Wearable technology is any technology that is designed to be used while worn. Common types of wearable technology include smartwatches and smartglasses. Wearable electronic devices are often close to or on the surface of the skin, where they detect, analyze, and transmit information such as vital signs, and/or ambient data and which allow in some cases immediate biofeedback to the wearer.

Wearable devices such as activity trackers are an example of the Internet of Things, since "things" such as electronics, software, sensors, and connectivity are effectors that enable objects to exchange data (including data quality) through the internet with a manufacturer, operator, and/or other connected devices, without requiring human intervention. Wearable technology offers a wide range of possible uses, from communication and entertainment to improving health and fitness, however, there are worries about privacy and security because wearable devices have the ability to collect personal data.

Wearable technology has a variety of use cases which is growing as the technology is developed and the market expands. Wearables are popular in consumer electronics, most commonly in the form factors of smartwatches, smart rings, and implants. Apart from commercial uses, wearable technology is being incorporated into navigation systems, advanced textiles (e-textiles), and healthcare. As wearable technology is being proposed for use in critical applications, like other technology, it is vetted for its reliability and security properties.

History
In the 1500s, German inventor Peter Henlein (1485-1542) created small watches that were worn as necklaces. A century later, pocket watches grew in popularity as waistcoats became fashionable for men. Wristwatches were created in the late 1600s but were worn mostly by women as bracelets.

In the late 1800s, the first wearable hearing aids were introduced.

In 1904, aviator Alberto Santos-Dumont pioneered the modern use of the wristwatch.

In the 1970s, calculator watches became available, reaching the peak of their popularity in the 1980s.

From the early 2000s, wearable cameras were being used as part of a growing sousveillance movement. In 2008, Ilya Fridman incorporated a hidden Bluetooth microphone into a pair of earrings.

In 2010, Fitbit released its first step counter. Wearable technology which tracks information such as walking and heart rate is part of the quantified self movement.

In 2013 McLear, also known as NFC Ring, released the first widely used advanced wearable device. The smart ring could pay with bitcoin, unlock other devices, transfer personally identifying information, and other features. McLear owns the earliest patent, filed in 2012, which covers all smart rings, with Joe Prencipe of Seattle, WA as the sole inventor.

In 2013, one of the first widely available smartwatches was the Samsung Galaxy Gear. Apple followed in 2015 with the Apple Watch.

Prototypes
From 1991 to 1997, Rosalind Picard and her students, Steve Mann and Jennifer Healey, at the MIT Media Lab designed, built, and demonstrated data collection and decision making from "Smart Clothes" that monitored continuous physiological data from the wearer. These "smart clothes", "smart underwear", "smart shoes", and smart jewellery collected data that related to affective state and contained or controlled physiological sensors and environmental sensors like cameras and other devices.

At the same time, also at the MIT Media Lab, Thad Starner and Alex "Sandy" Pentland develop augmented reality.  In 1997, their smartglass prototype is featured on 60 Minutes and enables rapid web search and instant messaging.  Though the prototype's glasses are nearly as streamlined as modern smartglasses, the processor was a computer worn in a backpack – the most lightweight solution available at the time.

In 2009, Sony Ericsson teamed up with the London College of Fashion for a contest to design digital clothing. The winner was a cocktail dress with Bluetooth technology making it light up when a call is received.

Zach "Hoeken" Smith of MakerBot fame made keyboard pants during a "Fashion Hacking" workshop at a New York City creative collective.

The Tyndall National Institute in Ireland developed a "remote non-intrusive patient monitoring" platform which was used to evaluate the quality of the data generated by the patient sensors and how the end users may adopt to the technology.

More recently, London-based fashion company CuteCircuit created costumes for singer Katy Perry featuring LED lighting so that the outfits would change color both during stage shows and appearances on the red carpet such as the dress Katy Perry wore in 2010 at the MET Gala in NYC. In 2012, CuteCircuit created the world's first dress to feature Tweets, as worn by singer Nicole Scherzinger.

In 2010, McLear, also known as NFC Ring, developed the first advanced wearables prototype in the world, which was then fundraised on Kickstarter in 2013.

In 2014, graduate students from the Tisch School of Arts in New York designed a hoodie that sent pre-programmed text messages triggered by gesture movements.

Around the same time, prototypes for digital eyewear with heads up display (HUD) began to appear.

The US military employs headgear with displays for soldiers using a technology called holographic optics.

In 2010, Google started developing prototypes of its optical head-mounted display Google Glass, which went into customer beta in March 2013.

Usage

In the consumer space, sales of smart wristbands (aka activity trackers such as the Jawbone UP and Fitbit Flex) started accelerating in 2013. One in five American adults have a wearable device, according to the 2014 PriceWaterhouseCoopers Wearable Future Report. As of 2009, decreasing cost of processing power and other components was facilitating widespread adoption and availability.

In professional sports, wearable technology has applications in monitoring and real-time feedback for athletes. Examples of wearable technology in sport include accelerometers, pedometers, and GPS's which can be used to measure an athlete's energy expenditure and movement pattern.

In cybersecurity and financial technology, secure wearable devices have captured part of the physical security key market. McLear, also known as NFC Ring, and VivoKey developed products with one-time pass secure access control.

In health informatics, wearable devices have enabled better capturing of human health statics for data driven analysis. This has facilitated data-driven machine learning algorithms to analyse the health condition of users. For applications in health .

In business, wearable technology helps managers easily supervise employees by knowing their locations and what they are currently doing. Employees working in a warehouse also have increased safety when working around chemicals or lifting something. Smart helmets are employee safety wearables that have vibration sensors that can alert employees of possible danger in their environment.

Wearable technology and health

Wearable technology is often used to monitor a user's health. Given that such a device is in close contact with the user, it can easily collect data. It started as soon as 1980 where first wireless ECG was invented. In the last decades, there has been substantial growth in research of e.g. textile-based, tattoo, patch, and contact lenses as well as circulation of a notion of "Quantified Self", transhumanism-related ideas, and growth of life extension research.

Wearables can be used to collect data on a user's health including:
 Heart rate
 Calories burned
 Steps walked
 Blood pressure
 Release of certain biochemicals
 Time spent exercising
 Seizures
 Physical strain
 Body composition and Water levels

These functions are often bundled together in a single unit, like an activity tracker or a smartwatch like the Apple Watch Series 2 or Samsung Galaxy Gear Sport. Devices like these are used for physical training and monitoring overall physical health, as well as alerting to serious medical conditions such as seizures (e.g. Empatica Embrace2).

Medical uses

While virtual reality was originally developed for gaming, it also can be used for rehabilitation. Virtual reality headsets are given to patients and the patients instructed to complete a series of tasks, but in a game format. This has significant benefits compared to traditional therapies. For one, it is more controllable; the operator can change their environment to anything they desire including areas that may help them conquer their fear, like in the case of PTSD. Another benefit is the price. On average, traditional therapies are several hundred dollars per hour, whereas VR headsets are only several hundred dollars and can be used whenever desired. In patients with neurological disorders like Parkinsons, therapy in game format where multiple different skills can be utilized at the same time, thus simultaneously stimulating several different parts of the brain.VR's usage in physical therapy is still limited as there is insufficient research. Some research has pointed to the occurrence of motion sickness while performing intensive tasks, which can be detrimental to the patient's progress. Detractors also point out that a total dependence on VR can lead to self-isolation and be coming overly dependent on technology, preventing patients from interacting with their friends and family. There are concerns about privacy and safety, as the VR software would need patient data and information to be effective, and this information could be compromised during a data breach, like in the case of 23andMe. The lack of proper medical experts coupled with the longer learning curved involved with the recovery project, may result in patients not realizing their mistakes and recovery taking longer than expected. The issue of cost and accessibility is also another issue; while VR headsets are significantly cheaper than traditional physical therapy, there may be many ad-ons that could raise the price, making it inaccessible to many. Base models may be less effective compared to higher end models, which may lead to a digital divide. Overall, VR healthcare solutions are not meant to be a competitor to traditional therapies, as research shows that when coupled together physical therapy is more effective. Research into VR rehabilitation continues to expand with new research into haptic developing, which would allow the user to feel their environments and to incorporate their hands and feet into their recovery plan. Additionally, there are more sophisticated VR systems being developed  which allow the user to use their entire body in their recovery. It also has sophisticated sensors that would allow medical professionals to collect data on muscle engagement and tension. It uses electrical impedance tomography, a form of noninvasive imaging to view muscle usage.

Another concern is the lack of major funding by big companies and the government into the field. Many of these VR sets are off the shelf items, and not properly made for medical use. External add-ones are usually 3D printed or made from spare parts from other electronics. this lack of support means that patients who want to try this method have to be technically savvy, which is unlikely as many aliments only appear later in life. Additionally, certain parts of VR like haptic feedback and tracking are still not advanced enough to be used reliably in a medical setting. Another issue is the amount of VR devices that are available for purchase. While this does increase the options available, the differences between VR systems could impact patient recovery. The vast number of VR devices also makes it difficult for medical professionals to give and interpret information, as they might not have had practice with the specific model, which could lead to faulty advice being given out.

