Color television (American English) or colour television (Commonwealth English) is a television transmission technology that includes color information for the picture, so the video image can be displayed in color on the television set. It improves on the monochrome or black-and-white television technology, which displays the image in shades of gray (grayscale). Television broadcasting stations and networks in most parts of the world upgraded from black-and-white to color transmission between the 1960s and the 1980s. The invention of color television standards was an important part of the history and technology of television.

Transmission of color images using mechanical scanners had been conceived as early as  the 1880s. A demonstration of mechanically scanned color television was given by John Logie Baird in 1928, but its limitations were apparent even then. Development of electronic scanning and display made a practical system possible. Monochrome transmission standards were developed prior to World War II, but civilian electronics development was frozen during much of the war. In August 1944, Baird gave the world's first demonstration of a practical fully electronic color television display. In the United States, competing color standards were developed, finally resulting in the NTSC color standard that was compatible with the prior monochrome system. Although the NTSC color standard was proclaimed in 1953 and limited programming soon became available, it was not until the early 1970s that color television in North America outsold black-and-white/monochrome units. Color broadcasting in Europe did not standardize on the PAL or SECAM formats until the 1960s.

Broadcasters began to upgrade from analog color television technology to higher resolution digital television ; the exact year varies by country. While the changeover is complete in many countries, analog television remains in use in some countries.

Development
The human eye's detection system in the retina consists primarily of two types of light detectors: rod cells that capture light, dark, and shapes/figures, and the cone cells that detect color. A typical retina contains 120 million rods and 4.5 million to 6 million cones, which are divided into three types, each one with a characteristic profile of excitability by different wavelengths of the spectrum of visible light. This means that the eye has far more resolution in brightness, or "luminance", than in color. However, post-processing of the optic nerve and other portions of the human visual system combine the information from the rods and cones to re-create what appears to be a high-resolution color image.

The eye has limited bandwidth to the rest of the visual system, estimated at just under 8 Mbit/s. This manifests itself in a number of ways, but the most important in terms of producing moving images is the way that a series of still images displayed in quick succession will appear to be continuous smooth motion. This illusion starts to work at about 16 frame/s, and common motion pictures use 24 frame/s. Television, using power from the electrical grid, historically tuned its rate in order to avoid interference with the alternating current being supplied – in North America, some Central and South American countries, Taiwan, Korea, part of Japan, the Philippines, and a few other countries, this was 60 video fields per second to match the 60 Hz power, while in most other countries it was 50 fields per second to match the 50 Hz power. The NTSC color system changed from the black-and-white 60-fields-per-second standard to 59.94 fields per second to make the color circuitry simpler; the 1950s TV sets had matured enough that the power frequency/field rate mismatch was no longer important. Modern TV sets can display multiple field rates (50, 59.94, or 60, in either interlaced or progressive scan) while accepting power at various frequencies (often the operating range is specified as 48–62 Hz).

In its most basic form, a color broadcast can be created by broadcasting three monochrome images, one each in the three colors of red, green, and blue (RGB). When displayed together or in rapid succession, these images will blend together to produce a full-color image as seen by the viewer. To do so without making the images flicker, the refresh time of all three images put together would have to be above the critical limit, and generally the same as a single black and white image. This would require three times the number of images to be sent in the same time, and thus greatly increase the amount of radio bandwidth required to send the complete signal and thus similarly increase the required radio spectrum. Early plans for color television in the United States included a move from very high frequency (VHF) to ultra high frequency (UHF) to open up additional spectrum.

One of the great technical challenges of introducing color broadcast television was the desire to conserve bandwidth. In the United States, after considerable research, the National Television Systems Committee approved an all-electronic system developed by RCA that encoded the color information separately from the brightness information and greatly reduced the resolution of the color information in order to conserve bandwidth. The brightness image remained compatible with existing black-and-white television sets at slightly reduced resolution, while color-capable televisions could decode the extra information in the signal and produce a limited-resolution color display. The higher resolution black-and-white and lower resolution color images combine in the eye to produce a seemingly high-resolution color image. The NTSC standard represented a major technical achievement.

Early television
Experiments with facsimile image transmission systems that used radio broadcasts to transmit images date to the 19th century. It was not until the 20th century that advances in electronics and light detectors made television practical. A key problem was the need to convert a 2D image into a "1D" radio signal; some form of image scanning was needed to make this work. Early systems generally used a device known as a "Nipkow disk", which was a spinning disk with a series of holes punched in it that caused a spot to scan across and down the image. A single photodetector behind the disk captured the image brightness at any given spot, which was converted into a radio signal and broadcast. A similar disk was used at the receiver side, with a light source behind the disk instead of a detector.

A number of such mechanical television systems were being used experimentally in the 1920s. The best-known was John Logie Baird's, which was actually used for regular public broadcasting in Britain for several years. Indeed, Baird's system was demonstrated to members of the Royal Institution in London in 1926 in what is generally recognized as the first demonstration of a true, working television system. In spite of these early successes, all mechanical television systems shared a number of serious problems. Being mechanically driven, perfect synchronization of the sending and receiving discs was not easy to ensure, and irregularities could result in major image distortion. Another problem was that the image was scanned within a small, roughly rectangular area of the disk's surface, so that larger, higher-resolution displays required increasingly unwieldy disks and smaller holes that produced increasingly dim images. Rotating drums bearing small mirrors set at progressively greater angles proved more practical than Nipkow discs for high-resolution mechanical scanning, allowing images of 240 lines and more to be produced, but such delicate, high-precision optical components were not commercially practical for home receivers.

It was clear to a number of developers that a completely electronic scanning system would be superior, and that the scanning could be achieved in a vacuum tube via electrostatic or magnetic means. Converting this concept into a usable system took years of development and several independent advances. The two key advances were Philo Farnsworth's electronic scanning system, and Vladimir Zworykin's Iconoscope camera. The Iconoscope, based on Kálmán Tihanyi's early patents, superseded the Farnsworth-system. With these systems, the BBC began regularly scheduled black-and-white television broadcasts in 1936, but these were shut down again with the start of World War II in 1939. In this time thousands of television sets had been sold. The receivers developed for this program, notably those from Pye Ltd., played a key role in the development of radar.

By 22 March 1935, 180-line black-and-white television programs were being broadcast from the Paul Nipkow TV station in Berlin. In 1936, under the guidance of the Minister of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda, Joseph Goebbels, direct transmissions from fifteen mobile units at the Olympic Games in Berlin were transmitted to selected small television houses () in Berlin and Hamburg.

In 1941, the first NTSC meetings produced a single standard for US broadcasts. US television broadcasts began in earnest in the immediate post-war era, and by 1950 there were 6 million televisions in the United States.

All-mechanical color

The basic idea of using three monochrome images to produce a color image had been experimented with almost as soon as black-and-white televisions had first been built.

Among the earliest published proposals for television was one by Maurice Le Blanc in 1880 for a color system, including the first mentions in television literature of line and frame scanning, although he gave no practical details. Polish inventor Jan Szczepanik patented a color television system in 1897, using a selenium photoelectric cell at the transmitter and an electromagnet controlling an oscillating mirror and a moving prism at the receiver. But his system contained no means of analyzing the spectrum of colors at the transmitting end, and could not have worked as he described it. An Armenian inventor, Hovannes Adamian, also experimented with color television as early as 1907. The first color television project is claimed by him, and was patented in Germany on 31 March 1908, patent number 197183, then in Britain, on 1 April 1908, patent number 7219, in France (patent number 390326) and in Russia in 1910 (patent number 17912).

Shortly after his practical demonstration of black and white television, on 3 July 1928, Baird demonstrated the world's first color transmission. This used scanning discs at the transmitting and receiving ends with three spirals of apertures, each spiral with filters of a different primary color; and three light sources, controlled by the signal, at the receiving end, with a commutator to alternate their illumination. The demonstration was of a young girl wearing different colored hats. The girl, Noele Gordon, later became a  TV actress in the soap opera Crossroads. Baird also made the world's first color over-the-air broadcast on 4 February 1938, sending a mechanically scanned 120-line image from Baird's Crystal Palace studios to a projection screen at London's Dominion Theatre.

Mechanically scanned color television was also demonstrated by Bell Laboratories in June 1929 using three complete systems of photoelectric cells, amplifiers, glow-tubes, and color filters, with a series of mirrors to superimpose the red, green, and blue images into one full-color image.

Hybrid systems

As was the case with black-and-white television, an electronic means of scanning would be superior to the mechanical systems like Baird's. The obvious solution on the broadcast end would be to use three conventional Iconoscopes with colored filters in front of them to produce an RGB signal. Using three separate tubes each looking at the same scene would produce slight differences in parallax between the frames, so in practice a single lens was used with a mirror or prism system to separate the colors for the separate tubes. Each tube captured a complete frame and the signal was converted into radio in a fashion essentially identical to the existing black-and-white systems.

The problem with this approach was there was no simple way to recombine them on the receiver end. If each image was sent at the same time on different frequencies, the images would have to be "stacked" somehow on the display, in real time. The simplest way to do this would be to reverse the system used in the camera: arrange three separate black-and-white displays behind colored filters and then optically combine their images using mirrors or prisms onto a suitable screen, like frosted glass. RCA built just such a system in order to present the first electronically scanned color television demonstration on 5 February 1940, privately shown to members of the US Federal Communications Commission at the RCA plant in Camden, New Jersey. This system, however, suffered from the twin problems of costing at least three times as much as a conventional black-and-white set, as well as having very dim pictures, the result of the fairly low illumination given off by tubes of the era. Projection systems of this sort would become common decades later, however, with improvements in technology.

Another solution would be to use a single screen, but break it up into a pattern of closely spaced colored phosphors instead of an even coating of white. Three receivers would be used, each sending its output to a separate electron gun, aimed at its colored phosphor. However, this solution was not practical. The electron guns used in monochrome televisions had limited resolution, and if one wanted to retain the resolution of existing monochrome displays, the guns would have to focus on individual dots three times smaller. This was beyond the state of the art of the technology at the time.

