Ministry of Environmental Protection, which was reshuffled as the Ministry of Ecology and Environment in March 2018. On April 29, 2020, he was elevated to the minister of Ecology and Environment, replacing Li Ganjie. He concurrently serves as the vice chairman of the Jiusan Society since December 2017.

He was a member of the 9th, 10th, 11th National Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference. He was a delegate to the 12th National People's Congress. In 2018, he was elected as a member of the 13th Standing Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference.

Huang held the presidency position during the 2022 United Nations Biodiversity Conference.

References

External links

1963 births
Living people
Chengdu University of Technology alumni
Politicians from Changsha
Chinese geologists
Academic staff of Chengdu University of Technology
Delegates to the 12th National People's Congress

Huang Runqiu


USS Enterprise (NCC-1701) is a starship in the Star Trek media franchise. It is the main setting of the original Star Trek television series (1966–69), and it is depicted in films, other television series, spin-off fiction, products, and fan-created media. Under the command of Captain James T. Kirk, the Enterprise carries its crew on a mission "to explore strange, new worlds; to seek out new life and new civilizations; to boldly go where no man has gone before." Star Trek: Strange New Worlds (2022–23) depicts the Enterprise under the command of Kirk's predecessor, Captain Christopher Pike.

Matt Jefferies designed the Enterprise for television, and its core components – a saucer-shaped primary hull, two offset engine nacelles, and a cylindrical secondary hull – persisted across several television and film redesigns. The vessel influenced the design of subsequent franchise spacecraft, and the model filmed for the original Star Trek TV series has been on display for decades at the National Air and Space Museum.

Initially a vision of the potential for human spaceflight, the Enterprise became a popular culture icon. The Enterprise has repeatedly been identified as one of the best-designed and most influential science fiction spacecraft.

Development and production

Concept and initial design
Series creator Gene Roddenberry reviewed hundreds of science fiction magazines, dating back to 1931, to gather ideas about what he wanted Star Trek's main vessel to look like. Despite the research, he was more confident in what he did not want than what he did want. He set several parameters:

Roddenberry further specified that the ship would have a crew of 100–150 and be incredibly fast. Art director Pato Guzman's assistant, Matt Jefferies, was responsible for designing the ship and several of its sets. Jefferies and Roddenberry did not want the vessel to look like any of the rocket ships already used by the aerospace industry or in popular culture; many designs were rejected for being "too conventional". To meet Roddenberry's requirement that the ship look believable, Jefferies tried "to visualize what the fourth, fifth or tenth generation of present-day equipment would be like". Jefferies' experience with aviation let him imbue his designs with what he called "aircraft logic". He imagined the ship's engines would be too powerful to be near the crew, requiring them to be set apart from the hull. Jefferies initially rejected a disk-shaped component, worried about the similarities to flying saucers; however, a spherical module eventually flattened into a disk. Because the ship would be expected to flash by quickly on television screens, Jefferies wanted the design to be "very simple, but immediately identifiable - a shape that you could instantly pick out."

During a visit with Jefferies, Roddenberry and NBC staff were drawn to a sketch of the ship resembling its final configuration. Jefferies had created a small model of this design that, when held from a string, hung upside-down – an appearance he had to "unsell". He kept the hull smooth, with a sense that the ship's components were serviced from inside. He designed the Klingon starship seen in the third season by rearranging and changing the shape of Enterprises basic modules: a main body, two engine pods, and a neck with a head on it. Some of Jefferies' rejected design concepts – such as spherical hull sections and warp engines that encircle a ship – inspired future Star Trek vessel designs. Jefferies designed the hull to be smooth, concluding that the ship's important machinery would be inside the hull.

The Enterprise was originally named Yorktown, but Roddenberry was fascinated by the aircraft carrier Enterprise and had "always been proud of that ship and wanted to use the name." The NCC-1701 registry stems from NC being one of the international aircraft registration codes assigned to the United States. The second C was added because Soviet aircraft used Cs, and Jefferies believed a venture into space would be a joint operation by the United States and Russia. Jefferies rejected 3, 6, 8, and 9 as "too easily confused" on screen; he eventually reasoned the Enterprise was the first vessel of Starfleet's 17th starship design, hence 1701. The Making of Star Trek explains that USS means "United Space Ship" and that "Enterprise is a member of the Starship Class". Licensed texts, on-screen graphics, and dialogue later describe the ship as a Constitution-class vessel.

Filming models

The first miniature built from Jefferies' drawings was a  scale model. Desilu Studios, which produced Star Trek, hired Richard C. Datin to make a pre-production model. Datin used a subcontractor with a large lathe for major subcomponents and otherwise worked on the model for approximately 110 hours during November 1964. The  model was made mostly of pine, with Plexiglass and brass details. Datin made minor changes after Roddenberry's review, and he submitted the completed model – which cost about $600 () – to Desilu in December 1964.

Desilu then ordered a larger filming model, which Datin contracted to Volmer Jensen and Production Model Shop in Burbank. Datin supervised the work and did detailing on the model, which was constructed from plaster, sheet metal, and wood. When completed, it was  long, weighed , and cost $6,000 (). The model was delivered too late to be used much for the initial pilot, "The Cage". When Roddenberry was approved to film the second pilot, "Where No Man Has Gone Before" (1966), various details of this 11-foot model were altered, and the starboard windows and running lights were internally illuminated. When the series went into production, the model was altered yet again, and it was regularly modified throughout its active filming. Most of the fine details on the large model were not visible to television viewers. Wiring for the interior lighting ran into the model on its left side, so it could only be filmed from the right; for shots requiring the other side of the Enterprise, the footage was either flipped or filmed using the 33-inch model. Because of this, some of the fine details added to the model were added only to its right side.

