Daniel Prenn (7 September 1904 – 3 September 1991) was a Russian Empire-born German, Polish, and British tennis player who was Jewish. He was ranked the world No. 6 for 1932 by A. Wallis Myers, and the European No. 1 by "American Lawn Tennis" magazine. He was ranked world No. 8 in 1929 (Bill Tilden), world No. 7 in 1934 (American Lawn Tennis), and was ranked No. 1 in Germany for the four years from 1928 to 1932. He was a runner-up for the mixed doubles title of Wimbledon in 1930. When the Nazis came to power in Germany in 1933, they barred him from playing because he was Jewish. He emigrated from Germany to England, and later became a successful businessman.

Early life
Prenn was born on 7 September 1904 in Vilna, Russian Empire to a railway building contractor, and was Jewish. He grew up primarily in St. Petersburg, in Russia. To escape the local antisemitism, the family moved to Berlin after World War I, in 1920.

Apart from tennis, Prenn was an amateur boxer and runner. He graduated from the Technische Hochschule of Charlottenberg, Germany, earning a doctorate in engineering in 1929.

Table tennis career
Prenn represented Germany in the 1926 World Table Tennis Championships in London, reaching the fourth round in singles and the quarterfinals in doubles.

Tennis career
In 1928 he won the German Open Tennis Championships.

In 1930 he was a German Club team champion representing the Rot-Weiss Tennis Club of Berlin, beating fellow hometown club Blau-Weiss eight to one. Prenn won both of his doubles matches. He failed to win the Berlin international Championships, and subsequently lost to Bill Tilden in the final. He also lost the doubles with his Davis Cup teammate Heinrich Kleinschroth to the duo of Tilden and Erik Worm. A month later they met again in a match for the Dutch Championships doubles title, although this time they formed a team and won against the Dutch champions Hendrik Timmer and Arthur Diemer Kool.

In 1931 he won the singles, doubles, and mixed doubles championships of the City of Dresden tournament. The same year he lost the Berlin International Championships the second time to Roderich Menzel in straight sets, but won the doubles partnering with him.

He was a runner-up for the Danish Covered Court Championships in 1932, losing to Danish champion Einer Ulrich. He received the Reichsmedaille for winning the European Zone of the 1932 International Lawn Tennis Challenge.

In the Davis Cup from 1928 through 1932, Prenn played 13 matches, winning 17 rubbers and losing 5, compiling a 73% winning record.

He rose to the top of the German rankings starting from 1925 when he was ranked 15, in 1926 broke into the top ten at 10th, in 1927 he was the fourth-best player in the country and from 1928 to 1932 he peaked the German tennis charts.

After he was barred from tennis because he was Jewish, first he tried to apply for a Polish playing license to be part of the Poland Davis Cup team but was rejected by the Polski Związek Tenisowy (Polish Tennis Association) mostly as a result of his dismissal of previous Polish invitations and because he dropped his Polish citizenship earlier in 1932. He then changed nationality and represented Great Britain in the 1935 Maccabiah Games in Palestine.

After moving to Great Britain he had a successive run in winning a series of tournaments in 1933, including the Scottish Lowland Championships against Antoine Gentien, the West of England Championships against Hendrik Timmer (also finalist in doubles) and the Paris Championships against Christian Boussus.

In 1934, he clinched the Surrey covered courts tournament in Dulwich after defeating American David Jones.

In 1935, he was the runner-up for the mixed doubles contest of the British Hard Court Championships pairing up with Evelyn Dearman. Unfortunately a flu prevented his partner from competing that day and they had to skip the match and so the victory was awarded to their opponents. He lost the Harrow tournament of London to Bunny Austin in straight sets, and the French Covered Court Championships to Jean Borotra, also in straights. The same year he won the Surrey Hard Court Championships at Roehampton against South African player Pat Spence.

In 1937, he lost the Priory tournament final to Kho Sin-Kie.

Controversies
In early 1931, he was accused of turning professional (meaning he broke the rule of amateurism) and had to skip a couple of months before being acquitted, when it turned out that he had been mistaken for another person named Danel Prenn Several months later the German Tennis Union suspended him for another six months for sponsorship charges, based on the accusations of racquet manufacturer Hammer & Co. who claimed Prenn asked for payment for choosing Hammer's equipment. Local media labelled this action as anti-semitic, and it being forged by Hammer Company. As a result of his suspension Prenn's titles were taken back, as well as his amateur license. He was also expelled from the Germany Davis Cup team, though it didn't affect his presence as Germany was eliminated in the first round of the 1931 International Lawn Tennis Challenge

On 24 April 1933, a newly appointed Reichssportführer issued a declaration on behalf of the German Tennis Lawn Association stating that no Jew could be selected for the national team or the Davis Cup, and that no Jewish or Marxist club or association could be affiliated with the German Tennis Federation, and specifically that the Jewish player named Dr. Prenn would not be selected to the German Davis Cup team in 1933. The Swedish king, Gustaf V, a keen tennis player, dined with the German top brass in the summer of 1933, criticizing the new racial policies. After the lunch, the elderly king played a game with Prenn. Shortly thereafter, Prenn moved to Great Britain.

German Baron Gottfried von Cramm protested against the treatment of Prenn, and as a result, von Cramm was targeted and arrested on charges of homosexuality and imprisoned.

Personal life after Germany
After moving to England he launched his own audio equipment company around 1932 in Kentish Town. From 1946 to 1949, he had five patents related to plastic molding. His company, Truvox Engineering, was sold to Racal in 1969 for $1.26 million. In 1970, he founded Celestion Electronics, a loudspeaker manufacturer.

He had several children, Oliver (b. 1939) later become a Wimbledon Junior Champion, and competed in the main Wimbledon competitions as well. Oliver also took over the family enterprise in 1988 and runs the firm to this day. Another son John Allen Nicholas was a shareholder in Lacoste, and as an avid supporter of tennis and squash he got Celestion involved in a racquet sponsoring venture, which ended in 2010. He still has an interest in or owns a dozen companies.

Daniel Prenn was inducted into the International Jewish Sports Hall of Fame in 1981.

Grand Slam finals

Mixed doubles: (1 runner-up)

See also
List of select Jewish tennis players

References

External links

1904 births
1991 deaths
British male tennis players
German emigrants to the United Kingdom
German male tennis players
Jewish tennis players
Naturalised citizens of the United Kingdom
Sportspeople from Vilnius
Polish emigrants to the United Kingdom
Polish male tennis players
German male table tennis players
Jewish table tennis players
20th-century British businesspeople
Competitors at the 1935 Maccabiah Games
Maccabiah Games tennis players
Maccabiah Games competitors for Great Britain
20th-century Russian Jews

Daniel Prenn


The John T. and Marietta Carey House is a historic residence located in Denison, Iowa, United States. The house is associated with John Carey, who served for six years as Denison's mayor.  During that time the city's sewer system was put in, street signs were put up, preparations were made for mail delivery, the Carnegie Library and the courthouse were built, a telephone exchange was installed and the city more than doubled in size.  President Theodore Roosevelt and Treasury Secretary L. M. Shaw, a former Iowa governor, visited Denison when Carey was mayor.   He also served in county government.  Marietta (Greek) Carey was the daughter of early pioneers to the county, and she was one of the first people born in the county.  The two-story, frame, Queen-Anne style house was built in 1893.  It is a mail-order house from the George F. Barber & Co. in Knoxville, Tennessee.  The house was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2000.

References

Houses completed in 1893
Denison, Iowa
Queen Anne architecture in Iowa
Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in Iowa
National Register of Historic Places in Crawford County, Iowa
Houses in Crawford County, Iowa

Carey House (Denison, Iowa)


Ivan Šaško (born 1 August 1966, in Ðivan near Vrbovec) is a Croatian prelate of the Roman Catholic Church who serves as Auxiliary bishop of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Zagreb since  March 29, 2008.

Early life and education
Ivan Šaško was born in a small village of Ðivan near Vrbovec on 1 August 1966 to Stjepan and Ljubica Šaško. He attended first two classes of the elementary school in Banovo, and finished it at Vrbovec in the year 1981. After graduation, he attended minor seminary in Zagreb. He graduated from Interdiocese Preparatory Seminary in 1985 after which he went to serve conscription in the army. In autumn of 1986, Šaško entered major seminary and started the study of theology and philosophy at the Catholic Theological Faculty of the University of Zagreb. Upon completion of the second year of study in 1988, Šaško went to Rome to the Pontifical Atheneum of St. Anselm where he stayed until 1994 and continued his studies at the Pontifical Gregorian University from which he graduated in 1991. In the same year, he was ordained a deacon for the Archdiocese of Zagreb and began postgraduate studies and specialization in the liturgy at the Pontifical Atheneum of St. Anselm. On 28 June 1992, Šaško was ordained a priest for the Archdiocese of Zagreb by Cardinal Franjo Kuharić. He gained his Master's degree on 10 June 1994. That same year he became a member of the Pontifical Croatian College of St. Jerome and continued writing a doctoral dissertation. Šaško successfully defended a dissertation on 28 November 1997, with the thesis Dona, munera, sancta sacrifício - and omnibus ... facere digneris: dinamismo pneumatologici part Canone Romano. Ricerca e proposta per una rilettura teologico-liturgica.

Career
In 1996 Šaško came back to Croatia and started working as an assistant in the Department of the liturgy of the Zagreb Catholic Theological Faculty. From the year 2000 he worked as docent in the same department. From 2002 to 2007, he was head of the Department of the liturgy. From 2001 he is a member of the Assembly of prebendaries of the Zagreb cathedral. In 2008 he was appointed canon of the Cathedral Kaptol of Zagreb. In January 2005 he was appointed President of the Commission for the establishment of the Catholic University of Croatia, and still today, after the University opening in 2006, continues as the President of the Commission of the University. In April 2005 he was elected associate professor in the Department of the liturgy of Zagreb Catholic Theological Faculty. He is member of the editorial board of the scientific journal Bogoslovska smotra. In October 2005, Šaško participated in the IX Regular General Synod of Bishops in the Vatican, in a group of Assistants to the Special Secretary of the Synod. During three pastoral visits of Pope John Paul II to Croatia, he was one of those responsible for the preparation of liturgical celebrations.

On 11 February 2008, Pope Benedict XVI appointed Šaško auxiliary bishop of Zagreb and titular Bishop of Rotary. Cardinal Josip Bozanić ordained him on 29 March 2008.