Applications
Currently other applications within healthcare are being explored, such as:

 Applications for monitoring of glucose, alcohol, and lactate or blood oxygen, breath monitoring, heartbeat, heart rate and its variability, electromyography (EMG), electrocardiogram (ECG) and electroencephalogram (EEG), body temperature, pressure (e.g. in shoes), sweat rate or sweat loss, levels of uric acid and ions – e.g. for preventing fatigue or injuries or for optimizing training patterns, including via "human-integrated electronics"
 Forecasting changes in mood, stress, and health
 Measuring blood alcohol content
 Measuring athletic performance
 Monitoring how sick the user is
 Detecting early signs of infection
 Long-term monitoring of patients with heart and circulatory problems that records an electrocardiogram and is self-moistening
 Health Risk Assessment applications, including measures of frailty and risks of age-dependent diseases
 Automatic documentation of care activities
 Days-long continuous imaging of diverse organs via a wearable bioadhesive stretchable high-resolution ultrasound imaging patch or e.g. a wearable continuous heart ultrasound imager. (potential novel diagnostic and monitoring tools)
 Sleep tracking
 Cortisol monitoring for measuring stress
 Measuring relaxation or alertness, e.g. to adjust their modulation or to measure efficacy of modulation techniques

Proposed applications
Proposed applications, including applications without functional wearable prototypes, include:

 Tracking physiological changes such as stress levels and heartbeat of "experiencers" or "contactees" of the UFO-sighting, anomalous physiological effects and alien abduction/contact/sighting phenomena, including "experiencer group research"
 Pathogen detection and detection of hazardous substances
 Improving sleep via sleeping caps

Contemporary use

Living a healthy life may not just solely be dependent on eating healthy, sleeping well, or participating in a few exercises a week. Instead, it lies far beyond just a few things and rather is deeply connected to a variety of physiological and biochemical parts of the body in relation to physical activity and living a healthy lifestyle. In the past several years, the emergence of technological devices better known as "wearable technology" has improved the ability to measure physical activity and has given simple users and e.g. cardiologists to be able to analyze parameters related to their quality of life.

Wearable technology are devices that people can wear at all times throughout the day, and also throughout the night. They help measure certain values such as heartbeat and rhythm, quality of sleep, total steps in a day, and may help recognize certain diseases such as heart disease, diabetes, and cancer. They may promote ideas on how to improve one's health and stay away from certain impending diseases. These devices give daily feedback on what to improve on and what areas people are doing well in, and this motivates and continues to push the user to keep on with their improved lifestyle.

Over time, wearable technology has impacted the health and physical activity market an immense amount as, according to ScienceDirect, "The consumer-directed wearable technology market is rapidly growing and expected to exceed $34B by 2020." This shows how the Wearable Technology sector is increasingly becoming more and more approved amongst all people who want to improve their health and quality of life.

Wearable Technology can come in all forms from watches, pads placed on the heart, devices worn around the arms, all the way to devices that can measure any amount of data just through touching the receptors of the device. In many cases, Wearable Technology is connected to an app that can relay the information right away ready to be analyzed and discussed with a cardiologist. In addition, according to the American Journal of Preventive Medicine they state, "wearables may be a low-cost, feasible, and accessible way for promoting PA." Essentially, this insinuates that Wearable Technology can be beneficial to everyone and really is not cost prohibited. Also, when consistently seeing Wearable Technology being actually utilized and worn by other people, it promotes the idea of physical activity and pushes more individuals to take part.

Wearable Technology also helps with chronic disease development and monitoring physical activity in terms of context. For example, according to the American Journal of Preventive Medicine "Wearables can be used across different chronic disease trajectory phases (e.g., pre- versus post-surgery) and linked to medical record data to obtain granular data on how activity frequency, intensity, and duration changes over the disease course and with different treatments." Wearable technology can be beneficial in tracking and helping analyze data in terms of how one is performing as time goes on, and how they may be performing with different changes in their diet, workout routine, or sleep patterns. Also, not only can Wearable Technology be helpful in measuring results pre and post surgery, but it can also help measure results as someone may be rehabbing from a chronic disease such as cancer, or heart disease, etc.

Wearable technology has the potential to create new and improved ways of how we look at health and how we actually interpret that science behind our health. It can propel us into higher levels of medicine and has already made an significant impact on how patients are diagnosed, treated, and rehabbed over time. However, extensive research still needs to be continued on how to properly integrate Wearable Technology into health care and how to best utilize it. In addition, despite the reaping benefits of Wearable Technology, a lot of research still also has to be completed in order to start transitioning Wearable Technology towards very sick high risk patients.

Sense-making of the data

While wearables can collect data in aggregate form, most of them are limited in their ability to analyze or make conclusions based on this data – thus, most are used primarily for general health information.

Exception include seizure-alerting wearables, which continuously analyze the wearer's data and make a decision about calling for help – the data collected can then provide doctors with objective evidence that they may find useful in diagnoses.

Wearables can account for individual differences, although most just collect data and apply one-size-fits-all algorithms. Software on the wearables may analyze the data directly or send the data to a nearby device(s), such as a smartphone, which processes, displays or uses the data for analysis. For analysis and real-term sense-making, machine learning algorithms can also be used.

Use in surveillance
Today, there is a growing interest to use wearables not only for individual self-tracking, but also within corporate health and wellness programs. Given that wearables create a massive data trail which employers could repurpose for objectives other than health, more and more research has begun to study privacy- and security-related issues of wearables, including related to the use for surveillance of workers. Asha Peta Thompson founded Intelligent Textiles who create woven power banks and circuitry that can be used in e-uniforms for infantry.

By form factor
Wearable technology can exist in multiple different form factors. Popular smartwatches include the Samsung Galaxy Watch and the Apple Watch. A popular smart ring is the McLear Ring. A popular implant is the Dangerous Things NExT RFID + NFC Chip Implant, albeit such is not worn but implanted.

Head-worn
Glasses (including but not only smartglasses) are wearable technology that are head-worn.

Headgear
Headcaps, for example to measure EEG, are head-worn. A study indicates EEG headgear could be used for neuroenhancement, concluding that a "visual flicker paradigm to entrain individuals at their own brain rhythm (i.e. peak alpha frequency)" results in  faster perceptual visual learning, maintained the day following training. There is research into various forms of neurostimulation, with various approaches including the use of wearable technology.

Another application may be supporting the induction of lucid dreams, albeit "better-controlled validation studies are necessary to prove the effectiveness".

Epidermal electronics (skin-attached)

Epidermal electronics is an emerging field of wearable technology, termed for their properties and behaviors comparable to those of the epidermis, or outermost layer of the skin. These wearables are mounted directly onto the skin to continuously monitor physiological and metabolic processes, both dermal and subdermal. Wireless capability is typically achieved through battery, Bluetooth or NFC, making these devices convenient and portable as a type of wearable technology. Currently, epidermal electronics are being developed in the fields of fitness and medical monitoring.

Current usage of epidermal technology is limited by existing fabrication processes. Its current application relies on various sophisticated fabrication techniques such as by lithography or by directly printing on a carrier substrate before attaching directly to the body. Research into printing epidermal electronics directly on the skin is currently available as a sole study source.

The significance of epidermal electronics involves their mechanical properties, which resemble those of skin. The skin can be modeled as bilayer, composed of an epidermis having Young's Modulus (E) of 2-80 kPa and thickness of 0.3–3 mm and a dermis having E of 140-600 kPa and thickness of 0.05-1.5 mm. Together this bilayer responds plastically to tensile strains ≥ 30%, below which the skin's surface stretches and wrinkles without deforming. Properties of epidermal electronics mirror those of skin to allow them to perform in this same way. Like skin, epidermal electronics are ultrathin (h < 100 μm), low-modulus (E ~ 70 kPa), and lightweight (<10 mg/cm2), enabling them to conform to the skin without applying strain. Conformal contact and proper adhesion enable the device to bend and stretch without delaminating, deforming or failing, thereby eliminating the challenges with conventional, bulky wearables, including measurement artifacts, hysteresis, and motion-induced irritation to the skin. With this inherent ability to take the shape of skin, epidermal electronics can accurately acquire data without altering the natural motion or behavior of skin. The thin, soft, flexible design of epidermal electronics resembles that of temporary tattoos laminated on the skin. Essentially, these devices are "mechanically invisible" to the wearer.

Epidermal electronics devices may adhere to the skin via van der Waals forces or elastomeric substrates. With only van der Waals forces, an epidermal device has the same thermal mass per unit area (150 mJ/cm2K) as skin, when the skin's thickness is <500 nm. Along with van der Waals forces, the low values of E and thickness are effective in maximizing adhesion because they prevent deformation-induced detachment due to tension or compression. Introducing an elastomeric substrate can improve adhesion but will raise the thermal mass per unit area slightly. Several materials have been studied to produce these skin-like properties, including photolithography patterned serpentine gold nanofilm and patterned doping of silicon nanomembranes.

Foot-worn
Smart shoes are an example of wearable technology that incorporate smart features into shoes. Smart shoes often work with smartphone applications to support tasks cannot be done with standard footwear. The uses include vibrating of the smart phone to tell users when and where to turn to reach their destination via Google Maps or self-lacing.

Self-lacing sneaker technology, similar to the Nike Mag in Back to the Future Part II, is another use of the smart shoe. In 2019 German footwear company Puma was recognized as one of the "100 Best Inventions of 2019" by Time for its Fi laceless shoe that uses micro-motors to adjust the fit from an iPhone. Nike also introduced a smart shoe in 2019 known as Adapt BB. The shoe featured buttons on the side to loosen or tighten the fit with a custom motor and gear, which could also be controlled by a smartphone.

Modern technologies

On April 16, 2013, Google invited "Glass Explorers" who had pre-ordered its wearable glasses at the 2012 Google I/O conference to pick up their devices. This day marked the official launch of Google Glass, a device intended to deliver rich text and notifications via a heads-up display worn as eyeglasses. The device also had a 5 MP camera and recorded video at 720p. Its various functions were activated via voice command, such as "OK Glass". The company also launched the Google Glass companion app, MyGlass. The first third-party Google Glass App came from the New York Times, which was able to read out articles and news summaries.

However, in early 2015, Google stopped selling the beta "explorer edition" of Glass to the public, after criticism of its design and the $1,500 price tag.

While optical head-mounted display technology remains a niche, two popular types of wearable devices have taken off: smartwatches and activity trackers. In 2012, ABI Research forecast that sales of smartwatches would hit $1.2 million in 2013, helped by the high penetration of smartphones in many world markets, the wide availability and low cost of MEMS sensors, energy efficient connectivity technologies such as Bluetooth 4.0, and a flourishing app ecosystem.