The 11-foot model was initially filmed by Howard Anderson. Anderson's team struggled to film the model in a way that suggested it was moving at tremendous speeds, as the producers wanted to avoid the cliched look of a spacecraft drifting through space. Additionally, the model was so large there was little room in the filming space for the camera to move around it. Anderson could not keep up with the filming and special effects needs for regular production, so producers hired several other studios to contribute effects and additional footage. Motion control equipment was too expensive, so the ship was filmed with stop motion. Filming was often delayed by the heat generated by the studio and model's lights. Most third-season footage of the Enterprise was reused first- or second-season footage. Special effects were produced as cheaply as possible. Animators for Star Trek: The Animated Series (1973–75) rotoscoped Enterprise footage to recreate the ship's movements, contributing to the impression of the animated series being a fourth season of the original. The animated show's limited color palette could not accommodate all of the ship's various colors, so the Enterprise was depicted as a consistent gray.

Sets, sounds, and fixtures

The Enterprise was meant to serve as a familiar, recurring setting, similar to Dodge City in Gunsmoke and Blair General Hospital in Dr. Kildare. The bridge was monochromatic for "The Cage", but it was redecorated for "Where No Man Has Gone Before" because of the increasing popularity of color televisions. The first pilot episode's bridge set was rigid, making it difficult for cameras to move in. For series production, the bridge set was rebuilt modularly, allowing large sections to be removed to make camera movement easier. The complicated electronics that provided bridge set readouts and lights required expensive air conditioning to avoid overheating. The chairs used on the bridge and other sets were manufactured by Burke of Dallas and were similar to the tulip chair designed by Eero Saarinen. When production ended after the third season, major elements of the bridge set were donated to the UCLA Theater Arts Department.

Reusing sets helped address Desilu's budget concerns. The engine room, whose sense of scale was enhanced by the use of forced perspective, was redressed as the shuttlebay. Other sets that were redressed to save costs included the briefing room, which also served as the recreation room and cargo deck; and Kirk's cabin, which was also Spock's. Going into the show's second season, NBC executives pressed the production to have fewer episodes based on the ship, and more that occur on alien worlds. In April 1968, Roddenberry pushed back, comparing the Enterprise to the home and ranch on Bonanza, the location of some of that show's best episodes. He also said they would create new Enterprise sets to "help counteract any 'sameness' about the ship". Roddenberry described the ship's hallways as "Des Moines Holiday Inn Style". To keep the ship from looking too sterile, Mike Minor created paintings that hung in Kirk's quarters, the recreation area, and the upper rim of the bridge.

As production continued, standing sets like the engine room and bridge became increasingly detailed. Jefferies and associate producer Bob Justman walked through the production lots looking for "serendipitous items" that could be modified into set details to enhance the interiors. Jefferies added new details to a portable maintenance tunnel set each time it was used. The production staff called the set the "Jefferies tube" as an inside joke, and the term is used in dialogue to describe similar crawl spaces in spinoffs.

Sound effects designer Doug Grindstaff created sounds for different parts of the vessel: console sound effects were often created with a Hammond electric organ or other musical instrument, and engine sounds were created in part with a noisy air conditioner. Although there is no sound in space, producers thought that dramatic license required the ship to make noise during exterior shots. The sound of the ship "whoosh"ing past in the main title sequence was recorded by composer Alexander Courage.

Although the interior in The Animated Series was largely recreated from the live action series, a second turbolift was added to the bridge in response to Roddenberry being asked, "What do they do if the [one turbolift's] doors get stuck?" Franz Joseph designed full Enterprise interior deck plans in 1974 with approval from Roddenberry.

1970s redesigns for television and film
Soon after the animated Star Trek went off the air, pre-production began on Star Trek: Planet of the Titans. Ken Adam and Ralph McQuarrie designed a new Enterprise with a triangular hull that later inspired the appearance of the eponymous ship in Star Trek: Discovery. Planet of the Titans was dropped in favor of a return to television with Star Trek: Phase II, for which Jefferies designed a new Enterprise. He began with the original design and identified components, such as the engines, that would have been upgraded. Some elements, like the sensor dish, would move inside the ship to be more easily serviced. Abandoning Phase II in favor of producing Star Trek: The Motion Picture (1979) necessitated additional Enterprise redesigns because the film medium would resolve more detail than television, and one of the most difficult challenges facing the producers was recreating the Enterprise. Roddenberry told Cinefantastique that the changes to the Enterprise would be explained within the story as the outcome of a major refit.

When Jefferies left the project, art director Richard Taylor wanted to start over with designing the Enterprise; however, Roddenberry convinced him to continue working with Jefferies' design. Taylor brought on Andrew Probert to help refine the ship's details. Probert added items such as phaser banks, control thrusters, and hatches for saucer section landing gear; Taylor redesigned the edge of the saucer and elements of the warp nacelles. Art director Joe Jennings and conceptual illustrator Mike Minor added additional details. David Kimble created diagrams and deck plans for the updated Enterprise that were provided to model makers, toy companies, and other licensed product manufacturers.

Jim Dow was in charge of building the model. Paramount Pictures subsidiary Magicam spent 14 months and $150,000 building the ,  model. An arc-welded aluminum skeleton ensured parts of the ship would not sag, bend, or shake. While the original Enterprise model was seen in only 17 poses, the new model had five articulation points and could be shot from any angle. Paul Olsen painted the "Aztec" hull pattern to provide an additional level of detail and to suggest the presence of interlocking panels providing strength. The effect was made possible by small particles of mica in the paint, which altered its apparent color. However, the paint created light flare that made it hard to discern the edge of the ship against a dark background, and bluescreen light reflected by the pearlescent paint also complicated filming. Effects supervisor Douglas Trumbull relit the ship as if it were an ocean liner, "a grand lady of the seas at night", because there would be no external light source in deep space. A  model was used for long shots.

Production designer Harold Michelson was responsible for the ship's interior design. The Enterprise interiors were designed to be distinct from the film's Klingon ship, and certain support structure designs were used throughout the Enterprise sets to convey a shared motif. A new bridge had been designed and partially built for Phase II, and Michelson largely retained the design and its consoles. Chekov's console was rotated 90 degrees to break the monotony of stations facing the wall. Designer Lee Cole brought logic and function to the console designs, though Michelson wanted to remain focused on "drama, spectacle and beauty" over accuracy and logic. Rear projection films for bridge displays came initially from Stowmar Enterprises. When production exhausted the films faster than Stowmar could supply them, production designers manufactured their own from oscilloscopes, medical imagery, and an experimental computer lab.