References

21st-century Roman Catholic bishops in Croatia
Croatian theologians
1966 births
Living people

Ivan Šaško


Sequoyah was a Cherokee man. He invented a syllabary (alphabet based on syllables) for his people. Before that, they did not have an alphabet for their language.

Childhood
Sequoyah was born into the Cherokee Nation. His mother was Wut-teh. Not many people know about his early childhood. There are different stories on what happened.

Making the syllabary
Sequoyah met many white people. He was fascinated by their "talking leaves," which was their writing system on paper. He wanted to make an alphabet for Cherokees to communicate too. He began making it around 1809. First he tried to make a symbol for every word, like in Chinese. That required too much remembering. Then he tried to make one for every idea, but gave up. Finally he made one symbol for every syllable in the Cherokee language. He made a syllabary with 86 letters. Many of the letters look like English because he had an English book that he could not read.

He taught the syllabary to his daughter, Ayokeh (Ayoka). Then he tested it in front of a group of leaders. They said a word, he wrote it down, and then Ayokeh repeated them. Originally people thought it was witchcraft, but then they started liking his syllabary. Many Cherokee learned it and eventually became literate, which means they could read and write. In fact, more Cherokees could read and write better than nearby white people.

Influence
Sequoyah became a hero for giving Cherokee people a written language. Cherokee is still taught and used. There are now 85 symbols, instead of the original 86.

References

Other websites

 "Invention of the Cherokee Alphabet" , Cherokee Phoenix, 13 Aug 1828
 John B. Davis, "The Life and Work of Sequoyah", Chronicles of Oklahoma, Vol.8 (2), June 1930 , Oklahoma State University
 "Sequoyah", Tiro Typeworks
 "Sequoyah (aka George Gist)", a North Georgia Notable
 The Cherokee Nation Official Website
 "The Official Cherokee Font"  at the Cherokee Nation Official Website

Native American people
Cherokee Nation
1770s births
1843 deaths

Sequoyah


Swallow Hill Music is a Denver, Colorado based non-profit organization dedicated to promoting and preserving roots, acoustic and folk music. The school is inspired by the Old Town School of Folk Music in Chicago. Swallow Hill hosts hundreds of concerts a year ranging from national acts, such as Sheryl Crow and Josh Ritter, to many talented local artists and former students.

History

In 1962, Harry Tuft created the Denver Folklore Center in the Swallow Hill neighborhood of Denver, Colorado.  The DFC quickly became the place to be, and in no time grew to be one square block. It included a music store, repair shop, music store, and concert hall.

In 1971, the Denver Folklore Center Concert Hall was built and through most of the 70s experienced exceptional success. The concert hall brought in artists like Taj Mahal, Ry Cooder, Bonnie Raitt, Bette White and many others, establishing a solid reputation to a business that had already been acclaimed by many. The late Rocky Mountain News can be quoted as calling the DFC "a place of good reputation among artists in many other cities."

Unfortunately during the late 70s the neighborhood that surrounded the DFC began to decline dramatically. Tuft and many of the centers supporters got together to come up with a solution that would help support local folk music and the artists that inhabit it. This solution is now known as the non-profit Swallow Hill Music Association. This new organization would soon relieve the DFC of both the concert hall and music school.

In the 80s, Swallow Hill and the DFC made the move from the old location to a new location at 440 South Broadway. One problem with the new complex was there was not enough space to home a concert hall. Therefore, Swallow Hill rented numerous concert venues around the Denver area to accommodate their concerts. Another big moment during this era for Swallow Hill was the formation of the first newsletter titled Simple Gifts.

During the 90s, Swallow Hill drastically expanded in a very short amount of time. The organization began the decade remodeling their new Pearl Street building, forming their first choir, Thursday night jams, and the new Folkathon.

As their school and opportunities began to cover more ground, so did the population of supporters and customers. Soon the new Pearl Street building could no longer hold the capacity of people joining the organization. Thus their current home at 71 East Yale was opened to the public on the day of the organizations 20th anniversary.

Julie Davis School of Music

The Swallow Hill Music school was founded in 1979. In 2002, Swallow Hill Music made the decision to honor one of their most inspiring of colleagues, Julie Davis, by naming the music school after her. Davis became heavily involved in improving the school in 1984, and served as the director from 1986 to 1995. Currently, the school hosts 40,000 students a year and has classes for just about every level, genre, and age group.

Board of directors

Executive committee

 Walt DeHaven, Chair
 Kyle Harris, Treasurer
 Jim Leonard, Secretary

Board of directors

Trevor Emery, Walt DeHaven, Lori Fox, Grace Hanover, Kyle Harris, Jim Leonard, George Lyford, Gavin O'Toole, Dave Ratner, Rob Silk, Tracy Zabel

References

External links

Harry Tuft Bio

Music schools in Colorado
1962 establishments in Colorado

Swallow Hill Music Association


John Mary Pius Boland (16 September 1870 – 17 March 1958) was an Irish Nationalist politician, and Member of Parliament (MP) in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and as member of the Irish Parliamentary Party for South Kerry from 1900 to 1918. He was also noteworthy as a gold medallist tennis player at the first modern Olympics.

Early life
Boland was born at 135 Capel Street, Dublin, to Patrick Boland (1840–1877), businessman, and Mary Donnelly. Following the death of his mother in 1882, he was placed with his six siblings under the guardianship of his uncle Nicholas Donnelly, auxiliary bishop of Dublin.

Boland was educated at two private Catholic schools, one Irish, the second English, and both of whose existence and evolution were influenced by John Henry (later Cardinal) Newman – the Catholic University School, Dublin, and The Oratory School, Birmingham (since re-located to near Reading) where he became head boy. His secondary education in the two schools either side of the Irish Sea helped give him the foundation and understanding to play an influential role in the politics of Great Britain and Ireland at the beginning of the 20th century, when he was a member of the Irish Parliamentary Party which pursued constitutional Home Rule.

In 1892 he graduated with a BA from London University. He had studied for a semester in Bonn, Germany, where he was a member of Bavaria Bonn, a student fraternity that is member of the Cartellverband. Boland studied law at Christ Church, Oxford, graduating with a BA in 1896 and MA in 1901; although called to the Bar in 1897, he never practised.

Success at the first Olympics
He was the first Olympic champion in tennis for Great Britain and Ireland at the first modern Olympics, which took place in Athens in 1896.

Boland visited his friend Thrasyvoulos Manos in Athens during the Olympics, and Manos, a member of the organising committee, entered Boland in the tennis tournament. Boland promptly won the singles tournament, defeating Friedrich Traun of Germany in the first round, Evangelos Rallis of Greece in the second, Konstantinos Paspatis of Greece in the semifinals, and Dionysios Kasdaglis of Greece in the final.

Boland then entered the doubles event with Traun, the German runner whom he had defeated in the first round of the singles. Together, they won the doubles event. They defeated Aristidis and Konstantinos Akratopoulos of Greece in the first round, had a bye in the semifinals, and defeated Demetrios Petrokokkinos of Greece and D. Kasdaglis in the final. When the Union Flag and the German flag were run up the flagpole to honour Boland and Traun's victory, Boland pointed out to the man hoisting the flags that he was Irish, adding "It [the Irish flag]'s a gold harp on a green ground, we hope." The officials agreed to have an Irish flag prepared.

Career
Following a visit to Kerry he became concerned about the lack of literacy among the native population, he also had a keen interest in the Irish Language.

His patriotic stand was well received in nationalist circles in Ireland. This and a lifelong friendship with John Redmond gained for him an invitation to stand as a candidate for the Irish Parliamentary Party in the safe seat of South Kerry, which he held from 1900 to 1918. He was unopposed in the general elections of 1900 and 1906, and the first of 1910; in the second election of 1910 he was challenged by a local man, T. B. Cronin, who stood as an independent nationalist in the interest of William O'Brien. Boland stood down at the 1918 general election.

In 1908, Boland was appointed a member of the commission for the foundation of the National University of Ireland.

From 1926 to 1947, he was General Secretary of the Catholic Truth Society.

He received a papal knighthood, becoming a Knight of St. Gregory in recognition for his work in Education, and in 1950 he was awarded an honorary doctorate of Laws by the NUI.

Personal life
He married Eileen Moloney (1876–1937) at SS Peter and Edward, Palace-street, Westminster, on 22 October 1902, the daughter of an Australian Dr Patrick Moloney.

They had one son and five daughters; his daughter Honor Crowley succeeded her husband Frederick Crowley upon his death sitting as Fianna Fáil TD for South Kerry from 1945 until 1966, when she died. His daughter Bridget Boland was a playwright who wrote The Prisoner.

Death
He died at his home in London on St. Patrick's Day 1958.

Further reading

References

External links

 Biography from the International Olympic Committee (IOC)

1870 births
1958 deaths
19th-century Irish people
19th-century male tennis players
British male tennis players
Irish male tennis players
Irish Parliamentary Party MPs
Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for County Kerry constituencies (1801–1922)
Olympic gold medallists for Great Britain
Olympic tennis players for Great Britain
Politicians from County Kerry
Tennis players at the 1896 Summer Olympics
UK MPs 1900–1906
UK MPs 1906–1910
UK MPs 1910
UK MPs 1910–1918
Olympic medalists in tennis
Alumni of the University of London
Alumni of Christ Church, Oxford
Medalists at the 1896 Summer Olympics
British sportsperson-politicians
Sportspeople from County Kerry
Sportspeople from Dublin (city)
Politicians from Dublin (city)

John Boland (Irish nationalist politician)


Never So Few is a 1959 American World War II action movie directed by John Sturges and based on the 1957 novel of the same name by Tom T. Chamales. It stars Frank Sinatra, Gina Lollobrigida, Peter Lawford, Steve McQueen, Charles Bronson, Brian Donlevy and was distributed by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer.

Other websites

1959 movies
1950s action movies
American action movies
World War II movies
Movies directed by John Sturges

Never So Few


Harrison Jackson Reed (August 26, 1813May 25, 1899) was an American editor and politician who had most of his political career in Florida. He was elected in 1868 as the ninth Governor of Florida, serving until 1873 during the Reconstruction era. Born in Littleton, Massachusetts, he moved as a youth with his family to Milwaukee, Wisconsin, where he had a grocery store and started farming. He also owned and edited the Milwaukee Sentinel for several years.