Crowdfunding-backed start-up Pebble reinvented the smartwatch in 2013, with a campaign running on Kickstarter that raised more than $10m in funding. At the end of 2014, Pebble announced it had sold a million devices. In early 2015, Pebble went back to its crowdfunding roots to raise a further $20m for its next-generation smartwatch, Pebble Time, which started shipping in May 2015.

Crowdfunding-backed start-up McLear invented the smart ring in 2013, with a campaign running on Kickstarter that raised more than $300k in funding. McLear was the first mover in wearables technology in introducing payments, bitcoin payments, advanced secure access control, quantified self data collection, biometric data tracking, and monitoring systems for the elderly.

In March 2014, Motorola unveiled the Moto 360 smartwatch powered by Android Wear, a modified version of the mobile operating system Android designed specifically for smartwatches and other wearables. Finally, following more than a year of speculation, Apple announced its own smartwatch, the Apple Watch, in September 2014.

Wearable technology was a popular topic at the trade show Consumer Electronics Show in 2014, with the event dubbed "The Wearables, Appliances, Cars and Bendable TVs Show" by industry commentators. Among numerous wearable products showcased were smartwatches, activity trackers, smart jewelry, head-mounted optical displays and earbuds. Nevertheless, wearable technologies are still suffering from limited battery capacity.

Another field of application of wearable technology is monitoring systems for assisted living and eldercare. Wearable sensors have a huge potential in generating big data, with a great applicability to biomedicine and ambient assisted living. For this reason, researchers are moving their focus from data collection to the development of intelligent algorithms able to glean valuable information from the collected data, using data mining techniques such as statistical classification and neural networks.

Wearable technology can also collect biometric data such as heart rate (ECG and HRV), brainwave (EEG), and muscle bio-signals (EMG) from the human body to provide valuable information in the field of health care and wellness.

Another increasingly popular wearable technology involves virtual reality. VR headsets have been made by a range of manufacturers for computers, consoles, and mobile devices. Recently Google released their headset, the Google Daydream.

In addition to commercial applications, wearable technology is being researched and developed for a multitude of uses. The Massachusetts Institute of Technology is one of the many research institutions developing and testing technologies in this field. For example, research is being done to improve haptic technology for its integration into next-generation wearables. Another project focuses on using wearable technology to assist the visually impaired in navigating their surroundings.

As wearable technology continues to grow, it has begun to expand into other fields. The integration of wearables into healthcare has been a focus of research and development for various institutions. Wearables continue to evolve, moving beyond devices and exploring new frontiers such as smart fabrics. Applications involve using a fabric to perform a function such as integrating a QR code into the textile, or performance apparel that increases airflow during exercise

Entertainment

Wearables have expanded into the entertainment space by creating new ways to experience digital media. Virtual reality headsets and augmented reality glasses have come to exemplify wearables in entertainment. The influence of these virtual reality headsets and augmented reality glasses are seen mostly in the gaming industry during the initial days, but are now used in the fields of medicine and education.

Virtual reality headsets such as the Oculus Rift, HTC Vive, and Google Daydream View aim to create a more immersive media experience by either simulating a first-person experience or displaying the media in the user's full field of vision. Television, films, video games, and educational simulators have been developed for these devices to be used by working professionals and consumers. In a 2014 expo, Ed Tang of Avegant presented his "Smart Headphones". These headphones use Virtual Retinal Display to enhance the experience of the Oculus Rift. Some augmented reality devices fall under the category of wearables. Augmented reality glasses are currently in development by several corporations. Snap Inc.'s Spectacles are sunglasses that record video from the user's point of view and pair with a phone to post videos on Snapchat. Microsoft has also delved into this business, releasing Augmented Reality glasses, HoloLens, in 2017. The device explores using digital holography, or holograms, to give the user a first hand experience of Augmented Reality. These wearable headsets are used in many different fields including the military.

Wearable technology has also expanded from small pieces of technology on the wrist to apparel all over the body. There is a shoe made by the company shiftwear that uses a smartphone application to periodically change the design display on the shoe. The shoe is designed using normal fabric but utilizes a display along the midsection and back that shows a design of your choice. The application was up by 2016 and a prototype for the shoes was created in 2017.

Another example of this can be seen with Atari's headphone speakers. Atari and Audiowear are developing a face cap with built in speakers. The cap will feature speakers built into the underside of the brim, and will have Bluetooth capabilities. Jabra has released earbuds, in 2018, that cancel the noise around the user and can toggle a setting called "hearthrough." This setting takes the sound around the user through the microphone and sends it to the user. This gives the user an augmented sound while they commute so they will be able to hear their surroundings while listening to their favorite music.  Many other devices can be considered entertainment wearables and need only be devices worn by the user to experience media.

Gaming
The gaming industry has always incorporated new technology. The first technology used for electronic gaming was a controller for Pong. The way users game has continuously evolved through each decade. Currently, the two most common forms of gaming is either using a controller for video game consoles or a mouse and keyboard for PC games.

In 2012, virtual reality headphones were reintroduced to the public. VR headsets were first conceptualized in the 1950s and officially created in the 1960s. The creation of the first virtual reality headset can be credited to Cinematographer Morton Heilig. He created a device known as the Sensorama in 1962. The Sensorama was a videogame like device that was so heavy that it needed to be held up by a suspension device. There has been numerous different wearable technology within the gaming industry from gloves to foot boards. The gaming space has offbeat inventions. In 2016 Sony debuted its first portable, connectable virtual reality headset codenamed Project Morpheus. The device was rebranded for PlayStation in 2018. Early 2019 Microsoft debut their HoloLens 2 that goes beyond just virtual reality into mixed reality headset. Their main focus is to be use mainly by the working class to help with difficult tasks. These headsets are used by educators, scientists, engineers, military personnel, surgeons, and many more. Headsets such as the HoloLens 2 allows the user to see a projected image at multiple angles and interact with the image. This helps gives a hands on experience to the user, which otherwise, they would not be able to get.

Military
Wearable technology within the military ranges from educational purposes, training exercises and sustainability technology.

The technology used for educational purposes within the military are mainly wearables that tracks a soldier's vitals. By tracking a soldier's heart rate, blood pressure, emotional status, etc. helps the research and development team best help the soldiers. According to chemist, Matt Coppock, he has started to enhance a soldier's lethality by collecting different biorecognition receptors. By doing so it will eliminate emerging environmental threats to the soldiers.

With the emergence of virtual reality it is only natural to start creating simulations using VR. This will better prepare the user for whatever situation they are training for. In the military there are combat simulations that soldiers will train on. The reason the military will use VR to train its soldiers is because it is the most interactive/immersive experience the user will feels without being put in a real situation. Recent simulations include a soldier wearing a shock belt during a combat simulation. Each time they are shot the belt will release a certain amount of electricity directly to the user's skin. This is to simulate a shot wound in the most humane way possible.

There are many sustainability technologies that military personnel wear in the field. One of which is a boot insert. This insert gauges how soldiers are carrying the weight of their equipment and how daily terrain factors impact their mission panning optimization. These sensors will not only help the military plan the best timeline but will help keep the soldiers at best physical/mental health.

Fashion
Fashionable wearables are "designed garments and accessories that combines aesthetics and style with functional technology." Garments are the interface to the exterior mediated through digital technology. It allows endless possibilities for the dynamic customization of apparel. All clothes have social, psychological and physical functions. However, with the use of technology these functions can be amplified. There are some wearables that are called E-textiles. These are the combination of textiles(fabric) and electronic components to create wearable technology within clothing. They are also known as smart textile and digital textile.

Wearables are made from a functionality perspective or from an aesthetic perspective. When made from a functionality perspective, designers and engineers create wearables to provide convenience to the user. Clothing and accessories are used as a tool to provide assistance to the user. Designers and engineers are working together to incorporate technology in the manufacturing of garments in order to provide functionalities that can simplify the lives of the user. For example, through smartwatches people have the ability to communicate on the go and track their health. Moreover, smart fabrics have a direct interaction with the user, as it allows sensing the customers' moves. This helps to address concerns such as privacy, communication and well-being. Years ago, fashionable wearables were functional but not very aesthetic. As of 2018, wearables are quickly growing to meet fashion standards through the production of garments that are stylish and comfortable. Furthermore, when wearables are made from an aesthetic perspective, designers explore with their work by using technology and collaborating with engineers. These designers explore the different techniques and methods available for incorporating electronics in their designs. They are not constrained by one set of materials or colors, as these can change in response to the embedded sensors in the apparel. They can decide how their designs adapt and responds to the user.

In 1967 French fashion designer Pierre Cardin, known for his futuristic designs created a collection of garments entitled "robe electronique" that featured a geometric embroidered pattern with LEDs (light emitting diodes). Pierre Cardin unique designs were featured in an episode of the Jetsons animated show where one of the main characters demonstrates how her luminous "Pierre Martian" dress works by plugging it into the mains. An exhibition about the work of Pierre Cardin was recently on display at the Brooklyn Museum in New York

In 1968, the Museum of Contemporary Craft in New York City held an exhibition named Body Covering which presented the infusion of technological wearables with fashion. Some of the projects presented were clothing that changed temperature, and party dresses that light up and produce noises, among others. The designers from this exhibition creatively embedded electronics into the clothes and accessories to create these projects. As of 2018, fashion designers continue to explore this method in the manufacturing of their designs by pushing the limits of fashion and technology.

House of Holland and NFC Ring
McLear, also known as NFC Ring, in partnership with the House of Henry Holland and Visa Europe Collab, showcased an event entitled "Cashless on the Catwalk" at the Collins Music Hall in Islington. Celebrities walking through the event could make purchases for the first time in history from a wearable device using McLear's NFC Rings by tapping the ring on a purchase terminal.

CuteCircuit
CuteCircuit pioneered the concept of interactive and app-controlled fashion with the creation in 2008 of the Galaxy Dress (part of the permanent collection of the Museum of Science and Industry in Chicago, US) and in 2012 of the tshirtOS (now infinitshirt). CuteCircuit fashion designs can interact and change colour providing the wearer a new way of communicating and expressing their personality and style. CuteCircuit's designs have been worn on the red carpet by celebrities such as Katy Perry and Nicole Scherzinger. and are part of the permanent collections of the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston.