Instead, a number of hybrid solutions were developed that combined a conventional monochrome display with a colored disk or mirror. In these systems the three colored images were sent one after each other, in either complete frames in the "field-sequential color system", or for each line in the "line-sequential" system. In both cases a colored filter was rotated in front of the display in sync with the broadcast. Since three separate images were being sent in sequence, if they used existing monochrome radio signaling standards they would have an effective refresh rate of only 20 fields, or 10 frames, a second, well into the region where flicker would become visible. In order to avoid this, these systems increased the frame rate considerably, making the signal incompatible with existing monochrome standards.

The first practical example of this sort of system was again pioneered by John Logie Baird. In 1940 he publicly demonstrated a color television combining a traditional black-and-white display with a rotating colored disk. This device was very "deep", but was later improved with a mirror folding the light path into an entirely practical device resembling a large conventional console. However, Baird was not happy with the design, and as early as 1944 had commented to a British government committee that a fully electronic device would be better.

In 1939, Hungarian engineer Peter Carl Goldmark introduced an electro-mechanical system while at CBS, which contained an Iconoscope sensor. The CBS field-sequential color system was partly mechanical, with a disc made of red, blue, and green filters spinning inside the television camera at 1,200 rpm, and a similar disc spinning in synchronization in front of the cathode ray tube inside the receiver set. The system was first demonstrated to the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) on 29 August 1940, and shown to the press on 4 September.

CBS began experimental color field tests using film as early as 28 August 1940, and live cameras by 12 November. NBC (owned by RCA) made its first field test of color television on 20 February 1941. CBS began daily color field tests on 1 June 1941. These color systems were not compatible with existing black-and-white television sets, and as no color television sets were available to the public at this time, viewing of the color field tests was restricted to RCA and CBS engineers and the invited press. The War Production Board halted the manufacture of television and radio equipment for civilian use from 22 April 1942, to 20 August 1945, limiting any opportunity to introduce color television to the general public.

Fully electronic

As early as 1940, Baird had started work on a fully electronic system he called the "Telechrome". Early Telechrome devices used two electron guns aimed at either side of a phosphor plate. The phosphor was patterned so the electrons from the guns only fell on one side of the patterning or the other. Using cyan and magenta phosphors, a reasonable limited-color image could be obtained. Baird's demonstration on 16 August 1944, was the first example of a practical color television system. Work on the Telechrome continued and plans were made to introduce a three-gun version for full color. However, Baird's untimely death in 1946 ended the development of the Telechrome system.

Similar concepts were common through the 1940s and 1950s, differing primarily in the way they re-combined the colors generated by the three guns. The Geer tube was similar to Baird's concept, but used small pyramids with the phosphors deposited on their outside faces, instead of Baird's 3D patterning on a flat surface. The Penetron used three layers of phosphor on top of each other and increased the power of the beam to reach the upper layers when drawing those colors. The Chromatron used a set of focusing wires to select the colored phosphors arranged in vertical stripes on the tube.

FCC color
In the immediate post-war era, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) was inundated with requests to set up new television stations. Worrying about congestion of the limited number of channels available, the FCC put a moratorium on all new licenses in 1948 while considering the problem. A solution was immediately forthcoming; rapid development of radio receiver electronics during the war had opened a wide band of higher frequencies to practical use, and the FCC set aside a large section of these new UHF bands for television broadcast. At the time, black-and-white television broadcasting was still in its infancy in the U.S., and the FCC started to look at ways of using this newly available bandwidth for color broadcasts. Since no existing television would be able to tune in these stations, they were free to pick an incompatible system and allow the older VHF channels to die off over time.

The FCC called for technical demonstrations of color systems in 1948, and the Joint Technical Advisory Committee (JTAC) was formed to study them. CBS displayed improved versions of its original design, now using a single 6 MHz channel (like the existing black-and-white signals) at 144 fields per second and 405 lines of resolution. Color Television Inc. (CTI) demonstrated its line-sequential system, while Philco demonstrated a dot-sequential system based on its beam-index tube-based "Apple" tube technology. Of the entrants, the CBS system was by far the best-developed, and won head-to-head testing every time.

While the meetings were taking place it was widely known within the industry that RCA was working on a dot-sequential system that was compatible with existing black-and-white broadcasts, but RCA declined to demonstrate it during the first series of meetings. Just before the JTAC presented its findings, on 25 August 1949, RCA broke its silence and introduced its system as well. The JTAC still recommended the CBS system, and after the resolution of an ensuing RCA lawsuit, color broadcasts using the CBS system started on 25 June 1951. By this point the market had changed dramatically; when color was first being considered in 1948 there were fewer than a million television sets in the U.S., but by 1951 there were well over 10 million. The idea that the VHF band could be allowed to "die" was no longer practical.

During its campaign for FCC approval, CBS gave the first demonstrations of color television to the general public, showing an hour of color programs daily Mondays through Saturdays, beginning 12 January 1950, and running for the remainder of the month, over WOIC in Washington, D.C., where the programs could be viewed on eight 16-inch color receivers in a public building. Due to high public demand, the broadcasts were resumed 13–21 February, with several evening programs added. CBS initiated a limited schedule of color broadcasts from its New York station WCBS-TV Mondays to Saturdays beginning 14 November 1950, making ten color receivers available for the viewing public. All were broadcast using the single color camera that CBS owned. The New York broadcasts were extended by coaxial cable to Philadelphia's WCAU-TV beginning 13 December, and to Chicago on 10 January, making them the first network color broadcasts.

After a series of hearings beginning in September 1949, the FCC found the RCA and CTI systems fraught with technical problems, inaccurate color reproduction, and expensive equipment, and so formally approved the CBS system as the U.S. color broadcasting standard on 11 October 1950. An unsuccessful lawsuit by RCA delayed the first commercial network broadcast in color until 25 June 1951, when a musical variety special titled simply Premiere was shown over a network of five East Coast CBS affiliates. Viewing was again restricted: the program could not be seen on black-and-white sets, and Variety estimated that only thirty prototype color receivers were available in the New York area. Regular color broadcasts began that same week with the daytime series The World Is Yours and Modern Homemakers.

While the CBS color broadcasting schedule gradually expanded to twelve hours per week (but never into prime time), and the color network expanded to eleven affiliates as far west as Chicago, its commercial success was doomed by the lack of color receivers necessary to watch the programs, the refusal of television manufacturers to create adapter mechanisms for their existing black-and-white sets, and the unwillingness of advertisers to sponsor broadcasts seen by almost no one. CBS had bought a television manufacturer in April, and in September 1951, production began on the only CBS-Columbia color television model, with the first color sets reaching retail stores on 28 September. However, it was too little, too late. Only 200 sets had been shipped, and only 100 sold, when CBS discontinued its color television system on 20 October 1951, ostensibly by request of the National Production Authority for the duration of the Korean War, and bought back all the CBS color sets it could to prevent lawsuits by disappointed customers. RCA chairman David Sarnoff later charged that the NPA's order had come "out of a situation artificially created by one company to solve its own perplexing problems" because CBS had been unsuccessful in its color venture.

Compatible color

While the FCC was holding its JTAC meetings, development was taking place on a number of systems allowing true simultaneous color broadcasts, "dot-sequential color systems". Unlike the hybrid systems, dot-sequential televisions used a signal very similar to existing black-and-white broadcasts, with the intensity of every dot on the screen being sent in succession.

In 1938 Georges Valensi demonstrated an encoding scheme that would allow color broadcasts to be encoded so they could be picked up on existing black-and-white sets as well. In his system the output of the three camera tubes were re-combined to produce a single "luminance" value that was very similar to a monochrome signal and could be broadcast on the existing VHF frequencies. The color information was encoded in a separate "chrominance" signal, consisting of two separate signals, the original blue signal minus the luminance (B'–Y'), and red-luma (R'–Y'). These signals could then be broadcast separately on a different frequency; a monochrome set would tune in only the luminance signal on the VHF band, while color televisions would tune in both the luminance and chrominance on two different frequencies, and apply the reverse transforms to retrieve the original RGB signal. The downside to this approach is that it required a major boost in bandwidth use, something the FCC was interested in avoiding.

RCA used Valensi's concept as the basis of all of its developments, believing it to be the only proper solution to the broadcast problem. However, RCA's early sets using mirrors and other projection systems all suffered from image and color quality problems, and were easily bested by CBS's hybrid system. But solutions to these problems were in the pipeline, and RCA in particular was investing massive sums (later estimated at $100 million) to develop a usable dot-sequential tube. RCA was beaten to the punch by the Geer tube, which used three B&W tubes aimed at different faces of colored pyramids to produce a color image. All-electronic systems included the Chromatron, Penetron and beam-index tube that were being developed by various companies. While investigating all of these, RCA's teams quickly started focusing on the shadow mask system.

In July 1938 the shadow mask color television was patented by Werner Flechsig (1900–1981) in Germany, and was demonstrated at the International radio exhibition Berlin in 1939. Most CRT color televisions used today are based on this technology. His solution to the problem of focusing the electron guns on the tiny colored dots was one of brute-force; a metal sheet with holes punched in it allowed the beams to reach the screen only when they were properly aligned over the dots. Three separate guns were aimed at the holes from slightly different angles, and when their beams passed through the holes the angles caused them to separate again and hit the individual spots a short distance away on the back of the screen. The downside to this approach was that the mask cut off the vast majority of the beam energy, allowing it to hit the screen only 15% of the time, requiring a massive increase in beam power to produce acceptable image brightness.

The first publicly announced network demonstration of a program using a "compatible color" system was an episode of NBC's Kukla, Fran and Ollie on 10 October 1949, viewable in color only at the FCC. It did not receive FCC approval.

In spite of these problems in both the broadcast and display systems, RCA pressed ahead with development and was ready for a second assault on the standards by 1950.