Set designer Lewis Splittgerber described the engine room set as the most difficult to realize. Through forced perspective and small actors, the  set was depicted as a  engineering space. Corridors were initially a straight-wall design similar to the television series, and Michelson changed them to an angular design with light radiating upward. Director Robert Wise wanted the corridors to be narrower than on the television series, and mirrors gave the impression that they were longer than they actually were. Wise was also responsible for the ship's drab interior color scheme: the muted colors were meant to be comfortable across a five-year journey.

Sequel film adjustments, destruction, and return
The Motion Pictures model was slightly refurbished for Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan (1982), with its exterior shine dulled and extra detail added to the frame. Industrial Light & Magic (ILM) staff found the Enterprise difficult to work with: it took eight people to mount the model and a forklift to move it. Illustrator Mike Minor described the ship as a "sculpture" with an "aerodynamic shape," requiring careful filming so that its movements did not appear "silly". ILM developed techniques to depict damage to the Enterprise without actually harming the model.

The budget required the reuse of existing sets, but they presented challenges in realizing director Nicholas Meyer's desire for a "livelier" tone. The Enterprise was given a ship's bell, boatswain's call, and more blinking lights and signage to match the nautical atmosphere Meyer wanted to convey. Rear-projection systems for bridge displays were replaced with monitors looping taped material created by graphic designer Lee Cole at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. The bridge set was "unbuttoned" so segments could be removed to better accommodate filming more dynamic action, though filming on the 360-degree set was still challenging. Further complicating the set was that it served three roles: the Enterprise bridge, the Reliant bridge, and the Starfleet Academy bridge simulator. The production crew made several "plugs" to cover consoles and alcoves, and pyrotechnics could destroy the plugs during combat sequences without damaging the underlying set. The torpedo bay set is a redress of the Klingon bridge from The Motion Picture. Kirk's quarters were redressed with more personal items and a more naval appearance, and the same set depicted Spock's more "monastic" quarters. David Kimble's deck plans from The Motion Picture influenced how previously unseen interior arrangements like the torpedo bay were depicted in The Wrath of Khan.

Recognizing the plot of Star Trek III: The Search for Spock (1984) was otherwise predictable, producer Harve Bennett decided to have the Enterprise destroyed. Though he meant for the event to be kept secret, news leaked. Visual effects supervisor Ken Ralston hated the Enterprise model and reveled in its destruction. Rather than damage the large and expensive model, several less expensive miniatures and modules were created and destroyed. One of the destroyed models had been created by Brick Price Movie Miniatures for Star Trek Phase II.

Ralston had hoped the Enterprises destruction in The Search for Spock would lead to a new Enterprise design for sequels, but the producers of Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home (1986) decided to have the crew assigned to a duplicate of their previous ship. It took ILM more than six weeks to restore and repaint the model to appear as the new USS Enterprise, NCC-1701-A. After visiting ILM, Majel Barrett described the model as "gorgeous," and she said some of its details – such as the windows into the arboretum – were not done justice by photographs.

Although its original pearlescent paint job had been covered and the ship redressed as the Enterprise-A, the eight-foot film franchise model was used as a referent for the CGI Enterprise created for the 2001 director's cut of The Motion Picture. The director's cut replaced several bridge computer voices with human voices to "warm up" the film. The bridge and several other Enterprise film sets were redressed for use in Star Trek: The Next Generation (1987–1994).

Spinoff appearances and remaster CGI model
Except for some components donated to UCLA, the original television Enterprise bridge set was trashed when production ended. Producers working on the Star Trek: The Next Generation episode "Relics" (1992), in which Montgomery Scott visits a recreation of the Enterprise, initially planned to use the film-era set. Ultimately, recreations of the original television series' captain's chair, navigation console, and engineering console were rented from fans, and the rest was filled in with archival footage and greenscreen technology. The bridge was again partially recreated, with other parts added digitally, for the Deep Space Nine episode "Trials and Tribble-ations" (1996), in which the crew visits the Enterprise during the events of "The Trouble With Tribbles" (1967). Mike Okuda used a computer to recreate the graphics seen on the Enterprise sets, and others were drawn by artist Doug Drexler. Set designer Laura Richarz's biggest challenge was finding Burke chairs to populate the ship: she found just one, which the production team used to make molds to create more.

"Trials and Tribble-ations" also required exterior shots of the Enterprise. To film these, Greg Jein created an Enterprise model exactly half the size of the 11-foot original, and it was the first production model of the starship to be built in more than 30 years. A CGI Enterprise makes a cameo appearance at the end of the Star Trek: Enterprise series finale, "These Are the Voyages..." (2005). Artists creating another CGI Enterprise for the remastered original series had to ensure the model was not so detailed that it was incongruous with the overall 1960s production.

2009 film franchise reboot

The Enterprise was redesigned for the 2009 Star Trek film. Previsualization lead David Dozoretz credits the designers for overcoming the challenge of doing "a 2009 version of the '60s". Director J. J. Abrams wanted Enterprise to have a "hot rod" look while retaining the traditional shape, and he otherwise gave designers leeway to create the ship. The designers wanted the Enterprise to appear as carefully crafted as a luxury car. Concept artist Ryan Church retained much of the original Enterprise design and focused on the functionality behind the familiar components. His initial designs were modeled and refined by set designer Joseph Hiura. This design was then given to ILM for further refinement and developed into photo-realistic models by Alex Jaeger's team. ILM's Roger Guyett, recalling the original Enterprise as being "very static", added moving parts. ILM retained subtle geometric forms and patterns to allude to the original Enterprise, and the model's digital paint recreated the "Aztec" hull pattern from the first films. The large engine nacelles had a sleeker finish and shape compared to the original ship's otherwise simple nacelles. Sean Hargreaves' redesign of the successor NCC-1701-A "beef[ed] up" the vessel's support pylons, which are depicted as vulnerabilities in Star Trek Beyond (2016).