Project Jacquard
Project Jacquard, a Google project led by Ivan Poupyrev, has been combining clothing with technology.  Google collaborated with Levi Strauss to create a jacket that has touch-sensitive areas that can control a smartphone. The cuff-links are removable and charge in a USB port.

Intel & Chromat

Intel partnered with the brand Chromat to create a sports bra that responds to changes in the body of the user, as well as a 3D printed carbon fiber dress that changes color based on the user's adrenaline levels. Intel also partnered with Google and TAG Heuer to make a smart watch.

Iris van Herpen

Smart fabrics and 3D printing have been incorporated in high fashion by the designer Iris van Herpen.  Van Herpen was the first designer to incorporate 3D printing technology of rapid prototyping into the fashion industry. The Belgian company Materialise NV collaborates with her in the printing of her designs.

Manufacturing process of e-textiles
There are several methods which companies manufacture e-textiles from fiber to garment and the insertion of electronics to the process. One of the methods being developed is when stretchable circuits are printed right into a fabric using conductive ink. The conductive ink uses metal fragments in the ink to become electrically conductive. Another method would be using conductive thread or yarn. This development includes the coating of non-conductive fiber (like Polyester PET) with conductive material such as metal like gold or silver to produce coated yarns or in order to produce an e-textile.

Common fabrication techniques for e-textiles include the following traditional methods:

 Embroidery
 Sewing
 Weaving
 Non-woven
 Knitting
 Spinning
 Breading
 Coating
 Printing
 Laying

Issues and concerns

The FDA drafted a guidance for low risk devices advises that personal health wearables are general wellness products if they only collect data on weight management, physical fitness, relaxation or stress management, mental acuity, self-esteem, sleep management, or sexual function. This was due to the privacy risks that were surrounding the devices. As more and more of the devices were being used as well as improved soon enough these devices would be able to tell if a person is showing certain health issues and give a course of action. With the rise of these devices being consumed so to the FDA drafted this guidance in order to decrease risk of a patient in case the app doesn't function properly. It is argued the ethics of it as well because although they help track health and promote independence there is still an invasion of privacy that ensues to gain information. This is due to the huge amounts of data that has to be transferred which could raise issues for both the user and the companies if a third partied gets access to this data. There was an issue with Google Glass that was used by surgeons in order to track vital signs of a patient where it had privacy issues relating to third party use of non-consented information. The issue is consent as well when it comes to wearable technology because it gives the ability to record and that is an issue when permission is not asked when a person is being recorded.

Compared to smartphones, wearable devices pose several new reliability challenges to device manufacturers and software developers. Limited display area, limited computing power, limited volatile and non-volatile memory, non-conventional shape of the devices, abundance of sensor data, complex communication patterns of the apps, and limited battery size—all these factors can contribute to salient software bugs and failure modes, such as, resource starvation or device hangs. Moreover, since many of the wearable devices are used for health purposes (either monitoring or treatment), their accuracy and robustness issues can give rise to safety concerns. Some tools have been developed to evaluate the reliability and the security properties of these wearable devices. The early results point to a weak spot of wearable software whereby overloading of the devices, such as through high UI activity, can cause failures.

See also

 Assistive technology
 Ai Pin
 Clothing technology
 Computer-mediated reality
 Cyborg
 Flexible electronics
 GPS watch
 Mixed reality
 Smart, connected products
 Wearable computer
 Internet of Musical Things

References

External links
 "Wear your heart on your sleeve" - physics.org
 "The Future of Wearable Technology" - video by Off Book

Internet of things
Fashion accessories
Ambient intelligence
Human–computer interaction
Ubiquitous computing
Wearable computers

Wearable technology


The Dutch (Dutch: ) are an ethnic group native to the Netherlands. They share a common ancestry and culture and speak the Dutch language. Dutch people and their descendants are found in migrant communities worldwide, notably in Aruba, Suriname, Guyana, Curaçao, Argentina, Brazil, Canada, Australia, South Africa, New Zealand and the United States. The Low Countries were situated around the border of France and the Holy Roman Empire, forming a part of their respective peripheries and the various territories of which they consisted had become virtually autonomous by the 13th century. Under the Habsburgs, the Netherlands were organised into a single administrative unit, and in the 16th and 17th centuries the Northern Netherlands gained independence from Spain as the Dutch Republic. The high degree of urbanisation characteristic of Dutch society was attained at a relatively early date. During the Republic the first series of large-scale Dutch migrations outside of Europe took place.

The traditional arts and culture of the Dutch encompasses various forms of traditional music, dances, architectural styles and clothing, some of which are globally recognisable. Internationally, Dutch painters such as Rembrandt, Vermeer and Van Gogh are held in high regard. The dominant religion of the Dutch is Christianity, both Catholic and Protestant, but in modern times the majority no longer belong to a specific Christian church. Significant percentages of the Dutch are adherents of humanism, agnosticism, atheism or individual spirituality.

History

Emergence
As with all ethnic groups, the ethnogenesis of the Dutch (and their predecessors) has been a lengthy and complex process. Though the majority of the defining characteristics (such as language, religion, architecture or cuisine) of the Dutch ethnic group have accumulated over the ages, it is difficult (if not impossible) to clearly pinpoint the exact emergence of the Dutch people; the interpretation of which is often highly personal. The text below hence focuses on the history of the Dutch ethnic group; for Dutch national history, see the history article of the Netherlands. For Dutch colonial history, see the article on the Dutch Empire.

General

In the first centuries CE, the Germanic tribes formed tribal societies with no apparent form of autocracy (chiefs only being elected in times of war), had religious beliefs based on Germanic paganism and spoke a dialect still closely resembling Common Germanic. Following the end of the migration period in the West around 500, with large federations (such as the Franks, Vandals, Alamanni and Saxons) settling the decaying Roman Empire, a series of monumental changes took place within these Germanic societies. Among the most important of these are their conversion from Germanic paganism to Christianity, the emergence of a new political system, centered on kings, and a continuing process of emerging mutual unintelligibility of their various dialects.

Specific

The general situation described above is applicable to most if not all modern European ethnic groups with origins among the Germanic tribes, such as the Frisians, Germans, English and the North-Germanic (Scandinavian) peoples. In the Low Countries, this phase began when the Franks, themselves a union of multiple smaller tribes (many of them, such as the Batavi, Chauci, Chamavi and Chattuarii, were already living in the Low Countries prior to the forming of the Frankish confederation), began to incur the northwestern provinces of the Roman Empire. Eventually, in 358, the Salian Franks, one of the three main subdivisions among the Frankish alliance, settled the area's Southern lands as foederati; Roman allies in charge of border defense.

Linguistically Old Frankish gradually evolved into Old Dutch, which was first attested in the 6th century, whereas religiously the Franks (beginning with the upper class) converted to Christianity from around 500 to 700. On a political level, the Frankish warlords abandoned tribalism and founded a number of kingdoms, eventually culminating in the Frankish Empire of Charlemagne.

However, the population make-up of the Frankish Empire, or even early Frankish kingdoms such as Neustria and Austrasia, was not dominated by Franks. Though the Frankish leaders controlled most of Western Europe, the Franks themselves were confined to the Northwestern part (i.e. the Rhineland, the Low Countries and Northern France) of the Empire. Eventually, the Franks in Northern France were assimilated by the general Gallo-Roman population, and took over their dialects (which became French), whereas the Franks in the Low Countries retained their language, which would evolve into Dutch. The current Dutch-French language border has (with the exception of the Nord-Pas-de-Calais in France and Brussels and the surrounding municipalities in Belgium) remained virtually identical ever since, and could be seen as marking the furthest pale of gallicisation among the Franks.

Convergence

The medieval cities of the Low Countries, which experienced major growth during the 11th and 12th centuries, were instrumental in breaking down the already relatively loose local form of feudalism. As they became increasingly powerful, they used their economic strength to influence the politics of their nobility. During the early 14th century, beginning in and inspired by the County of Flanders, the cities in the Low Countries gained huge autonomy and generally dominated or greatly influenced the various political affairs of the fief, including marriage succession.

While the cities were of great political importance, they also formed catalysts for medieval Dutch culture. Trade flourished, population numbers increased dramatically, and (advanced) education was no longer limited to the clergy; Dutch epic literature such as  (1150), the  and  (1200) were widely enjoyed. The various city guilds as well as the necessity of water boards (in charge of dikes, canals, etc.) in the Dutch delta and coastal regions resulted in an exceptionally high degree of communal organisation. It is also around this time, that ethnonyms such as Diets and Nederlands emerge.

In the second half of the 14th century, the dukes of Burgundy gained a foothold in the Low Countries through the marriage in 1369 of Philip the Bold of Burgundy to the heiress of the Count of Flanders. This was followed by a series of marriages, wars, and inheritances among the other Dutch fiefs and around 1450 the most important fiefs were under Burgundian rule, while complete control was achieved after the end of the Guelders Wars in 1543, thereby unifying the fiefs of the Low Countries under one ruler. This process marked a new episode in the development of the Dutch ethnic group, as now political unity started to emerge, consolidating the strengthened cultural and linguistic unity.

Consolidation

Despite their linguistic and cultural unity, and (in the case of Flanders, Brabant and Holland) economic similarities, there was still little sense of political unity among the Dutch people.

However, the centralist policies of Burgundy in the 14th and 15th centuries, at first violently opposed by the cities of the Low Countries, had a profound impact and changed this. During Charles the Bold's many wars, which were a major economic burden for the Burgundian Netherlands, tensions slowly increased. In 1477, the year of Charles' sudden death at Nancy, the Low Countries rebelled against their new liege, Mary of Burgundy, and presented her with a set of demands.

