Paul Meurice (5 February 1818 - 11 December 1905) was a French novelist and playwright best known for his friendship with Victor Hugo.

Biography
Meurice was born and died in Paris.  In 1836, aged eighteen, he was introduced to Hugo by his friend Auguste Vacquerie, and soon became a devoted follower. He had literary ambitions and embarked on a career as playwright.

In 1848, Hugo made him the editor-in-chief of a journal he had just founded, called L'Événement. (This resulted in Meurice's imprisonment in 1851, during Hugo's exile.) Their friendship was very deep: the poet was a witness at Meurice's marriage to Palmyre Granger, daughter of the painter Jean-Pierre Granger. During the twenty years of Hugo's exile, Meurice looked after the financial and literary interests of the proscribed writer.

He meanwhile continued his own literary career, publishing novels, some in collaboration with Alexandre Dumas, for whom he would also ghost-write. He adapted Notre-Dame de Paris, Les Misérables and Quatre-Vingt-Treize for the stage.

With Vacquerie, and Victor Hugo's son Charles, Meurice founded the journal Le Rappel in 1869. On Hugo's death in 1885, Meurice and Vacquerie were made executors of his estate. In this capacity, Meurice compiled some posthumous collections of Hugo's poems. He established the Maison de Victor Hugo in Paris in 1902.

Works
Benvenuto Cellini, play in 5 acts and 8 scenes, music by Adolphe de Groot, Paris, Théâtre de la Porte Saint-Martin, 1 April 1852
Schamyl, play in 5 acts and 9 scenes, music by Gondois, Paris, Théâtre de la Porte Saint-Martin, 26 June 1854
Paris, play in 5 acts, 26 scenes, prologue and epilogue, Paris, Théâtre de la Porte Saint-Martin, 21 July 1855
L'Avocat des pauvres, play in 5 acts, Paris, Théâtre de la Gaîté (boulevard du Temple), 15 October 1856
Fanfan la Tulipe, play in 7 acts, Paris, Théâtre de l'Ambigu-Comique, 6 November 1858
Le Maître d'école, play in 5 acts, Paris, Théâtre de l'Ambigu-Comique, 10 March 1859
Le Roi de Bohème et ses sept châteaux, play in 6 acts, Paris, Théâtre de l'Ambigu-comique, 22 October 1859
François les Bas-Bleus, play in 5 acts and 7 scenes, Paris, Théâtre de l'Ambigu-Comique, 31 January 1863
Les Deux Diane, play in 5 acts and 8 scenes, Paris, Théâtre de l'Ambigu-comique, 8 March 1865
La Vie nouvelle, comedy in 4 acts, with prologue, Paris, Théâtre de l'Odéon, 8 April 1867
La Brésilienne, play in 6 acts with prologue, Paris, Théâtre de l'Ambigu-Comique, 9 April 1878
Quatre-vingt-treize, play based on the novel by Victor Hugo, by Paul Meurice, Paris, Théâtre de la Gaîté (rue Papin), 24 December 1881
Le Songe d'une nuit d'été, fairy-tale after Shakespeare (1886)
Struensée, drama, Paris, Comédie-Française, 5 November 1898
Plays written in collaboration
With Auguste Vacquerie : Paroles, comedy based on Shakespeare, Paris, Second Théâtre-Français, 28 February 1843
With Auguste Vacquerie : Antigone, tragedy after Sophocles, Paris, Second Théâtre-Français, 21 May 1844
With Alexandre Dumas : Hamlet, prince de Danemark, play in verse in 5 acts and 8 scenes, after Shakespeare, Paris, Théâtre historique, 15 December 1847
With George Sand : Les Beaux Messieurs de Bois-Doré, play in 5 acts, 1862
With George Sand : Le Drac, drame fantastique in 3 acts, 1865
With George Sand : Cadio, play in 5 acts and 8 scenes, 1868
Revision of work by Paul Foucher : Notre-Dame de Paris, play in 5 acts and 12 scenes, based on the novel by Victor Hugo, 1886
With Charles Hugo : Les Misérables, drama, based on the novel by Victor Hugo, Paris, Théâtre de la Porte Saint-Martin, 27 December 1899
Novels
La Famille Aubry (3 volumes, 1854)
Louspillac et Beautrubin (1854)
Scènes du foyer. La Famille Aubry (1856)
Les Tyrans de village (1857)
Les Chevaliers de l'esprit. Césara (1869)
Le Songe de l'amour (1889)
Correspondence
Correspondance entre Victor Hugo et Paul Meurice, preface by Jules Claretie (1909)

Bibliography
Gustave Simon, « Paul Meurice. Souvenirs intimes », La Revue de Paris, mai-juin 1906, p. 61-96. Texte en ligne

References

1818 births
1905 deaths
Writers from Paris
19th-century French novelists
19th-century French dramatists and playwrights
Burials at Père Lachaise Cemetery

Paul Meurice


The Canon EOS-1D X is a professional digital SLR camera body by Canon Inc. It succeeded the company's previous flagship Canon EOS-1Ds Mark III and the Canon EOS-1D Mark IV. It was announced on 18 October 2011.

It was released in March 2012 with a suggested retail price of  (body only) and a suggested retail price of  in the United Kingdom.

The camera is supplemented by the Canon EOS-1D C, a movie-oriented camera that shares most of its still photographic features with the 1D X. The 1D C was announced in April 2012 and released in March 2013.

In CES (January) 2014, Canon released firmware version 2.0.3 with significant improvements:
 Initial AF point selection and 61-point auto selection AF synchronization
 AF point switching according to camera orientation
 Improved low-light performance
 Expanded minimum shutter speed in auto ISO

On 1 February 2016, Canon introduced the Canon EOS-1D X Mark II as the successor to the EOS-1D X.

Features
The Canon EOS-1D X is an 18.1 effective megapixels full-frame DSLR. The camera is capable of acquiring video at Full HD resolution (1,920 × 1,080 pixels) at frame rates of 24, 25 and 30 fps or 720p (1,280 × 720) at 50 or 60 fps, and SDTV (640 × 480) at 25 or 30 fps. The h.264 video can be switched between all inter frame and IPB with bidirectional prediction to reduce file size. The EOS-1D X has two DIGIC 5+ image processors for sensor reading and compression, and a separate DIGIC 4 dedicated to automatic exposure. It was officially released on 20 June 2012. Like the Canon EOS 5D Mark III and Canon EOS-1D C, the camera features 61 autofocus points, which are assisted by a 100,000-pixel metering sensor.

The camera features an ISO setting range from 50 to 204,800 which can be selected automatically or adjusted manually. Like all Canon DSLR full frame cameras, the 1D X does not feature a built in flash. The camera can shoot 14 frames per second continuous shooting JPEG (with mirror locked up, no autofocus) and 12 frames per second continuous shooting in RAW, JPEG, RAW+JPEG with full auto focus and lens aberration correction. According to Canon, the maximum shooting rate is reduced to 10 fps at ISO settings of 32,000 and higher. The camera's viewfinder has an estimated magnification of .76x and 100% field of view.

The camera can be operated remotely with a Canon WFT-E6A Wireless File Transmitter, allowing an external web enabled device to control the camera. The WFT-E6A Wireless File Transmitter unit also enables Bluetooth v2.1 +EDR, to embed GPS location data into files. The EOS-1D X also features dust and weather resistance. The Canon EOS-1D X and EOS-1D C have four customizable function buttons at the front of the camera, two that can be used for shooting vertically and two for horizontal shooting.

Accessories
According to Canon's website, the EOS-1D X model comes equipped with:
 EOS-1D X Digital SLR Body
 Eyecup E.g.
 Battery Pack LP-E4N
 Battery Charger LC-E4N
 Wide Neck Strap L7
 Cable Protector
 Stereo AV Cable AVC-DC400ST
 USB Interface Cable IFC-200U

Known defects
Canon issued a product advisory indicating that insufficient lubrication within the camera's driving mechanism may lead to excessive wear, potentially causing autofocus to fail and the viewfinder image becoming "blurry" or "not steady". Any bodies sold with the issue are eligible for inspection and repair free of charge. Canon has not issued a recall for selected EOS-1D X and EOS-1D C models that have this issue. Only certain models are affected.

See also
Canon
Canon EOS-1D C

References

External links

Official link

1D X
Cameras introduced in 2012
Full-frame DSLR cameras

Canon EOS-1D X


Mazamorra (from Spanish Arabic  pičmáṭ from Greek  paxamádion, and from the Greek  mâza) is the name for numerous traditional dishes from the Iberian Peninsula and Latin America.

Regional variations

Argentina
In Argentina, mazamorra is a traditional dish. It is a dessert with native roots made with white maize, water, sugar, and vanilla. A variant, which is the most consumed in the country, is mazamorra with milk. In this recipe, milk is added to the previous ingredients.

Mazamorra is usually made with the same boiled maize used to make locro.

As with locro, it is common to eat mazamorra on national holidays, like 25 de mayo and independence day.

Colombia

Initially, mazamorra was the stew which fed galeotes (the rowers, almost always forced, in the ships called galeras) and sailors. The dish consisted of any available vegetables, most often peppers, lentils, and chickpeas, cooked together. In central Colombia, there is still a type of vegetable stew with this name.

Today, however, mazamorra is more commonly a corn-based beverage, with different presentations in various parts of the country. For many Colombian speakers, it is simply very-well-cooked peeled corn, also known as peto. Its texture and appearance vary depending on the region, but usually, mazamorra has a white or yellow appearance according to the maize that is used; its texture is generally soft and mushy.

In Antioquia, it often accompanies panela and is a very popular side dish to meals such as bandeja paisa. The drink typically includes maize grains, crushed with mortar and pestle, then soaked in water with soda lye (although the traditional reagent used is fern ash, which contains high amounts of potassium carbonate), and finally cooked until soft.

Mazamorra is very common during lunch and dinnertime at any time of year. The mazamorra is a typical Colombian food that is served as an accompaniment or as a main dish, whether familiar or casual.
It is usually sold as "street food".
  Usually, the consumer adds the milk and the panela to the mazamorra base.

In Cundinamarca and Boyacá, where the corn is cooked with onions, coriander, garlic, faba beans, potatoes and mashuas, often with pieces of ribs or beef.  This dish is known as  mazamorra chiquita (small mazamorra).