Second NTSC
The possibility of a compatible color broadcast system was so compelling that the NTSC decided to re-form, and held a second series of meetings starting in January 1950. Having only recently selected the CBS system, the FCC heavily opposed the NTSC's efforts. One of the FCC Commissioners, R. F. Jones, went so far as to assert that the engineers testifying in favor of a compatible system were "in a conspiracy against the public interest".

Unlike the FCC approach where a standard was simply selected from the existing candidates, the NTSC would produce a board that was considerably more pro-active in development.

Starting before CBS color even got on the air, the U.S. television industry, represented by the National Television System Committee, worked in 1950–1953 to develop a color system that was compatible with existing black-and-white sets and would pass FCC quality standards, with RCA developing the hardware elements. RCA first made publicly announced field tests of the dot sequential color system over its New York station WNBT in July 1951. When CBS testified before Congress in March 1953 that it had no further plans for its own color system, the National Production Authority dropped its ban on the manufacture of color television receivers, and the path was open for the NTSC to submit its petition for FCC approval in July 1953, which was granted on 17 December. The first publicly announced network demonstration of a program using the NTSC "compatible color" system was an episode of NBC's Kukla, Fran and Ollie on 30 August 1953, although it was viewable in color only at the network's headquarters. The first network broadcast to go out over the air in NTSC color was a performance of the opera Carmen on 31 October 1953.

Adoption

North America

Canada
Color broadcasts from the United States were available to Canadian population centers near the border from the mid-1950s. At the time that NTSC color broadcasting was officially introduced into Canada in 1966, less than one percent of Canadian households had a color television set. Color television in Canada was launched on the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation's (CBC) English language TV service on 1 September 1966. Private television broadcaster CTV also started color broadcasts in early September 1966.
The CBC's French-language TV service, Radio-Canada, was broadcasting color programming for 15 hours a week in 1968. Full-time color transmissions started in 1974 on the CBC, with other private sector broadcasters in the country doing so by the end of the 1970s.

The following provinces and areas of Canada introduced color television by the years as stated
Saskatchewan, Alberta, Manitoba, British Columbia, Ontario, Quebec (1966; Major networks only – private sector around 1968 to 1972)
Newfoundland and Labrador (1967)
Nova Scotia, New Brunswick (1968)
Prince Edward Island (1969)
Yukon (1971)
Northwest Territories (including Nunavut) (1972; Major networks in large centers, many remote areas in the far north did not get color until at least 1977 and 1978)

Cuba
Cuba in 1958 became the second country in the world to introduce color television broadcasting, with Havana's Channel 12 using standards established by the NTSC Committee of United States Federal Communications Commission in 1940, and American technology patented by the American electronics company RCA, or Radio Corporation of America. But the color transmissions ended when broadcasting stations were seized in the Cuban Revolution in 1959, and did not return until 1975, using equipment acquired from Japan's NEC Corporation, and SECAM equipment from the Soviet Union, adapted for the American NTSC standard.

Mexico
Guillermo González Camarena independently invented and developed a field-sequential tricolor disk system in Mexico in the late 1930s, for which he requested a patent in México on 19 August 1940, and in the United States in 1941. González Camarena produced his color television system in his Gon-Cam laboratory for the Mexican market and exported it to the Columbia College of Chicago, which regarded it as the best system in the world. Goldmark had actually applied for a patent for the same field-sequential tricolor system in the US on 7 September 1940, while González Camarena had made his Mexican filing 19 days before, on 19 August.

On 31 August 1946, González Camarena sent his first color transmission from his lab in the offices of the Mexican League of Radio Experiments at Lucerna St. No. 1, in Mexico City. The video signal was transmitted at a frequency of 115 MHz and the audio in the 40-metre band. He obtained authorization to make the first publicly announced color broadcast in Mexico, on 8 February 1963, of the program Paraíso Infantil on Mexico City's XHGC-TV, using the NTSC system that had by now been adopted as the standard for color programming.

González Camarena also invented the "simplified Mexican color TV system" as a much simpler and cheaper alternative to the NTSC system. Due to its simplicity, NASA used a modified version of the system in its Voyager mission of 1979, to take pictures and video of Jupiter.

United States

Although all-electronic color was introduced in the US in 1953, high prices and the scarcity of color programming greatly slowed its acceptance in the marketplace. The first national color broadcast (the 1954 Tournament of Roses Parade) occurred on 1 January 1954, but over the next dozen years most network broadcasts, and nearly all local programming, continued to be in black-and-white. In 1956, NBC's The Perry Como Show became the first live network television series to present a majority of episodes in color. The CBS television production of Rodgers & Hammerstein's Cinderella was broadcast live in Colour on 31 March 1957. It was their only musical written directly for television, and had the highest one-night number of viewers to date at 107 million. CBS's The Big Record, starring pop vocalist Patti Page, in 1957–1958 became the first television show broadcast in color for an entire season. The production costs for these shows were greater than most movies were at the time, not only because of all the stars featured in the musical and on the hour-long variety extravaganza, but also due to the extremely high-intensity lighting and electronics required for the new RCA TK-41 cameras, which were the first practical color television cameras.

It was not until the mid-1960s that color sets started selling in large numbers, due in part to the color transition of 1965 in which it was announced that over half of all network prime-time programming would be broadcast in color that autumn. The first all-color prime-time season came just one year later.

NBC's pioneering coast-to-coast color broadcast of the 1954 Tournament of Roses Parade was accompanied by public demonstrations given across the United States on prototype color receivers by manufacturers RCA, General Electric, Philco, Raytheon, Hallicrafters, Hoffman, Pacific Mercury, and others. Two days earlier, Admiral had demonstrated to its distributors the prototype of Admiral's first color television set planned for consumer sale using the NTSC standards, priced at $1,175 (). It is not known when actual commercial sales of this receiver began. Production was extremely limited, and no advertisements for it were published in New York newspapers, nor those in Washington, DC.

A color model from Admiral C1617A became available in the Chicago area on 4 January 1954 and appeared in various stores throughout the country, including those in Maryland on 6 January 1954, San Francisco, 14 January 1954, Indianapolis on 17 January 1954, Pittsburgh on 25 January 1954, and Oakland on 26 January 1954, among other cities thereafter. A color model from Westinghouse H840CK15 ($1,295, or ) became available in the New York area on 28 February 1954; Only 30 sets were sold in its first month. A less expensive color model from RCA (CT-100) reached dealers in April 1954. Television's first prime time network color series was The Marriage, a situation comedy broadcast live by NBC in the summer of 1954. NBC's anthology series Ford Theatre became the first network color-filmed series that October; however, due to the high cost of the first fifteen color episodes, Ford ordered that two black-and-white episodes be filmed for every color episode. The first series to be filmed entirely in color was NBC's Norby, a sitcom that lasted 13 weeks, from January to April 1955, and was replaced by repeats of Ford Theatres color episodes.

Early color telecasts could be preserved only on the black-and-white kinescope process introduced in 1947. It was not until September 1956 that NBC began using color film to time-delay and preserve some of its live color telecasts. Ampex introduced a color videotape recorder in 1958, which NBC used to tape An Evening with Fred Astaire, the oldest surviving network color videotape. This system was also used to unveil a demonstration of color television for the press. On 22 May 1958, President Dwight D. Eisenhower visited the WRC-TV NBC studios in Washington, D.C., and gave a speech touting the new technology's merits. His speech was recorded in color, and a copy of this videotape was given to the Library of Congress for posterity.

The syndicated The Cisco Kid had been filmed in color since 1949 in anticipation of color broadcasting. Several other syndicated shows had episodes filmed in color during the 1950s, including The Lone Ranger, My Friend Flicka, and Adventures of Superman. The first was carried by some stations equipped for color telecasts well before NBC began its regular weekly color dramas in 1959, beginning with the Western series Bonanza.

NBC was at the forefront of color programming because its parent company RCA manufactured the most successful line of color sets in the 1950s and, at the end of August 1956, announced that in comparison with 1955–56 (when only three of its regularly scheduled programs were broadcast in color) the 1956–57 season would feature 17 series in color. By 1959 RCA was the only remaining major manufacturer of color sets, competitors having discontinued models that used RCA picture tubes because of poor sales, while working on their own improved tube designs. CBS and ABC, not affiliated with set manufacturers and not eager to promote their competitor's product, were much slower to broadcast in color. CBS broadcast color specials and sometimes aired its big weekly variety shows in color, but it offered no regularly scheduled color programming until the fall of 1965. At least one CBS show, The Lucy Show, was filmed in color beginning in 1963, but continued to be telecast in black and white through the end of the 1964–65 season. ABC delayed its first color programs until 1962, but these were initially only broadcasts of the cartoon shows The Flintstones, The Jetsons and Beany and Cecil. The DuMont network, although it did have a television-manufacturing parent company, was in financial decline by 1954 and was dissolved two years later.

The relatively small amount of network color programming, combined with the high cost of color television sets, meant that as late as 1964 only 3.1 percent of television households in the US had a color set. However, by the mid-1960s, the subject of color programming turned into a ratings war. A 1965 American Research Bureau (ARB) study that proposed an emerging trend in color television set sales convinced NBC that a full shift to color would gain a ratings advantage over its two competitors. As a result, NBC provided the catalyst for rapid color expansion by announcing that its prime time schedule for fall 1965 would be almost entirely in color. ABC and CBS followed suit and over half of their combined prime-time programming also moved to color that season, but they were still reluctant to telecast all their programming in color due to production costs. All three broadcast networks were airing full color prime time schedules by the 1966–67 broadcast season, and ABC aired its last new black-and-white daytime programming in December 1967. Public broadcasting networks like NET, however, did not use color for a majority of their programming until 1968. The number of color television sets sold in the US did not exceed black-and-white sales until 1972, which was also the first year that more than fifty percent of television households in the US had a color set. This was also the year that "in color" notices before color television programs ended, due to the rise in color television set sales, and color programming having become the norm.

In a display of foresight, Disney had filmed many of its earlier shows in color so they were able to be repeated on NBC, and since most of Disney's feature-length films were also made in color, they could now also be telecast in that format. To emphasize the new feature, the series was re-dubbed Walt Disney's Wonderful World of Color, which premiered in September 1961, and retained that moniker until 1969.