According to Abrams, recreating the original bridge would have been ridiculous and too small. Abrams' enthusiasm for a new iPhone influenced Church's redesign for the bridge. Sophisticated technology became a motif on the new set, with multiple displays and computer graphics. The viewscreen from the television series was kept, and giving different characters their own computer displays suggested the idea of a team working together. Because the original series transporter room seemed flat to Abrams, he used swirling light and a moving camera to make the redesigned set and effects more dynamic. The budget prevented the creation of a huge, functional engineering room set, and producers instead filmed at a Budweiser plant. Ben Burtt consulted with original series sound designer Douglas Grindstaff on sound design for the new Enterprise.

Redesign for streaming series

Discovery
The Enterprise appears briefly at the end of Star Trek: Discovery's first-season finale (2018) and occasionally during the show's second season (2019). John Eaves, Scott Schneider, and William Budge redesigned the Enterprise for Discovery, which occurs about a decade before the original Star Trek. The designers had an unusually long time to work on the ship: April to October 2017, whereas they usually had only a few weeks to design a vessel. Other than a few small notes, they were given no explicit direction about the ship's appearance; Schneider called the redesign project the trio's "golden hour".

They considered but quickly rejected a design significantly different from Jefferies' original. Eaves created 10 relatively similar sketches that streamlined the original Enterprise to appear more consistent with Discovery's sleek aesthetic, and the team selected one to refine. They developed the vessel with the assumption that components like the warp nacelles and impulse engines would be replaced over time; the modules for the Enterprises appearance in Discovery are meant to appear more primitive than what is depicted in Star Trek. The designers tried to incorporate elements from other ships that precede and succeed the Enterprise, such as the 21st-century Phoenix in Star Trek: First Contact (1996), the 22nd-century Enterprise in Star Trek: Enterprise (2001–2005), and the USS Enterprise-B in Star Trek Generations (1994). They also included elements from the Enterprise refit for The Motion Picture. One distinct challenge was the hull: Jefferies' design featured a smooth hull, but the lack of features would appear too simple on modern high-definition displays. The designers added details, such as phaser banks and control thrusters, that "must have been there" on the original Enterprise but were not depicted on the Star Trek models. The ship's scale also fluctuated, which meant the designers had to adjust window sizes and patterns.

Budge kept the designers in check by ensuring details and features added to the Enterprise were consistent with other Discovery ships, such as whether the bridge would have a window: most Discovery ship bridges have a front-facing window, but the Enterprise had never been depicted with one. The solution was to depict the Enterprise bridge as having a large piece of transparent aluminum at its front that can become either transparent or opaque. Eaves sent the design team's model to the visual effects team, which made further design changes. Discovery producer Gretchen J. Berg said she hoped fans see the Enterprise's appearance in Discovery as a blending of old and new Star Trek. Another Discovery producer, Aaron Harberts, wasn't worried whether fans were satisfied with the ship's redesign: while many of the staff who developed the new appearance were Star Trek fans, Harberts said fans rarely agree on anything.

The Enterprise bridge appears in the second season's finale. Production designer Tamara Deverell and her team wanted to honor the original bridge but needed to create the set using modern techniques and to meet modern audience expectations. The production's widescreen format, as opposed to the original series' 4:3 aspect ratio, required the set design to be more "stretched out" horizontally; designers referenced Star Trek film bridges – also recorded in widescreen – to assist with designing for the different ratio. The bridge was a fully constructed set, save for greenscreen for the main viewer. The set maintained the original's layout and included references and details from Star Trek, such as Sulu's and Spock's console scanners, red bridge railings, and turbolift handles. They also created new elements, such as a corridor running behind the bridge. According to Deverell, the hardest part of designing the bridge was choosing the color palette. The bridge chairs were nearly identical to those used in Star Trek, and the captain's chair was heavily influenced by Captain Kirk's original. A fan-created replica of the original bridge – later opened as museum – sent the production team hundreds of buttons for the set's consoles.

Strange New Worlds
Enterprise is the main setting of Star Trek: Strange New Worlds (2022), which depicts the ship led by Captain Christopher Pike. Anson Mount, who plays Pike, said Strange New Worlds has a "big idea of the week" like the original Star Trek, and as such the Enterprise is "the star of the show". Rebecca Romjin, who plays first officer Una Chin-Riley, called the Enterprise "sexy, and groovy, and fun." According to producer Akiva Goldsman, the designers for Strange New Worlds "tried to evoke the experience of watching [The Original Series], but with the grammar available to us today." Goldsman describes the ship as aspirational and meant to pull audiences into an imagined future.

The Enterprise in Strange New Worlds differs slightly from its appearance in Discovery. The bridge set for Strange New Worlds was more compact than the one built for Discovery to bring it closer to the size of the original series set. The sets were designed to function like a practical starship, with moving components and pre-programmed monitor graphics that reacted to the actors. While the viewscreen was a visual effect in Discovery, it was physically built into the Strange New Worlds set. Sickbay was an entirely new design, meant to convey a large scale and capable of accommodating many camera movements. Designers relied on a massive augmented reality LED volume to depict the scale of main engineering. Due to COVID-19, some sets were not complete when filming began; Goldsman said they were "building the Enterprise around shooting on the Enterprise." Production designers also changed the color scheme, "warming" it from its Discovery palette. A specific shade of red is used as a secondary color throughout the ship, complementing warm and cold off-whites.