The subsequently issued Great Privilege met many of these demands, which included that Dutch, not French, should be the administrative language in the Dutch-speaking provinces and that the States-General had the right to hold meetings without the monarch's permission or presence. The overall tenure of the document (which was declared void by Mary's son and successor, Philip IV) aimed for more autonomy for the counties and duchies, but nevertheless all the fiefs presented their demands together, rather than separately. This is evidence that by this time a sense of common interest was emerging among the provinces of the Netherlands. The document itself clearly distinguishes between the Dutch speaking and French speaking parts of the Seventeen Provinces.

Following Mary's marriage to Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor, the Netherlands were now part of the Habsburg lands. Further centralised policies of the Habsburgs (like their Burgundian predecessors) again met with resistance, but, peaking with the formation of the collateral councils of 1531 and the Pragmatic Sanction of 1549, were still implemented. The rule of Philip II of Spain sought even further centralist reforms, which, accompanied by religious dictates and excessive taxation, resulted in the Dutch Revolt. The Dutch provinces, though fighting alone now, for the first time in their history found themselves fighting a common enemy. This, together with the growing number of Dutch intelligentsia and the Dutch Golden Age in which Dutch culture, as a whole, gained international prestige, consolidated the Dutch as an ethnic group.

National identity
By the middle of the 16th century an overarching, 'national' (rather than 'ethnic') identity seemed in development in the Habsburg Netherlands, when inhabitants began to refer to it as their 'fatherland' and were beginning to be seen as a collective entity abroad; however, the persistence of language barriers, traditional strife between towns, and provincial particularism continued to form an impediment to more thorough unification. Following excessive taxation together with attempts at diminishing the traditional autonomy of the cities and estates in the Low Countries, followed by the religious oppression after being transferred to Habsburg Spain, the Dutch revolted, in what would become the Eighty Years' War. For the first time in their history, the Dutch established their independence from foreign rule. However, during the war it became apparent that the goal of liberating all the provinces and cities that had signed the Union of Utrecht, which roughly corresponded to the Dutch-speaking part of the Spanish Netherlands, was unreachable. The Northern provinces were free, but during the 1580s the South was recaptured by Spain, and, despite various attempts, the armies of the Republic were unable to expel them. In 1648, the Peace of Münster, ending the Eighty Years' War, acknowledged the independence of the Dutch Republic, but maintained Spanish control of the Southern Netherlands. Apart from a brief reunification from 1815 until 1830, within the United Kingdom of the Netherlands (which included the Francophones/Walloons) the Dutch have been separated from the Flemings to this day.

Dutch Empire

The Dutch colonial empire () comprised the overseas territories and trading posts controlled and administered by Dutch chartered companies (mainly the Dutch West India Company and the Dutch East India Company) and subsequently by the Dutch Republic (1581–1795), and by the modern Kingdom of the Netherlands after 1815.

Ethnic identity

Hollander vs. Nederlander
Many Dutch people (Nederlanders) will object to being called Hollanders as a national denominator on much the same grounds as many Welsh or Scots would object to being called English instead of British, as the Holland region only comprises 2 of the 12 provinces, and 20% of the Dutch citizens. The same holds for the country being referred to as Holland instead of the Netherlands. In January 2020, the Dutch government officially dropped its support of the word Holland for the whole country.

(Multi)cultural identity
The ideologies associated with (Romantic) Nationalism of the 19th and 20th centuries never really caught on in the Netherlands. The (re)definition of Dutch cultural identity has become a subject of public debate following the increasing influence of the European Union and the influx of non-Western immigrants in the post-World War II period. In this debate typically Dutch traditions have been put to the foreground.

In sociological studies and governmental reports, ethnicity is often referred to with the terms autochtoon and allochtoon.  These legal concepts refer to place of birth and citizenship rather than cultural background and do not coincide with the more fluid concepts of ethnicity used by cultural anthropologists.

Greater Netherlands
As did many European ethnicities during the 19th century, the Dutch also saw the emerging of various Greater Netherlands- and pan-movements seeking to unite the Dutch-speaking peoples across the continent. During the first half of the 20th century, there was a prolific surge in writings concerning the subject. One of its most active proponents was the historian Pieter Geyl, who wrote  ('The History of the Dutch tribe/people') as well as numerous essays on the subject.

During World War II, when both Belgium and the Netherlands fell to German occupation, fascist elements (such as the NSB and Verdinaso) tried to convince the Nazis into combining the Netherlands and Flanders. The Germans however refused to do so, as this conflicted with their ultimate goal, the  ('New Order') of creating a single pan-Germanic racial state. During the entire Nazi occupation, the Germans denied any assistance to Greater Dutch ethnic nationalism, and, by decree of Hitler himself, actively opposed it.

The 1970s marked the beginning of formal cultural and linguistic cooperation between Belgium (Flanders) and the Netherlands on an international scale.

Statistics
The total number of Dutch can be defined in roughly two ways. By taking the total of all people with full Dutch ancestry, according to the current CBS definition (both parents born in the Netherlands), resulting in an estimated 16,000,000 Dutch people, or by the sum of all people worldwide with both full and partial Dutch ancestry, which would result in a number around 33,000,000.

Linguistics

Language

Dutch is the main language spoken by most Dutch people. It is a West Germanic language spoken by around 29 million people. Old Frankish, a precursor of the Dutch standard language, was first attested around 500, in a Frankish legal text, the , and has a written record of more than 1500 years, although the material before around 1200 is fragmentary and discontinuous.

As a West Germanic language, Dutch is related to other languages in that group such as West Frisian, English and German. Many West Germanic dialects underwent a series of sound shifts. The Anglo-Frisian nasal spirant law and Anglo-Frisian brightening resulted in certain early Germanic languages evolving into what are now English and West Frisian, while the Second Germanic sound shift resulted in what would become (High) German. Dutch underwent none of these sound changes and thus occupies a central position in the West Germanic languages group.

Standard Dutch has a sound inventory of 13 vowels, 6 diphthongs and 23 consonants, of which the voiceless velar fricative (hard ch) is considered a well known sound, perceived as typical for the language. Other relatively well known features of the Dutch language and usage are the frequent use of digraphs like Oo, Ee, Uu and Aa, the ability to form long compounds and the use of slang, including profanity.

The Dutch language has many dialects. These dialects are usually grouped into six main categories; Hollandic, West-Flemish/Zeelandic, East Flemish, Brabantic and Limburgish. The Dutch part of Low Saxon is sometimes also viewed as a dialect of Dutch as it falls in the area of the Dutch standard language. Of these dialects, Hollandic and Dutch Low Saxon are solely spoken by Northerners. Brabantic, East Flemish, West-Flemish/Zeelandic and Limburgish are cross border dialects in this respect. Lastly, the dialectal situation is characterised by the major distinction between 'Hard G' and 'Soft G' speaking areas (see also Dutch phonology). Some linguists subdivide these into approximately 28 distinct dialects.

Dutch immigrants also exported the Dutch language. Dutch was spoken by some settlers in the United States as a native language from the arrival of the first permanent Dutch settlers in 1615, surviving in isolated ethnic pockets until about 1900, when it ceased to be spoken except by first generation Dutch immigrants. The Dutch language nevertheless had a significant impact on the region around New York. For example, the first language of U.S. president Martin Van Buren was Dutch. Most of the Dutch immigrants of the 20th century quickly began to speak the language of their new country. For example, of the inhabitants of New Zealand, 0.7% say their home language is Dutch, despite the percentage of Dutch heritage being considerably higher.

Dutch is currently an official language of the Kingdom of the Netherlands (Netherlands, Aruba, Sint Maarten, and Curaçao), Belgium, Suriname, the European Union, and the Union of South American Nations (due to Suriname being a member). In South Africa and Namibia, Afrikaans is spoken, a daughter language of Dutch, which itself was an official language of South Africa until 1983. The Dutch, Flemish and Surinamese governments coordinate their language activities in the  ('Dutch Language Union'), an institution also responsible for governing the Dutch Standard language, for example in matters of orthography.

Etymology of autonym and exonym

The origins of the word Dutch go back to Proto-Germanic, the ancestor of all Germanic languages,  (meaning "national/popular"); akin to Old Dutch , Old High German , Old English  and Gothic  all meaning "(of) the common (Germanic) people". As the tribes among the Germanic peoples began to differentiate its meaning began to change. The Anglo-Saxons of England for example gradually stopped referring to themselves as  and instead started to use , after their tribe. On the continent  evolved into two meanings:  meaning "Dutch (people)" (archaic) and  (German, meaning "German (people)"). At first the English language used (the contemporary form of) Dutch to refer to any or all of the Germanic speakers on the European mainland (e.g. the Dutch, the Frisians and the Germans). Gradually its meaning shifted to the Germanic people they had most contact with, both because of their geographical proximity, but also because of the rivalry in trade and overseas territories: the people from the Republic of the Netherlands, the Dutch.

In the Dutch language, the Dutch refer to themselves as .  derives from the Dutch word , a cognate of English Nether both meaning "low", and "near the sea" (same meaning in both English and Dutch), a reference to the geographical texture of the Dutch homeland; the western portion of the North European Plain. Although not as old as , the term  has been in continuous use since 1250.

Names

Tussenvoegsels
Dutch surnames (and surnames of Dutch origin) are generally easily recognisable. Many Dutch surnames feature a  (), which is a family name affix positioned between a person's given name and the main part of their family name. The most common  are  (e.g. A. van Gogh "from/of"),  (e.g. A. de Vries, "the"),  (e.g. A. 't Hart, "the"), and  (e.g. A. van den Berg, "from/of the"). These affixes are not merged, nor capitalised by default. The second affix in a Dutch surname is never capitalised (e.g. Van den Berg). The first affix in a Dutch surname is only capitalised if it is not preceded by a first name, initial or other surname. For example Vincent van Gogh, V. van Gogh, mr. Van Gogh, Van Gogh and V. van Gogh-van den Berg are all correct, but Vincent Van Gogh is wrong.
Many surnames of Dutch diaspora (mainly in the English-speaking world and Francophonie) are adapted, not only in pronunciation but also in spelling. For example, by merging and capitalising the affixes and main parts of the surnames (e.g. A. van der Bilt  becomes A. Vanderbilt ).