Dominican Republic and Cuba
In the Dominican Republic and Cuba this dish is known as majarete. Corn is cut off the husk, blended with milk, butter, water, sugar, and cornstarch. It is then boiled until thick with cinnamon sticks.

In Cuba raisins, vanilla, and lemon zest can be added. Once cooled the pudding is garnished with nutmeg and cinnamon.

Both countries claim to have originated the dish. Due to migration between the two countries the origin is lost.

In the Dominican Republic when corn is left whole it is known as chaca and cooked rice can be added.

Paraguay
Also known as kaguyjy in Guaraní, Mazamorra in Paraguay is made with the native locro variety of maize. It is one of the most traditional desserts of the country. According with the ingredients added to the cooked corn, the dish is denominated kaguyjy eírare (Honey mazamorra), kaaguyjy kambýre (milk mazamorra) or kaguyjy asukáre (sugar mazamorra). Kaguyjy reached great popularity in Paraguay due to the food scarcity during the Paraguayan War (between 1864 and 1870) as a nutritious substitute for a regular meal.

Peru

Purple Mazamorra in Peru is made with a local variety of maize, purple corn, rich in anthocyanin which gives the mazamorra a deep purple color.  The maize is cooked with pineapple, cinnamon and sweet potato flour. This dish is made specially in October for the celebrations of the Lord of Miracles day 333. This purple corn is also used to make chicha morada, a sweet beverage.
There is also other kind of typical Peruvian Mazamorras, as Maize Starch Mazamorra (Mazamorra de Maicena), and Dark Brown Sugar Mazamorra (Mazamorra de Cochino).

Uruguay
Mazamorra is consumed since colonial times, it was made from crumbled maize that was crumbled by women in mortairs. Mazamorra con leche is a traditional dessert, made of crumbled maize, sugar and milk, and was commonly sold as street food in ancient Montevideo but nowadays is more like an old fashioned comfort food.

It is also a type of cazuela, using maize for mazamorra and other ingredients such as butter beans, carrots, pork meat or other kinds of meat in tiny slices; it is
tipically a winter meal.

Costa Rica
Costa Rican mazamorra is basically a corn porridge, which is made cooking the maize in milk, clove, vanilla, and adding corn starch.

Puerto Rico
Puerto Rican mazamorra, is fresh corn custard. Corn kernels are cut off the cob and boiled with milk and cob until the corn softens. Once soft, the cob is discarded and the corn is put into a blender with the milk. Once made into a paste, the corn is passed through a chinois back into the pot for a second time. The liquid is then cooked with corn starch, butter, coconut cream, evaporated milk, ginger, spices, zest, and sugar. It is then topped with powdered nutmeg and cinnamon. Banana or ripe breadfruit can be blended and added for texture and flavor.

Spain
Cordobense mazamorra is a traditional dish made of almonds, bread, garlic, oil and vinegar.

Not related to maize

 Panama: A local dessert made with the nance fruit (also known as "pesada" ("heavy").
 Spain:
 A cold soup similar to salmorejo.  It is made with bread, almonds, garlic, olive oil and vinegar.
 In La Guardia in Toledo Province it is a combination of fried vegetables.
 Peru: Mazamorra de calabaza is a popular dessert in the Huánuco region, made with pumpkin.
 Dominican Republic: Mazamorra means mashed squash.

See also

 Mote (food)
 Atole
 Champurrado
 Corn stew
 List of maize dishes
 List of porridges

References

External links

Recipes for Colombian Mazamorra

Non-alcoholic drinks
Porridges
Colombian cuisine
Peruvian cuisine
Puerto Rican cuisine
Native American cuisine
Maize-based drinks
Maize dishes

Mazamorra


Air Commodore John Stanley Chick,  (22 December 1897 – 21 January 1960), was a Welsh officer of the Royal Air Force, who began his aviation career as a World War I flying ace credited with 16 aerial victories.

World War I service
John Stanley Chick began his military career as a pioneer in the Royal Engineers in 1914. He transferred to the Royal Flying Corps in February 1917 as a Cadet at Denham. He was commissioned a probationary second lieutenant on 3 May 1917. Chick was granted his pilots certificate, No. 4735, on 27 May 1917. In November 1917, he was assigned to No. 11 Squadron. Piloting a two-seater Bristol F.2 Fighter, he scored all his triumphs in the first four and half months of 1918. On 12 March 1918, he drove down out of control a German observation plane and four Fokker Dr.I fighters. All five triumphs were scored on a single sortie. On 1 April 1918, he was promoted to lieutenant. On 15 May, he ended his victory string by setting a German observation plane afire, destroying one Fokker Dr.I and driving another one down, and destroying a Pfalz D.III fighter. That same day, he was appointed flight commander, with the temporary rank of captain.

Service between the wars
On 13 April 1919, as part of the postwar downsizing of the Royal Air Force, Chick gave up his rank of acting-captain. 1 August 1919 saw him appointed flying officer. On 8 October 1919, he was assigned pilot's duties with No. 100 Squadron RAF. Sixteen days later, he received a permanent commission as a flying officer. On 28 June 1920, he was posted to No. 24 Squadron RAF; later that year, on 7 December, he transferred to No. 60 Squadron RAF. After a couple of test piloting assignments, which included a stint on an aerobatics team that flew RAF SE.5as. It was during this time, on 30 June 1923, that he was promoted to flight lieutenant. Chick then attended the Instructors Course at the Central Flying School and was rated A1. A tour of duty at the Central Flying School followed, beginning 22 June 1927. He rounded out the decade by leading the Central Flying School aerobatics team in 1929.

Beginning 19 January 1931, he attended the Royal Air Force Staff College. From there he was appointed a flight commander in No. 203 Squadron RAF on 23 January 1932, with the rank of squadron leader following closely on 1 February 1932. On 15 January 1934, he received his first command, Station Flight of Cambridge University Air Squadron at RAF Duxford. On 1 April 1937, he was promoted once again, to wing commander. Just before the start of World War II, in February 1939, Chick was appointed Officer Commanding No. 49 Squadron RAF.

World War II service
He became a temporary group captain as of 1 June 1940. In 1941, Chick was selected to be Officer Commanding RAF Luqa. On 23 April 1942, he was assigned to Middle East Command. A promotion to acting air commodore followed on about 16 November 1942. The following year, on 21 February 1943, he was seconded for Special Duty.

After World War II
John Stanley Chick retired effective 27 December 1947. In his retirement years, he became Civil Defence Officer for Colchester from 1951 through 1957.

Honours and awards
Military Cross (MC)
T./2nd Lt. John Stanley Chick, Gen. List and R.F.C.
For conspicuous gallantry and devotion to duty. While leading a patrol of four machines over the enemy's lines he attacked an enemy two-seater machine, which his observer drove down completely out of control. Shortly afterwards the patrol engaged nineteen enemy machines; he dived on to the uppermost machine, and drove it down in a series of spins and side-slips completely out of control. He then attacked two others and brought them down in the same manner, while his observer drove down another out of control. On another occasion his formation, consisting of five machines, attacked twenty-five enemy aeroplanes. He destroyed one of the enemy, and drove down another out of control. He set a magnificent example of courage and skill.

References
Notes

Bibliography

1897 births
1960 deaths
British World War I flying aces
People from Pontardawe
Recipients of the Air Force Cross (United Kingdom)
Recipients of the Military Cross
Royal Flying Corps officers
Welsh aviators
Royal Air Force air commodores
Royal Engineers soldiers
Welsh military personnel
British Army personnel of World War I

John Stanley Chick


Politkofsky was a small Russian-built Imperial Russian Navy sidewheel gunboat that patrolled the Alaskan Panhandle in the 1860s.

Politkofsky was built of yellow cedar in Russian America at New Archangel (now Sitka, Alaska), in the 1850s and was  in length and of 152 tons displacement. She had early copper boilers and a crosshead steam engine taken from the Imperial Russian Navy ship Imperator Nikolai I. When Tsar Alexander II of Russia sold Russian Alaska to the United States in 1867, Politkofsky was included in the deal. The gunboat was then sold into civilian service as a tugboat.

As the tug Polly, the ship worked along the northwest coast of North America. During the Klondike Gold Rush of the late 1890s, she operated on the Yukon River, where she sank in 1906.

Maritime incidents in 1906
Ships built in Russia
Tugboats of the United States
Victorian-era gunboats
Naval ships of Russia
1850s ships
Shipwrecks in rivers
Shipwrecks of the Alaska coast

Politkofsky (steam tug)


Galaksi nyaéta sistim wates gravitasi nu kacida gedéna tina perbéntangan, gas jeung kebul antarbéntang, plasma jeung (meureun) bahan poék nu teu katempo (unseen dark matter). Galaksi umumna ngandung sapuluh juta nepi ka samiliar (107 nepi ka 1012) béntang, nu sakabéhna ngorbit ka puseur gravitasi nu sarua. In addition to single stars and a tenuous interstellar medium, most galaxies contain a large number of multiple star systems and star clusters as well as various types of nebulae. Most galaxies are several thousand to several hundred thousand light years in diaméter and are usually separated from one another by distances on the order of millions of light yéars.

Étimologi
The word galaxy derives from the Greek term for our own galaxy, galaxias (γαλαξίας) or kyklos galaktikos méaning "milky circle" for the system's appéarance in the sky.  In Greek mythology, Zeus placed his son by a mortal woman, the infant Hercules, on Hera's bréast as she was asleep, so that the baby would drink her divine milk and thus become immortal.  Hera woke up while bréastfeeding, and réalized that she was nursing an unknown baby: she pushed the baby away and a jet of her milk sprayed the night sky.

When astronomers speculated that certain objects previously classified as spiral nebulae were actually vast congeries of stars, this was called the "island universe theory"; but this was an obvious misnomer, since universe méans everything there is. Consequently, this term fell into disuse, replaced by applying the term galaxy generically to all such bodies.

Sajarah observasi
This account of the history of the investigation of our own and other galaxies is largely taken from James Binney and Michael Merrifield: Galactic astronomy.

In 1610, Galileo Galilei used a telescope to study the bright band on the night sky known as the Milky Way and discovered that it was composed of a huge number of faint stars. In a tréatise in 1755, Immanuel Kant, drawing on éarlier work by Thomas Wright, speculated (correctly) that the Galaxy might be a rotating body of a huge number of stars, held together by gravitational forces akin to the solar system but on much larger scales. The resulting disk of stars would be seen as a band on the sky from our perspective inside the disk. Kant also conjectured that some of the nebulae visible in the night sky might be separate galaxies.