By the mid-1970s, the only stations broadcasting in black-and-white were a few high-numbered UHF stations in small markets, and a handful of low-power repeater stations in even smaller markets such as vacation spots. By 1979, even the last of these had converted to color and by the early 1980s, B&W sets had been pushed into niche markets, notably low-power uses, small portable sets, or use as video monitor screens in lower-cost consumer equipment. These black-and-white displays were still compatible with color signals and remained usable through the 1990s and the first decade of the 21st Century for uses that did not require a full color display. The digital television transition in the United States in 2009 rendered the remaining black-and-white television sets obsolete; all digital television receivers are capable of displaying full color.

Color broadcasting in Hawaii started on 5 May 1957. One of the last television stations in North America to convert to color, WQEX (now WINP-TV) in Pittsburgh, started broadcasting in color on 16 October 1986, after its black-and-white transmitter, which dated from the 1950s, broke down in February 1985 and the parts required to fix it were no longer available. The owner of WQEX, PBS member station WQED, used some of its pledge money to buy a color transmitter.

Early color sets were either floor-standing console models or tabletop versions nearly as bulky and heavy, so in practice, they remained firmly anchored in one place. The introduction of GE's relatively compact and lightweight Porta-Color set in the spring of 1966 made watching color television a more flexible and convenient proposition. In 1972, the year sales of color sets finally surpassed sales of black-and-white sets, the last holdout among daytime network programs converted to color, resulting in the first completely all-color network season.

Europe
The first two color television broadcasts in Europe were made by early tests in France (SECAM) between 1963 and 1966, then officially launched in October 1967 and by the UK's BBC2 beginning on 1 July 1967 and West Germany's Das Erste and ZDF in August, both using the PAL system. They were followed by the Netherlands in September (PAL). On 1 October 1968, the first scheduled television program in color was broadcast in Switzerland. Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Austria, East Germany, Czechoslovakia, and Hungary all started regular color broadcasts around 1969–1970. Ireland's national TV station RTÉ began using color in 1968 for recorded programs; the first outside broadcast made in color for RTÉ Television was when Ireland hosted the Eurovision Song Contest in Dublin in 1971. The PAL system spread through most of Western Europe.

More European countries introduced color television using the PAL system in the 1970s and early 1980s; examples include Belgium (1971), Bulgaria (1971, but not fully implemented until 1972), SFR Yugoslavia (1971), Spain (1972, but not fully implemented until 1977), Iceland (1973, but not fully implemented until 1976), Portugal (1975, but not fully implemented until 1980), Albania (1981), Turkey (1981) and Romania (1983, but not fully implemented until 1985–1991). In Italy there were debates to adopt a national color television system, the ISA, developed by Indesit, but that idea was scrapped. As a result, and after a test during the 1972 Summer Olympics, Italy was one of the last European countries to officially adopt the PAL system in the 1976–1977 season.

France, Luxembourg, and most of the Eastern Bloc along with their overseas territories opted for SECAM. SECAM was a popular choice in countries with much hilly terrain, and countries with a very large installed base of older monochrome equipment, which could cope much better with the greater ruggedness of the SECAM signal. However, for many countries the decision was more down to politics than technical merit.

A drawback of SECAM for production is that, unlike PAL or NTSC, certain post-production operations of encoded SECAM signals are not really possible without a significant drop in quality. As an example, a simple fade to black is trivial in NTSC and PAL: one merely reduces the signal level until it is zero. However, in SECAM the color difference signals, which are frequency modulated, need first to be decoded to e.g. RGB, then the fade-to-black is applied, and finally the resulting signal is re-encoded into SECAM. Because of this, much SECAM video editing was actually done using PAL equipment, then the resultant signal was converted to SECAM. Another drawback of SECAM is that comb filtering, allowing better color separation, is of limited use in SECAM receivers. This was not, however, much of a drawback in the early days of SECAM as such filters were not readily available in high-end TV sets before the 1990s.

The first regular color broadcasts in SECAM were started on 1 October 1967, on France's Second Channel (ORTF 2e chaîne).
In France and the UK color broadcasts were made on 625-line UHF frequencies, the VHF band being used for black and white, 405 lines in UK or 819 lines in France, until the beginning of the 1980s. Countries elsewhere that were already broadcasting 625-line monochrome on VHF and UHF, simply transmitted color programs on the same channels.

Some British television programs, particularly those made by or for ITC Entertainment, were shot on color film before the introduction of color television to the UK, for the purpose of sales to US networks. The first British show to be made in color was the drama series The Adventures of Sir Lancelot (1956–57), which was initially made in black and white but later shot in color for sale to the NBC network in the United States. Other British color television programs made before the introduction of color television in the UK include Stingray (1964–1965), which was the first British TV show to be filmed entirely in color, Thunderbirds (1965–1966), The Baron (1966–1967), The Saint (from 1966 to 1969), The Avengers (from 1967 to 1969), Man in a Suitcase (1967–1968), The Prisoner (1967–1968) and Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons (1967–1968). However, most UK series predominantly made using videotape, such as Doctor Who (1963–89; 2005–present) did not begin color production until later, with the first color Doctor Who episodes not airing until 1970. (The first four, comprising the story Spearhead from Space, were shot on film owing to a technician's strike, with videotape being used thereafter).  Although marginal, some UK viewers are still using black and white tv sets. The number of black and white licenses issued was 212000 in 2000 and 6586 in 2019.

The last country in Europe to introduce color television was Georgia in 1984.

Asia and the Pacific
In Japan, NHK and NTV introduced color television, using a variation of the NTSC system (called NTSC-J) on 10 September 1960, making it the first country in Asia to introduce color television. The Philippines (1966) and Taiwan (1969) also adopted the NTSC system.

Other countries in the region instead used the PAL system, starting with Australia (1967, originally scheduled for 1972, but not fully implemented until 1975–1978), and then Thailand (1967–1969; this country converted from 525-line NTSC to 625-line PAL), Hong Kong (1967), the People's Republic of China (1971), New Zealand (1973), North Korea (1974), Singapore (1974), Pakistan (1976, but not fully implemented until 1982), Kazakhstan (1977), Vietnam (1977), Malaysia (1978, but not fully implemented until 1980), Indonesia (1979), India (1979, but not fully implemented until 1982–1986), Burma (1980), and Bangladesh (1980). South Korea did not introduce color television (using NTSC) until 1980–1981, although it was already manufacturing color television sets for export. The last country in Asia and the world to introduce color television was Cambodia in 1986.

Middle East
Nearly all of the countries in the Middle East use PAL. The first country in the Middle East to introduce color television was Lebanon in 1967. Jordan, Iraq and Oman, become second in the early-1970s. Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, Kuwait, Bahrain, and Qatar followed in the mid-1970s, but Israel and Cyprus continued to broadcast in black and white until the early 1980s. Israeli television even erased the color signals using a device called the mehikon.

Africa
The first color television service in Africa was introduced on the Tanzanian island of Zanzibar, in 1973, using PAL. In 1973 also, MBC of Mauritius broadcast the OCAMM Conference, in color, using SECAM. At the time, South Africa did not have a television service at all, owing to opposition from the apartheid regime, but in 1976, one was finally launched. Nigeria adopted PAL for color transmissions in 1974 in the Benue Plateau state in the north central region of the country, but countries such as Ghana and Zimbabwe continued with black and white until 1984. The Sierra Leone Broadcasting Service (SLBS) started television broadcasting in 1963 as a cooperation between the SLBS and commercial interests; coverage was extended to all districts in 1978 when the service was also upgraded to color.

South America
Unlike most other countries in the Americas, which had adopted NTSC, Brazil began broadcasting in color using PAL-M, on 19 February 1972. Ecuador was the first South American country to broadcast in color using NTSC, on 5 November 1974. In 1978, Argentina started international broadcasting in color using PAL-B in connection with the country's hosting of the FIFA World Cup. However domestic color broadcasting remained black & white until 1 May 1980 when regular broadcasting started using PAL-N, a variation of PAL-B specially suited for Argentina, Uruguay and Paraguay.

Also in April 1978, Chile adopted color television officially through the NTSC standard, This led to experimental broadcasts during the Viña del Mar Festival and the widespread use of color TV during the 1978 FIFA World Cup, followed by the charity event Teletón in December of the same year.

Some other countries in South America, including Bolivia, Paraguay, Peru, and Uruguay [1981], did not broadcast full-time color television until the early 1980s.

Cor Dillen, director and later CEO of the South American branch of Philips, was responsible for bringing color television to South America.

Color standards
There are three main analog broadcast television systems in use around the world, PAL (Phase Alternating Line), NTSC (National Television System Committee), and SECAM (Séquentiel Couleur à Mémoire—Sequential Color with Memory).

The system used in The Americas and part of the Far East is NTSC. Most of Asia, Western Europe, Australia, Africa, and Eastern South America use PAL (though Brazil uses a hybrid PAL-M system). Eastern Europe and France uses SECAM. Generally, a device (such as a television) can only read or display video encoded to a standard that the device is designed to support; otherwise, the source must be converted (such as when European programs are broadcast in North America or vice versa).

This table illustrates the differences:

[1] For SECAM the color sub-carrier alternates between 4.25000 MHz for the lines containing the Db color signal and 4.40625 MHz for the Dr signal (both are frequency modulated unlike both PAL and NTSC, which are phase modulated). The frequency of the sub-carrier is the only means that the decoder has of determining which color difference signal is actually being transmitted.

Digital television broadcasting standards, such as ATSC, DVB-T, DVB-T2, and ISDB, have superseded these analog transmission standards in many countries.

See also
Ban on CBS Color TVs
Beam-index tube
Triniscope

References

Further reading

External links
 "Television in Color". Popular Mechanics. April 1944. One of the earliest magazine articles detailing the new technology of color television.
 "TV Color Controversy". Life. 27 February 1950. About the FCC debating which color television system to approve for US broadcasts.