Depiction
Starfleet commissioned the Enterprise in 2245. Robert April is the Enterprises first captain, succeeded by Christopher Pike. Pike leads the Enterprise for approximately a decade, and he is the commanding officer in the original pilot, the second season of Star Trek: Discovery, and in Star Trek: Strange New Worlds. Throughout the first live action and animated Star Trek television series, Captain James T. Kirk commands the ship and its 430-person crew on an exploration mission from 2264 to 2269. Star Trek: The Motion Picture takes place in the 2270's as the Enterprise is completing an 18-month refit overseen by its new captain, Willard Decker. Decker describes the refit vessel as "an almost totally new Enterprise" when Admiral Kirk takes command to address a threat to Earth. Star Trek novels and other media depict a second five-year mission under Kirk's command between the events of the first and second films.

Captain Spock commands the Enterprise, serving as a training ship, at the beginning of Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan in 2285. Kirk assumes command to investigate problems at space station Regula 1. The USS Reliant, hijacked by Khan Noonien Singh, seriously damages the Enterprise; Spock sacrifices his life to save the ship. Starfleet decides to decommission the damaged Enterprise at the beginning of Star Trek III: The Search for Spock, and Kirk and his senior officers steal the ship as part of their plan to restore Spock's life. During their mission, a Klingon attack disables the Enterprise. Kirk then lures most of the Klingons onto the immobilized vessel, which he and his officers set to self-destruct before abandoning ship. When Kirk and his officers return to Earth, Kirk is demoted to captain and given command of a new USS Enterprise, NCC-1701-A.

Reboot film series

The 2009 reboot film Star Trek and its sequels occur in a different timeline than the original Star Trek. The Enterprise first appears while under construction in Riverside, Iowa, in 2255. Captain Christopher Pike commands Enterprise on its 2258 maiden voyage to respond to a Vulcan distress call. At the film's conclusion, James Kirk is promoted to captain and receives command of the Enterprise. The vessel is destroyed in Star Trek Beyond and a new Enterprise, NCC-1701-A, is commissioned under Kirk's command.

Critical reaction

Original appearance
Like other Star Trek ships with the same name, the original Enterprise is "a character in its own right," and the ship "was just as important... as Kirk, Spock, and McCoy". According to film critic Scott Jordan Harris, the Enterprise was the franchise's most important character, pointing out: Writing in the Journal of Popular Film & Television, National Air and Space Museum curator Margaret Weitekamp identifies two distinct celebrity Enterprises: the fictional starship Enterprise as a character or popular culture icon, and the actual physical objects (for example, the filming models) as an iconic design. According to Weitekamp, "The two Enterprises overlap, and are clearly related, but they do not map completely onto each other," and unpacking distinctions between them contributes to scholarly analysis of popular and material culture and of "this significant television artifact".

The Enterprise'''s design, which influenced future starships in the franchise, is iconic. The design came at the end of a trend for science-fiction spaceships to resemble rockets, and just as real spacecraft began to influence sci-fi designs. When it first appeared on television, the Enterprise was called an "elegant and weird looking behemoth". Design expert Jonathan Glancey described the "convincing and exciting" Enterprise as having the same aesthetic appeal as the Concorde jet, B-17 bomber, and Queen Elizabeth 2 ocean liner. The interiors are also exemplars of 1960s design. Popular Mechanics said the original Enterprise has the best design of the franchise's various ships named Enterprise. io9 ranked the original design as the best version of the Enterprise, characterizing the original as superior to ten later versions of its namesake.

 Film redesign and "death"
Harris included the Enterprise as one of the 50 most significant objects to appear in film, alongside the ruby slippers in The Wizard of Oz, the Maschinenmensch in Metropolis, and the Batmobile in Batman Begins. Time called the ship's redesign for The Motion Picture "bold" and "handsome". Conversely, Harlan Ellison called the Enterprise a "jalopy" in The Motion Picture, and The Washington Post said the Enterprise looked "like a toy boat in a lava lamp" in The Wrath of Khan. Entertainment Weekly wrote that, after being depicted as a complicated vessel requiring detailed care in The Wrath of Khan, it seemed "a bit loony" for the Enterprise to be operable by just a handful of officers in The Search for Spock. Jill Sherwin suggested that the aging Enterprise in The Search for Spock served as a metaphor for the aging Star Trek franchise. io9 ranked the film appearance as the second-best design of an Enterprise.

The ship's destruction has been described as "truly iconic" and "a good way to go", though David Gerrold wrote that it "casts a pall" over The Search for Spock that even Spock's resurrection does not displace. In her biography of DeForest Kelley, Terry Lee Rioux calls the Enterprise a "mother goddess" who, consistent with "one of the oldest and highest myths" in humanity, sacrifices herself so her children, the crew, can live on. David C. Fein, who produced the director's cut of The Motion Picture, described the Enterprise as Kirk's lover, and said destroying the ship meant Kirk "killed the woman that he loves more than any existing being in the world." Popular Mechanics ranked the ship's destruction the 32nd greatest scene in science fiction.

 Spin-off television appearances The New York Times called it "a joy" to see the original Enterprise as redesigned for Discovery's second-season premiere. Engadget called the Enterprise in Strange New Worlds "gorgeous inside and out." Writing for Tor.com, Keith DeCandido praised Strange New Worlds' producers for balancing the Enterprise's original 1960s look with what audiences expect from modern productions. TrekCore said Strange New Worlds' set dressing and use show the Enterprise "as both a character unto herself and as a mirror reflecting the people who inhabit her."

 Impact

 Within the franchise
The original Enterprise and 1979 film designs have affected subsequent Star Trek productions. The USS Excelsior in Star Trek III is meant to make the Enterprise "look old and out of date". Model maker Bill George tried to imagine what the Enterprise would look like if it were designed by the Japanese, and he used that impression as the basis for his refinement of the Excelsior model. Andrew Probert returned to Star Trek to design a new USS Enterprise, NCC-1701-D, for Star Trek: The Next Generation (1987–1994), which takes place 100 years after the original Star Trek. The Enterprise-D retains the hallmarks of Matt Jefferies' Enterprise design: a saucer section, engineering section, and a pair of engine nacelles. Probert did this in part to assuage skeptical fans who were concerned about the original Enterprise being "replaced". Much of Probert's design is based on a "what if?" painting he made after finalizing the 1979 film Enterprise design. The USS Titan in Star Trek: Picard's third season draws inspiration from the film redesign, which producer Terry Matalas called "the best starship design ever made.