Towards the end of the 18th century, Charles Messier compiled a catalog containing the 109 brightest nebulae, later followed by a larger catalog of five thousand nebulae assembled by William Herschel. In 1845, Lord Rosse constructed a new telescope and was able to distinguish between elliptical and spiral nebulae. He also managed to maké out individual point sources in some of these nebulae, lending credence to Kant's éarlier conjecture. However, the nebulae were not unanimously accepted as distant separate galaxies until the matter was settled by Edwin Hubble in the éarly 1920s using a new telescope. He was able to resolve the outer parts of some spiral nebulae as collections of individual stars and identified some Cepheid variables, thus allowing him to estimate the distance to the nebulae: they were far too distant to be part of the Milky Way. In 1936, Hubble produced a classification system for galaxies that is used to this day, the Hubble sequence.

The first attempt to describe the shape of the Milky Way and the position of Sol within it was carried out by William Herschel in 1785 by carefully counting the number of stars in different regions of the sky. Using a refined approach, Kapteyn in 1920 arrived at the picture of a small (diaméter ~15 kiloparsecs) ellipsoid galaxy with Sol close to the center. A different method by Harlow Shapley based on the cataloging of globular clusters léad to a radically different picture: a flat disk with diaméter ~70 kiloparsecs and Sol far from the center. Both analyses failed to take into account the absorption of light by interstellar dust present in the galactic plane; once Robert Julius Trumpler had quantified this effect in 1930 by studying open clusters, the present picture of our galaxy as described above emerged.

In 1944, Hendrik van de Hulst predicted microwave radiation at a wavelength of 21 cm, resulting from interstellar atomic hydrogen gas; this radiation was observed in 1951. This radiation allowed for much improved study of the Galaxy, since it is not affected by dust absorption and its doppler shift can be used to map the motion of the gas in the Galaxy. These observations led to the postulation of a rotating bar structure in the center of the Galaxy. With improved radio telescopes, hydrogen gas could also be traced in other galaxies. In the 1970s it was discovered in Vera Rubin's study of the rotation speed of gas in galaxies that the total visible mass (from stars and gas) does not properly account for the speed of the rotating gas. This galaxy rotation problem is thought to be explained by the presence of large quantities of unseen dark matter.

Beginning in the 1990s, the Hubble Space Telescope yielded improved observations. Among other things, it established that the missing dark matter in our galaxy cannot solely consist of inherently faint and small stars. The Hubble Deep Field, an extremely long exposure of a relatively empty part of the sky, provided evidence that there are about one hundred and seventy-five billion galaxies in the universe. Improved technology in detecting the spectra invisible to humans (radio telescopes, infra-red cameras, x-ray telescopes), allow detection of other galaxies that are not detected by Hubble. Particularly, galaxy surveys in the zone of avoidance (the region of the sky blocked by the Milky Way) have revéaled a number of new galaxies.

Rupa-rupa galaksi

Galaxies come in three main types: ellipticals, spirals, and irregulars. A slightly more extensive description of galaxy types based on their appéarance is given by the Hubble sequence. Since the Hubble sequence is entirely based upon visual morphological type, it may miss certain important characteristics of galaxies such as star formation rate (in starburst galaxies) or activity in the core (in active galaxies).

Our own galaxy, the Milky Way, sometimes simply called the Galaxy (with uppercase), is a large disk-shaped barred spiral galaxy about 30 kiloparsecs or a hundred light millennia in diaméter and three light millennia in thickness. It contains about 3×1011 (three hundred billion) stars and has a total mass of about 6×1011 (six hundred billion) times the mass of Sol.

In spiral galaxies, the spiral arms have the shape of approximate logarithmic spirals, a pattern that can be théoretically shown to result from a disturbance in a uniformly rotating mass of stars. Like the stars, the spiral arms also rotate around the center, but they do so with constant angular velocity. That méans that stars pass in and out of spiral arms. The spiral arms are thought to be aréas of high density  or density waves. As stars move into an arm, they slow down, thus créating a higher density; this is akin to a "wave" of slowdowns moving along a highway full of moving cars. The arms are visible because the high density facilitates star formation and they therefore harbor many bright and young stars.

Despite the prominence of large elliptical and spiral galaxies, most galaxies in the universe appéar to be dwarf galaxies. These tiny galaxies are about one hundred times smaller than the Milky Way, containing only a few billion stars. Many dwarf galaxies may orbit a single larger galaxy; the Milky Way has at léast a dozen such satellites. Dwarf galaxies may also be classified as elliptical, spiral or irregular. Since small dwarf ellipticals béar little resemblance to large ellipticals, they are often called dwarf spheroidal galaxies instéad.

Galaksi aktif

A portion of the galaxies we can observe are classified as active. That is, a significant portion of the total energy output from the galaxy is emitted by a source other than the stars, dust and interstellar medium. The standard modél for such active galactic nucleus is based upon energy generation from matter falling into a supermassive black hole at the core region.

Galaxies that emit high-energy radiation in the form of x-rays are classified as Seyfert galaxies, quasars and blazars. Active galaxies that emit radio frequencies from relativistic jets erupting from the core are classified as Radio galaxies. A unified modél of these types of active galaxies explains their differences based on the viewing angle of the observer.

Struktur skala gedé

Very few galaxies exist by themselves; these are known as field galaxies. Most galaxies are gravitationally bound to a number of other galaxies. Structures containing up to about 50 galaxies are called groups of galaxies, and larger structures containing many thousands of galaxies packed into an aréa a few megaparsecs across are called clusters. Clusters of galaxies are often dominated by a single giant elliptical galaxy, which over time tidally destroys its satellite galaxies and adds their mass to its own. Superclusters are giant collections containing tens of thousands of galaxies, found in clusters, groups and sometimes individually; at the supercluster scale, galaxies are arranged into sheets and filaments surrounding vast empty voids. Above this scale, the universe appéars to be isotropic and homogeneous.

Our galaxy is a member of the Local Group, which it dominates together with the Andromeda Galaxy; overall the Local Group contains about thirty galaxies in a space about one megaparsec across. The Local Group is part of the Virgo Supercluster, which is dominated by the Virgo Cluster (of which our Galaxy is not a member).

Formasi jeung évolusi galaksi

The study of galactic formation and evolution attempts to answer questions regarding how galaxies formed and their evolutionary path over the history of the universe. Some théories on this field have now become widely accepted, but it is still an active aréa of study in astrophysics.

Formasi
The method of galactic formation is a major open question in astronomy. Théories may be divided into two categories: top-down and bottom-up. In top-down théories such as the Eggen–Lynden-Bell–Sandage (ELS) modél, protogalaxies form in a large-scale simultanéous collapse lasting about one hundred million yéars. In bottom-up théories such as the Séarle-Zinn (SZ) modél, globular clusters form first, and then a number of such bodies accrete to form a larger galaxy. modérn théories must be modified to account for the probable presence of large dark matter halos. A sketch of a galactic formation modél follows.

Shortly after recombination, baryonic matter begins to condense around cold dark matter halos. Zero-metal high-velocity halo stars (called Population III stars) are the first to develop around a protogalaxy as it starts to contract. These huge stars quickly supernova, reléasing héavy elements into the interstellar medium. Within the next billion yéars, globular clusters, the central supermassive black hole and galactic bulge of metal-poor Population II stars form. Within two billion yéars, the remaining material settles into a galactic disk. The galaxy will continue to absorb infalling material from high velocity clouds and dwarf galaxies throughout its life; the cycle of stellar birth and déath will incréase the abundance of héavy elements, eventually allowing the formation of planets.

Probably the oldest galaxy yet found, IOK-1, was discovered in September 2006 by Masanori Iye at National Astronomical Observatory of Japan using the Subaru Telescope in Hawaii. Its emission of Lyman alpha radiation has a redshift of 6.96, making it thirteen billion yéars old. While some scientists have claimed other objects (such as Abell 1835 IR1916) to be even older, the IOK-1's age and composition have been more reliably established.

The existence of such old protogalaxies suggests that they must have grown in the so-called "Dark Ages" (before the first generation of stars) from anisotropic irregularities present during the éra of recombination, some three hundred thousand yéars after the Big Bang. Such irregularities of the right scale were observed using the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) in 2003.

More evidence for this modél of galactic formation comes from detection of ancient Population III stars. The giant star, HE0107-5240, discovered in 2002 by reséarchers at the University of Hamburg, is believed to be the oldest yet discovered star in the Milky Way, since unlike younger stars, it is virtually metal-free. (See .) Since then, other very old stars (like HE 1327) have also been found.

Évolusi

Studies show that the Milky Way Galaxy is moving towards the néarby Andromeda Galaxy at about 130 km/s, and depending upon the lateral movements, the two may collide in about five to six billion yéars. Such galaxy collisions are fairly common. Given the distances between the stars, the gréat majority of stellar systems in colliding galaxies will be unaffected. However, gravitational stripping of the interstellar gas and dust that makes up the spiral arms will produce a long train of stars, similar to that seen in NGC 250 or the Antennae Galaxies.

Although the Milky Way has never collided with a galaxy as large as Andromeda before, evidence of past collisions of the Milky Way with smaller dwarf galaxies is incréasing.

Spiral galaxies, like the Milky Way, only produce new generations of stars as long as they continue to have dense molecular clouds of interstellar hydrogen in their spiral arms. Elliptical galaxies are alréady largely devoid of this gas and so form no new stars. However, the supply of star-forming material is finite; as stars convert hydrogen into héavier elements, fewer stars will form.

After the end of stellar formation in under one hundred billion yéars, the "stellar age" will come to an end after about ten trillion to one hundred trillion yéars (1013–1014 yéars), as the smallest longest-lived stars in our astrosphere, tiny red dwarfs begin to fade. At the end of the stellar age galaxies will comprise compact objects: brown dwarfs, black dwarfs, cooling white dwarfs, neutron stars, and black holes. Eventually, as a result of gravitational relaxation, all stars will either fall into the central supermassive black hole of the galaxies, or be flung into the depths of intergalactic space as a result of collisions.