Spelling
Dutch names can differ greatly in spelling. The surname Baks, for example is also recorded as Backs, Bacxs, Bax, Bakx, Baxs, Bacx, Backx, Bakxs and Baxcs. Though written differently, pronunciation remains identical. Dialectal variety also commonly occurs, with De Smet and De Smit both meaning Smith for example.

Main types of surnames
There are several main types of surnames in Dutch:
Patronymic surnames; the name is based on the personal name of the father of the bearer. Historically this has been by far the most dominant form. These type of names fluctuated in form as the surname was not constant. If a man called Willem Janssen (William, John's son) had a son named Jacob, he would be known as Jacob Willemsen (Jacob, Williams' son). Following civil registry, the form at time of registry became permanent. Hence today many Dutch people are named after ancestors living in the early 19th century when civil registry was introduced to the Low Countries. These names rarely feature .
Toponymic surnames; the name is based on the location on which the bearer lives or lived. In Dutch this form of surname nearly always includes one or several , mainly ,  and variants. Many emigrants removed the spacing and capitalised these words, leading to derived names for well-known people like Cornelius Vanderbilt. While  denotes of, Dutch surnames are sometimes associated with the upper class of society or aristocracy (cf. William of Orange). However, in Dutch  often reflects the original place of origin (Van der Bilt – one who comes from De Bilt); rather than denote any aristocratic status.
Occupational surnames; the name is based on the occupation of the bearer. Well known examples include Molenaar, Visser and Smit. This practice is similar to English surnames (the example names translate perfectly to Miller, Fisher and Smith).
Cognominal surnames; based on nicknames relating to physical appearance or other features, on the appearance or character of the bearer (at least at the time of registration). For example  ('the tall one'),  ('the big one'),  ('the brave one').
Other surnames may relate to animals. For example;  ('The Lion'),  ('Birds'),  ('Cuckoo') and  ('The Falcon'); to a desired social status; e.g.,  ('Prince'),  ('King'),  ('Emperor'); or to colour; e.g.  ('red'),  ('blue'),  ('the white'). There is also a set of made up or descriptive names; e.g.  ('born naked').

Culture

Religion

Prior to the arrival of Christianity, the ancestors of the Dutch adhered to a form of Germanic paganism augmented with various Celtic elements. At the start of the 6th century, the first (Hiberno-Scottish) missionaries arrived. They were later replaced by Anglo-Saxon missionaries, who eventually succeeded in converting most of the inhabitants by the 8th century. Since then, Christianity has been the dominant religion in the region.

In the early 16th century, the Protestant Reformation began to form and soon spread in the Westhoek and the County of Flanders, where secret open-air sermons were held, called  ('hedgerow orations') in Dutch. The ruler of the Dutch regions, Philip II of Spain, felt it was his duty to fight Protestantism and, after the wave of iconoclasm, sent troops to crush the rebellion and make the Low Countries a Catholic region once more. The Protestants in the southern Low Countries fled North en masse. Most of the Dutch Protestants were now concentrated in the free Dutch provinces north of the river Rhine, while the Catholic Dutch were situated in the Spanish-occupied or -dominated South. After the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, Protestantism did not spread South, resulting in a difference in religious situations.

Contemporary Dutch, according to a 2017 study conducted by Statistics Netherlands, are mostly irreligious with 51% of the population professing no religion. The largest Christian denomination with 24% are the Roman Catholics, followed by 15% Protestants. Furthermore, there are 5% Muslims and 6% others (among others Buddhists). People of Dutch ancestry in the United States and South Africa are generally more religious than their European counterparts; for example, the numerous Dutch communities of western Michigan remain strongholds of the Reformed Church in America and the Christian Reformed Church, both descendants of the Dutch Reformed Church.

Cultural divergences
One cultural division within Dutch culture is that between the formerly Protestant North and the nowadays Catholic South, which encompasses various cultural differences between the Northern Dutch on one side and the Southern Dutch on the other. This subject has historically received attention from historians, notably Pieter Geyl (1887–1966) and Carel Gerretson (1884–1958). The historical pluriformity of the Dutch cultural landscape has given rise to several theories aimed at both identifying and explaining cultural divergences between different regions. One theory, proposed by A.J. Wichers in 1965, sees differences in mentality between the southeastern, or 'higher', and northwestern, or 'lower' regions within the Netherlands, and seeks to explain these by referring to the different degrees to which these areas were feudalised during the Middle Ages. Another, more recent cultural divide is that between the Randstad, the urban agglomeration in the West of the country, and the other provinces of the Netherlands.

In Dutch, the cultural division between North and South is also referred to by the colloquialism "below/above the great rivers" as the rivers Rhine and Meuse roughly form a natural boundary between the Northern Dutch (those Dutch living North of these rivers), and the Southern Dutch (those living South of them). The division is partially caused by (traditional) religious differences, with the North used to be predominantly Protestant and the South still having a majority of Catholics. Linguistic (dialectal) differences (positioned along the Rhine/Meuse rivers) and to a lesser extent, historical economic development of both regions are also important elements in any dissimilarity.

On a smaller scale cultural pluriformity can also be found; be it in local architecture or (perceived) character. This wide array of regional identities positioned within such a relatively small area, has often been attributed to the fact that many of the current Dutch provinces were de facto independent states for much of their history, as well as the importance of local Dutch dialects (which often largely correspond with the provinces themselves) to the people who speak them.

Northern Dutch culture
Northern Dutch culture is marked by Protestantism. Though today many do not adhere to Protestantism anymore, or are only nominally part of a congregation, Protestant-(influenced) values and customs are present. Generally, it can be said that the Northern Dutch are more pragmatic, favor a direct approach, and display a less-exuberant lifestyle when compared to Southerners. On a global scale, the Northern Dutch have formed the dominant vanguard of the Dutch language and culture since the fall of Antwerp, exemplified by the use of "Dutch" itself as the demonym for the country in which they form a majority; the Netherlands. Linguistically, Northerners speak any of the Hollandic, Zeelandic, and Dutch Low Saxon dialects natively, or are influenced by them when they speak the Standard form of Dutch. Economically and culturally, the traditional centre of the region have been the provinces of North and South Holland, or today; the Randstad, although for a brief period during the 13th or 14th century it lay more towards the east, when various eastern towns and cities aligned themselves with the emerging Hanseatic League. The entire Northern Dutch cultural area is located in the Netherlands, its ethnically Dutch population is estimated to be just under 10,000,000. Northern Dutch culture has been less influenced by French influence than the Southern Dutch culture area.

Frisians

Frisians, specifically West Frisians, are an ethnic group present in the north of the Netherlands, mainly concentrated in the province of Friesland. Culturally, modern Frisians and the (Northern) Dutch are rather similar; the main and generally most important difference being that Frisians speak West Frisian, one of the three sub-branches of the Frisian languages, alongside Dutch, and they find this to be a defining part of their identity as Frisians.

According to a 1970 inquiry, West Frisians identified themselves more with the Dutch than with East Frisians or North Frisians. A study in 1984 found that 39% of the inhabitants of Friesland considered themselves "primarily Frisian," although without precluding also being Dutch. A further 36 per cent claimed they were Dutch, but also Frisian, the remaining 25% saw themselves as only Dutch. A 2013 study showed that 45% of the population of Friesland saw themselves as "primarily Frisian", again without precluding the possibility of also identifying as Dutch. Frisians are not disambiguated from the Dutch people in Dutch official statistics.

In the Netherlands itself "West-Frisian" refers to the Hollandic dialect spoken in the northern part of the province of North-Holland known as West-Friesland, as well as "West-Frisians" referring to its speakers, not to the language or inhabitants of the Frisian part of the country. Historically the whole Dutch North Seacoast was known as Frisia.

Southern Dutch culture

The Southern Dutch sphere generally consists of the areas in which the population was traditionally Catholic. During the early Middle Ages up until the Dutch Revolt, the Southern regions were more powerful, as well as more culturally and economically developed. At the end of the Dutch Revolt, it became clear the Habsburgs were unable to reconquer the North, while the North's military was too weak to conquer the South, which, under the influence of the Counter-Reformation, had started to develop a political and cultural identity of its own. The Southern Dutch, including Dutch Brabant and Limburg, remained Catholic or returned to Catholicism. The Dutch dialects spoken by this group are Brabantic, South Guelderish, Limburgish and East and West Flemish. In the Netherlands, an oft-used adage used for indicating this cultural boundary is the phrase boven/onder de rivieren (Dutch: above/below the rivers), in which 'the rivers' refer to the Rhine and the Meuse. Southern Dutch culture has been influenced more by French culture, as opposed to the Northern Dutch culture area.

Flemings

Within the field of ethnography, it is argued that the Dutch-speaking populations of the Netherlands and Belgium have a number of common characteristics, with a mostly shared language, some generally similar or identical customs, and with no clearly separate ancestral origin or origin myth.

However, the popular perception of being a single group varies greatly, depending on subject matter, locality, and personal background. Generally, the Flemish will seldom identify themselves as being Dutch and vice versa, especially on a national level. This is partly caused by the popular stereotypes in the Netherlands as well as Flanders, which are mostly based on the "cultural extremes" of both Northern and Southern culture, including in religious identity. Though these stereotypes tend to ignore the transitional area formed by the Southern provinces of the Netherlands and most Northern reaches of Belgium, resulting in overgeneralisations. This self-perceived split between Flemings and Dutch, despite the common language, may be compared to how Austrians do not consider themselves to be Germans, despite the similarities they share with southern Germans such as Bavarians. In both cases, the Catholic Austrians and Flemish do not see themselves as sharing the fundamentally Protestant-based identities of their northern counterparts.