Television
Television technology
Telecommunications-related introductions in 1940
Display technology

Color television


A Special Representative of the Secretary-General is a highly respected expert who has been appointed by the Secretary-General of the United Nations to represent her/him in meetings with heads of state on critical human rights issues. The representatives can carry out country visits to investigate allegations of human rights violations or act as negotiators on behalf of the United Nations.

United Nations


Hyena-baiting is a blood sport involving the baiting of hyenas against dogs.

History
The striped hyena has historically been the most frequently used species. Hyenas can be challenging opponents for dogs, as their jaws are exceedingly powerful. A single bite from a hyena lasting a few seconds without holding on is sufficient to kill a large dog. Hyenas apparently fight dogs by trying to cripple them by biting at their legs.

The Qalandar and the Thori in southern Punjab, Kandahar and Quetta, catch striped hyenas in order to pit them against specially trained dogs. The hyenas are restrained with ropes in order to pull them away from the dogs if necessary.
In Baluchistan, captured hyenas sometimes had bridles placed in their mouths in order to prevent them from injuring the dogs. This was done in order to train the dogs into not fearing the animal.
It is known that a Dogue de Bordeaux bitch named Megre was pitted against hyenas in 1895, though the exact species was not identified.

See also

Wolf-baiting
Jackal coursing

References

Hyenas
Baiting (blood sport)
Dog-related professions and professionals
Cruelty to animals

Hyena-baiting


The Rockwell Kent Cottage and Studio are a pair of historic buildings associated with the artist Rockwell Kent on Monhegan Island off the coast of the United States state of Maine.  Built in 1906 and 1910 by Kent, they are an important reminder of his presence on the island.  Both properties were later owned by artist James E. Fitzgerald, and now serve as a museum displaying his works.  They were listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1992.

Description
The Rockwell Kent Cottage and Studio occupy two discontiguous parcels of land on the north side of Horn Hill Road, overlooking the village on Monhegan Island.  The cottage is a Cape style single-story wood-frame structure, with a side gable roof and shingled exterior.  Short ells extend to either side from the gable ends.  The main facade faces south, and is three bays wide, with the entrance in the rightmost bay, framed by sidelight windows.

The studio is located about  from the cottage, down a winding path.  It is a slightly larger building, also a single story, with a gable-on-hip roof on its main block, with lower sections extending from the narrow ends.  While the cottage is essentially vernacular in style, the studio has some distinctive Shingle style features, with a porch-like entry recessed under a hip roof on one of the ells.  A wall dormer rises on the north side of the building, making space for a large picture window providing light to the studio space.

History
The buildings are two of four that were designed by Rockwell Kent during the years he spent on the island.  The cottage was built in 1906, its design and construction overseen by Kent, whose formal training included architecture and design.  He built a similar cottage for a neighbor (since altered), and another small house for his mother.  In 1910 Kent built the studio, in part as a place to operate an art school in partnership with an art school friend, Julius Golz.  It is here that Kent painted some of his best-known works, including Toilers of the Sea, Winter-Monhegan Island, and Down to the Sea.

Kent left the island in 1910, selling the cottage, which was rented to his cousin Alice Kent Stoddard, a fellow artist.  In 1948, Alice Kent Stoddard purchased the John Willey House from Alma Marshall Wincapaw, and Rockwell Kent repurchased his cottage from Alice, then he again spent several years on the island.   In 1952, James E. Fitzgerald purchased the studio and six years later purchased the house. Upon Fitzgerald's death in 1971, his buildings and artwork were inherited by Edgar and Anne Hubert, who were his patrons and friends. Fitzgerald's estate, including the buildings, were bequeathed to the Monhegan Museum and Library upon Anne Hubert's death in 2004.

Museum
During the summer, the historic house museum is open to the public on a limited basis to view the works of Fitzgerald. A symposium was held on the 100th anniversary of the building's construction in 2007. The Kent Collector intended to publish papers from the symposium. It is produced by the Rockwell Kent Archives at the SUNY Plattsburgh Art Museum.

See also
Kent Cottage, Brigus, Newfoundland
National Register of Historic Places listings in Lincoln County, Maine

References

External links
James Fitzgerald Legacy

Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in Maine
Museums in Lincoln County, Maine
Historic house museums in Maine
Artists' studios in the United States
Art museums and galleries in Maine
National Register of Historic Places in Lincoln County, Maine

Rockwell Kent Cottage and Studio


A. & G. Taylor was a British photographic business, and manufacturer of cabinet cards and cartes de visite, and later picture postcards.

In 1866, the photographers Andrew Taylor (1832–1909) and George Taylor opened their first studio in London's Cannon Street. They expanded to have 30 outlets in major British cities and some in the US. In 1886, they received a Royal Warrant, and became self-proclaimed "Photographers to the Queen".

By 1901, they were producing picture postcards, using four different series, the Reality Series of greetings, children, actresses, and military themes, as real photo postcards, the Carbontone Series of black and white printed views and greetings, the Orthochrome Series of views and greetings, printed in tinted halftone, and a Comic Series. After 1914, they moved their main studio to Hastings, but may have closed by 1918.

References

English printers
Postcard publishers

A. & G. Taylor


The EADS/Northrop Grumman KC-45 was a proposed aerial refueling tanker aircraft based on the Airbus A330 MRTT. The United States Air Force (USAF) had ordered 179 KC-45As in the first stage of replacing the aging Boeing KC-135 Stratotanker tankers currently in service. However, the contest was reopened in July 2008, after Boeing's protest of the award was upheld. In response to the new contest, on 8 March 2010, Northrop Grumman announced it was abandoning its bid for the new contract, with its CEO stating that the revised bid requirement favoured Boeing. On 20 April 2010, EADS (now known as Airbus SE) announced it was re-entering the competition and entered a bid with the KC-45. Eventually, the USAF selected the Boeing KC-46 Pegasus.

Development

Background

From the late 1990s the USAF decided to replace its fleet of KC-135s. Initially the first batch of replacements was to be an air tanker version of the Boeing 767-200, which was selected over the Airbus 330-based tanker. Instead of outright purchase, as is the usual practice, the Air Force would lease the 767 tankers from Boeing. In January 2006, then-Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld announced the cancellation of the KC-767 contract. Rumsfeld stated that this move would in no way impair the Air Force's ability to deliver the mission of the KC-767, which was to be accomplished by continuing upgrades to the KC-135 Stratotanker and KC-10 Extender fleets.

KC-X program

In 2006, the USAF released a request for proposal (RFP) for a new tanker aircraft, known as the KC-X RFP, which was updated in January 2007 and was to be selected by 2007. KC-X is the first phase of three acquisition programs to replace the KC-135 fleet.

On 29 February 2008, the Department of Defense announced that it had selected the Northrop Grumman "KC-30" (designated the KC-45A by the USAF) over the Boeing KC-767 for the first stage of the program. On 11 March 2008, Boeing filed a protest with the Government Accountability Office (GAO) for the award of the contract to Northrop Grumman. Following the protest filing, Northrop Grumman and Boeing engaged in media campaigns in support of their tanker aircraft.

On 18 June 2008, the Government Accountability Office upheld the protest by Boeing on the decision to award the contract to Northrop Grumman, indicating that the USAF had not properly evaluated the Boeing and Northrop Grumman bids.

On 9 July 2008 Secretary of Defense Robert Gates announced the contract for the KC-45 as an "expedited recompetition". Defense Undersecretary John Young was placed in charge of the review process, the Air Force having been removed from the award process. On 10 September 2008, the US Defense Department canceled the KC-X solicitation. Funding for KC-X is to be requested for FY10-FY15. In September 2009, the USAF began the first steps toward accepting new bids. In March 2010, Northrop Grumman announced that it would pull out of the bidding process.

EADS and Boeing submitted their final KC-X tanker bids on 10 February 2011. On 24 February 2011, the USAF announced the Boeing's bid had won the KC-X contract.

Production plans
The first four units would have been converted from passenger versions at EADS EFW in Dresden, Germany. Airbus planned to assemble the aircraft in Mobile, Alabama, after which they would have been modified by Northrop Grumman. EADS had also announced plans to shift A330 commercial freighter assembly to Alabama. As the winner of the Air Force contract, Northrop Grumman and EADS (the airframe subcontractor) were expected to invest approximately US$600 million in new assembly plants in the United States adjacent to one another in the Brookley Complex in Mobile.

EADS's failure to win the contract meant that the Alabama production line for the Airbus A330 was never set up. However, on 30 June 2012, EADS announced a new factory at Mobile, Alabama to manufacture the narrow-body Airbus A320, which began operations on 14 September 2015.

Design

The A330 Multi Role Tanker Transport (MRTT) is a military derivative of the Airbus A330 airliner. It is designed as a dual-role air refueling tanker and cargo transport aircraft. The wing air refueling pods are supplied by the British company Cobham. The cargo hold has been modified by Telair to be able to transport military pallets in addition to civilian ULD.

The A330 MRTT has a fuel capacity of 245,000 lb (111,000 kg) in the wings and underfloor tanks. The underfloor tanks do not compromise main deck cargo capacity or seating in the strategic transport role. Standard fuel capacity allows the carriage of an additional 43,000 kg of cargo. The A330 MRTT's wing has common structure as the four-engine A340-200/-300 with reinforced mounting locations for the A340's outboard engines. The A330 MRTT's wing therefore requires little modification for use of these hardpoints for the wing refueling pods.

The KC-45 will be fitted with an Aerial Refuelling Boom System (ARBS), two Cobham 905E underwing refuelling pods and one Cobham 805E Fuselage Refuelling Unit (FRU).

Specifications
Note: specifications denoted with a "*" are for the A330.

See also

References

External links

 Northrop Grumman KC-45 official site. Archived from the original on 14 May 2008.

KC-45
Air refueling
2000s United States military transport aircraft
Airbus A330
Low-wing aircraft
Twinjets

EADS/Northrop Grumman KC-45


Jim Keefe (born 1965) is an American cartoonist. He is the most recent artist to contribute original art and stories to the Flash Gordon comic strip.