Biologi galaktik

Biology as we know it is currently assumed to exist only around single, third-generation G-type stars in the middle regions of the spiral arms of spiral galaxies, like the sun. Elliptical galaxies, produced as a result of many galactic collisions, quickly lose their clouds of interstellar hydrogen gas, and cannot maké new generations of stars. Irregular galaxies have few elderly stars and thus seem to have low concentrations of the héavier elements on which éarth-like biology depends.  Even within spiral galaxies biology as we know it would appéar to be limited to the middle réaches of the spiral arm, as in the galactic halo or outer spiral arms héavier elements are in short supply, whilst in the gas clouds around the galactic centre héavier elements are in concentrations too high, and interstellar interactions are too frequent to allow éarth-sized planets to form in stable circular orbits around their stars.

Tempo ogé

 Active galaxy
 Barred spiral galaxy
 Dwarf galaxy
 Dwarf elliptical galaxy
 Dwarf spheroidal galaxy
 Elliptical galaxy
 Galaxy classification
 Galaxy formation and evolution
 Groups and clusters of galaxies
 Interacting galaxy
 Irregular galaxy
 Lenticular galaxy
 List of galaxies
 List of nearest galaxies
 Radio galaxy
 Ring galaxy
 Spiral galaxy
 Starburst galaxy
 Seyfert galaxy
 Timeline of galaxies, clusters of galaxies, and large scale structure

Référénsi

 Terence Dickinson: The Universe and Beyond (Fourth Edition), Firefly Books Ltd. 2004, 2004

Tumbu luar
 Galaxies, SEDS Messier pages
 An Atlas of The Universe
 Galaxies - Information and amateur observations
 The Oldest Galaxy Yet Found
 The Oldest Star found in the Galaxy
 Galaxies - discussed on BBC Radio 4's "In Our Time" programme

Struktur kosmos skala gedé

Galaksi


Pambai (Tamil: பம்பை) or Pamba (in Telugu) is a local musical instrument of Tamil Nadu, South India. It looks a lot like a drum.

It is commonly used in festivals and folk music of various temples in the state. Traditionally, it is used in rural rituals to worship local gods at their shrines. It is also prevalent in a small community in the southern part of Andhra Pradesh outside Tamil Nadu. Pambai is also played at the traditional fair Nayandi Mela.

Types and uses
Pambai is played by tying two Damru-shaped drums together. The instrument of two drums is placed near the player's waist or on the floor. They are beaten with sticks or with hands and sticks. Pambai players are called 'Pambaikaran' in Tamil Nadu and 'Pambala' in Andhra Pradesh. There are two types of drums based on the material used to make them. Among the simplest varieties, the pambai of both wooden drums is known as 'Bhiru Vanam'. One is made of wood and the other is made of brass or metal. In the early days, it was made of metal such as bronze and brass, but now it is also used in metal such as iron (galvanized) plate.

It is commonly used in wedding, festivals, religious ceremony and folk music of various temples in Tamil Nadu. The instrument is also used as a background instrument for folk games such as satire, karagam, kavadi, poikkal kudirai etc. Angalaparameswari sings folk songs to the tune of pamaba at folk temple festivals such as Shakti Karagam Invitation.

A tamil pambai consists of two percussion instruments, two tambourines, two pumps, an urn, a snare drum, and a hammer.

References

 South Asia : The Indian Subcontinent. (Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, Volume 5). Routledge; Har/Com edition (November 1999).
 Bigamudre Chaitanya Deva: Musical Instruments. National Book Trust, Neu-Delhi 1977, S. 35
 Stichwort: Pambai. In: Late Pandit Nikhil Ghosh (Hrsg.): The Oxford Encyclopaedia of the Music of India. Saṅgīt Mahābhāratī. Vol. 3 (P–Z) Oxford University Press, Neu-Delhi 2011, S. 788

Other websites

Tamil Nadu
Drums

Pambai


The Warehouse, located at 1820 Tchoupitoulas Street, was the main venue for rock music in New Orleans in the 1970s. Concert posters from the early 1970s printed the name as "a warehouse". It was founded by the partners in Beaver Productions. The venue had an estimated capacity of 3,500.
It opened with a triple bill of The Flock, Fleetwood Mac and the headlining Grateful Dead on January 30, 1970. The members of the Grateful Dead were arrested on the venue's opening weekend for drug possession when police raided their hotel rooms. The incident was immortalized in the band's song "Truckin'," with the lines "busted down on Bourbon Street, set up like a bowling pin." On February 1, there was a "Bread for the Dead" concert to raise money for legal fees. The Flock could not stay but Fleetwood Mac and the Grateful Dead performed, and concluded with an almost 40-minute jam together on "Turn on Your Lovelight".

The Allman Brothers Band played many celebrated shows at the venue.

Jim Morrison's last concert with The Doors was at The Warehouse on December 12, 1970. The concert included the second and final performance of "Riders on the Storm". An early iteration of Kansas (now known to fans as "Kansas I") opened the show and sat in with The Doors. ZZ Top's live recording of "Jailhouse Rock" at The Warehouse was included on Fandango! (1975).

On June 4, 1982 The Clash did a set. Opening was New Orleans musician Lee Dorsey.

Talking Heads performed the last show at the venue on September 10, 1982.

The Warehouse was ultimately demolished in April 1989.

References

External links

Music venues in Louisiana
Warehouses in the United States
Former music venues in the United States
Demolished buildings and structures in Louisiana
Buildings and structures demolished in 1989

The Warehouse (New Orleans)


Catherine Joyce Symons CBE JP (née Anderson; 18 August 1918 – 11 June 2004) was an educator, former teacher of the Diocesan Girls' School the leading girls' school in Hong Kong and its headmistress for 32 years.

She was also a Member of the Urban Council, Hong Kong Legislative Council, and the Executive Council of Hong Kong.

Biography
Joyce Anderson was born in Shanghai, China, daughter of Lucy Elanor Perry and Charles Graham (Carl) Anderson, and arrived in Hong Kong with her family at the age of 3. She began what was to become her lifelong involvement with the school in January 1926, when she joined the Diocesan Girls' School (DGS) as a student.

After graduating from the University of Hong Kong in 1939 with a Bachelor of Arts degree in English and Geography, she joined DGS as a geography teacher. Symons became headmistress in 1953, and held that post until her retirement. Symons is credited with turning DGS into the leading girls' school it remains to this day: in particular pioneering all-round education to "nurture broader minds, with music, dancing, sports of all kinds". Symons caused furore in 1967 when she introduced sex education into the school, which was condemned as "evil heresy", and provoked rebellion among conservative parents and ridicule from the wider community.

She was one of three women to be subject of the book Being Eurasian: Memories across Racial Divides, which centred on the difficulties faced by Eurasians growing up in Hong Kong in the 1920s and 1930s.

Symons was bestowed the title 'Justice of the Peace' (J.P.) by the Hong Kong Government in 1965, and was appointed OBE by HM Queen Elizabeth II 1971.

She was appointed to the Hong Kong Legislative Council in 1972 through 1976, and the first woman appointed to serve on the Executive Council of Hong Kong, in 1976. In 1977, she was appointed member of the oversight committee of the Independent Commission Against Corruption of Hong Kong.

She was awarded an honorary Doctorate of Laws (LL.D) by the Chancellor of the University of Hong Kong in 1978.

She retired in 1985, and published her memoirs entitled Looking at the stars: Memoirs of Catherine Joyce Symons. She died in Surrey, England on 11 June 2004 at the age of 85.

Published works

Authored works

Looking at the stars: Memoirs of Catherine Joyce Symons (1996 Pegasus)

As featured subject

See also
List of graduates of University of Hong Kong

References

External links
Diocesan Old Girls' Association Tribute

1918 births
2004 deaths
Hong Kong educators
Alumni of the University of Hong Kong
Members of the Executive Council of Hong Kong
Members of the Legislative Council of Hong Kong
Members of the Urban Council of Hong Kong
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
Politicians from Shanghai
Educators from Shanghai
Hong Kong people of British descent
Hong Kong people of Chinese descent

Joyce Symons


Kaca ieu daptar topik probabilitas, dina kaca Wikipedia.
Kaca ieu sacara alpabet sarua jeung Daptar jejer statistika. Di dinya aya ogé list of probabilists jeung daptar statistikawan.

Aspek umum

Probability
Randomness, Pseudorandomness, Quasirandom
Randomization, hardware random number generator
Random number generator
Random sequence
Coin flipping/tossing; checking if a coin is biased
Uncertainty
Statistical dispersion
Observational error
Average
Probability interpretations
Markovian
Statistical regularity
Central tendency
Bean machine
Relative frequency
Frequency probability
Maximum likelihood
Bayesian probability
Principle of indifference
Cox's theorem
Eclectic probability
Principle of maximum entropy
Information entropy
Urn problems
Extractor
Aleatoric, aleatoric music
Free probability
Exotic probability
Schrödinger method

Dasar-dasar teori probabilitas

Probability theory
Sample space
Probability space
Probability axioms
Normalizing constant
Event (probability theory)
Complementary event
Elementary event
Mutually exclusive
Boole's inequality
Fungsi dénsitas probabilitas
Cumulative distribution function
Law of total cumulance
Law of total expectation
Law of total probability
Law of total variance
Almost surely
Cox's theorem
Edwin Thompson Jaynes
Bayesianism
Prior probability
Posterior probability
Borel's paradox
Bertrand's paradox
Coherence (philosophical gambling strategy)
Dutch book
Algebra of random variables
Belief propagation

Random variables

Discrete random variable
Probability mass function
Constant random variable
Nilai ekspektasi
Jensen's inequality
Variance
Standard deviation
Geometric standard deviation
Moment (mathematics)
Moment about the mean
Standardized moment
Skewness
Kurtosis
Locality
Cumulant
Factorial moment
Moment problem
Multivariate random variable
Independent identically-distributed random variables
Statistical independence
Conditional independence
Pairwise independence
Covariance
Covariance matrix
De Finetti's theorem
Correlation
Uncorrelated
Correlation function
Canonical correlation
Convergence of random variables
Markov's inequality
Chebyshev's inequality
Chernoff's inequality
Laws of large numbers
Asymptotic equipartition property
Typical set
Random field
Borel-Cantelli lemma

Conditional probability

Conditional expectation
Conditional distribution
Marginal distribution
Bayes' theorem
de Finetti's theorem
Rule of succession
Conditional independence