Reed became active in the Republican Party and in 1861 he began his political career, moving to Washington, DC for a patronage job in the Treasury Department. In 1863 he was appointed as the Tax Commissioner of Florida, to oversee confiscation and sales of Confederate properties in Union-occupied areas. In 1865 he was appointed as Postal Agent for the state. In 1868 he was elected as Governor under the new constitution, which enfranchised freedmen. He served one term, with challenges by factions of the Republican Party resulting in two attempts in the state senate at impeachment. He strongly supported public education, where the growth in new schools served one-quarter of the children by 1872.

Early life and education
Harrison was one of eight Reed children, born on August 26, 1813, in Littleton, Massachusetts, to parents Seth Reed (1781–1848) and Rhoda (Finney) Reed (1781–1874). The Reed family moved to Milwaukee, Wisconsin, in 1836, where his siblings contributed to the newly developing areas and two brothers became politicians. His brothers were Herbert Reed, who became a grocer in Milwaukee and married Phebe Adeline Brisbane; Orson Reed of Summit, Wisconsin, who married Agnes Fairservice; Curtis Reed, who served as a state legislator; and George B. Reed, who became a judge and politician in Wisconsin. His sisters married substantial men: Mary Augusta Reed (1811–1866) married Judge Abram Daniel Smith (1811-1865); Martha (1817–1902) married Alexander Mitchell (1817–1887), who became a banker and railroad tycoon; and Julia Ann married Dr. Thomas J. Noyes, who became the first president of the Milwaukee Academy of Medicine.

At age 16, Harrison had been apprenticed to a printer, but health problems caused him to quit. When his family moved to Milwaukee, Wisconsin, he became a merchant there, opening the first general store. He also started the first Sunday school. After his business failed in the Panic of 1837, he took a turn at farming.

He also became an early owner and editor of the Milwaukee Sentinel in the city, publishing it from December 1837 until May 1842. He co-published the Wisconsin State Journal in Madison with David Atwood from 1859 to 1861.

On August 12, 1841, he married Amanda Anna Louisa Turner in Milwaukee. Together, they helped settle the towns of Neenah and Menasha. They had four children, one of whom died before the age of two.

Politics and moves
After joining the Republican Party in 1861, Reed moved to Washington, D.C., for a job that he had obtained at the Treasury Department. While they were living in Washington, his wife Amanda died on October 13, 1862.

In 1863, Reed was appointed by President Abraham Lincoln to be the Tax Commissioner in Florida to deal with sales and disposition of confiscated Confederate property. While working as Tax Commissioner, Reed traveled to Fernandina Beach on Amelia Island, which was occupied by Union forces, to oversee use of Confederate properties. There he met Chloe Merrick, who was teaching freedmen children, and was working to set up an orphanage. The widower was very impressed with Merrick, a young teacher from Syracuse, New York.

In 1869, Reed encountered Chloe Merrick again, who had moved to North Carolina for her health and was again teaching freed children. He proposed marriage to her. They were married at the home of Merrick's sister and brother-in-law in Syracuse, New York, on August 10, 1869. They had a son Harrison, Jr. together.

In 1865, President Andrew Johnson appointed Reed as the Postal Agent for Florida. He continued to be involved with postwar development in the state.

During the Reconstruction era, in 1868 Florida enacted a new constitution, which extended the franchise to freedmen. Most joined the Republican Party, which had emancipated them. Reed was elected governor under the new constitution. In the election, Reed received 14,421 votes and his Democratic Party opponent (George Washington Scott) received 7,731 votes.  Reed assumed office on June 8, 1868. The results were disputed by the Democrats. It was not until July 4, 1868, that the federal commander of military forces in Florida for Reconstruction recognized the constitution and the election as valid. Florida was readmitted to the Union at that time. Although the military forces in Florida were to leave on July 4, 1868 (following the restoration to the Union), Reed requested the continuation of Union forces.

Reed appointed Jonathan Clarkson Gibbs as Florida's first African-American Secretary of State, and also commissioned Gibbs as a lieutenant colonel in the Florida State Militia. He had a tumultuous tenure, with opposition from factions of the Republican Party. They made two attempts to pass impeachment resolutions in the state Senate against him.

In the first effort, the state Senate voted for his impeachment in November 1868, and William Henry Gleason, his lieutenant governor from 1868 to 1870, proclaimed himself as Governor. The state adjutant general and the sheriff of Leon County, Alvin B. Munger, a former US Army officer, supported Reed and organized an effort to deny Gleason access to the Capitol. On November 24, 1868, the Florida Supreme Court held that the Senate had lacked a quorum at their vote and could not have impeached Reed. Gleason was forced out.

During the Senate's second attempt to impeach Reed, Lieutenant Governor Samuel T. Day claimed to be Acting Governor from February 10 to May 4, 1872, while the senate was conducting hearings and voting. While his impeachment was pending, Reed had felt he was disqualified from holding office, and left the capital. The Legislature adjourned without bringing him to trial, which he construed as equivalent to acquittal. While Day was in Jacksonville for a party caucus, Reed returned to Tallahassee, declared himself Governor, and appointed a new Attorney General. Reed's proclamation was approved by the Secretary of State and upheld by the State Supreme Court.

Reed served as governor until January 7, 1873. He is believed to have been influenced by his wife's interest in education and alleviating poverty. After their marriage, he supported founding a state university, and gave strong support to public education. It was established for the first time in the state by the Reconstruction legislature. From 1870 to 1872, the number of public schools in the state increased from 270 to 444, and the number of children served grew from 7500 to 16,258, roughly one-quarter of the population of student age.

After holding office, Reed acquired a farm south of Jacksonville, along the St. Johns River. He returned to journalism, editing a local magazine, The Semi-Tropical. Although he struggled financially, he and Chloe Merrick Reed were active in civic affairs. In 1889 Reed was appointed as US Postmaster of Tallahassee by President Benjamin Harrison, serving for the remainder of his administration.  Reed's final public service was to represent Duval County in Florida's House of Representatives until his death in Jacksonville on May 25, 1899. He was buried there in the Oaklawn Cemetery.

Honors
Reed Street in Jacksonville, Florida is named for him.

References

 Official Governor's portrait and biography from the State of Florida
 "Harrison Reed", Wisconsin Historical Society
 Letters Relating to the Efforts to Impeach Governor Harrison Reed During the Reconstruction Era, State Library & Archives of Florida.
 Morris, Allen and Joan Perry Morris, compilers. The Florida Handbook 2007-2008 31st Biennial Edition. Page 312-3. Peninsula Publishing. Tallahassee. 2007.  Softcover  Hardcover.

External links

|-

1813 births
1899 deaths
19th-century American journalists
19th-century American male writers
19th-century American politicians
American male journalists
Editors of Wisconsin newspapers
Florida postmasters
Impeached state and territorial governors of the United States
People from Littleton, Massachusetts
People from Menasha, Wisconsin
Politicians from Jacksonville, Florida
Politicians from Madison, Wisconsin
Politicians from Milwaukee
Politicians from Neenah, Wisconsin
Republican Party governors of Florida
Republican Party members of the Florida House of Representatives
Wisconsin Republicans
Writers from Madison, Wisconsin

Harrison Reed (politician)


Winnowing is a process by which chaff is separated from grain. It can also be used to remove pests from stored grain. Winnowing usually follows threshing in grain preparation. In its simplest form, it involves throwing the mixture into the air so that the wind blows away the lighter chaff, while the heavier grains fall back down for recovery. Techniques included using a winnowing fan (a shaped basket shaken to raise the chaff) or using a tool (a winnowing fork or shovel) on a pile of harvested grain.

In Greek culture

The winnowing-fan (λίκνον [líknon], also meaning a "cradle") featured in the rites accorded Dionysus and in the Eleusinian Mysteries: "it was a simple agricultural implement taken over and mysticized by the religion of Dionysus," Jane Ellen Harrison remarked. Dionysus Liknites ("Dionysus of the winnowing fan") was wakened by the Dionysian women, in this instance called Thyiades, in a cave on Parnassus high above Delphi; the winnowing-fan links the god connected with the mystery religions to the agricultural cycle, but mortal Greek babies too were laid in a winnowing-fan. In Callimachus' Hymn to Zeus, Adrasteia lays the infant Zeus in a golden líknon, her goat suckles him and he is given honey. In the Odyssey, the dead oracle Teiresias tells Odysseus to walk away from Ithaca with an oar until a wayfarer tells him it is a winnowing fan (i.e., until Odysseus has come so far from the sea that people don't recognize oars), and there to build a shrine to Poseidon.

China

In ancient China, the method was improved by mechanization with the development of the rotary winnowing fan, which used a cranked fan to produce the airstream. This was featured in Wang Zhen's book the  Nong Shu of 1313 AD.

In Europe

In Saxon settlements such as one identified in Northumberland as Bede's Ad Gefrin  (now called Yeavering) the buildings were shown by an excavator's reconstruction to have opposed entries. In barns a draught created by the use of these opposed doorways was used in winnowing.

The technique developed by the Chinese was not adopted in Europe until the 18th century when winnowing machines used a 'sail fan'. The rotary winnowing fan was exported to Europe, brought there by Dutch sailors between 1700 and 1720. Apparently, they had obtained them from the Dutch settlement of Batavia in Java, Dutch East Indies. The Swedes imported some from south China at about the same time and Jesuits had taken several to France from China by 1720. Until the beginning of the 18th century, no rotary winnowing fans existed in the West.

In the United States
The development of the winnowing barn allowed rice plantations in South Carolina to increase their yields dramatically.

Mechanization of the process

In 1737 Andrew Rodger, a farmer on the estate of Cavers in Roxburghshire, developed a winnowing machine for corn, called a 'Fanner'. These were successful and the family sold them throughout Scotland for many years. Some Scottish Presbyterian ministers saw the fanners as sins against God, for the wind was a thing specially made by him and an artificial wind was a daring and impious attempt to usurp what belonged to God alone. As the Industrial Revolution, the winnowing process was mechanized by the invention of additional winnowing machines, such as fanning mills.

See also
Rice huller
Rice pounder
Sieving
Threshing
Winnowing (sedimentology)

References

External links

 Harvest
Separation processes
Grain production
sn:kuwurutsa
ja:唐箕

Winnowing


Iskander Mirza Huzman Beg Sulkiewicz (8 December 1867 – 18 September 1916), known as Aleksander Sulkiewicz, was a Polish politician of Lipka Tatar ethnicity who campaigned for Polish independence and co-founded the Polish Socialist Party.