Career
A graduate of The Kubert School, Keefe started his career as the head colorist in the King Features Syndicate comic art department, coloring such world-renowned strips as Blondie, Beetle Bailey, and Hägar the Horrible.

From 1996 to 2003 he was the writer and artist of Flash Gordon (which at that point was running only on Sundays) for King Features  – currently available online at FlashGordon.com.

Teaching and speaking engagements include the School of Visual Arts in Manhattan, Malloy College and Hofstra University's UCCE Youth Programs in Long Island, New York – and most recently as an adjunct teacher at the Minneapolis College of Art and Design.

Since 2013, Keefe has been the artist of the Sally Forth comic strip, written by Francesco Marciuliano. Sally Forth is syndicated worldwide by King Features and appears in nearly 700 newspapers.

References

External links

American comic strip cartoonists
Living people
1965 births
Comics colorists

Jim Keefe


Philco (an acronym for Philadelphia Battery Company) is an American electronics manufacturer headquartered in Philadelphia. Philco was a pioneer in battery, radio, and television production. In 1961, the company was purchased by Ford and, from 1966, renamed "Philco-Ford". Ford sold the company to GTE in 1974, and it was purchased by Philips in 1981. In North America, the Philco brand is owned by Philips. In other markets, the Philco International brand is owned by Electrolux.

In the early 1920s, Philco made storage batteries, "socket power" battery eliminator units (plug-in transformers), and battery chargers. With the invention of the rectifier tube, which made it practical to power radios by electrical outlets, in 1928, Philco entered the radio business. They followed other radio makers such as RCA, Atwater-Kent, Zenith Electronics, Freshman Masterpiece, FADA Radio (Frank A. D'Andrea Radio), and AH Grebe into the battery-powered radio business. By the end of 1930, they were selling more radios than any other maker, a position they held for more than 20 years.

Philco built many iconic radios and television sets, including the classic cathedral-shaped wooden radio of the 1930s (aka the "Baby Grand"), and the Predicta series of television receiver sets of the 1950s.

Philo Farnsworth, credited for inventing the first fully functional all electronic vacuum tube television system (, filed Jan 7, 1927), worked at Philco from 1931 to 1933.

Early history
Philco was founded in 1892 as Helios Electric Company.  From its inception until 1904, the company manufactured carbon-arc lamps. As this line of business slowly foundered over the last decade of the 19th century, the firm experienced increasingly difficult times. As the Philadelphia Storage Battery Company, in 1906 it began making batteries for electric vehicles. They later supplied home charging batteries to the infant radio industry. The Philco brand name appeared in 1919. From 1920 to 1927, all radios were powered by storage batteries which were fairly expensive and often messy in the home.

Radios

A very successful August 1925 consumer product, called the "Socket Power Battery Eliminator", was a rectifier unit which enabled users to operate their battery-powered radios from standard light or wall sockets. By 1927, over a million of these units had been sold, but the invention of the vacuum tube rectifier (incorporated into the coming 1928 line of radio sets) made this technology obsolete.

In 1926, Philco decided to begin making radios. The first Philco radios were introduced in mid-1928, and 96,000 were produced that year, making Philco radios 26th in the nation in production volume. Up to that time most radios were handmade and priced for relatively wealthy consumers. Atwater Kent, the leading radio seller, coincidentally was also located in Philadelphia.

The Philadelphia Storage Battery Company decided that prices of radios could be scaled for a mass market by incorporating assembly line techniques then only used by the automobile industry. By the 1929 model year, Philco was in third place behind Atwater Kent and Majestic (Grigsby-Grunow Corp) in radio sales. In 1930, the company sold 600,000 radios, grossed $34 million, and was the leading radio maker in the country. By 1934, they had captured 30% of the domestic radio market.

Philco radios were economical without sacrificing quality or durability. Like other makers of the era, they offered a wide line of radios beginning with five-tube sets all the way up to high-fidelity consoles with 20 tubes in 1937–38. Philco also made battery-powered radios which were by then called "farm radios", most of which had cabinets identical to their AC powered versions. The Philco "Baby Grand" (today called "cathedral" radios by collectors) was a shape that featured an arched top that wrapped from the sides over the top. This was for economic reason partly, as one piece of wood formed both the top and sides. Philco sold far more of this style than any other maker, a total of over two million (in over twenty models, with from four to eleven tubes) from 1930 to 1938; many of them exist today in collections. By today's standards, most are still excellent performing AM band radios when restored.

A few of their innovations were very futuristic. From 1939 to 1941, they sold radios that were operated by wireless remote control, the one-tube "Mystery Control", used on their 13-tube model 116RX-SU (or 39-116). This feature was not offered by any other maker until the 1970s stereo receivers. Philco ranked 57th among United States corporations in the value of World War II military production contracts.

Another interesting product was the Philco "Beam of Light" 78 RPM record players offered in 1941 and 1942.  These units had a tiny mirror attached to the player's needle.  A beam of light was focused on the mirror which caused a vibrating light to hit a photoelectric cell and produce the audio signal.  While this system had some advantages over the standard crystal phono cartridge of the time, it was unreliable and is today a very difficult unit to restore.

Expansion into other products

Philco began marketing car radios in 1930 and later expanded into other areas including air conditioners (1938), refrigerators (1939), home freezers (1946), consumer televisions (1947), electric ranges (1949), home laundry washers and dryers (1954), and home entertainment products. Their first consumer television set, the 1948 table Model 48-1000, had a  screen and sold for US$395.

By 1954, Philco had led the radio industry in sales volume for 24 straight years, selling over 30 million radios.

Philco was also a pioneer in television broadcasting, launching experimental station W3XE in 1932. In 1941, the station became the third commercially licensed TV operation in the United States as WPTZ. It was sold to Westinghouse Broadcasting in 1953 and became KYW-TV, a CBS owned and operated station.

The Philco Predicta TV set was introduced in 1957 for the 1958 model year. It was a black and white television with the picture tube mounted in a unique steerable pod on a pedestal. There were many versions: 17" or 21" picture tubes, wood or metal cabinets and table or floor standing versions, some with rare UHF tuners. Its specially designed, high-deflection-angle (to achieve a shallow front-to-back depth) picture tube turned out to be unreliable, and cost the company dearly in repairs and reputation. Many of them were sold to motels and bars due to the convenience of the swivel tube arrangement.  It was discontinued in 1960; a disappointing failure for Philco. Due to the unique design, the Predicta is a collector's favorite and restored examples can easily be found.

Transistor research and product development

In late 1953, engineers at Philco Corporation invented the surface-barrier transistor, the first high frequency transistor suitable for use in high speed computers. Philco Corporation had produced a late 1950s  production film about its surface-barrier transistor manufacturing processes and product developments that was titled, "Philco Transistors - The Tiny Giants Of The Future".

A May 1954 news article describes Philco's development of a pre-production indium-coated transistor that used silicon instead of germanium that relied on further improvements in silicon refinement to bring to production.

In June 1955, the National Security Agency and the United States Navy entered into a contract with Philco to build a specialized scientific transistorized computer based on Philco's surface barrier transistor technology. The project was called SOLO, since the idea was to have powerful personal workstations, and the computer was later commercially named the Philco Transac S-1000. The SOLO transistorized large scale scientific computer was finally built and delivered to the National Security Agency in November 1957.  Philco also entered into a contract with the U.S. Navy's David Taylor Basin Research Division in 1955, to build a larger scale fully transistorized computer using its surface-barrier transistor technology, which was named the CPXQ model and later became the Philco Transac S-2000.

Philco had developed and produced a miniature transistorized computer brain for the Navy's jet fighter planes in 1955 and it was called the "Transac" (C-1000, C-1100), which had stood for "Transistor Automatic Computer." The Philco Transac computer brain had used its high-frequency surface-barriers transistors in the circuitry design.

Chrysler and Philco announced that they had developed and produced the world's first all-transistor car radio and it was announced in the April 28, 1955, edition of the Wall Street Journal. Chrysler made the all-transistor car radio, Mopar model 914HR, available in Fall 1955 for its new line of 1956 Chrysler and Imperial cars, as a $150 option ($ in  dollars ). Philco's radio manufacturing plant in Sandusky, Ohio, had produced the all-transistor car radio unit for the Chrysler Corporation, which also used Philco's surface-barrier transistors in its circuitry design.

In 1955, Philco developed and produced the first all-transistor phonograph models TPA-1 and TPA-2. This was announced in the June 28, 1955, edition of the Wall Street Journal. Philco had begun selling these phonographs in the fall of 1955 for $59.95. The October 1955 issue of Radio & Television News magazine (page 41) printed a full-page, detailed article, on Philco's new consumer phonograph. The Philco all-transistor portable phonograph TPA-1 and TPA-2 models played only 45rpm records and used four 1.5v "D" batteries for its power supply. "TPA" stands for "Transistor Phonograph Amplifier". Its circuitry used three Philco germanium PNP alloy-fused junction audio frequency transistors. After the 1956 season ended, Philco discontinued the all-transistor portable 45rpm phonograph models, for transistors were too expensive compared to vacuum tubes.

The Philco Transac models S-1000 scientific computer and S-2000 electronic data processing computer, were the first commercially produced large-scale all transistor computers, which were introduced in 1957. It used discrete surface barrier transistors instead of vacuum tubes (the integrated circuit had not yet been invented). It also used a fast adder, invented by Bruce Gilchrist, James H. Pomerene and Y.K. Wong of the Institute for Advanced Study. It incorporated a speed-up technique for asynchronous adders reducing the time for additive carry-overs to propagate.

In 1959, Philco developed and produced the first battery-powered portable transistorized TV. This TV model was called the "Safari" and contained 21 transistors. Philco had developed the VHF micro-alloy diffused transistor (MADT) and used them in the Safari portable TV. The retail selling price was $250.00 ($ in  dollars ) plus the cost of the rechargeable battery, which was $5.25 extra ($ in  dollars ).