 Broader culture
The starship Enterprise has had considerable cultural impact, and the original ship's model is "a living cultural object". Bjo Trimble said the original Star Trek received more fan letters about the Enterprise than any of the actors. According to film critic Scott Jordan Harris, although the contemporaneous Apollo program prompted intellectual awareness of the possibilities of space travel, it was the Enterprise of the 1960s that sparked space travel fantasies. A 1976 write-in campaign led to the first Space Shuttle being named Enterprise rather than Constitution. In 2009, Virgin Galactic named its first commercial spaceship  to honor the Star Trek vessel. The United States Navy evaluated the efficiency of the Enterprise bridge's style and layout, and the USS Independence's bridge and USS Zumwalt's Ship's Mission Center have been compared to the Enterprise bridge. An Enterprise bridge replica created for a Star Trek fan series was later opened as a public exhibit. The distinct beeps emitted by R2-D2 in Star Wars are "an offspring" of the melodic sounds created for the Enterprises bridge console. Vulcan, Alberta, created a  model starship inspired by the Enterprise.The Enterprise design has been licensed for use in variety of games, models, and toys. AMT's 1966 Enterprise model is one of the company's highest-selling kits: one million kits sold during the show's first year of production; the previous bestseller, a car from The Munsters, took two years to reach one million sales. Ballantine Books released a set of Enterprise blueprints in April 1975, and by December 1976 they were in their seventh printing. The first run of a cutaway drawing of the Enterprise for The Motion Picture sold over one million prints. In 2010, Simon & Schuster's Gallery Books published a Haynes Manual for "owners" of the USS Enterprise. The United States Postal Service has released several USS Enterprise stamps. Pulitzer Prize–winning editorial cartoonist Mike Luckovich has used the Enterprise as the setting for two of his illustrations for The Atlanta Journal-Constitution.

 Production models and props
Paramount Pictures donated the original series filming model to the Smithsonian Institution in 1974, disassembled across three crates and dirty. In shipping the model, Paramount estimated the value of the model at $5,000. Starting in 1976, it hung at an exhibit gallery entrance at the National Air and Space Museum before being moved to the gift shop, where it stayed for 14 years. In the first of its initial restorations, the model was altered to look more like the starship Enterprise and less like a studio filming model. The model underwent restorations in 1974, 1984, 1992, and 2016. For much of its time on display, fans have been surprised at the differences between the model and their expectations about how the "real" spacecraft should appear. A substantial, multi-year restoration culminated in 2016 with the unveiling of a new display in the Milestones of Flight Hall. This restoration highlighted the duality of the Enterprise as both a filming model and inspirational starship.

The original captain's chair prop sold at auction for $304,750. In 2006, Paul Allen bought the Enterprise model created for the original Star Trek'' films for $240,000; it is on display at the Museum of Pop Culture. Another model of the film version is on display at aerospace company Blue Origin.

References

Citations

Sources

Further reading

Enterprise - Hypersonic velocity test of the hull design by University of Queensland's X2 Super-Orbital Expansion Tube using holographic interferometry

External links
 USS Enterprise model page at the National Air and Space Museum
 Andrew Probert's page with photos, drawings, and notes on the Phase II and Motion Picture designs and models

Fictional elements introduced in 1966
Enterprise
Star Trek: The Original Series
Star Trek: Phase II
Collection of the Smithsonian Institution

de:Enterprise (Raumschiff)#USS Enterprise (NCC-1701)

USS Enterprise (NCC-1701)


Castling is a special move in chess that uses both a rook and the king. In castling, the king is moved two squares toward the rook, and the rook moves past the king to the square right next to the king.

Castling takes one move, and is the only way for a player to move two of his own pieces on the same move. Castling can be done on either side of the board.

Rules for castling
Castling is only possible if each of the following things are true:

Neither the king nor the rook being used to castle have moved in the game.
The king is not in check, and is not moving into check or through check. (It is okay if the rook is being attacked, though).
There are no pieces between the king and the rook.

Benefits of castling
Good players castle in most of their games. It is normally a good idea because it often moves the king into a safer place. The middle of the board is normally not a safe place for the king to be in the game. Castling also makes it easier to get the rook into the game. Castling king-side is generally viewed as being safer, and is more common than castling on the Q-side.

Castling was part of the changes made to the original version of chess. As the power of the pieces were increased, the kings had to be given a means of escape. Instead of being in the heat of battle, they needed to be tucked safely away. These changes were made in the 15th century (see history of chess).

Chess

Castling


Two Lea (1946–1973) was a champion American Thoroughbred racehorse who was the 1949 Champion Three-Year-Old Filly and 1950 Champion Older Female.

Background
Born at Calumet Farm in Lexington, Kentucky, her sire was Bull Lea whose progeny were already successful.  Her dam was Two Bob, winner of the 1936 Kentucky Oaks.

As a yearling Two Lea developed ringbone, a difficult condition which delayed her training which delayed the start of her racing career.

Racing career
By the time Two Lea stepped on a track at two years of age, the 1948 season was almost over.  In her first three tries, she won only her last, a race at Belmont Park, by four lengths.

At three, Two Lea started seven times, winning six of her races.  Her only defeat came in the Modesty Stakes against older females; in that race, she carried ten pounds more than the winner.  In the Cleopatra Stakes, Two Lea raced against another stablemate, Wistful, who was considered the East Coast's leading filly.  Wistful had won the 1949 Kentucky Oaks, the Pimlico Oaks, and the Coaching Club American Oaks and was on her way to divisional honors.  Two Lea beat her easing up.  In her last three-year-old race, the Artful, she defeated But Why Not, the female champion of 1947.  Here, Two Lea came close to equaling the world record for seven furlongs.

Two Lea shared the 1949 three-year-old female championship with Wistful, another Calumet horse, as the fillies tied in the Daily Racing Form poll.