Early life
Sulkiewicz was born in Skirsobole Tatarskie, Congress Poland (now part of Lithuania) to a Tatar family with a tradition of support for the cause of Polish independence. He was the son of Aleksander Sulkiewicz, a rotmistrz in the Czarist army, and Rozalia Sulkiewicz (née Kryczyńska—the feminine form of Kryczyński, one of the few Tatar families officially acknowledged as princes by the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth). His grandfather was Józef Bielak, a general in the Kościuszko Uprising, and one of the family's most cherished possessions was a letter from Tadeusz Kościuszko thanking Bielak for his service.

As a child, Sulkiewicz attended a Turkish school in Istanbul, where he came into contact with the Polish émigré community. After his father died around 1877, he and his family moved to Suwałki, and later to Sejny, where he continued his studies.

Underground political activity

In Vilnius, then part of Poland, Sulkiewicz was introduced into socialist circles and became an active member of the Social-Revolutionary Party Proletariat. In November 1892, he attended the Paris convention that created the Organization of Polish Socialists Abroad (Polish: Związek Zagraniczny Socjalistów Polskich). Upon returning to Poland, he helped organize Polish Socialist Party (PPS) groups in Vilnius. With Józef Piłsudski, Stanisław Wojciechowski, Stefan Bielak and Ludwik Zajkowski, he took part in a meeting in a forest near Vilnius that was later recognized as the First Congress of the PPS.

He got a job in the treasury department in Suwałki in 1890, and later in the customs offices in Władysławowo and Kiborty. Using these positions, he took charge of smuggling the publications of the underground socialist press from Geneva and London into Congress Poland. He also helped Lithuanian nationalists smuggle in Lithuanian-language publications that were banned by Russian authorities. Partly because Russian officials did not expect a Muslim like Sulkiewicz to be involved in Polish independence campaigns, he was able to continue his clandestine conspiratorial activities for an extended period without being detected. From 1895 to 1897, and again from 1899 to 1902, he was a member of the Central Committee of the PPS.

He left his customs job in 1900 and, on party orders, moved to Łódź, where he set up a printing shop for the Robotnik newspaper. With Piłsudski, he composed and edited the first issue of the paper. The print shop was soon discovered by the Czarist police, and while Sulkiewicz managed to evade arrest, Piłsudski was caught. With help from others, such as Władysław Mazurkiewicz, Sulkiewicz began making plans for Piłsudski's escape. It occurred on 14 May 1901, after Piłsudski feigned mental illness in order to get himself transferred from the Warsaw Citadel to a lower-security mental hospital in Saint Petersburg. The escape may have saved Piłsudski's life, because Poland was under martial law, and conspiratorial activity was harshly punished.

In 1903, Sulkiewicz rejoined the Central Committee of the PPS, this time in Kiev. He was caught by the police, but thanks to good recommendations from his previous places of work, he was freed after a few months with a warning. Soon after, there was a split within the PPS, and Sulkiewicz followed Piłsudski in joining the pro-independence (as opposed to pro-internationalist) PPS Revolutionary Faction. In 1908, he became a member of its Central Committee.

World War I and death

When World War I broke out, Sulkiewicz volunteered for the Polish Legions. After the creation of Polish National Organization, he became its director in the Vilnius region and traveled on diplomatic missions to Berlin, Copenhagen, Sweden and Kiev. He then went to Galicia and, from there, was sent by Piłsudski to German-controlled Warsaw, where he was active in the Polish Military Organisation (Polska Organizacja Wojskowa) and the PPS. He was arrested by the German authorities in November 1915 but eventually released.

After his release, Sulkiewicz moved to Austria-occupied Poland to fight with the Polish Legions again. He was initially made an intendant (a manager) in May 1916. Later, however, after being refused twice because of his age (he was 48 at the time), he was given a front-line position as a sergeant in the First Brigade of the Polish Legions. On 18 September 1916, during the Battle of Sitowicze, he was mortally wounded while running to help an injured chorąży, Adam Koc.

On 8 November 1925 Sulkiewicz's body was moved to Warsaw and buried in the Powązki Military Cemetery. He was posthumously awarded the Virtuti Militari and the Cross of Independence with Swords.

References

Polish socialists
Muslims from the Russian Empire
Recipients of the Virtuti Militari
Recipients of the Cross of Independence with Swords
People from the Russian Empire of Lipka Tatar descent
Tatar revolutionaries
Polish legionnaires (World War I)
Burials at Powązki Military Cemetery
People from Kalvarija Municipality
1867 births
1916 deaths
Austro-Hungarian military personnel killed in World War I
Polish Muslims

Aleksander Sulkiewicz


Astraeus smithii is a species of false earthstar in the family Diplocystaceae. It was described as new to science in 2013. The specific epithet honors American mycologist Alexander H. Smith. The fungus is found in the central and northern United States, where it grows on the ground at forest edges and open areas.

References

External links

Boletales
Fungi described in 2013
Fungi of the United States
Fungi without expected TNC conservation status

Astraeus smithii


Grey-collar refers to the balance of employed people not classified as white- or blue collar. It is occasionally used to describe elderly individuals working beyond the age of retirement, as well as those occupations that incorporate some of the elements of both blue- and white-collar, and generally are in between the two categories in terms of income-earning capability.

Grey-collar work is a career advancement transitional or intermediary phase between blue-collar and white-collar work, where grey-collar workers often have licenses, associate degrees, certificates or diplomas from a trade school or technical school in a particular field and perform managerial duties supervising others that perform manual labor and/or skilled trades. They are unlike blue-collar workers, who can often be trained on the job within several weeks, whereas grey-collar workers already have a specific skill set and require more specialized knowledge than their blue-collar counterparts.

The fields that most recognize the differences between these two groups are human resources and the insurance industry. These different groups must be insured differently for liability, as the potential for injury is different.

Examples
Example occupations:

Other definitions
The Pittsburgh Post-Gazette wrote that another definition for grey collar could be the underemployed white collar worker.

Charle Brecher of the Citizens Budget Commission and the Partnership for New York City defined it sub-blue-collar jobs: "maintenance and custodial".

See also

Designation of workers by collar color

References

External links

Social classes
Employment classifications

Grey-collar


Pedro Celestino Joseph Negrete y Falla (14 May 1777 – 11 April 1846) was a Spanish politician and military man who served as a member of the interim government of México after the abolition of the First Mexican Empire. He fought alongside of Agustín de Iturbide in the royalist army during the Mexican War of Independence. He was a close collaborator of Iturbide during the empire and then pressured him to abdicate to the Mexican crown.

1777 births
1846 deaths
People of the Mexican War of Independence
Presidents of Mexico

Pedro Celestino Negrete


The Northwestern Confederacy, or Northwestern Indian Confederacy, was a loose confederacy of Native Americans in the Great Lakes region of the United States created after the American Revolutionary War.  Formally, the confederacy referred to itself as the United Indian Nations, at their Confederate Council. It was known infrequently as the Miami Confederacy since many contemporaneous federal officials overestimated the influence and numerical strength of the Miami tribes based on the size of their principal city, Kekionga.

The confederacy, which had its roots in pan-tribal movements dating to the 1740s, formed in an attempt to resist the expansion of the United States and the encroachment of American settlers into the Northwest Territory after Great Britain ceded the region to the U.S. in the 1783 Treaty of Paris.  American expansion resulted in the Northwest Indian War (1785–1795), in which the Confederacy won significant victories over the United States, but concluded with a U.S. victory at the Battle of Fallen Timbers.  The Confederacy became fractured and agreed to peace with the United States, but the pan-tribal resistance was later rekindled by Tenskwatawa (known as the Prophet) and his brother, Tecumseh, resulting in the formation of Tecumseh's confederacy.

Formation
The area making up the Ohio Country and the Illinois Country had been contested for over a century, beginning with the Franco-Iroquois Beaver Wars in the 1600s.  The Iroquois competed with local tribes for control of the region and the lucrative fur trade, as did the European powers. The French and Indian War proved to be the largest and final Anglo-French contest for control in North America, ending with a British victory. In the Treaty of Paris which ended the war, the French government ceded New France to Great Britain.

That same year, a loose confederation of Native Americans united in Pontiac's War against British rule.   The war ended with a peace treaty in 1766, but many of the participating Ohio and Great Lakes nations would later form the Northwestern Confederacy.

Shortly after Pontiac's War, Great Britain negotiated the 1768 Treaty of Fort Stanwix with its Iroquois allies.  In the treaty, the Iroquois gave the British Crown control over the lands south of the Ohio River for settlement by American colonists.  This legitimized the Iroquois claim to the territory, and created a land rush of settlers from the Thirteen Colonies in the east.

The Shawnee responded by demanding money from settlers, and formed alliances with other tribes that inhabited the region to prevent subsequent territorial losses.  Early formal ties leading to the formation of the Northwestern Confederacy were made in 1774, in response to the Yellow Creek massacre and Lord Dunmore's War.  Commissioners from the Continental Congress met with representatives from the Iroquois, Shawnee, Lenape, Wyandot, and Odawa in 1775 at Fort Pitt, urging them to remain neutral in the growing conflict with Great Britain. In response, Guyasuta urged Pennsylvania and Virginia to resolve their own differences.  When Guyasuta asserted that the Iroquois were "the head" of the assembled nations, however, White Eyes declared that the Lenape now lived on land given to them by the Wyandot, and that the Iroquois were not permitted there.

By 1775, Great Britain was engaged in war with the American colonists thanks to the American Revolution. The British Army abandoned control over several forts along the American frontier and redeployed those forces to the east, which removed an impediment to illegal settlement.  Native Americans had different reactions to the war, and many saw it as a "white man's war" in which they should play no role.  Some, however, found an opportunity to defend their lands while the British colonies warred with one another.  In 1776, commissioners at Fort Pitt sent warning of a "General Confederacy of Western Tribes" planning to attack American settlers in their region.  The Iroquois (who claimed the western lands) were also divided in response to the war, and extinguished their ceremonial flame of unity in 1777.