Probability distributions

Bose-Einstein statistics
Bernoulli distribution
Bernoulli trial
Beta distribution
Binomial distribution
Cantor distribution
Cauchy distribution
McCullagh's parametrization of the Cauchy distributions
Chi-square distribution
Continuity correction
Copula (statistics)
Degenerate distribution
Erlang distribution
Exponential distribution
Exponential family
F-distribution
Fermi-Dirac statistics
Fisher-Tippett distribution
Gamma distribution
Geometric distribution
Graphical model
Lévy distribution
Levy skew alpha-stable distribution
Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics
Moment (mathematics)
Moment about the mean
Standardized moment
Skewness
Kurtosis
Locality
Cumulant
Factorial moment
Expected value
Variance
An inequality on location and scale parameters
Taylor expansions for the moments of functions of random variables
Multinomial distribution
Negative binomial distribution
Negative hypergeometric distribution
Sebaran normal, disebut ogé sebaran Gaussian
Error function
Multivariate normal distribution
Matrix normal distribution
Memorylessness
Pareto distribution
Phase-type distribution
Poisson distribution
Compound Poisson distribution
Prior probability distribution
Student's t-distribution
Total variation distance
Triangular distribution
Weibull distribution
Wigner semicircle distribution
Wishart distribution
Zeta distribution
Infinite divisibility
Indecomposable distribution

Sipat-sipat sebaran probabilitas

Central limit theorem
Illustration of the central limit theorem
Concrete illustration of the central limit theorem
Berry-Esséen theorem
Characteristic function (probability theory)
Edgeworth series
Helly-Bray theorem
Limit theorem
Location parameter
Maxwell's theorem
Moment-generating function
Probability-generating function
Vysochanskiï-Petunin inequality
Mutual information
Kullback-Leibler divergence
Normally distributed and uncorrelated does not imply independent
Le Cam's theorem
Stability (probability)

Applied probability

Empirical findings
Benford's law
Pareto principle
Zipf's law

Stochastic processes

Bernoulli process
Branching process
Brownian motion
Geometric Brownian motion
Wiener equation
Chapman-Kolmogorov equation
Chinese restaurant process
Coupling (probability)
Ergodic theory
Galton-Watson process
Gauss-Markov process
Gaussian process
Girsanov's theorem
Itô's lemma
Law of the iterated logarithm
Lévy flight
Lévy process
Loop-erased random walk
Markov chain
Continuous-time Markov process
Examples of Markov chains
Markov property
Hidden Markov model
Martingale
Azuma's inequality
Wald's equation
Poisson process
Population process
Process with independent increments
Queueing theory
Erlang unit
Random walk
Random walk Monte Carlo
Stationary process
Stochastic calculus
Itô calculus
Malliavin calculus
Time series analysis
Autoregressive moving average model
Autoregressive integrated moving average model
Anomaly time series
Wiener process

Geometric probability

Buffon's needle
Integral geometry
Hadwiger's theorem

Statistics

List of statistical topics
Statistical sample
Sampling (statistics)
Data point
Data set
Statistical population
Statistical phenomena
Statistical theory
Statistical inference
Null hypothesis
Confidence interval
Margin of error
Interval estimation
point estimation
Estimator
Bias (statistics)
Gauss-Markov theorem
Likelihood-ratio test
Multivariate statistics
Analysis of variance
ANCOVA
Bayesian inference

Applied statistics

Linear regression
Instrumental variable
Statistical unit
Statistical assembly
Statistical model

Gambling

Luck, chance
Game of chance
Odds
Betting
Spread betting
Bookmaker
Parimutuel betting
Gambler's fallacy
Inverse gambler's fallacy
Pascal's wager
Gambler's ruin
Poker probability
Poker probability (Texas hold 'em)
Pot odds
Roulette
Martingale (betting system)
The man who broke the bank at Monte Carlo
Lottery
Lottery machine
Pachinko
Coherence (philosophical gambling strategy)

Coincidence

Birthday paradox
Index of coincidence
Bible code
Spurious relationship

Algorithmics

Probable prime
Probabilistic algorithm = Randomised algorithm
Monte Carlo method
Las Vegas algorithm
Probabilistic Turing machine
Stochastic programming
Probabilistically checkable proof
Box-Muller transform
Metropolis algorithm
Gibbs sampling
Inverse transform sampling method

Financial mathematics

Risk
Value at risk
Market risk
Risk-neutral measure
Volatility
Technical analysis

Physics

Probability amplitude
Statistical physics
Boltzmann factor
Feynman-Kac formula
Fluctuation theorem
Information entropy
Vacuum expectation value
Brownian ratchet
Cosmic variance

Percolation theory

Genetics

Punnett square
Hardy-Weinberg principle
Ewens's sampling formula
Ronald Fisher
population genetics

Sajarah

The Doctrine of Chances

Tumbu kaluar
Model selection for probability problems

Topik probabilitas
Probabilitas

Daptar topik probabilitas


Sir Andrew Cogan, 1st Baronet also known as Andrew Coggan (born circa 1600, Greenwich, England; died circa 1660) was the first agent of the English East India Company to rule Madras (a. k. a. Chennai). He was the chief of the Masulipatnam factory when Madras was purchased from Peda Venkata Raya, the last king of the Aravidu dynasty of the Vijayanagara Empire, the capital of which was at Chandragiri. As such Cogan is a significant figure in the history of the English colonial empire.

Purchase of Madras
In 1637, Francis Day, a member of the Masulipatnam Council and Chief of the Armagon Factory, made a voyage of exploration down the Coromandel Coast as far as Pondicherry. At that time, the Coromandel Coast was ruled by the Raja of Chandragiri through a local chief or Nayak, Damarla Venkatapathy Nayak, who ruled the coast from Pulicat up to San Thome. He had his seat at Wandiwash and his brother, Ayyappa Nayak resided at Poonamallee.

It is widely presumed that Ayyappa Nayak was the one who made overtures to the English to choose the area comprising the modern-day George Town for settlement. The offer looked good, and Day consulted Cogan, his superior, who investigated the proposed site and examined trading possibilities there. The results were favourable and Day secured a grant offering the village of Madraspatnam to the English for a period of two years. The grant was dated August 1639, and after obtaining the approval of the Factory at Masulipatnam and the Presidency of Bantam (in Java), the settlement of Madraspatnam was begun.

Construction of Fort St. George

Day and Cogan were jointly responsible for the construction of Fort St. George. The building of the Factory House was taken up on 1 March 1640. A portion of the structure was presumably completed by St. George's Day (23 April) of that year and consequently the name "Fort St. George" was given to the fort.

The bastions were the first fortifications constructed; erection of the curtain walls connecting them proceeded more slowly, as it constructed in stages as funds permitted. The whole Fort took fourteen years to construct and was finished only in 1653.

Cogan's agency
Soon after the construction of Fort St. George had begun, Day was charged with the offence of trading privately, outside of his parent company, and he left for England in 1641. During his absence, Cogan was made the Agent of Madras and he remained in the post for more than three years. During his time in power he strengthened the fortifications and strove to make the town prosperous. But, he was charged with extravagant expenditure on the fortifications; as a consequence of which he resigned his post and sailed to England in disgust. Day assumed the Agency of Madras and served as agent for a short time thereafter.

Personal life
After returning to England, Cogan was an active supporter of the Royalist cause during the English civil war (1642–1651). Following the Royalists' defeat (1653), he went into exile and his estates were confiscated. However, in 1657, following the Stuart Restoration Cogan was made a baronet, of Greenwich in the Baronetage of Ireland. He died in or about 1660, at which point his title became extinct.

See also
 List of colonial governors and presidents of Madras Presidency

Footnotes

References
 Henry Davidson Love, 1995 (first pub. 1913) Indian Records Series: Vestiges of Old Madras 1640-1800. New Delhi, Mittal Publications; pp. 14, 23, 41, 58, 141.* Origin of Chennai
 International Genealogical Index
 Chennai that was Madras

Governors of Madras
British East India Company civil servants
17th-century English businesspeople
Baronets in the Baronetage of Ireland

Andrew Cogan


Tiglieto Abbey (Badia di Tiglieto, also known as Santa Maria alla Croce de Civitacula) is a monastery in Tiglieto, Liguria, northern Italy. It was the first Cistercian abbey to be founded in Italy, and also the first outside France.

The abbey is located on the left bank of the brook known as the Orba, 382 metres above sea level in the Province of Genoa, near the border of the Region of Piedmont.

History
The abbey, founded in 1120 at the instigation of Peter I of Tarentaise, was a daughter house of La Ferté Abbey. The first abbot was probably Opizzone. It may have gained the name Tiglieto () after being given the estate of that name by the Margrave Anselm of Ponsone in 1131.

Communities from Tiglieto settled Staffarda Abbey and Casanova Abbey as its daughter houses, both in the present Region of Piedmont.

In 1205, Gerardo da Sesso was elected abbot. He became a cardinal in 1211.

In 1442, through Pope Eugenius IV, Tiglieto became an abbey in commendam. In 1648 it was turned into a family estate of the last commendatory abbot, Cardinal Raggio, and dissolved. In 1747 the area was occupied by the Austrians, who shortly afterwards were driven out by the Genoese.

In 2000 Tiglieto was reoccupied by the Cistercians.

Buildings and precinct

The church is a primitive Romanesque brick basilica; the original side-chapels were removed in the 14th century to make way for a new east end. The nave was vaulted in the Baroque period, and a new choir at the west end was added at the same time, as was a Baroque campanile. The conventual buildings are to the south of the church. The early Gothic chapter house in the east range has survived, with a square chapter room with nine bays from the early 13th century and symmetrical triforium windows looking onto the central courtyard and the site of the cloister, no longer extant, with the dormitory with bricked-up windows in the upper storey, as have the sacristy, the  Fraternei and to the south the refectory building, as well as the lay brothers' block in the west, now converted for residential purposes. The entire precinct was renovated for the new community that took over the premises in 2000.

Notes

Sources
 Bedini. B.G., 1964: Breve prospetto delle abazie cisterciensi d'Italia (pp. 9–10). Casamari.
Schomann, H., 1982: Reclams Kunstführer Italien I.2 (p. 411), Stuttgart: Philipp Reclam jun.

External links

Cistercensi della Certosa di Firenze: Cistercian information

Cistercian monasteries in Italy
Buildings and structures in Liguria
1120 establishments in Europe
12th-century establishments in Italy
Romanesque architecture in Liguria
Tourist attractions in Liguria

Tiglieto Abbey


Thomas Leigh, 1st Baron Leigh (1595 – 22 February 1672) was an English politician who sat in the House of Commons from 1628 to 1629. He supported the Royalist cause in the English Civil War and was created a baron in 1643.