At four, after two wins, she raced males.  Ridden by Eddie Arcaro for the first and last time, she contested the Santa Anita Maturity with Ponder, winner of the previous year's Kentucky Derby.  On the lead and with Ponder challenging, Arcaro not only did not urge her, he was easing her up. Two Lea held on to second place.  Then came the Santa Anita Handicap which Two Lea did not win, but then neither did Citation nor Ponder.  They all gave weight to a horse called Noor.  Noor won, Citation placed, Two Lea showed, and Ponder came in fourth.  At the end of the year, Two Lea was named the  Champion Older Filly  for 1950.

For the next year and a half, Two Lea did not race, once again enduring ringbone.  The treatment was called a "pinfire," a "cure" which resulted in a large knob on her fetlock.

By the time she came back to the races in 1952, she was six years old.  Two Lea started eleven times and won six times, five of those wins coming in stakes races.  She beat Wistful again, giving her ten pounds, and then won the Hollywood Gold Cup against males.  Her last races were at Bay Meadows Racetrack, where she won the San Mateo Handicap and the Children's Hospital Handicap under top weight.  In her career, Two Lea finished unplaced only twice.

See also
 List of racehorses

Broodmare
Two Lea was also successful as a broodmare.  Among others, she gave birth to Tim Tam, a horse who came very close to winning the Triple Crown.

Two Lea was 27 when she died in 1973.  She is buried at Calumet Farm.

References

 Thoroughbred Champions, Top 100 Racehorses of the Twentieth Century, Bloodhorse Publications

External links
 Two Lea's pedigree and photo
 Two Lea in the Hall of Fame

1946 racehorse births
1973 racehorse deaths
Racehorses bred in Kentucky
Racehorses trained in the United States
American Champion racehorses
United States Thoroughbred Racing Hall of Fame inductees
Thoroughbred family 23-b

Two Lea


is a Boys Love manga by the Japanese manga artist Hinako Takanaga, who also authored Little Butterfly, Challengers and The Tyrant Falls in Love. It is licensed in English by 801 Media  and in German by Tokyopop Germany.

Plot
Father Mauro, a priest who looks after a small parish, takes in a young man named Raoul and discovers that he is an incubus.  Father Mauro finds it hard to ignore his growing feelings for the demon, especially when Raoul sickens because he does not have sex, which is food to his kind. They discover this after Raoul seduces Mauro, and his horns and tail grow larger. Later, Raoul's older brother Baldur comes to collect him and bring him back to the demon realm.  Baldur disapproves of Raoul and Father Mauro's relationship, as he believes Raoul should use his powers to make Father Mauro his sex slave (particularly in light of the fact that Mauro, uncomfortable with a sexual relationship given his vows has been denying Raoul sex). Father Mauro has doubts about his own feelings' validity after learning that incubi have the power to do this and rejects Raoul, who becomes depressed and turns into a ball.  Baldur plans to take him away, but Father Mauro stops him.  Raoul turns back, the couple make up and Baldur returns to the demons' realm, as taking Raoul would simply cause him to revert to a ball again. Baldur explains the situation to his father, and an old lover of Baldur's, Zahan, tries to make Baldur remember what he's missing. Some time has passed and ends in an epilogue showing that as he and Mauro are now in a true relationship, Raoul has gained full horns, and large tail and wings and the power to conceal these when he is not "eating".

Let's Do Something Useless!
A student teacher is propositioned by one of his students.

Before Winter Comes…
A new college student Tomono thinks about a text message his best friend from high school Yuba sent him, who had confessed his love to him.

Reception
Leroy Douresseaux regarded the premise as "scandalous", and describes the message of the book as being one of all-conquering love.  Holly Ellingwood praised Takanaga's sense of humour in this book.

References

External links

Manga anthologies
2007 manga
Yaoi anime and manga
Digital Manga Publishing titles
Demons in comics

The Devil's Secret


Robert Hale (November 29, 1889 – November 30, 1976) was a U.S. Representative from Maine, and first cousin of U.S. Senator Frederick Hale, also of Maine. A conservative, internationalist, and self-described reactionary, he was known for his unwavering advocacy of civil rights and opposition against the Ku Klux Klan.

Biography
Born in Portland, Maine to Clarence Hale (U.S. District Judge, Maine) and Margret Jordan Rollins, Hale attended the public schools.
He graduated from Portland High School in 1906, from Bowdoin College, Brunswick, Maine, in 1910, and from Oxford University, where he was a Rhodes Scholar, in 1912.
He attended Harvard Law School in 1913 and 1914.
He was admitted to the Massachusetts bar in 1914, the Maine bar in 1917, and the District of Columbia bar in 1959.
Practiced in Portland, Maine from 1917 to 1942.
During the First World War served in the United States Army in grades up to second lieutenant, with overseas service from 1917 to 1919.

In the Maine House: Opposition to the Barwise Bill and the Ku Klux Klan

Hale served in the Maine House of Representatives 1923-1930, and was elected as Speaker in 1929-1930. In 1923 and 1925 he was instrumental in defeating the Barwise Bill, a measure supported by the majority of his party, which would have changed the Maine Constitution to outlaw all state aid to parochial schools. The bill (introduced and defeated twice) was strongly opposed by Maine's Catholic population, and just as strongly favored by the Ku Klux Klan whose state headquarters and center of support was in Hale's home city of Portland. The measure split the Maine Republican Party and embroiled state politics for three years. It was favored by Governor Owen Brewster but opposed by a faction that included Hale and his cousin, U.S. senator Frederick Hale, whose seat Brewster would eventually (but unsuccessfully) contest.