In 1962, the Philco 2000 Model 212 computer was chosen for use in the North American Aerospace Defense Command's famous Cheyenne Mountain Complex. Three of them were installed that year and ran until 1980. They were also used by research labs at Westinghouse Electric and General Electric.

Space systems

In 1960, the Courier 1B, built by Philco, became the first active repeater satellite. Courier 1B was built by the Western Development Labs (WDL) division of Philco, previously known as "Army Fort Monmouth Laboratories" (Fort Monmouth).

In 1960, NASA contracted with Philco to build the worldwide tracking station network for Project Mercury, and all subsequent man-in-space space projects until the ground station network was replaced by the TDRS communication satellites in the 1990s. Philco's Western Development Labs ultimately became Space Systems/Loral, which continues to manufacture spacecraft. In later years, the company produced automotive electronic controls, aerospace tracking systems, and artificial satellites.

In 1963, Philco was also responsible for the design, manufacturing, installation, and service of all the consoles used in both Mission Operations Control Rooms (a.k.a. Mission Control) at Building 30 of NASA's Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas. Philco technical representatives worked with NASA staff to design and integrate the consoles with NASA hardware and systems. The consoles were used for the Gemini, Apollo, Skylab, and Space Shuttle missions until 1998. The Philco-designed and installed consoles in Mission Control 2 at the Johnson Space Center have been preserved and will be restored to their Apollo-era configuration for historical purposes. The control room is listed in the National Register of Historic Places as the "Apollo Mission Control Center".

Water purification systems

In 1971, Philco-Ford began to sell reverse osmosis-based water purification systems that used tube-shaped membranes developed by the company to filter and desalinate raw polluted water for municipal utilities and manufacturing.

Demise

On December 11, 1961, Ford Motor Company purchased Philco and continued to offer consumer products, computer systems and defense related projects. The company, which had supplied Ford with some of its car radios as early as the 1930s, continued to provide Ford with car and truck radio receivers; consumer product investments were also made to color television production. Along with color and black and white television, Philco continued to produce refrigerators, washers, dryers, air conditioners, stoves, radios, portable transistor radios, portable phonographs, audio console systems with high quality "Mastercraft" furniture cabinets, and component stereo systems.

The company branded Philco products as "Philco-Ford" in 1966, and console stereo systems reached their zenith during 1966 and 1967, with high quality cabinet construction and powerful stereo chassis systems of 100- and 300-watt consoles. Philco at one time was one of the largest furniture producers in the world, but the end was near for "high quality" furniture cabinets along with stereo equipment. Solid wood cabinets with veneers were replaced with cheaper wood composites covered in vinyl paper and plastic wood pieces. The quality electronic systems that had been built in the United States were replaced with new designs and systems, engineered and built at a plant owned by Philco-Taiwan. Eventually, all consumer electronic goods would be made by Philco-Taiwan, to lower costs of production and be more competitive in the market. The prevailing industry trend was to move consumer electronic manufacturing to Asia in order to lower the cost of labor and production, and Philco-Ford was no exception to this.  Heavy consumer goods (major appliances) such as refrigerators, air conditioners and washer-dryers continued to be built in the United States, along with television receivers.

Ford dropped the computer business a few years into its ownership of the company.

In 1973, a complete line of breakthrough refrigerators was introduced, consisting of eight side-by-side "Cold Guard" models, which used about one-third less electricity than comparable competitive makes. But by January 1974, Ford was eager to rid itself of the home products in Philco's lines, which was not doing well. Negotiations with appliance maker White Consolidated Industries (WCI) started in January, but were called off in March. By September, Ford and GTE Sylvania – Philco's largest competitor – announced the sale of the non-automotive parts of the business, with the exception of the new refrigerator range, which Ford also kept. The deal closed on December 11.

In 1977, GTE sold Philco International to earlier suitor White Consolidated Industries. (In 1986, WCI was bought by AB Electrolux.)

The company (as well as the Sylvania brand name) was acquired from GTE by Philips in 1981 so that Philips could use its trademark in the United States. Philco had been able to keep Philips from using its trademark because of the similar-sounding names, so Philips had sold its products in the United States under the name "Norelco". Philips later used the Philco name for promotional consumer electronics and licensed the name for private brands and retro-style consumer electronics. Philips also licensed the Philco brand name to Funai for digital converter boxes for analog TVs in the USA.  As of September 2019, the US website is no longer functioning.

Non-U.S. branding

In Brazil, Philco (then Philco-Hitachi) was acquired in 1989 by Itautec, becoming Itautec-Philco and in August 2005 Itautec sold Philco to Gradiente. In August 2007, Gradiente sold the brand to a group of investors, who intended to license the brand to Brazilian appliance maker Britânia.

In 2003, the Merloni Group acquired rights to the Philco brand (from Philco International) for use in Italy. The Italian Philco produces household appliances in affiliation with ex-Bendix Corporation and Thorn EMI Moyor Electronics (e.g. Bendix 71258 1000 automatic washing machine 1986). As of 2006, the company is mainly known in Australia.

In Argentina, in March 2004, Philco was acquired by a group of Argentine investors. The presence of Philco in Argentina dates from 1930 and remains a traditional mark of appliances in this country. It manufactures refrigerators by Helametal Catamarca S.A. (Philco Argentina). All the line electronics, LCD TV, Car Stereos, Air Conditioning, MWO, Audio & DVD, is represented by Newsan SA SANYO and DatandHome SA, with the line of washing machines, dishwashers, air conditioning, water heaters, also the same group.

In Chile, the brand belongs to Fuji Corp S.A., a company that markets speakers, headphones, accessories for audio, TV and telephony, as well as appliances and electrical items, under this brand.

In Italy, Philco brand televisions were produced during the 1980s by Imperial Electronics of Milan.

See also
The Philco Television Playhouse

References

External links

 A brief history of Philco
 The Internet's Leading PHILCO Resource with comprehensive history and photo gallery sections as well as on online forum devoted to Philco
 Everything for the Philco antique radio collector and restorer
 Online community of former Philco Tech Reps
 PhilcoRadio.com
 Video: Philco's Early Computers

Electronics companies of the United States
Battery manufacturers
Consumer electronics brands
Electrolux
Ford Motor Company
Philips
History of radio in the United States
History of television in the United States
Manufacturing companies based in Pennsylvania
American companies established in 1892
Electronics companies established in 1892
1892 establishments in Pennsylvania
American brands
Defunct computer hardware companies
Radio manufacturers
Defunct computer companies of the United States

Philco


Tweedales and Smalley was a manufacturer of textile machinery in Castleton, Rochdale, Greater Manchester, in England. It specialised in ring spinning frames mainly for export.

History
When John Bullough, of Howard & Bullough died in 1891, three of the directors, Edmund Tweedale, Samuel Tweedale and Joseph Smalley decided to set up their own textile machine manufacturing business. They started in John Street, Rochdale. In July 1892 they moved into the new Globe Works, Castleton; the layout and buildings having been designed by Samuel Tweedale. Howard & Bullough operated out of the Globe Works Accrington.

The first product was a ring frames. In February 1893, frames were installed in the Newhey Spinning Mill. A speed frame was delivery in August 1893, in February 1894 a drawing frame and in 1895 a revolving flat carding machine. The product were fast and of high quality, India was an important export market. It is said that at one stage half of all textile equipment there, was manufactured by Tweedales and Smalley. It started producing blowing room equipment in 1912.

During World War I, they produced armaments. An accident in May 1916 killed six people. Tweedales and Smalley resisted trade union recognition until March 1917. There was a strike and government intervention when the partners were forced to concede.

In 1920, the partners handed over the company to a syndicate. The families remained on the board until 1926, when only Walter Smalley remained. The company survived the interwar years by an aggressive export drive, taking major orders from India and Russia.

In 1933, the firm became part of the Textile Machinery Makers Ltd but continued to trade under its own name. Then in 1939, it reverted to producing armaments. This allowed it to retool.

Post war, it exported to new markets in 28 countries including Peru, Brazil and Mexico. TMM became a subsidiary of Platt Brothers Holdings in 1957, who decided to close the Globe works in late 1962. Platt had decided that the market for ring frames was declining so it transferred existing work to Oldham and the Globe Works in Accrington.

At one time the Globe Works covered over  and employed more than 2,000 people. In 1964 it became the northern distribution centre for Woolworths.

Tweedales and Smalley Ltd works band
This was formed in 1943, the instruments being inherited from the St John Ambulance Cadets. The conductor was J H Merrick. The firm bought new instruments in 1945 and Clifton Jones became the musical director and remained to 1955, when Herbert White took over. They competed in many contests with national success.

References
Tweedales and Smalley- Rochdale Observer article

Spinning
Textile manufacturers of England
Engineering companies of England
History of the textile industry
Textile machinery manufacturers
1933 disestablishments in England
Former defence companies of the United Kingdom
British companies disestablished in 1933

Tweedales & Smalley


The Motor Cycle was one of the first British magazines about motorcycles. Launched by Iliffe and Sons Ltd in 1903, its blue cover led to it being called "The Blue 'un" to help distinguish it from its rival publication Motor Cycling, which, using a green background colour, was known as "The Green 'un".  Many issues carried the strapline "Circulated throughout the World".

The covers eventually used a variety of different background colours after 1962, with a name-change to Motor Cycle.

Features
Noted for detailed road tests of contemporary motorcycles and articles on readers' bikes, the magazine had regular features, including "Current Chat" and "Letters to the Editor" where many of the key issues relating to British motorcycling of the day were debated. The contributors often signed their pieces with pseudonyms such as Torrens (Arthur Bourne, one of the Editors)  and the famous Ixion (Canon B.H. Davies).

Recent history

From 1962, 'The' was dropped from the title, being then simply known as Motor Cycle. Regular features developed such as 'On the Four Winds' by Nitor and 'Racing Line' by David Dixon in addition to many different trends, with a readers' write-in 'Help Club', technical articles, stripdowns and repair sequences, new model analysis, practical road riding, accessories, clubs and rallying.