Although many native peoples fought for the British in the American Revolutionary War, Great Britain made no mention of their allies in the 1783 Treaty of Paris.  According to Joseph Brant, a Mohawk chief who had fought for Great Britain, the British "sold the Indians to Congress."  Brant worked to establish a pan-Indian confederacy which could negotiate with the new United States, and delegates from 35 "nations" gathered on the upper Sandusky River in September 1783. The conference was also attended by Sir John Johnson and Alexander McKee, who advocated for a strong confederation and an end to violent raids.  The council declared that no agreements with the United States could be made without the consensus of the entire confederation.  Congress passed the Proclamation of 1783, which recognized Native American rights to the land.  The Indian Affairs Committee of Congress passed the Resolution of October 15, 1783, however, which claimed the land and called on the native nations to withdraw beyond the Great Miami and Mad rivers.

The council reconvened in August 1784 at Niagara-on-the-Lake, where US commissioners were to meet with them.  The US commission was delayed, however, and many Native American representatives left before the commission arrived.  The commissioners summoned the remaining Iroquois tribes to Fort Stanwix, where the Iroquois nations relinquished their claims to the Ohio lands in the 1784 Treaty of Fort Stanwix.  The Iroquois Confederacy refused to ratify the treaty, saying that it had no right to give the United States rights to the land, and the western nations living in the territory rejected the treaty on the same grounds.  The US commissioners negotiated the Treaty of Fort McIntosh in January 1785, however, in which a few Native American representatives agreed to grant to the United States most of present-day Ohio.  A small US Army regiment under General Josiah Harmar arrived in the territory later that year.

Councils and treaties
Brant toured Canada, London, and Paris in 1785 to obtain British and French support.  A council held that year at Fort Detroit declared that the confederacy would deal jointly with the United States, forbade individual tribes from dealing directly with the United States, and declared the Ohio River as the boundary between their lands and those of the American settlers. Nevertheless, a group of Shawnee, Lenape, and Wyandot agreed to allow U.S. settlement on a tract of land north of the Ohio River in the January 1786 Treaty of Fort Finney.  This treaty sparked violence between native inhabitants and U.S. settlers.   American trader David Duncan warned that the treaties had "done a Great injury to United States," and tribal leaders warned that they could no longer stop their young men from retaliating.

The Treaty of Fort Finney was rejected by a September 1786 council of 35 native nations (including British representatives) who met at a Wyandot (Huron) village on the upper Sandusky River. Logan's raid into Shawnee territory occurred weeks later, hardening native views of the U.S.  That December, Brant returned from Europe to address a council on the Detroit River. The council sent a letter to the U.S. Congress which was signed by eleven native nations, who called themselves "the United Indian Nations, at their Confederate Council."  The confederacy assembled again on the Maumee River in the fall of 1787 to consider a reply from the U.S., but adjourned after not receiving one.

Congress appointed Arthur St. Clair as governor of the new Northwest Territory, directing him to make peace with the native peoples.  He did not arrive until summer 1788, when he invited the nations to a council at Fort Harmar to negotiate terms by which the United States could purchase lands and avoid war.  The sight of Fort Harmar and nearby Marietta, both north of the Ohio River boundary, convinced some that the United States was negotiating from a position of strength.  At pre-negotiation meetings, Joseph Brant suggested a compromise to other Native American leaders: allow existing U.S. settlements north of the Ohio River, and draw a new boundary at the mouth of the Muskingum River.  Some at the council rejected Brant's compromise.  A Wyandot delegation offered a belt of peace to the Miami delegation, who refused to accept it; a Wyandot delegate placed it on the shoulder of Little Turtle, a Miami military leader, who shrugged it off.  Brant then sent a letter to St. Clair asking that treaty negotiations be held at a different location; St. Clair refused, and accused Brant of working for the British.  Brant then declared that he would boycott negotiations with the United States, and suggested that others do the same.  About 200 of the remaining moderates came to Fort Harmar in December and agreed to concessions in the 1789 Treaty of Fort Harmar, which moved the border and designated U.S. sovereignty over native lands.  To those who had refused to attend, however, the treaty sanctioned the U.S. appetite for native lands in the region without addressing native concerns.

Composition

The composition of the confederacy changed with time and circumstances, and a number of tribes were involved.  Because most nations were not centralized political units at the time, involvement in the confederacy could be decided by a village (or an individual) rather than a nation.

The signatories of the 1786 Detroit letter to Congress were the Iroquois (the "Six Nations"), Cherokee, Huron, Shawnee, Delaware, Odawa, Potawatomi, Twitchee, and the Wabash Confederacy.  Joseph Brant signed the letter as an individual.  Due to their residence in (or near) the Ohio Country, the confederacy mainly comprised the following tribes:
 The Wyandot (or Huron), the confederacy's honorary sponsors, hosted the first gathering of native nations at their villages on the upper Sandusky River after the 1783 Treaty of Paris.
 Shawnee
 Lenape (exonym Delaware)
 Miami
 Council of Three Fires (Potawatomi, Odawa, and Ojibwe): their southern families were involved with the Confederacy, but northern and western villages were occupied at the time with a war with the Sioux.
 The Wabash Confederacy (Wea, Piankashaw, and others) allied with the Northwestern Confederacy, until it signed a 1792 treaty with the United States.

The Northwestern Confederacy also received support from more-distant nations, including:
 Sauk and Meskwaki
 The Iroquois (the Seneca, Cayuga, Onondaga, Oneida, Mohawk and Tuscarora, and smaller groups including the Tutelo and Nanticoke)
 Members of the Seven Nations of Canada (Algonquin, Nipissing, Abenaki, and Wendat)
 The Illini Confederacy (Kaskaskia, Cahokia, Peoria and others)
 Mingo (trans-Appalachian Cayuga and Seneca splinter groups)
 Menominee
 Kickapoo

The confederacy was periodically supported by communities and warriors from west of the Mississippi River and south of the Ohio River, including the Dakota, Chickamauga Cherokee and Upper Creek.

By 1790 the Northwestern Confederacy was broadly divided into three large divisions.  The Iroquois formed a moderate camp who advocated diplomacy with the United States.  The Three Fires advocated resistance, but were farther removed from the immediate threat of U.S. invasion.  The Miami, Shawnee, and Kickapoo were immediately threatened by U.S. settlements, and pushed for a hard line against U.S. encroachments.

War with the United States

In 1790, General Harmar led an expedition to subdue the native confederacy, marching north from Fort Washington to Kekionga.  His forces were defeated in what was, at the time, the largest Native American victory against the U.S.  The victory emboldened the confederacy.  Because they were both present at Kekionga when it was attacked, it was the first military operation shared by Little Turtle and Shawnee leader Blue Jacket.

The following year, determined to defeat the confederacy, St. Clair led a new expedition on the same route. At the time, the confederacy was in Detroit considering terms of peace to present to the United States; but when it was alerted to the new campaign it readied for war.  The confederacy ambushed and quickly overwhelmed St. Clair in camp, and St. Clair's defeat remains one of the worst defeats in the history of the U.S. Army.

After this decisive military victory, U.S. president George Washington sent peace emissaries to the confederacy.  The first emissary was Major Alexander Truman; he and his servant, William Lynch, were killed before they arrived.  A similar mission in May 1792 ended when Colonel John Hardin and his servant, Freeman, were mistaken for spies and killed on the site of modern Hardin, Ohio.  A U.S. delegation led by Rufus Putnam and John Hamtramck, with assistance from Little Turtle's son-in-law William Wells, negotiated a treaty with the tribes of the Wabash Confederacy later that year.  According to Henry Knox, the treaty weakened the Northwestern Confederacy by 800 warriors.

The confederacy continued to debate whether to continue the war or sue for peace while they had the advantage, and a council of several nations met at the confluence of the Auglaize and Maumee Rivers in September 1792.  Alexander McKee, representing British interests, arrived late in the month.  For a week in October, pro-war factions (especially Simon Girty, the Shawnee, and the Miami) debated moderate factions—particularly the Iroquois, represented by Cornplanter and Red Jacket.  The council agreed that the Ohio River must remain the boundary of the United States, that the forts in the Ohio Country must be destroyed, and that they would meet with the United States at the lower Sandusky River in the spring of 1793.  Although the U.S. received the council's demands with indignation, Knox agreed to send treaty commissioners Benjamin Lincoln, Timothy Pickering and Beverley Randolph to the 1793 council and suspend offensive operations until that time.

At the spring 1793 council, a disagreement arose between the Shawnee and the Iroquois. The Shawnee and Delaware insisted that the U.S. recognize the 1768 Fort Stanwix treaty between the Six Nations and Great Britain, which set the Ohio River as a boundary.  Joseph Brant countered that the Six Nations had nothing to gain from this demand, and refused to concede.  The U.S. commissioners argued that it would be too expensive to move white settlers who had already established homesteads north of the Ohio River.  The council (without the Six Nations) sent a declaration to the U.S. commissioners on 13 August contesting U.S. claims to any lands above the Ohio, since they were based on treaties made with nations that did not live there, and with money which was worthless to the native tribes.  The council proposed that the U.S. relocate white settlers with the money that would have been used to buy native lands and pay the Legion of the United States. It ended with discord among the confederacy, and Benjamin Lincoln wrote to John Adams that they had failed to secure peace in the northwest.

After the failed peace negotiations, the Legion of the United States under General Anthony Wayne mobilized for yet another march north.  The legion was better trained and equipped than previous U.S. expeditions, and Wayne had a methodical plan to build supply forts along the way to protect his supply chain.  The confederacy was divided in its response to Wayne, with some leaders recommending that it negotiate terms of peace rather than engage in battle.  The perceived cracks in the confederacy concerned the British, who sent reinforcements to Fort Miami on the Maumee River.  A large, combined confederacy force attacked Fort Recovery, inflicting heavy casualties and disrupting the legion's supply lines; however, it also exposed lingering inter-tribal conflicts and strategic differences.

On 20 August 1794, the legion defeated a combined native force at the Battle of Fallen Timbers.  The British commander of nearby Fort Miami refused to come to aid of the native force or give it refuge during its retreat.  Wayne finally arrived in Kekionga and selected the site for Fort Wayne, a new U.S. stronghold, on 17 September 1794.