In the case of Belgium, there is the added influence of nationalism as the Dutch language and culture were oppressed by the francophone government. This was followed by a nationalist backlash during the late 19th and early 20th centuries that saw little help from the Dutch government (which for a long time following the Belgian Revolution had a reticent and contentious relationship with the newly formed Belgium and a largely indifferent attitude towards its Dutch-speaking inhabitants) and, hence, focused on pitting "Flemish" culture against French culture, resulting in the forming of the Flemish nation within Belgium, a consciousness of which can be very marked among some Dutch-speaking Belgians.

Genetics

The largest patterns of human genetic variation within the Netherlands show strong correlations with geography and distinguish between: (1) North and South; (2) East and West; and (3) the middle-band and the rest of the country. The distribution of gene variants for eye colour, metabolism, brain processes, body height and immune system show differences between these regions that reflect evolutionary selection pressures.

The largest genetic differences within the Netherlands are observed between the North and the South (with the three major rivers – Rijn, Waal, Maas – as a border), with the Randstad showing a mixture of these two ancestral backgrounds. The European North-South cline correlates highly with this Dutch North-South cline and shows several other similarities, such as a correlation with height (with the North being taller on average), blue/brown eye colour (with the North having more blue eyes), and genome-wide homozygosity (with the North having lower homozygosity levels). The correlation with genome-wide homozygosity likely reflects the serial founder effect that was initiated with the ancient successive out-of-Africa migrations. This does not necessarily mean that these events (north-ward migration and evolutionary selection pressures) took place within the borders of the Netherlands; it could also be that Southern Europeans have migrated more to the South of the Netherlands, and/or Northern Europeans more to the Northern parts.

The north–south differences were likely maintained by the relatively strong segregation of the Catholic South and the Protestant North during the last centuries. During the last 50 years or so there was a large increase of non-religious individuals in the Netherlands. Their spouses are more likely to come from a different genetic background than those of religious individuals, causing non-religious individuals to show lower levels of genome-wide homozygosity than Catholics or Protestants.

Dutch diaspora

Since World War II, Dutch emigrants have mainly departed the Netherlands for Canada, the Federal Republic of Germany, the United States, Belgium, Australia, and South Africa, in that order. Today, large Dutch communities also exist in the United Kingdom, France, Spain, Turkey, and New Zealand.

Central and Eastern Europe
During the German eastward expansion (mainly taking place between the 10th and 13th century), a number of Dutchmen moved as well. They settled mainly east of the Elbe and Saale rivers, regions largely inhabited by Polabian Slavs. After the capture of territory along the Elbe and Havel Rivers in the 1160s, Dutch settlers from flooded regions in Holland used their expertise to build dikes in Brandenburg, but also settled in and around major German cities such as Bremen and Hamburg and German regions of Mecklenburg and Brandenburg. From the 13th to the 15th centuries, Prussia invited several waves of Dutch and Frisians to settle throughout the country, mainly along the Baltic Sea coast.

In the early-to-mid-16th century, Dutch Mennonites began to move from the Low Countries (especially Friesland and Flanders) to the Vistula delta region, seeking religious freedom and exemption from military service. The territories which they settled were located in the autonomous province of Polish Prussia in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, what is contemporary northern Poland. These communities became known as the Olęders, a Polish rendering of the term Hollander. After the partitions of Poland, the Prussian authorities took over and its government eliminated exemption from military service on religious grounds.

The Dutch Mennonites also migrated as far as the Russian Empire, where they were offered land along the Volga River. Some settlers left for Siberia in search for fertile land. The Russian capital itself, Moscow, also had a number of Dutch immigrants, mostly working as craftsmen. Arguably the most famous of which was Anna Mons, the mistress of Peter the Great.

Historically Dutch also lived directly on the eastern side of the German border, most have since been assimilated (apart from ~40,000 recent border migrants), especially since the establishment of Germany itself in 1872. Cultural marks can still be found though. In some villages and towns a Dutch Reformed church is present, and a number of border districts (such as Cleves, Borken and Viersen) have towns and village with an etymologically Dutch origin. In the area around Cleves (German , Dutch ) traditional dialect is Dutch, rather than surrounding (High/ Low) German. More to the South, cities historically housing many Dutch traders have retained Dutch exonyms for example Aachen () and Cologne/Köln () to this day.

Southern Africa

Although Portuguese explorers made contact with the Cape of Good Hope as early as 1488, much of present-day South Africa was ignored by Europeans until the Dutch East India Company (VOC) established its first outpost at Cape Town, in 1652. Dutch colonisers began arriving shortly thereafter, making the Cape home to the oldest Western-based civilisation south of the Sahara. Some of the earliest mulatto communities in the country were subsequently formed through unions between colonists, enslaved people, and various Khoikhoi tribes. This led to the development of a major South African ethnic group, Cape Coloureds, who adopted the Dutch language and culture. As the number of Europeans—particularly women—in the Cape swelled, South African whites closed ranks as a community to protect their privileged status, eventually marginalising Coloureds as a separate and inferior racial group.

Since VOC employees proved inept farmers, tracts of land were granted to married Dutch citizens who undertook to spend at least twenty years in South Africa. Upon the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685, they were joined by French Huguenots fleeing religious persecution at home, who interspersed among the original freemen. Between 1685 and 1707 the company also extended free passage to any Dutch families wishing to resettle at the Cape. At the beginning of the eighteenth century there were roughly 600 people of Dutch birth or descent residing in South Africa, and around the end of Dutch rule in 1806 the number had reached 13,360.

Some  eventually turned to cattle ranching as , creating their own distinct sub-culture centered around a semi-nomadic lifestyle and isolated patriarchal communities. By the eighteenth century there had emerged a new people in Africa who identified as , rather than Dutchmen, after the land they had colonised.

Afrikaners are dominated by two main groups, the Cape Dutch and Boers, which are partly defined by different traditions of society, law, and historical economic bases. Although their language (Afrikaans) and religion remain undeniably linked to that of the Netherlands, Afrikaner culture has been strongly shaped by three centuries in South Africa. Afrikaans, which developed from Early Modern Dutch, has been influenced by English, Malay-Portuguese creole, and various African languages. Dutch was taught to South African students as late as 1914 and a few upper-class Afrikaners used it in polite society, but the first Afrikaans literature had already appeared in 1861. The Union of South Africa granted Dutch official status upon its inception, but in 1925 Parliament openly recognised Afrikaans as a separate language. It differs from Standard Dutch by several pronunciations borrowed from Malay, German, or English, the loss of case and gender distinctions, and in the extreme simplification of grammar. The dialects are no longer considered quite mutually intelligible.

During the 1950s, Dutch immigration to South Africa began to increase exponentially for the first time in over a hundred years. The country registered a net gain of around 45,000 Dutch immigrants between 1950 and 2001, making it the sixth most popular destination for citizens of the Netherlands living abroad.

Southeast Asia

Since the 16th century, there has been a Dutch presence in South East Asia, Taiwan, and Japan. In many cases, the Dutch were the first Europeans whom the people living there encountered. Between 1602 and 1796, the VOC sent almost a million Europeans to work in its territories in Asia. The majority died of disease or made their way back to Europe, but some of them made the Indies their new home. Interaction between the Dutch and the indigenous populations mainly took place in Sri Lanka and the modern Indonesian Islands. Most of the time, Dutch soldiers married local women and settled in the colonies. Through the centuries, there developed a relatively large Dutch-speaking population of mixed Dutch and Indonesian descent, known as Indos or Dutch-Indonesians. The expulsion of Dutchmen following the Indonesian Revolt means that currently the majority of this group lives in the Netherlands. Statistics show that Indos are the largest minority group in the Netherlands and number close to half a million (excluding the third generation).

West Africa

Though many Ghanaians of European origin are mostly of British origin, there are a small number of Dutch people in Ghana. The forts in Ghana have a small number of a Dutch population. The most of the Dutch population is held in Accra, where the Netherlands has its embassy.

Australia and New Zealand

Though the Dutch were the first Europeans to visit Australia and New Zealand, colonisation did not take place and it was only after World War II that a sharp increase in Dutch emigration to Australia occurred. Poor economic prospects for many Dutchmen as well as increasing demographic pressures, in the post-war Netherlands were a powerful incentive to emigrate. Due to Australia experiencing a shortage of agricultural and metal industry workers it, and to a lesser extent New Zealand, seemed an attractive possibility, with the Dutch government actively promoting emigration.

The effects of Dutch migration to Australia can still be felt. There are many Dutch associations and a Dutch-language newspaper continues to be published. The Dutch have remained a tightly knit community, especially in the large cities. In total, about 310,000 people of Dutch ancestry live in Australia whereas New Zealand has some 100,000 Dutch descendants.

North America

The Dutch had settled in North America long before the establishment of the United States of America. For a long time the Dutch lived in Dutch colonies (New Netherland settlements), owned and regulated by the Dutch Republic, which later became part of the Thirteen Colonies.

Nevertheless, many Dutch American communities remained virtually isolated towards the rest of North America up until the American Civil War, in which the Dutch fought for the North and adopted many American ways.

Most future waves of Dutch immigrants were quickly assimilated. There have been five U.S. presidents of Dutch descent: Martin Van Buren (8th, first president who was not of British descent, first language was Dutch), Franklin D. Roosevelt (32nd, elected to four terms in office, he served from 1933 to 1945, the only U.S. president to have served more than two terms), Theodore Roosevelt (26th), as well as George H. W. Bush (41st) and George W. Bush (43rd), the latter two descendant from the Schuyler family.

The first Dutch people to come to Canada were Dutch Americans among the United Empire Loyalists. The largest wave was in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, when large numbers of Dutch helped settle the Canadian west. During this period significant numbers also settled in major cities like Toronto.

While interrupted by World War I, this migration returned in the 1920s, but again halted during the Great Depression and World War II. After the war a large number of Dutch immigrants moved to Canada, including a number of war brides of the Canadian soldiers who liberated the Netherlands. There were officially 1,886 Dutch war brides emigrating to Canada, ranking second after British war brides. During the war Canada had sheltered Crown Princess Juliana and her family. Due to these close links during and after the war, Canada became a popular destination for Dutch immigrants.