As a magazine-format, space was limited and although road-race and off-road sport reportage was always present, Motor Cycle enjoyed a reputation more as a technically based periodical.

1967 saw a merger with some elements of underperforming rival Motor Cycling which had already changed to broadsheet newspaper format in 1962, leaving Motor Cycle as a compact magazine with limited page-space.

With the merger came the opportunity to change into newspaper format. Harry Louis, editor of Motor Cycle, stated in the last magazine format dated 3 August 1967:

"You'll get it a day earlier, on Wednesdays. The printing will be by the latest process, web-offset, which gives much brighter reproduction of pictures than has been possible in the past.

With about twice as much space as in this issue, the new Motor Cycle brings you all the features you expect plus much more extensive coverage of sport and news."

Traditionally, Motor Cycling had a sporting-bias whilst Motor Cycle had more of a technical grounding. Under the new venture Motor Cycle incorporating Motor Cycling, former Motor Cycling Editor Norman Sharpe was installed as the new editor with Harry Louis enjoying the title of Editor-in-Chief

Louis stated in his first-page article of the last magazine-format of Motor Cycle:

"Besides bringing two famous, long-established publications together, we are uniting the star writers on both into one team operating from Dorset House.

These enthusiasts who, basically all-rounders but with specialized interests when they punch their typewriters, form the most experienced, knowledgeable and liveliest bunch of motor-cycling journalists ever in our field."

Some staff transferred over to the new venture. Particularly successful was Mick Woollett who became sports editor, eventually progressing to editor of Motor Cycle which was later renamed Motor Cycle Weekly.  Woollett then was involved in The Classic Motor Cycle and other projects under IPC magazines.

The two publications continued as one in the newspaper format, initially under the name Motor Cycle Incorporating Motor Cycling under Motor Cycle publishers Iliffe Specialist Publications Ltd.

Stalwart 'Motor Cycle' staffman David Dixon (1933–2013) – a specialist road-race and road-test reporter and successful endurance racer – continued-on with the merged staff from 1967 bút left by 1971 to establish a road-race school – Dixon Robb Racing – in conjunction with successful 1950s and 1960s racer Tommy Robb.

By 1973 Dixon had established his own retail concern – Dixon Racing – with a shop at High Street, Godalming. Specialising in importing to the UK tuning products for the rapidly expanding Japanese superbike range, he established a long-standing arrangement with Yoshimura, with products initially concentrated on the Honda  CB350, CB500 and CB750 machines. By the end of the same decade, Dixon Racing became the UK concessionaires (importer) for the early Bimota frame kits – 'KB1' for Kawasaki 1000, 'SB1' for Suzuki 1000 and 'HB2' for Honda 900 donor engines. Dixon died in 2013.

Fate

Motor Cycle Weekly continued as newspaper-format until 1983 when it reverted to magazine-format. After less than a year as a 'glossy' it was closed.

Some former staff established Motor Cycling Weekly, in a newspaper format, during late November 1983. Echoing the change in 1967 when Motor Cycle ceased as a Thursday publication to match rival Motorcycle News on Wednesdays, Motor Cycling Weekly was pitched to reach the newsstands on Tuesday, having the strapline "First with the news...and first every week!".

Issues were sold in the UK during late 1983 and 1984 before abandonment of the project.

References

1903 establishments in the United Kingdom
1983 disestablishments in the United Kingdom
Motorcycle magazines published in the United Kingdom
Weekly magazines published in the United Kingdom
Defunct magazines published in the United Kingdom
Magazines established in 1903
Magazines disestablished in 1983
Magazines published in London

The Motor Cycle


Mount Li () is a mountain located in the northeast of Xi'an in Shaanxi Province, China. The mountain is part of the Qinling mountain range and rises to a height of 1302 metres above sea level. It is one of the eight scenic spots of the Guanzhong Plain and popularly said to "shine like a beacon in the evening sunlight".

Ancient era
Some ancient tales say that the literal Chinese name "Black Steed Mountain" stems from its resemblance to a horse whilst others that the name arose during the Shang and Zhou Dynasties because the "Black Steed Tribe", lived in this area. Another legend cites the mountain as the place from where the Mount Li goddess Lishan Laomu and Nüwa, creator of mankind, repaired the wall of heaven. The two goddesses have long been worshipped on the same mountain.

In 771 BCE, King You of Zhou was slain at its foothills alongside his loyal vassal Duke Huan of Zheng. This marked the collapse of the mighty Western Zhou dynasty and began a very long age of endless conflict that devastated the Central Plains.

At the foot of the mountain is the necropolis of the first Emperor Qin Shi Huang, comprising his mausoleum and the Terracotta Army. Geographer Li Daoyuan of Northern Wei, recorded in Shui Jing Zhu that Mount Li was a favoured location due to its auspicious geology: "famed for its jade mines, its northern side was rich in gold, and its southern side rich in beautiful jade; the first emperor, covetous of its fine reputation, therefore chose to be buried there".

Huaqing Pool, a Tang Dynasty royal hot spring complex or geyser resort, stands at the foot of Mount Li.

Republic of China era
On December 12 of 1936, de facto Kuomintang (KMT) leader Chiang Kai-shek arrived in Shaanxi Province and stayed at Huaqingchi. His ostensible mission was to eradicate the local Communists and warlords, but instead he was kidnapped whilst hiding in a crevice on Li Mountain in what became known as the Xi'an Incident. After the incident, the KMT government built the simple "Minzu Fuxing Pavilion" () at the foot of the crevice in commemoration.

The building was reconstructed using steel and concrete in 1946 with the relevant funds subscribed by students of the Whampoa Military Academy in Guangdong. It was renamed the "Zhengqi Pavilion" () with inscriptions in the building eulogizing Chiang authored by senior KMT officers.

People's Republic of China era
After the 1949 Communist victory, the pavilion was for a time called the "Seizing Chiang Pavilion" (), finally adopting its current name of "Bingjian Pavilion" (兵谏亭; ) in 1986. Both terms refer to the Xi'an Incident.

Today, Li Mountain National Forest Park is a national level protected site and an AAAA rated tourist attraction classified as a cultural, and historic monument.

References

This article is based on a translation of 骊山 in Chinese Wikipedia
; Information copied from English Wikipedia about the death of Youwang, in Battle of Mount Li

Lishan
National parks of China
History of Shaanxi
Tourist attractions in Shaanxi
AAAA-rated tourist attractions

Mount Li


The term rhythm guitar refers to the style of playing guitar chords, and sometimes playing repeated riffs instead of using the guitar to play melody lines or solos (this kind of playing is called lead guitar). Rhythm guitarists add to the sound of a band, whether they play rock and roll, or other kinds of music.

John Lennon of The Beatles usually played rhythm guitar for the band, with George Harrison playing lead guitar. However, Lennon sometimes played keyboards, and once in a while took the lead guitar role, as he did in the songs "You Can't Do That" and "Get Back".

Sheet music for rhythm guitar is usually written above the classical notes. It is written in Guitar chord format.

References

String instruments

Rhythm guitar


Arbeo (also Aribo or Arbo) of Freising (723 or earlier near Meran – 4 May 784) was an early medieval author and the Bishop of Freising from 764.

Arbeo is thought to have been a scion of the Huosi noble dynasty in the stem duchy of Bavaria. He may have been the child which, according to his own hagiography, Saint Corbinian rescued from the floodwaters of the Passer River near Meran. Arbeo was raised by Corbinians's brother Erembert and prepared for an ecclesiastical career, becoming a member of the Benedictine Order. At first a priest and notary under Bishop Joseph of Freising and official of the episcopal chancery, he was appointed abbot of the newly founded monastery of Scharnitz in 763. One year later he succeeded Joseph as Bishop of Freising.

During his tenure, the Bavarian monasteries of Innichen, Schäftlarn and Schliersee were established, and Scharnitz Abbey relocated to Schlehdorf. Arbeo had the relics of Saint Corbinian transferred to Freising. In the long-time quarrels of the Agilolfing duke Tassilo III of Bavaria with his Frankish suzerains, the bishop remained a loyal supporter of King Charlemagne and may have lost his diocese in his later years.

Arbeo founded the Freising episcopal library and scriptorium. He is often counted as the first named author in German and is sometimes credited with the composition of the Codex Abrogans, a bilingual vocabulary in Latin and Old High German, often described as the first German book.

He is buried in Freising. His commemoration day in the Catholic Church is the 4th of May. An affiliation with Margrave Aribo, progenitor of the Aribonids is possible but has not been established.

Works
 Arbeonis episcopi Frisingensis vitae sanctorum Haimhrammi et Corbiniani ("Lives of Saints Emmeram and Corbinian, by Arbeo, Bishop of Freising")
Albert Lehner: Sacerdos = Bischof. Klerikale hiérarchie in der Emmeramsvita, 2007 Leipzig (Leipziger Universitätsverlag / ).
 Sigmund Ritter von Riezler: Arbeo . In: Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie (ADB). Vol. 1, Duncker & Humblot, Leipzig 1875, p. 510.
 Friedrich Wilhelm Bautz: Arbeo (Aribo, Arbo), Bischof von Freising . In: Biographisch-Bibliographisches Kirchenlexikon (BBKL). Vol. 1, Hamm 1975, Sp. 205.

Further reading
 Bengt Löfstedt. "Zu Arbeos Latein". Bulletin du Cange: Archivum Latinitatis Medii Aevi, 1927–1928. Tome XLI. E.J.Brill, Leiden. 1979.

External links

  Ökumenisches Heiligenlexikon article
 http://www.manfred-hiebl.de/mittelalter-genealogie/mittelalter/bistuemer/freising/arbeo_bischof_von_freising_+_783.html

Aribonid dynasty
German Benedictines
Medieval German saints
Roman Catholic bishops of Freising
8th-century bishops in Bavaria
Old High German literature
723 births
784 deaths
8th-century Christian saints
Benedictine bishops
German male writers
8th-century Frankish writers
8th-century writers in Latin
People from Merano

Arbeo of Freising