End of the confederacy
The following year, the Northwestern Confederacy negotiated the Treaty of Greenville with the United States.  Utilizing St. Clair's defeat and Fort Recovery as a reference point, the treaty forced the northwest Native American tribes to cede southern and eastern Ohio and tracts of land around forts and settlements in Illinois Country; to recognize the United States as the ruling power in the Old Northwest, and to surrender ten chiefs as hostages until all American prisoners were returned.  The Northwestern Confederacy ceased to function as an entity, and many of its leaders pledged peace with the United States. A new pan-Indian movement, led by Tecumseh, formed a decade later.  According to historian William Hogeland, the Northwestern Confederacy was the "high-water mark in resistance to white expansion."

See also
 Cherokee–American wars
 Indian barrier state
 Indian Reserve (1763)
 Western theater of the American Revolutionary War

Notes

References

Sources

Great Lakes tribes
First Nations history in Ontario
History of the Midwestern United States
Native American history of Michigan
Native American history of Wisconsin
Native American history of Indiana
Northwest Indian War
Former confederations
1780s establishments in the United States
1795 disestablishments in the United States

Northwestern Confederacy


Boisfeuillet "Bo" Jones Jr. ( ; born 1946) was president and chief executive officer of  MacNeil/Lehrer Productions in Arlington, Virginia. He was former vice chairman of The Washington Post Company and Chairman of The Washington Post board from 2008 until December 31, 2011.  From 2000 to 2008 he was publisher and chief executive officer of The Washington Post.

Early life
Jones was born in Atlanta in 1946 to Boisfeuillet Jones Sr., a philanthropist, and Laura Coit Jones. Anne Baynon Register Jones became his step-mother following the death of his mother and the marriage of his father to Anne Register. Jones went to high school at St. Albans School in Washington, D.C., and later received an A.B. in 1968 from Harvard College, where he was president of The Harvard Crimson and a member of the Spee Club.  At both St. Albans and Harvard he was two years behind Donald E. Graham, his future employer.  He attended Exeter College, Oxford University as a Rhodes Scholar and received a D.Phil. in modern history. He received his J.D. in 1974 from Harvard Law School, where he was an editor of the Harvard Law Review.

Early career
Prior to joining The Post, Jones was an attorney with Hill and Barlow in Boston from 1975 to 1980, and was law clerk for judge Levin H. Campbell of the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit, from 1974 to 1975.

The Washington Post
Jones joined the Post in 1980 as vice president and counsel. In 1995, he became president and general manager of the Post, assuming responsibility for the business side of the newspaper. In January 2000, he was named associate publisher, assuming responsibility of the Post on a day-to-day basis. In September 2000 he became publisher and CEO.

He is a director of the Associated Press, the Newspaper Association of America, the Eugene and Agnes E. Meyer Foundation, and the Federal City Council.

References

External links
 Biography of Jones on Washington Post Company website

American newspaper executives
The Washington Post publishers
Businesspeople from Atlanta
American Rhodes Scholars
American Episcopalians
The Harvard Crimson people
Harvard Law School alumni
1946 births
Living people
St. Albans School (Washington, D.C.) alumni
Alumni of Exeter College, Oxford
Harvard College alumni

Boisfeuillet Jones Jr.


Thomas Allston Brown (January 16, 1836 – April 2, 1918) was an American theater critic, newspaper editor, talent agent and manager, and theater historian, best known for his books, History of the American Stage (Dick & Fitzgerald: New York, 1870) and A History of the New York Stage from the First Performance in 1732 to 1901 (Dodd Mead: New York, 1902).

Life and career

Brown was born in Newburyport, Massachusetts, to Thomas James Brown (1800–1867) and Lucretia Hamsly Brown (née Lucretia Hamsly Milton; 1810–1872).  He began his career as the Philadelphia correspondent and theater critic for the top entertainment journal of the time, the New York Clipper. He freelanced for other show-business publications and published his own paper, called The Tattler.

In 1860, Brown entered show business as the advance man for the Cooper English Opera Company, managed by virtuoso violinist Henry Charles Cooper (1819–1881). He later worked for Gardner & Madigan's Circus (re: the Gardner and Madigan families, including Dan Gardner and John Madigan) as treasurer and manager of the box office. During one circus performance, the assistant to the ropewalker Blondine went missing. Blondine's opening stunt was to walk a tightrope from the stage to the balcony with a person on his back. T. Allston Brown filled in for the missing helper, and the Baltimore Press dubbed him "Colonel" for the deed. Brown adopted the honorary title and used it for the remainder of his career.

In 1863, Brown was named editor of the New York Clipper. He kept the post until 1872, when he retired from journalism. He next pursued a career as an agent and manager for entertainers. His clients included the famous female impersonator Ernest Byne (1848–1904), the Hanlon Brothers, and Mlle. Marie Aimée (sv) (1852–1857). On May 7, 1879, Brown became partner with Morris Simmonds (1839–1896) in Simmonds & Brown, Dramatic Agents, and continued to run the company after Simmonds died.

As early as 1858, Brown had begun compiling stories and biographies of theatrical performers in the United States. Much of his material came from players in the field, who supplied biographical sketches. He began to write a book on the subject, and in 1870 he published the exhaustive History of the American Stage. In 1906, he retired from show business to devote more time to history and writing.  Brown died in Philadelphia in 1918. The New York Times wrote in Brown's obituary that A History of the New York Stage, published in 1903, "was said to be one of the most complete accounts of the development of the stage in America that has been written".

Notes

References
Cullen, Frank, with Florence Hackman and Donald McNeilly (2007). Vaudeville Old & New: An Encyclopedia of Variety Performers in America, Vol. I. New York City: Routledge. .
Sentilles, Renée M. (2003). Performing Menken: Adah Isaacs Menken and the Birth of American Celebrity. Cambridge University Press. .

External links

 A History of the New York Stage, Volume 1
 A History of the New York Stage, Volume 2
 A History of the New York Stage, Volume 3
 Genealogy of Thomas Allston BROWN
 T. Allston Brown Collection at the Harry Ransom Center

1836 births
1918 deaths
Writers from Newburyport, Massachusetts
19th-century American historians
19th-century American male writers
19th-century American newspaper editors
American newspaper reporters and correspondents
American theater critics
American theatre managers and producers
Historians from Massachusetts
19th-century American businesspeople
American male non-fiction writers

T. Allston Brown


An American in Paris is a 1951 American musical romantic comedy film inspired by the 1928 jazz-influenced symphonic poem (or tone poem) An American in Paris by George Gershwin. Starring Gene Kelly, Leslie Caron (her film debut), Oscar Levant, Georges Guétary, and Nina Foch, the film is set in Paris, and was directed by Vincente Minnelli from a script by Alan Jay Lerner. The music is by George Gershwin, with lyrics by his brother Ira, with additional music by Johnny Green, and Saul Chaplin, the music directors.

The story of the film is interspersed with dance numbers choreographed by Gene Kelly and set to Gershwin's music. MGM executive Arthur Freed bought the Gershwin musical catalog from George's brother Ira in the late 1940s, since George died in 1937. Some of the tunes in this catalog were included in the movie, such as "I Got Rhythm" and "Love Is Here to Stay". Other songs in the movie include "I'll Build A Stairway to Paradise" and 'S Wonderful". The climax of the film is "The American in Paris" ballet, a 17-minute dialogue-free dance featuring Kelly and Caron set to Gershwin's An American in Paris, with sets designed in the styles of various French artists. The ballet sequence cost almost half a million dollars to shoot. It was filmed on 44 sets in MGM's back lot. According to Leslie Caron in a 2009 interview on Paul O'Grady's interview show, the film ran into controversy with the Hays Office over part of her earlier dance sequence with a chair; the censor viewing the scene called it "sexually provocative", which surprised Caron, who answered "What can you do with a chair?"

An American in Paris was an enormous success, garnering eight Academy Award nominations and winning six (including Best Picture), as well as earning other industry honors. In 1993, it was selected for preservation by the United States Library of Congress in the National Film Registry for being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant". It is ranked number nine among AFI's Greatest Movie Musicals.

Plot
American World War II veteran Jerry Mulligan lives in Paris trying to succeed as an artist. His friend and neighbor Adam Cook is a struggling concert pianist and longtime associate of French singer Henri Baurel. At the ground-floor bar in their building, Henri tells Adam about his girlfriend, Lise Bouvier. Jerry then joins them before going out to try and sell his art.

Lonely heiress Milo Roberts notices Jerry displaying his work in Montmartre. She buys two paintings, then brings Jerry to her apartment to pay him. Jerry accepts an invitation to her dinner party for that evening, and on the way home, he sings "I Got Rhythm" with some local children. Upon discovering he is Milo's sole dinner guest, an offended Jerry says he is uninterested in being a paid escort. Milo insists she only wants to support his career.

At a crowded bar, Milo offers to sponsor an art show for Jerry. Milo's friends show up and while everyone is talking, Jerry notices a beautiful young girl at the next table. He pretends they know each other and asks her to dance, unaware it is Lise, the girl Henri loves. When Jerry wants her phone number, Lise, uninterested, gives a fake one. Someone at her table misunderstands and says the correct number. Milo, upset that Jerry flirted with another girl in her presence, wants to leave and later criticizes him for being rude.

The next day, Jerry calls Lise, but she refuses to see him. Meanwhile, Milo has arranged a showing with a collector interested in Jerry's work. Before the meeting, Jerry goes to the parfumerie where Lise works. She agrees to a late dinner, but wants to avoid public places; they share a romantic song and dance along the banks of the Seine River. She then rushes off to meet Henri after his performance ("I'll Build a Stairway to Paradise"). Henri tells Lise he is going on tour in America and proposes marriage to her.

Later, Adam humorously daydreams he is performing Gershwin's Concerto in F for Piano and Orchestra in a concert hall. As the scene progresses, Adam is also the conductor, other musicians, and even an audience member enthusiastically applauding at the end.

Milo rents Jerry an art studio and says she is planning an exhibition of his work in three months time. Jerry initially refuses the studio, but accepts on condition he will repay Milo when his work sells. After a month of courting, Jerry brings Lise to his apartment building. When Lise suddenly rushes off in the waiting taxi, Jerry is confused and complains to Adam, who realizes that Henri and Jerry love the same girl. Henri and Jerry later discuss the girl they each love ('S Wonderful") without realizing it is Lise.

That night, Jerry and Lise reunite by the Seine. Lise says she and Henri are to be married and going to America. Lise feels duty-bound to Henri for protecting her during the war. Jerry and Lise proclaim their love for each other before parting.