South America

In South America, the Dutch settled mainly in Brazil, Argentina and Suriname.

The Dutch were among the first Europeans settling in Brazil during the 17th century. They controlled the northern coast of Brazil from 1630 to 1654 (Dutch Brazil). A significant number of Dutch immigrants arrived in that period. The state of Pernambuco (then Captaincy of Pernambuco) was once a colony of the Dutch Republic from 1630 to 1661. There are a considerable number of people who are descendants of the Dutch colonists in Paraíba (for example in Frederikstad, today João Pessoa), Pernambuco, Alagoas and Rio Grande do Norte. During the 19th and 20th century, Dutch immigrants from the Netherlands immigrated to the Brazil's Center-South, where they founded a few cities. The majority of Dutch Brazilians reside in the states of Espírito Santo, Paraná, Rio Grande do Sul, Pernambuco and São Paulo. There are also small groups of Dutch Brazilians in Goiás, Ceará, Rio Grande do Norte, Mato Grosso do Sul, Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro.

In Argentina, Dutch immigration has been one of many migration flows from Europe in the country, although it has not been as numerous as in other cases (they failed to account for 1% of total migration received). However, Argentina received a large contingent of Dutch since 1825. The largest community is in the city of Tres Arroyos in the south of the province of Buenos Aires.

In Suriname the Dutch migrant settlers in search of a better life started arriving in the 19th century with the boeroes, poor farmers arriving from the Dutch provinces of Gelderland, Utrecht, and Groningen. Furthermore, the Surinamese ethnic group, the Creoles, persons of mixed African-European ancestry, are partially of Dutch descent. Many Dutch settlers left Suriname after independence in 1975, which diminished the white Dutch population in the country. Currently there are around 1000 boeroes left in Suriname, and 3000 outside Suriname. Inside Suriname, they work in several sectors of society and some families still work in the agricultural sector.

See also

Afrikaner
Dutch Brazil
Dutch Chilean
Dutch Mexicans
Dutch customs and etiquette
Dutch Surinamese
Flemish people
List of Dutch people
List of Germanic peoples
Netherlands (terminology)
Netherlands Antilles
New Netherlands
Dutch American
Dutch cuisine
Dutch culture

Notes

References

Further reading

 Blom, J. C. H. and E. Lamberts, eds.  History of the Low Countries (2006) 504pp excerpt and text search ; also complete edition online
 Bolt, Rodney.The Xenophobe's Guide to the Dutch. Oval Projects Ltd 1999,
 Boxer. Charles R. The Dutch in Brazil, 1624–1654. By The Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1957,
 Burke, Gerald L. The making of Dutch towns: A study in urban development from the 10th–17th centuries (1960)
De Jong, Gerald Francis. The Dutch in America, 1609–1974.Twayne Publishers 1975,
Hunt, John. Dutch South Africa: early settlers at the Cape, 1652–1708. By John Hunt, Heather-Ann Campbell. Troubador Publishing Ltd 2005, .
  Koopmans, Joop W.,  and Arend H. Huussen, Jr. Historical Dictionary of the Netherlands (2nd ed. 2007)excerpt and text search
Kossmann-Putto, J. A. and E. H. Kossmann. The Low Countries: History of the Northern and Southern Netherlands (1987)
Kroes, Rob. The Persistence of Ethnicity: Dutch Calvinist pioneers. By University of Illinois Press 1992,
 Stallaerts, Robert. The A to Z of Belgium (2010), a historical encyclopedia
White & Boucke. The UnDutchables. .

External links

Ethnic groups in the Netherlands
Articles containing video clips

Dutch people


Andrew Munro, M.A., (6 July 1869 – 1 July 1935) was a Scottish lecturer in mathematics, Vice President, Bursar, Steward and Senior Fellow of Queens' College, Cambridge for 45 years from 1893 to 1935.  The Munro scholarships and studentships at Queens' College, Cambridge are named in his honour.

Early life
Andrew Munro was born 6 July 1869, in Rosskeen, Ross and Cromarty, Scotland, the son of Andrew Munro and Margaret Small of Invergordon in Ross and Cromarty. His father was a banker, mill owner and farmer, who also served as Chief Magistrate for Invergordon and Justice of the Peace for Ross and Cromarty. The Munros were members of the Clan Munro.  His mother was the daughter of John Small (1797–1847), under Librarian of the University of Edinburgh, and the sister of John Small (1828–1886), who succeeded his father as under Librarian and later was appointed Librarian.  Munro's mother and family were members of the Smalls of Dirnanean, Perthshire, Scotland.

Academics
Munro initially attended Aberdeen University, Scotland, later transferring to Cambridge. He won a foundation scholarship to Queens' College, Cambridge in 1890, and two years later was designated as the fourth Wrangler.

In 1892, Munro received his Bachelor of Arts degree, followed by a Masters of Arts degree in 1896. In 1893, he was elected a Fellow at Queens' College, Cambridge. For the next 20 years he served as a lecturer, director of studies, and supervisor in mathematics at the college.

In 1913, Munro became Bursar of Queens' College, Cambridge. In this role, Munro advised the college to dispose of most of its farmland after World War I and invest in government stocks, which significantly increased the college's endowments.

Legacy
Andrew Munro died on 1 July 1935 at Dormy House Hotel in Sheringham, Norfolk, England. He was buried in St. Giles Cemetery in Cambridge, now referred to as Parish of the Ascension Burial Ground, on 4 July 1935.

A portion of Munro's estate, upwards of £26,000, was left to Queens' College, Cambridge to fund scholarships in mathematics and physics. These scholarships and studentships are named in Munro's honour.

The Munro Room at Queens' College, Cambridge which faces both Old Court and Walnut Tree Court, is named for Munro.  A portrait of Munro, painted by Arthur Trevor Haddon, appropriately hangs in the room.

References

External links

 Andrew Munro, Queens' College Portrait

1869 births
1935 deaths
Scottish mathematicians
Alumni of Queens' College, Cambridge
Fellows of Queens' College, Cambridge

Andrew Munro (mathematician)


John Joseph Woods was a New Zealand teacher and songwriter. He is best known for winning a competition to set "God Defend New Zealand", a poem by Thomas Bracken, to music. By doing this, he composed the tune to what later became New Zealand's national anthem. Woods was also the Tuapeka County Council clerk for 55 years.

Life

Personal life
Woods was born in Tasmania in 1849 into an Irish family with fourteen other children, seven boys and seven girls. His father was a soldier. After teaching in Tasmania for nine years, he came to New Zealand as a young man and worked for a time in Nelson, Christchurch, Dunedin and Invercargill. Eight years teaching in New Zealand led to a position as the head teacher of St Patrick's School in Lawrence, Otago, and he moved there from Invercargill in 1874. Woods was known as a good musician. He was choirmaster of the local Catholic church, and could play twelve different instruments, though he was best known for his skill on the violin. Singing a solo at his own wedding, Woods showed that he was also a good singer.

While in Lawrence, Woods taught with an Irish widow called Harriet Conway (née Plunket) who already had two sons. They were married in September 1874 and had four children together, three sons and a daughter named Mary.

In 1902, Woods built a house of brick and wood on the corner of Lismore and Lancaster Streets. He lived there until he died in 1934. It is now under the care of the Historic Places Trust, which mounted a plaque on the street-facing back wall to remember his composition of the national anthem.

Composition of the national anthem

One night in the winter of June 1876, Woods read about the competition in the Saturday Advertiser. According to tradition, he usually met the coach that delivered the news in the main street of Lawrence to pick up his paper. It was already 9 pm, but he went straight to his piano and in that one sitting composed the tune for what later became the national anthem. In a later letter to A.H. Reed, he explained that the words inspired him so much he had to write music for them. He entered his composition under the pen name of "Orpheus". The Advertiser sent it off with the eleven other submissions to Melbourne, where it was judged. In October 1876, it was announced that the three judges all agreed that Woods' composition was the clear winner. The prize was ten guineas.

The rules of the competition meant that the copyright of the music would belong to the Saturday Advertiser, which gave the manuscript to the Dunedin-based Charles Begg & Co to publish, but a nine-month delay in sending it to a publisher was followed by two months of waiting for it to be printed. The end result was a very poor edition with only one verse, which was thrown out by the Advertiser. When promises of reprint failed to come true, the Advertiser was forced to hand the copyright back over to Woods. He immediately arranged for it to be printed by Hopwood and Crew in London, with Bracken's blessing.  Bracken did not mean for his poem to become the national anthem, and it was Woods who had always used the word "anthem" where Bracken called it a "hymn".

Being a choirmaster, Woods' focus in composing the melody was to make it simple and easy for children to sing. This proved to help its success when the Premier George Grey visited Lawrence on 11 March 1878 and was welcomed by six hundred local schoolchildren singing what was by then beginning to be labelled as the "national anthem". Grey was very taken by the music and immediately sent a telegram to Bracken congratulating him.

County clerk
In 1877, Woods stopped teaching and became the county clerk for the Tuapeka County Council. He was known for working 13-hour days and keeping accounts of such a high standard that he was accepted as a fellow of the Registered Accountants of New Zealand. Serving in this role, he also became known as an authority on county law, sought out by the council and clerks of other regions. He also organised the decoration of council office buildings to mark Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee in 1897.

He served in that role for 55 years until ill health forced him to retire in 1932, aged 83.

Other honours
Woods was deeply involved in the affairs of the town. He was a member of many local clubs and societies. He was also known as an expert on cultivating daffodils, of which his collection was the largest in the area. In 1884, Woods was elected first president of the local choral society.

When Woods was made an Honorary Freeman of New Zealand, he was commended for his "efficiency, integrity and devotion to duty".

References

1849 births
1934 deaths
People from Tasmania
New Zealand people
Australian composers

John Joseph Woods