Leigh was the son of Sir John Leigh and his first wife Ursula Hoddesdon, daughter of Sir Christopher Hoddesdon, of Leighton Buzzard, Bedfordshire. He matriculated at Magdalen College, Oxford, under entry dated 4 November 1608, aged 13. He succeeded to the baronetcy on the death of his grandfather, Sir Thomas Leigh, 1st Baronet, of Stoneleigh, Warwickshire on 1 February 1626. In 1628, he was elected member of parliament for Warwickshire and sat until 1629 when King Charles decided to rule without parliament for eleven years. He was Sheriff of Warwickshire from 1636 to 1637.

During the Civil War, Leigh showed intrepid loyalty to the king whom he entertained at Stoneleigh when the gates of Coventry were shut against him. He was created Baron Leigh of Stoneleigh on 1 July 1643.

Leigh died at the age of about 77.

Leigh married in about 1615 Mary Egerton, daughter of Sir Thomas Egerton, who was the son of Thomas Egerton, 1st Viscount Brackley, and his wife Elizabeth Venables. Leigh and Mary had at least seven children, five sons and two daughters. Thomas, the eldest son, predeceased his father, and the title passed to the eldest grandson, also named Thomas.

References

1595 births
1672 deaths
Cavaliers
English MPs 1628–1629
1
Alumni of Magdalen College, Oxford
High Sheriffs of Warwickshire
Sheriffs of Warwickshire
People from Warwick District

Thomas Leigh, 1st Baron Leigh


François-Marie Arouet (also known as Voltaire) was a French philosopher. He was born in 1694 and grew up in Poitou. He died in Paris in 1778.

Voltaire did not like France at the time because he thought that it was old fashioned. He also did not like the Church and thought that people should be allowed to believe what they want. However he did not like democracy either and thought that a country needed to be led by a wise and strong king. Voltaire had to live in exile in England for three years from 1726 to 1729 where these ideas were more common. He liked the philosophy of John Locke.

Voltaire was also a writer. He wrote many books, poems and plays, some of which are still liked today. A lot of his work was against France and the Church. This meant that he was unpopular at first but became more popular towards the time of the French Revolution. He also studied science and wrote a lot about people and places he knew. His writings later led to the French revolution, which changed France from a Hereditary Monarchy into a Republic.

Voltaire believed in a God but did not believe in a God personally involved in people's lives, like the Christian God. This is called Deism.

Note

Other websites

 An analysis of Voltaire's texts (in the "textes" topic) (in French)

 Voltaire's writings from Philosophical Dictionary
 Société Voltaire
 Voltaire's Candide and Leibniz
 VisitVoltaire.com
  Voltaire, his work in audio version

1694 births
1778 deaths
17th-century philosophers
French deists
French philosophers
Pen names

Voltaire


German submarine U-506 was a Type IXC U-boat of Nazi Germany's Kriegsmarine during World War II. The submarine was laid down on 11 July 1940 at the Deutsche Werft yard in Hamburg as yard number 296, launched on 20 June 1941 and commissioned on 15 September 1941 under the command of Kapitänleutnant Erich Würdemann.

After completing her training with the 4th U-boat Flotilla based at Stettin, U-506 was transferred to the 10th U-boat Flotilla for front-line service on 1 February 1942. She sank 14 ships, three were classified as 'damaged' another vessel was declared a 'total loss'. The submarine's missions, particularly the sinking of the merchant ship Heredia and later involvement in the so-called Laconia Incident is chronicled in the 2016 book So Close to Home.

She was sunk in the Atlantic on 12 July 1943 by depth charges dropped by a US B-24 Liberator.

Design
German Type IXC submarines were slightly larger than the original Type IXBs. U-506 had a displacement of  when at the surface and  while submerged. The U-boat had a total length of , a pressure hull length of , a beam of , a height of , and a draught of . The submarine was powered by two MAN M 9 V 40/46 supercharged four-stroke, nine-cylinder diesel engines producing a total of  for use while surfaced, two Siemens-Schuckert 2 GU 345/34 double-acting electric motors producing a total of  for use while submerged. She had two shafts and two  propellers. The boat was capable of operating at depths of up to .

The submarine had a maximum surface speed of  and a maximum submerged speed of . When submerged, the boat could operate for  at ; when surfaced, she could travel  at . U-506 was fitted with six  torpedo tubes (four fitted at the bow and two at the stern), 22 torpedoes, one  SK C/32 naval gun, 180 rounds, and a  SK C/30 as well as a  C/30 anti-aircraft gun. The boat had a complement of forty-eight.

Service history

First patrol
U-506 first departed Hamburg on 2 March 1942 and sailed to Heligoland, leaving there on 9 March for her first patrol, which took her around the British Isles to Lorient in occupied France via the gap between the Shetland and Faeroe Islands, by 25 March.

Second patrol
The U-boat sailed from Lorient on 6 April 1942, crossed the Atlantic, and entered the Gulf of Mexico to operate off the Mississippi River Delta against the crucial oil trade. En route she sank a Nicaraguan merchant ship off the southern tip of Florida. Between 10 and 20 May she sank three American oil tankers and a banana boat, and damaged four other oil tankers, one so badly it was declared a total loss. On the return journey she sank two British merchant ships off the Bahamas, eventually returning to Lorient on 15 June.

Third patrol
U-506 sailed from Lorient once again on 28 July 1942 and headed south to the coast of West Africa, operating against ships sailing from Freetown, Sierra Leone. There she sank five more merchant ships, four British, one Swedish. On the return journey the U-boat took part in the rescue operations after the sinking of the RMS Laconia, before returning to Lorient on 7 November after 103 days at sea.

Fourth patrol
The U-boat sailed from Lorient on 14 December 1942 and again headed south, this time to the coast of South Africa, where she sank two merchant ships, one British, the other Norwegian, before returning to base on 8 May. She was away even longer than on her third patrol-146 days.

Fifth patrol
U-506s final voyage began on 6 July 1943. On 12 July the U-boat was attacked by a USAAF B-24 Liberator bomber of the 1st Anti-Submarine Squadron in the North Atlantic west of Vigo, Spain, in position . The U-boat was located by the aircraft's SC137 10 cm radar, which the Germans could not detect, and was attacked with seven depth charges. The U-boat broke in two, and about 15 men were seen in the water by the pilot, who dropped a liferaft and a smoke flare. Only six men were rescued by a British destroyer three days later.

Summary of raiding history

References

Bibliography

External links

German Type IX submarines
World War II submarines of Germany
World War II shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean
U-boats sunk in 1943
U-boats sunk by depth charges
U-boats sunk by US aircraft
Maritime incidents in July 1943
1941 ships
U-boats commissioned in 1941
Ships built in Hamburg
Caribbean Sea operations of World War II
Wars involving the Bahamas

German submarine U-506


Kemalism (, also archaically Kamâlizm), also known as Atatürkism (), or The Six Arrows (), is the founding and official ideology of the Republic of Turkey. Kemalism, as it was implemented by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk after the declaration of Republic in 1923, was defined by sweeping political, social, cultural and religious reforms designed to separate the new Turkish state from its Ottoman predecessor and embrace a Western-style modernized lifestyle, including the establishment of secularism/laicism, state support of the sciences, free education, gender equality, economic statism and many more. Most of those policies were first introduced to and implemented in Turkey during Atatürk's presidency through his reforms.

Many of the root ideas of Kemalism began during the late Ottoman Empire under various reforms to avoid the imminent collapse of the Empire, beginning chiefly in the early 19th-century Tanzimat reforms. The mid-century Young Ottomans attempted to create the ideology of Ottoman nationalism, or Ottomanism, to quell the rising ethnic nationalism in the Empire and introduce limited democracy for the first time while maintaining Islamist influences. In the early 20th century, the Young Turks abandoned Ottoman nationalism in favor of early Turkish nationalism, while adopting a secular political outlook. After the demise of the Ottoman Empire, Atatürk, influenced by both the Young Ottomans and the Young Turks, as well as by their successes and failures, led the declaration of the Republic of Turkey in 1923, borrowing from the earlier movements' ideas of secularism and Turkish nationalism, while implementing free education and other reforms that have been enshrined by later leaders into guidelines for governing Turkey.

Philosophy
Kemalism is a modernization philosophy that guided the transition between the multi-religious, multi-ethnic Ottoman Empire to the secular, democratic, and unitary Republic of Turkey. Kemalism sets the boundaries of the social process in the Turkish Reformation. Atatürk was the founder of Kemalism, and his doctrine was implemented as state ideology, but Atatürk refrained from being dogmatic and described his and his spiritual heirs' guide to be science and reason:

Principles
There are six principles (ilke) of the ideology: Republicanism (), Populism (), Nationalism (), Laicism (), Statism (), and Reformism (). Together, they represent a kind of Jacobinism, defined by Atatürk himself as a method of employing political despotism to break down the social despotism prevalent among the traditionally-minded Turkish-Muslim population, caused by, he believed, the bigotry of the ulema.

Republicanism
Republicanism () in the Kemalist framework replaced the monarchy of the Ottoman dynasty with the rule of law, popular sovereignty and civic virtue, including an emphasis on liberty practiced by citizens. Kemalist republicanism defines a type of constitutional republic, in which representatives of the people are elected, and must govern in accordance with existing constitutional law limiting governmental power over citizens. The head of state and other officials are chosen by election rather than inheriting their positions, and their decisions are subject to judicial review. In defending the change from the Ottoman State, Kemalism asserts that all laws of the Republic of Turkey should be inspired by actual needs here on Earth as a basic tenet of national life. Kemalism advocates a republican system as the best representative of the wishes of the people.

Among the many types of republic, the Kemalist republic is a representative, liberal parliamentary democracy with a Parliament chosen in general elections, a president as head of state elected by Parliament and serving for a limited term, a prime minister appointed by the president, and other ministers appointed by Parliament. The Kemalist president does not have direct executive powers, but has limited veto powers, and the right to contest with referendum. The day-to-day operation of government is the responsibility of the Council of Ministers formed by the prime minister and the other ministers. There is a separation of powers between the executive (president and Council of Ministers), the legislative (Parliament) and the judiciary, in which no one branch of government has authority over another—although parliament is charged with the supervision of the Council of Ministers, which can be compelled to resign by a vote of no-confidence.