A dejected Jerry invites Milo to the art students' masked ball, where they run into Henri and Lise. Jerry admits to Milo that he loves Lise. When Henri overhears Jerry and Lise saying goodbye, he realizes the truth. As Henri and Lise drive away, Jerry fantasizes through a diverse and extended dance scene with Lise, all over Paris, and set to George Gershwin's An American in Paris. A car horn breaks Jerry's reverie; Henri returns Lise to him. They embrace and walk off together as the Gershwin composition (and the film) ends.

Cast
 Gene Kelly as Jerry Mulligan
 Leslie Caron as Lise Bouvier
 Oscar Levant as Adam Cook
 Georges Guétary as Henri "Hank" Baurel
 Nina Foch as Milo Roberts
 Eugene Borden as Georges Mattieu

Hayden Rorke, best known for playing Dr. Alfred Bellows on the TV series I Dream of Jeannie (1965–1970), has an uncredited part as a friend of Milo. Noel Neill, who had already portrayed Lois Lane in the two Columbia Pictures forties Superman serials, and would later do so again on the TV series The Adventures of Superman, has a small role as an American art student who tries to criticize Jerry's paintings. Jazz musician Benny Carter plays the leader of a jazz ensemble performing in the club where Milo first takes Jerry.

Madge Blake, best known for playing Dick Grayson's aunt Harriet Cooper on the TV series Batman (1966–1968), and for her role as Larry Mondello's mother, Margaret Mondello, on the CBS/ABC sitcom Leave It to Beaver, has an uncredited  part as a customer in the perfume shop in which Lise works. Judy Landon, better known for her appearance in Kelly's next musical Singin' in the Rain (and as the wife of Brian Keith), and Sue Casey appear as dancers in the "Stairway to Paradise" sequence.

Dudley Field Malone plays an uncredited Winston Churchill, painting in Montmartre.

Music and dance

 "Embraceable You" – Lise
 "Nice Work If You Can Get It" – Hank
 "By Strauss" – Jerry, Hank, Adam
 "I Got Rhythm" – Jerry
 "Tra-la-la (This Time It's Really Love)" – Jerry, Adam
 "Love Is Here to Stay" – Jerry, Lise
 "I'll Build a Stairway to Paradise" – Hank
 Concerto in F for Piano and Orchestra – Adam, The MGM Symphony Orchestra
 'S Wonderful" – Jerry, Hank
 An American in Paris Ballet – Jerry, Lise, Ensemble

The 17-minute ballet sequence, with sets and costumes referencing French painters including Raoul Dufy, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Maurice Utrillo, Henri Rousseau, and Toulouse-Lautrec, is the climax of the film, and cost the studio approximately $450,000 to produce. Some of the backdrops for this sequence measured 300 feet wide and 40 feet high. Production on the film was halted on September15, 1950. Minnelli left to direct another film, Father's Little Dividend. Upon completion of that film in late October, he returned to film the ballet sequence.

Reception
Bosley Crowther of The New York Times gave a mostly positive review largely on the strength of the closing dance number which he called "one of the finest ever put upon the screen", as well as Leslie Caron's performance, writing that the film "takes on its own glow of magic when Miss Caron is on the screen. When she isn't, it bumps along slowly as a patched-up, conventional music show." Variety called the film "one of the most imaginative musical confections turned out by Hollywood in years ... Kelly is the picture's top star and rates every inch of his billing. His diversified dancing is great as ever and his thesping is standout." Harrison's Reports deemed it "an excellent entertainment, a delight to the eye and ear, presented in a way that will give all types of audiences extreme pleasure". Richard L. Coe of The Washington Post called it "the best musical movie I've ever seen", praising its "spirit of crisp originality and sophistication rarely found in a screen musical". John McCarten of The New Yorker called it "a thoroughly pleasant musical film ... Never too tightly confined by its slender story, An American in Paris skips from love in the moonlight to handsome ballets with the greatest of ease, and Mr. Kelly is always ready, willing, and able to execute a tap dance." The Monthly Film Bulletin called it "merely a good musical, far more attractive than most, but considerably less than the material seemed to promise. This is due in part to unimaginative use of the Paris settings—a very obvious tourist's view—and to the rather curious way in which the story, after building up interest in Jerry's painting and in his one-man show, simply shelves the whole issue."

Reviewing the film in 2011, James Berardinelli wrote that it "falls into the category of a weak Oscar winner. The movie is enjoyable enough to watch, but it represents a poor choice as the standard-bearer of the 1951 roster ... It's a fine, fun film with a lot of great songs and dancing but there's nothing about this production that causes it to stand out when compared to one of dozens of musicals from the era."

On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, An American in Paris holds a score of 95% based on 101 reviews, with an average rating of 8.1/10. The website's critics consensus reads, "The plot may be problematic, but such concerns are rendered superfluous by Gene Kelly and Leslie Caron's star power, the Gershwins' classic songs, and Vincente Minnelli's colorful, sympathetic direction." On Metacritic, the film holds a weighted average score of 83 out of 100 based on 18 critics, indicating "universal acclaim".

Box office
According to MGM records, the film earned $3,750,000 in the U.S. and Canada and $3,231,000 in other countries during its initial theatrical release. This resulted in the studio making a $1,346,000 profit.

Awards and honors

Gene Kelly received an Academy Honorary Award that year for "his versatility as an actor, singer, director and dancer, and specifically for his brilliant achievements in the art of choreography on film". It was his only Oscar.

In 1993, An American in Paris was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant".

American Film Institute recognition
 1998: AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies – #68
 2002: AFI's 100 Years...100 Passions – #39
 2004: AFI's 100 Years...100 Songs – #32
 "I Got Rhythm"
 2006: AFI's Greatest Movie Musicals – #9

AFI also honored star Kelly as #15 of the top 25 American male screen legends.

Digital restoration
In 2011, the film was digitally restored by Warner Bros. for its 60th anniversary.

Stage adaptations

2008 adaptation
A stage version of the musical was adapted by Ken Ludwig, and began previews at the Alley Theatre (Houston) on April29, 2008, officially opening on May 18 and running through June22. The production, directed by Alley artistic director Gregory Boyd with choreography by Randy Skinner, starred Harry Groener and Kerry O'Malley. The musical had many of the film's original songs, and also incorporated other Gershwin songs, such as "They All Laughed", "Let's Call the Whole Thing Off", and "Love Walked In".

2014 adaptation

In 2014, a stage adaptation premiered in Paris at the Théâtre du Châtelet, with Robert Fairchild as Jerry Mulligan and Leanne Cope as Lise Bouvier (here renamed Lise Dassin and turned into an aspiring ballet dancer).  The production, which ran from November to January 2015, was directed and choreographed by Christopher Wheeldon, written by Craig Lucas and designed by Bob Crowley. The musical then transferred to Broadway, with previews at Palace Theatre beginning on March13, 2015, before officially opening there on April12.

In popular culture
The epilogue of the 2016 musical film La La Land references the set design and costuming of An American in Paris, which director Damien Chazelle called "a movie that we just pillaged".

In the season 3 finale of Amazon Prime's streaming series The Boys, Soldier Boy (Jensen Ackles) reminisces about starring in his own biopic, which lost the Oscar for Best Picture to An American in Paris.

References

External links

 Filmsite.org's Greatest Films An American in Paris
 Combustible Celluloid's review of An American in Paris
Production art from An American in Paris, Margaret Herrick Library, Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences
 An American in Paris essay by Daniel Eagan in America's Film Legacy: The Authoritative Guide to the Landmark Movies in the National Film Registry A&C Black, 2010 , pages 450-451

1951 films
1951 romantic comedy films
1950s American films
1950s English-language films
1950s romantic musical films
American romantic musical films
American romantic comedy films
Best Musical or Comedy Picture Golden Globe winners
Best Picture Academy Award winners
Films about fictional painters
Films adapted into plays
Films awarded an Academy Honorary Award
Films directed by Vincente Minnelli
Films produced by Arthur Freed
Films scored by Johnny Green
Films scored by Saul Chaplin
Films set in France
Films set in Paris
Films shot in France
Films shot in Paris
Films that won the Best Costume Design Academy Award
Films that won the Best Original Score Academy Award
Films whose art director won the Best Art Direction Academy Award
Films whose cinematographer won the Best Cinematography Academy Award
Films whose writer won the Best Original Screenplay Academy Award
Films with screenplays by Alan Jay Lerner
George Gershwin in film
Jukebox musical films
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer films
United States National Film Registry films

An American in Paris (film)


Reese's Peanut Butter Cups are an American candy by The Hershey Company consisting of a peanut butter cup encased in chocolate. They were created on November 15, 1928, by H. B. Reese, a former dairy farmer and shipping foreman for Milton S. Hershey. Reese left his job with Hershey to start his own candy business. Reese's are the top-selling candy brand worldwide, with more than $2 billion in annual sales generated for The Hershey Company.

History
The H.B. Reese Candy Company was established in 1923 by H. B. Reese in Hershey, Pennsylvania. The official product name was "Penny Cups" because they could be purchased for one cent. Reese had originally worked at a Hershey dairy farm, and from the start, he used Hershey chocolate in his confections. Reese's Peanut Butter Cups were his most popular candy, leading Reese to eventually discontinue his other lines. Reese died in 1956, passing the company to his six sons, Robert, John, Ed, Ralph, Harry, and Charles Richard Reese. On July 2, 1963, the Reese brothers merged the H. B. Reese Candy Company with the Hershey Chocolate Corporation in a tax-free stock-for-stock merger. In 1969, only six years after the Reese/Hershey merger, Reese's Peanut Butter Cups became The Hershey Company's top seller.

The H.B. Reese Candy Company is maintained as a subsidiary of Hershey because the Reese plant workforce is not unionized, unlike the main Hershey plant. In 2012, Reese's was the best-selling candy brand in the United States with sales of $2.603 billion, and was the fourth-best-selling candy brand globally with sales of $2.679 billion—only $76 million (2.8%) of its sales were from outside the United States market. Additionally, the H.B. Reese Candy Company manufactures the Kit Kat in the United States, which had 2012 U.S. sales of $948 million.