In leading the 1923 debate against the Barwise Bill, Hale said it was "conceived in intolerance against the Roman Catholic Church" and related that he "knew of a person (n Europe). . . who was killed for the only reason that he was a Jew". He then read extracts from speeches by the King Kleagle of the Maine Ku Klux Klan, F. Eugene Farnsworth, calling him "an ignorant demagogue."  In his 1925 speech against a new version of the same bill, Hale cited examples of recent intolerance in American political life, including the rejection of German language teaching during World War I and Tennessee's law against the teaching of evolution. Referring again to the Ku Klux Klan of Maine, who had demonstrated their strength during a recent Maine State Senate debate on the same bill, Hale said that only the defeat of the Barwise measure would "appease this hysteria." Hale was a convincing champion of the anti-Barwise forces because he was a Protestant Republican from Portland, a Klan hotbed. The bill was defeated, but Hale's opposition to it likely defeated his own initial bid to become Speaker of the Maine House of Representatives in 1926. Hale made a second successful bid for the House Speakership in 1929, by which time the Klan was a spent force in the Maine Republican Party.

U.S. Congress: The New Deal and Cold War Years
Hale was elected as a Republican to the Seventy-eighth and seven succeeding U.S. Congresses (January 3, 1943 – January 3, 1959).

In the war-time election of 1942, Hale used his support for Roosevelt's foreign policy to unseat Congressman James C. Oliver, who was a pre-war isolationist, in the Republican primary. In the general election, however, Hale was called a "disciple of hate" by his opponent, former Democratic Governor of Maine Louis J. Brann, because of an article he'd written for Harper's Magazine in 1936 entitled "I Too Hate Roosevelt" and criticizing the New Deal. Brann went so far as to claim that a Hale victory would "please Hitler."  Hale started his own congressional service with equally alarmist rhetoric, telling an audience in Oct. 1942 that they could expect Roosevelt to "abolish Congress" within the next four years.

In April 1943, Hale criticized Wendell Willkie for "shooting off his face about India."

During the early Cold War, Hale supported the formation and role of the United Nations, but was otherwise on the staunchly conservative wing of the Republican Party during the presidency of Harry S. Truman. In 1950, he said of Sen. Joseph McCarthy: "people should give him credit for what he is trying to do instead of carping on his methods," a position opposite to that of his Maine Republican colleague Sen. Margaret Chase Smith, who was an early critic of McCarthyism.  He also defended Gen. Douglas MacArthur when he was fired by Truman, claiming MacArthur "has always been right" about the "Far Eastern situation," and introduced a resolution to impeach Truman after the president nationalized steel mills in 1952.  On the other hand, he advised against the use of atomic bombs in the Korean War while his more liberal colleague Sen. Smith joined right-wing Maine Sen. Owen Brewster in sanctioning their use against Communist China "if necessary." Hale voted in favor of the Civil Rights Act of 1957.

Hale's last election victory, in 1956, saw him winning by only 29 votes out of over 100,000 cast.  His Democratic Party opponent was James C. Oliver, who, as a Republican, Hale had unseated for the same congressional seat in 1942. Oliver ran against Hale again in 1958 and this time won back the seat he'd occupied 26 years before. Hale afterwards resumed the practice of law in Washington, D.C. He died on November 30, 1976 in Washington, D.C., and is interred in Evergreen Cemetery in Portland, Maine.

References

External links

1889 births
1976 deaths
Bowdoin College alumni
American Congregationalists
Harvard Law School alumni
Politicians from Portland, Maine
Ku Klux Klan in Maine
American Rhodes Scholars
Speakers of the Maine House of Representatives
United States Army officers
Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Maine
Hale family
20th-century American politicians
Portland High School (Maine) alumni
Old Right (United States)
Washington, D.C., Republicans

Robert Hale (Maine politician)


Manuel Buchwald,  (born June 7, 1940) is a Canadian geneticist and academic.

Born in Lima, Peru, he received a Bachelor of Arts degree summa cum laude in 1962 from Dartmouth College and a Ph.D. in 1967 from Brandeis University. He was a member of the Phi Beta Kappa Society.

In 1971, he joined the Hospital for Sick Children as a staff geneticist. In 1970, he was appointed scientist and in 1980 became a senior scientist. In 1996, he was appointed senior scientist and director of the Hospital for Sick Children's Research Institute. He also holds the Lombard Insurance Chair in Pediatric Research. His research interests are human molecular genetics, Fanconi anemia, cystic fibrosis and gene cloning and function. From 1973 to 1977, he was an assistant professor at the University of Toronto and was an associate professor from 1977 to 1986.

He is part of the team which holds the United States patent for "Methods of detecting cystic fibrosis gene by nucleic acid hybridization" , filed in 1995.

In 1991, he was made an officer of the Order of Canada for "major molecular biological thrust into cystic fibrosis research". In 1992, he was awarded the 125th Anniversary of the Confederation of Canada Medal. In 1994, he was made a fellow of the Royal Society of Canada. He is a fellow of the Canadian Academy of Health Sciences.

References

1940 births
Living people
Brandeis University alumni
Canadian geneticists
Dartmouth College alumni
Fellows of the Royal Society of Canada
Officers of the Order of Canada
Peruvian emigrants to Canada
Scientists from Lima
Educators from Lima
Academic staff of the University of Toronto

Manuel Buchwald


A haze meter measures the amount of light that is diffused or scattered when passing through a transparent material. Transparency is important because a material needs to be more or less see-through depending on its practical usage, e.g. a grocery bag needs the light to be more diffused so that less can be seen while food packaging film needs the light to be less diffused so that the contents can be seen clearly.  For reasons such as these haze meters are necessary to determine which material is needed for which practical purpose.

Haze is measured with a wide angle scattering test in which light is diffused in all directions which results in a loss of contrast.  That percentage of light that when passing through that deviates from the incident beam by greater than 2.5 degrees on average is defined as haze

See through quality is measured with a narrow angle scattering test in which light is diffused in a small range with high concentration.  This test measures the clarity with which finer details can be seen through the object being tested.

The haze meter also measures total transmittance.  Total transmittance is the measure of the total incident light compared to the light that is actually transmitted (e.g. total transmittance).  So the incident light may be 100%, but because of absorption and reflection the total transmittance may only be 94%.

The data gained from the haze meter can be transferred to a PC for further data processing to ensure a consistent product.

References

External links
Devices to measure haze

Optical instruments

Haze meter