The Kemalist republic is a unitary state in which three organs of state govern the nation as a single unit, with one constitutionally created legislature. On some issues, the political power of government is transferred to lower levels, to local elected assemblies represented by mayors, but the central government retains the principal governing role.

Populism

Populism () is defined as a social revolution aimed to transfer the political power to citizenship. Kemalist populism intends not only to establish popular sovereignty but also the transfer of the social-economic transformation to realize a true populist state. However, Kemalists reject class conflict and collectivism. Kemalist populism believes national identity is above all else. Kemalist populism envisions a sociality that emphasizes class collaboration and national unity like solidarism. Populism in Turkey is to create a unifying force that brings a sense of the Turkish state and the power of the people to bring in that new unity.

Kemalist populism is an extension of the Kemalist modernization movement, aiming to make Islam compatible with the modern nation-state. This included state supervision of religious schools and organizations. Mustafa Kemal himself said "everyone needs a place to learn religion and faith; that place is a mektep, not a madrasa." This was intended to combat the "corruption" of Islam by the ulema. Kemal believed that during the Ottoman period, the ulema had come to exploit the power of their office and manipulate religious practices to their own benefit. It was also feared that, were education not brought under state control, unsupervised madrasas could exacerbate the rising problem of tarikat insularity that threatened to undermine the unity of the Turkish state.

Sovereignty
Kemalist social theory (populism) does not accept any adjectives placed before the definition of a nation [a nation of ...] Sovereignty must belong solely to people without any term, condition, etc.:

Motto
Populism was used against the political domination of sheikhs, tribal leaders, and the Islamic political system of the Ottoman Empire. Initially, the declaration of the republic was perceived as "Returning to the days of the first caliphs". However, Atatürk's nationalism aimed to shift the political legitimacy from autocracy (by the Ottoman dynasty), theocracy (based in the Ottoman caliphate), and feudalism (tribal leaders) to the active participation of its citizenry, the Turks. Kemalist social theory wanted to establish the value of Turkish citizenship. A sense of pride associated with this citizenship would give the needed psychological spur for people to work harder and achieve a sense of unity and national identity. Active participation, or the "will of the people", was established with the republican regime and Turkishness replacing the other forms of affiliations that had been promoted in the Ottoman Empire (such as the allegiance to the different millets that eventually led to divisiveness in the empire). The shift in affiliation was symbolized with:

The motto "Ne mutlu Türküm diyene" was promoted against such mottoes as "long live the Sultan," "long live the Sheikh", or "long live the Caliph."

Laicism

Laicism () in Kemalist ideology aims to banish religious interference in government affairs, and vice versa. It differs from the passive Anglo-American concept of secularism, but is similar to the concept of laïcité in France.

The roots of Kemalist secularism lie in the reform efforts in the late Ottoman Empire, especially the Tanzimat period and the later Second Constitutional Era. The Ottoman Empire was an Islamic state in which the head of the Ottoman state held the position of the Caliph. The social system was organized according to various systems, including the religiously organized Millet system and Shari'ah law, allowing religious ideology to be incorporated into the Ottoman administrative, economic, and political system. In the Second Constitutional Era, the Ottoman Parliament pursued largely secular policies, although techniques of religious populism and attacks on other candidates' piety still occurred between Ottoman political parties during elections. These policies were stated as the reason for the countercoup of 1909 by Islamists and absolute monarchists. The secular policies of the Ottoman parliament also factored in the Arab Revolt during World War I.

When secularism was implemented in the fledgling Turkish state, it was initiated by the abolition of the centuries-old caliphate in March 1924. The office of Shaykh al-Islām was replaced with the Presidency of Religious Affairs (). In 1926, the mejelle and shari'ah law codes were abandoned in favor of an adapted Swiss Civil Code and a penal code modeled on the German and Italian codes. Other religious practices were done away with, resulting in the dissolution of Sufi orders and the penalization of wearing a fez, which was viewed by Atatürk as a tie to the Ottoman past.

State and religion (Laïcité)
Atatürk was profoundly influenced by the triumph of laïcité in France. Atatürk perceived the French model as the authentic form of secularism. Kemalism strove to control religion and transform it into a private affair rather than an institution interfering with politics, as well as scientific and social progress. "Sane reason," and "the liberty of [one's] fellow man," as Atatürk once put it. It is more than merely creating a separation between state and religion. Atatürk has been described as working as if he were Leo the Isaurian, Martin Luther, the Baron d'Holbach, Ludwig Büchner, Émile Combes, and Jules Ferry rolled into one in creating Kemalist secularism. Kemalist secularism does not imply nor advocate agnosticism or nihilism; it means freedom of thought and independence of the institutions of the state from the dominance of religious thought and religious institutions. The Kemalist principle of laicism is not against moderate and apolitical religion, but against religious forces opposed to and fighting modernization and democracy.

According to the Kemalist perception, the Turkish state is to stand at an equal distance from every religion, neither promoting nor condemning any set of religious beliefs. Kemalists, however, have called for not only separation of church and state but also a call for the state control of the Turkish Muslim religious establishment. For some Kemalists, this means that the state must be at the helm of religious affairs, and all religious activities are under the supervision of the state. This, in turn, drew criticism from the religious conservatives. Religious conservatives were vocal in rejecting this idea, saying that to have a secular state, the state can't control the activities of religious institutions. Despite their protest, this policy was officially adopted by the 1961 constitution.

Kemalist policies aimed to stamp out the religious element within society. After Turkish independence from the Western powers, all education was under the control of the state in both secular and religious schools. It centralized the education system, with one curriculum in both religious and secular public schools, in the hope this would eliminate or lessen the appeal of religious schools. The laws were meant to abolish the Sufi religious schools or orders (tarikats) and their lodges (tekkes). Titles like sheikh and dervish were abolished, and their activities were banned by the government. The day of rest was changed by the government from Friday to Sunday. But the restrictions on personal choice extended to both religious duty and naming. Turks had to adopt a surname and were not allowed to perform the hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca).

Politics and religion (Secularism)
The Kemalist form of separation of state and religion sought the reform of a complete set of institutions, interest groups (such as political parties, unions, and lobbies), the relationships between those institutions, and the political norms and rules that governed their functions (constitution, election law). The biggest change in this perspective was the abolishment of the Ottoman caliphate on March 3, 1924, followed by the removal of its political mechanisms. The article stating that "the established religion of Turkey is Islam" was removed from the constitution on April 10, 1928.

From a political perspective, Kemalism is anti-clerical, in that it seeks to prevent religious influence on the democratic process, which was a problem even in the largely secular politics of the Second Constitutional Era of the Ottoman Empire, when even non-religiously affiliated political parties like the Committee of Union and Progress and the Freedom and Accord Party feuded over matters such as the Islamic piety of their candidates in the Ottoman elections of 1912. Thus, in the Kemalist political perspective, politicians cannot claim to be the protector of any religion or religious sect, and such claims constitute sufficient legal grounds for the permanent banning of political parties.

Insignia
The Ottoman social system was based on religious affiliation. Religious insignia extended to every social function. Clothing identified citizens with their own particular religious grouping; headgear distinguished rank and profession. Turbans, fezes, bonnets, and head-dresses denoted the sex, rank, and profession — both civil and military — of the wearer. Religious insignia outside of worship areas became banned.

While Atatürk considered women's religious coverings as antithetical to progress and equality, he also recognized that headscarves were not such a danger to the separation of church and state to warrant an outright ban. But the Constitution was amended in 1982, following the 1980 coup by the Kemalist-leaning military, to prohibit women's use of Islamic coverings such as the hijab at higher education institutions. Joost Lagendijk, a member of the European Parliament and chair of the Joint Parliamentary Committee with Turkey, has publicly criticized these clothing restrictions for Muslim women, whereas the European Court of Human Rights has ruled in numerous cases that such restrictions in public buildings and educational institutions do not constitute a violation of human rights.

Reformism
Reformism () is a principle which calls for the country to replace the traditional institutions and concepts with modern institutions and concepts. This principle advocated the need for fundamental social change through reform as a strategy to achieve a modern society. The core of the reform, in the Kemalist sense, was an accomplished fact. In a Kemalist sense, there is no possibility of return to the old systems because they were deemed backward.

The principle of reformism went beyond the recognition of the reforms made during Atatürk's lifetime. Atatürk's reforms in the social and political spheres are accepted as irreversible. Atatürk never entertained the possibility of a pause or transition phase during the course of the progressive unfolding or implementation of the reform. The current understanding of this concept can be described as "active modification". Turkey and its society, taking over institutions from Western Europe, must add Turkish traits and patterns to them and adapt them to Turkish culture, according to Kemalism. The implementation of the Turkish traits and patterns of these reforms takes generations of cultural and social experience, which results in the collective memory of the Turkish nation.

Nationalism
Nationalism (): The Kemalist revolution aimed to create a nation state from the remnants of the multi-religious and multi-ethnic Ottoman Empire. Atatürk's nationalism originates from the social contract theories, especially from the civic nationalist principles advocated by Jean-Jacques Rousseau and his Social Contract. The Kemalist perception of social contract was facilitated by the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, which was perceived as a product of failure of the Ottoman "Millet" system and the ineffective Ottomanism policy. Atatürk's nationalism, after experiencing the Ottoman Empire's breakup, defined the social contract as its "highest ideal".

Kemalist ideology defines the "Turkish Nation" () as a nation of Turkish people who always love and seek to exalt their family, country and nation, who know their duties and responsibilities towards the democratic, secular and social state governed by the rule of law, founded on human rights, and on the tenets laid down in the preamble to the constitution of the Republic of Turkey.

Similar to its CUP predecessors, it can be said that Kemalism endorsed social Darwinism in some way by desiring the Turkish youth to be healthy and physically strong.

Criteria

Atatürk defined the Turkish nation as the "people (halk) who established the Turkish republic". Further, "the natural and historical facts which effected the establishment (teessüs) of the Turkish nation" were "(a) unity in political existence, (b) unity in language, (c) unity in homeland, (d) unity in race and origin (menşe), (e) to be historically related and (f) to be morally related".