As of October 2017 in the U.S. convenience store channel, Reese's was the largest confection brand by far: It was 62% larger than the next brand, with more households purchasing Reese's products than any other confection brand across the United States. Reese's includes the overall top-selling confection item—the Reese's Peanut Butter Cups King Size—as well as six of the top 20 chocolate/non-chocolate items. Additionally, the Reese's brand accounts for over 47% of all seasonal sales within the U.S. convenience store channel, including the top two items in the largest four commercial seasons: Valentine's, Easter, Halloween, and Christmas. As a comparison, the next largest brand accounts for only 10% of seasonal sales. In 2023, the Reese brothers' original 666,316 shares of Hershey common stock represent 16 million Hershey shares valued at over $4.4 billion that pay annual cash dividends of $76.3 million.

Variations

Hershey's produces variations and "limited editions" of the candy that have included:

Size variations
 Big Cup: a thicker version of the traditional Reese's Peanut Butter Cup. Introduced in limited editions in 2003 before becoming a permanent fixture of the brand two years later. Has several variations, including potato chips, pretzels, Reese's Pieces, and Reese's Puffs fillings.
 Half-Pound Cup: a single cup weighing 227 g. Introduced in 2011.
 King Size: Introduced in 1987. Originally ; since 1991, .
 Miniatures: bite-size
 Thins: 40% thinner than the original cup. Introduced in 2018.
 Sugar Free: same as the original but without sugar. Introduced in 2003.
 World's Largest: each cup weighs 8 oz.

Filling variations
 Caramel: the traditional cup with an added layer of caramel filling. First available in 2006. Discontinued.
 Crunchy: a traditional cup with crunchy peanut butter, as opposed to the smooth peanut butter in the original. Introduced in the 1970s. It has been discontinued and rereleased over the years. Still available in some markets as of 2019.
 Crunchy Cookie Cup: a layered cup with crushed chocolate cookies and peanut butter filling. First available in 1997. Discontinued in 1999, but was brought back in 2017.  Hershey has since launched a Big Cup version called Reese's Big Cup Crunchy Cookie.
 Double Chocolate: chocolate fudge filling instead of peanut butter. Limited edition. First available in 2006. Discontinued.
 Double Crunch: a traditional cup with peanut filling similar to a Snickers bar, released in the fourth quarter of 2010.
 Hazelnut Cream: hazelnut filling instead of the standard peanut butter filling. Was only available in Canada and now discontinued.
 Honey Roasted: a traditional cup substituting honey roasted peanut butter. First available in the early 2000s but was brought back in 2017 as 'Taste of Georgia Honey Roasted Reese's' for a limited time. Discontinued.
 Marshmallow: the traditional cup with an added layer of marshmallow filling. First available in 2007. Discontinued.
 Peanut Butter & Banana Creme: a layered cup with a top chocolate layer, bottom banana crème layer, and peanut butter filling; released as a tribute to Elvis Presley. It was available in standard, Big Cups and Miniatures sizes. First available in 2007. Discontinued.

Coating variations
 Chocolate Lovers: a thicker chocolate cup with a thinner layer of peanut butter. Was available in 2003–2005. Brought back for Summer 2019.
Dark Chocolate: peanut butter filling in a dark chocolate cup. First available in early 2000s; introduced on and off as part of limited edition product variations for many years, then made its permanent debut in 2009.
 Fudge: a thicker, darker chocolate cup with peanut butter filling. First available in 2004. Discontinued.
 White Creme: peanut butter filling in a white chocolate cup. In December 2003, the White Reese's Peanut Butter Cup product variation was permanently added to the Reese's Peanut Butter Cup product line. The product brand variation originally launched as "White Chocolate Reese's Peanut Butter Cups" but was changed to White Reese's or White Creme Reese's after scrutiny for its misrepresentation since the product does not actually include any chocolate.

Coating and filling variations
Extra Smooth & Creamy: Has a smoother chocolate and peanut butter filling. First available in early 2000s. Discontinued.
 Inside Out: chocolate filling in a peanut butter cup (a reversal of the traditional version). First available in 2005. Discontinued.
 Peanut Butter Lovers: a layered cup with top peanut butter layer, thin chocolate layer and peanut butter filling. Was available in 2003–2005. Brought back for Summer 2019. The Peanut Butter Lovers cup in 2005 did not have extra peanut butter in the shell coating as it does today.

Holiday editions
During the seasons when retailers offer holiday-themed candies, Reese's Peanut Butter candies are available in various shapes that still offer the standard confection theme of the traditional Reese's cup (peanut butter contained in a chocolate shell). They are sold in a 6-pack packaging configuration but are usually available individually. Although exterior packaging is altered to reflect the theme of the representative holiday, the actual holiday itself is never presented.

 Reese's Peanut Butter Hearts: Available mainly during January and February, these are heart-shaped confections representing Valentine's Day. At various retailers, an individually-packaged, larger heart is available as well. These are packaged in all-red exterior packaging. Launched nationally in 1997.

 Reese's Peanut Butter Eggs: Available mainly during March and April, these are egg-shaped confections representing Easter. Exterior packaging is usually yellow and orange (milk chocolate), white and orange (white chocolate), or dark brown and orange (fudge-flavored chocolate). This is the only holiday-themed item available in three chocolate varieties.
 Reese's Peanut Butter Pumpkins: Available mainly during September and October, these are pumpkin-shaped confections representing Halloween. The packaging is standard Reese's orange with a jack-o-lantern picture and the word "Pumpkins" prominently displayed. Launched nationally in 1993. White Creme pumpkins were added to the Reese's Peanut Butter Pumpkin line in 2017.
 Reese's Peanut Butter Ghosts: Available mainly during September and October, these are ghost-shaped confections representing Halloween. The packaging is Halloween themed with the word scary on it. The ghost replaces the letter "a" in the word scary. First released in 2016.
Reese's Peanut Butter Franken-Cup: Released in 2020, Hershey's first colored Reese's variation. It consists of milk chocolate, white crème that is dyed green, and the traditional peanut butter filling.
 Reese's Peanut Butter Bats: Available in September and October, these are bat-shaped chocolate candies.
 Reese's Peanut Butter Christmas Trees: Available mainly during November and December, these are evergreen tree-shaped confections representing Christmas. At various retailers these may be available in standard milk chocolate or white. Initially, the packaging was green, white, and orange, but has been changed to a winter scene with a snow-covered ground and a snowman with a central large orange evergreen tree-shape in the center of the package. In November 2015, consumers criticized the product via Twitter for bearing too vague a resemblance to a Christmas tree.
 The above are all slightly larger than a single, ordinary Reese's Cup.
 Reese's Peanut Butter Bells: These bell shaped candies are smaller than a traditional cup, but are slightly larger than a miniature cup and have a higher ratio of chocolate to peanut butter. They are sold in bulk bags, much like Hershey Kisses.
 Reese's Peanut Butter Bunny: A larger, individually-packaged Easter Bunny. Formerly known as a Reester Bunny.
 Reese's Snowman: The peanut butter snowman is three times larger than the peanut butter tree, egg or pumpkin.
  Reese's Peanut Butter Ugly Sweater: Candy in the shape of an ugly sweater, a common Christmas gift.
 Reese's Peanut Butter Footballs: Candy in the shape of a football, available during football season.
 Reese's Milk Chocolate Peanut Butter Nutcrackers: Candy in the shape of a nutcracker doll, a Christmas decoration.

Other products
 Reese's Crispy Crunchy is a candy bar made of flaky peanut butter and chopped peanuts coated with milk chocolate. It was introduced in 2006.
 Reese's Fast Break (previously sold in Canada as Hershey Sidekick) feature peanut butter over a layer of nougat and covered in chocolate. It was introduced in 2001 in the United States and Canada. It was discontinued in Canada in September 2006.
 Reese's Plant Based Peanut Butter Cups, are peanut butter cups made with oat milk instead of cow's milk. They were introduced into the U.S. in 2023.
 Reese's Snack Bar, peanut butter creme, crisp whole grain brown rice, roasted peanuts, and milk chocolate.
 Reese's Sticks, formerly called "ReeseSticks", are wafers filled with peanut butter and covered in chocolate. They were introduced in 1998 and are sold in pairs, similar to Twix and Kit Kat bars. They are banned in Norway because of the use of genetically modified additives.
 Reese's Whipps is a candy bar made of peanut butter nougat and a layer of peanut butter and chocolate. It was introduced in 2007.

Marketing and advertising

In the United States, Reese's Peanut Butter Cups typically come in packs of 2, 4, 5, 10 or 20 in distinctive orange packaging, set on thin but rigid paperboard trays.  The "Classic" two-pack is a 0.75 oz. cup since 2001 (originally a 0.9 oz. size, reduced to 0.8 oz. in 1991), the "King Size" four-pack introduced in the early 1980s is a 0.7 oz. cup (originally a 0.8 oz. cup until 1991) and the "Lunch" eight-pack is a 0.55 oz. cup. "Large Size" packs of three 0.7 oz. cups, as well as bags containing 0.6 oz. cups, are also available. The Reese's Miniatures come in various bag sizes and foil colors for seasonal themes like red, gold and green for the Christmas holiday season. In Canada, they are packaged as Reese Peanut Butter Cups, but still widely referred to by their American name. The possessive name is recognized only in English grammar, so it was removed to make the name bilingual in Canada. Previously packaged in a two pack, they now come in a standard pack of three 0.55 oz. cups or the king-size variation with four cups. In the United Kingdom and Ireland, they were originally available only in two-packs, though are now available in three-packs, five-packs and miniatures. In 2008, Reese's Peanut Butter Cups were made available in Europe by Hydro Texaco and 7-Eleven. In Australia, Reese's products can be found in many specialty candy stores, as well as from American stores such as Costco.

In the 1970s and 1980s, a series of commercials were run for Reese's Peanut Butter Cups featuring situations in which two people, one eating peanut butter and one eating chocolate, collided. One person would exclaim, "You got your peanut butter on my chocolate!" and the other would exclaim, "You got your chocolate in my peanut butter!" They would then sample the mixture and remark on the great taste, tying in with the slogan "Two great tastes that taste great together."

In the 1990s, the product's slogan was: "There's no wrong way to eat a Reese's."

Reese's was an associate sponsor of NASCAR Cup Series drivers Mark Martin (1994) and Kevin Harvick (2007–2010).

See also
 List of peanut dishes

References

Further reading

External links

Products introduced in 1928
American brands
The Hershey Company brands
Peanut butter confectionery
Brand name confectionery
Candy

Reese's Peanut Butter Cups