Membership is usually gained through birth within the borders of the state and also the principle of jus sanguinis. The Kemalist notion of nationality is integrated into the Article 66 of the Constitution of the Republic of Turkey. Every citizen is recognized as a Turk, regardless of ethnicity, belief, and gender, etc. Turkish nationality law states that he or she can be deprived of his/her nationality only through an act of treason.

Kemalists saw non-Muslims as only nominal citizens, and they have often been treated as second-class citizens in the Republic of Turkey. The identity of Kurds in Turkey was denied for decades with Kurds described as "Mountain Turks". Kemal stated in 1930:

In 2005, the Article 301 of the Turkish Penal code made it a crime to insult Turkishness (), but under pressure of the EU, this was changed in 2008 to protect the "Turkish nation" instead of Turkish ethnicity in 2008, an 'imagined' nationhood of people living within the National Pact () borders.

Pan-Turkism

Kemalism focused on the nation-state's narrower interests, renouncing the concern for the "Outside Turks".

Pan-Turkism was an ethnocentric ideology [to unite all ethnically Turkic nations] while Kemalism is polycentric [united under a "common will"] in character. Kemalism wants to have an equal footing among the mainstream world civilizations. Pan-Turkists have consistently emphasized the special attributes of the Turkic peoples, and wanted to unite all of the Turkic peoples. Kemalism wants an equal footing (based on respect) and does not aim to unite the people of Turkey with all the other Turkic nations. Most Kemalists were not interested in Pan-Turkism and from 1923 to 1950 (the single state period) reacted with particular firmness. Further more, Atatürk opposed Pan-Turkism in his book Nutuk as following:

However, Atatürk owned the idea of taking Turkicness as one of the identities of Turkish nation. Turkish History Thesis started under Atatürk's order and administration, which contained ethno-racial ideas based on Turkish origins coming from Central Asia. Also Atatürk era high school books contained education of Orkhon alphabet and a unit under the title of "Greater Turkic history and Civilization". The book also gave detailed information about empires which are Turkic such as Göktürks or "claimed to be Turkic" such as Scythians, Xiongnu, and so on.

With the supports of newly founded Turkish Republic, Pan-Turkist organization known as "Turkish Hearths", re-established in Atatürk's era to get Turkists' support during the revolutions. Atatürk was frequently giving speeches on Turkish Hearths after important events occurred in Turkey. Also reopening of Turkish magazine "Türk Yurdu" which was an organ of Turkish Hearts, was supported. Later, in 1931, Turkish Hearts were closed by Atatürk after they lost their non-political stance, because of their Pan-Turkist views and movements; and with all of its premises, it merged to the ruling party CHP.

Atatürk also described his opinions about Timur, a Central Asian Turkic military commander as "If I lived in Timur's timeline, I wouldn't be able to accomplish his work but if he lived in my timeline, he would do greater than I did".

Turanism

Kemalism focuses on the Turkish people, within both living and historical cultures and peoples of Anatolia, especially Hittites, and the culture and civilization of Turkic peoples.

Turanism centered the nation as the union of all Turanian peoples (Tungus, Hungarians, Finns, Mongols, Estonians and Koreans) stretching from the Altai Mountains in Eastern Asia to the Bosphorus. Kemalism had a narrower definition of language, which sought to remove (purify) the Persian, Arabic, Greek, Latin, etc. words from the Turkish language and replace them with either Turkic originated words or derive new words with Turkic roots. Turanist leaders, such as Enver Pasha, wanted an evolving language common to all Turanian peoples, minimizing differences and maximizing similarities between them.

Kemalism and the Hittites

Kemalism gave an important place to Hittites and the Hittite symbolism to construct the Turkish identity and nationhood. Kemalist researchers, such as Ahmet Ağaoğlu (who was an advisor to Atatürk and a politician who played an important role on creating Turkey's constitution of 1924), believed in that the nation has to portray Hittites as a world-domineering Turkish race with firm roots in Anatolia.
Modern genetic researches on Turkish samples show that Anatolian Turks are mixage of Turkic tribes and Anatolian natives, however, unlike Kemalist thoughts, these two admixtures aren't originated from same ethnicity, race or identity.

Statism

Statism (): Atatürk made clear in his statements and policies that Turkey's complete modernization was very much dependent on economic and technological development. The principle of Kemalist statism is generally interpreted to mean that the state was to regulate the country's general economic activities and engage in areas where private enterprises are not willing to do so. This was the result of post-revolutionary Turkey needing to redefine the relationship between societal and international capitalism. The revolution left Turkey in ruins, as the Ottoman Empire was focused on raw materials and was an open market in the international capitalist system. Post-revolutionary Turkey has been largely defined by its agricultural society, which includes many landlords and merchants. The control of people in the Turkish economy is quite evident from 1923 to the 1930s, but they still managed, through foreign joint investment, to establish a state economic enterprise. However, after the 1930s depression, there was a shift to more inward-looking development strategies during an era generally referred to as "etatism". During this era, the state had an active involvement in both capital accumulation and investment as well as in taking the interest of private businesses into consideration. The state often stepped into economic areas that the private sector did not cover, either due to not being strong enough or having simply failed to do so. These were often infrastructure projects and power stations, but also iron and steel industries, while the masses shouldered the burden of capital accumulation.

Analysis

Kemalism and Turkey's political parties

The Republican People's Party (CHP) was established by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk on September 9, 1923, not long before the declaration of the Republic of Turkey on October 29. The Republican People's Party did not attempt to update or define the philosophical roots of its Kemalism between the 1940s and the 1960s.

Since the 1960s, it has been generally considered, the CHP has moved to a position that is more left-of-center; supporters of the party appear to have generally accepted the idea that structural changes brought forth by the government were necessary for modernization. Later, in the 1970s, due to a wider rejection and abandonment of Kemalism, in Turkish society,the CHP made more fundamental and left-leaning changes to its party platform, including programs that were labeled "democratic left".

By the early 21st century, most Kemalists (within or outside the CHP) still believed in the original six principles, whilst others criticized and explicitly sought to reduce the statist tendencies of Kemalism. For instance, in 2016, the Turkish Justice Minister, Mahmut Esat Bozkurt, equated sone Kemalist policies with the Italian fascism of Benito Mussolini.

Use of "Kemalism" as a descriptive term of political discourse

is often attributed to Bozkurt, Ahmet Cevat Emre and socialist politician Yakup Kadri Karaosmanoğlu.

Kemalism and Turkey's constitutional law
The six principles were solidified on 5 February 1937, 14 years after establishment of the Republic of Turkey.

In the 1924 Constitutional Law Article 2, Clause 1:

Both the military coup of 1960 and the military coup of 1980 were followed by fundamental revisions of the Turkish Constitution. The texts of the new constitutions were approved by popular referendum in each case.

In the 1961 Constitutional Law Article 1, Clause 1 states "The Turkish State is a Republic." Article 2, Clause 1:

In the 1982 Constitutional Law Article 1, Clause 1 states "The Turkish State is a Republic." Article 2, Clause 1:

Only the principles of secularism, nationalism and democracy were maintained in each change to the constitution. The 1961 Constitution more strongly emphasized human rights, the rule of law, and the welfare state than the original 1924 constitution, while the 1982 constitution focused on the peace of the community and national solidarity, but also explicitly referenced some of Atatürk's principles and included them as well.

External interpretations of Kemalism

In the 1920s and 1930s, Turkey's domestic transformations and the evolution of the Kemalist system of ideological and political principles were closely observed in Germany, France, Britain, the US, and beyond, including several nations farther East. In recent years, scholarly interest in the transnational history of Kemalism has expanded. Some scholars have focused on the interwar period in Bulgaria, Cyprus, Albania, Yugoslavia, and Egypt to reveal how, as a practical tool, Kemalism was relocated as a global movement, whose influence is still felt today. Some scholars have examined the impact of Atatürk's reforms and his image on the Jewish community in British-ruled Palestine before the establishment of Israel, some went farther East—to Persia, Afghanistan, China, India, and other parts of the Muslim world—to assess the influence wielded by Mustafa Kemal and his modernization project. These works explore perceptions of Kemalism that are mostly positive in their respective countries providing few critical insights into Kemalism's evolution and its reception as an ideological project.

The Bolsheviks regarded Kemalists as an ally against the Western imperialism led by British Empire but feared that the Greeks could establish a "Great Armenian-Byzantine state" in Anatolia, which would border Russia. The intolerance against communists in Turkey was overlooked by the Soviet leadership to unite against the common enemy. The Germans of 1920s were similarly intrigued by Kemalism. That a member of the Central Powers fought a war of liberation impressed the German society. The Nazis viewed Kemalist Turkey as a "postgenocidal paradise" worthy of emulation. Nazis often stated that Nazism and Kemalism were very similar. In 1933, Nazis openly admired Kemalist Turkey. Hitler described Mustafa Kemal as the "star in the darkness".

Historian Şükrü Hanioğlu describes Kemalism as "scientifically sanctioned version of Turkish nationalism." It drew upon the Enlightenement ideas of the American and French revolutions, 19th century positivism and republicanism. It is centered around Atatürk, who reigned as an enlightened autocrat and brought top-down changes to a backwater society, in the style of Friedrich the Great and Catherine the Great. Although those who view Kemalism in a positive light link Kemalist secularism to the Enlightenment, Kemalism rejects Western emancipatory ideologies such as liberalism and socialism that derived from the Enlightenment.

See also
Bourguibism
Ecevitism
Liberal Kemalism
Post-Kemalism
Erdoğanism
Qasimism
Kadro
Social corporatism

References

Further reading

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk
Political ideologies
Political movements in Turkey
Eponymous political ideologies
Republican People's Party (Turkey)
Republicanism in Turkey
Progressivism
Secularism in Turkey
Statism
Turkish nationalism
State ideologies

Kemalism


Limmy's Show! wis a Scottish comedy sketch show broadcast on BBC Two Scotland, written an directit bi Brian Limond. Limond starred as hissel an a variety o chairacters in a series o observational, surreal, daurk an streenge sketches. Limmy frequently braks the fowert waw bi directly talkin tae viewers throu the camera. The shaw stars Brian Limond, Paul McCole, Alan McHugh, Kirstin McLean an Ryan Fletcher. The first series featurt a ootthrou different promuivin cast, conseesting o Debbie Welsh, Tom Brogan an Raymond Mearns.

Development
Limmy's Show! wis creatit as a result o the sonse o Limmy's live performances at The Fringe an the Glasgow International Comedy Festival based on his sonsie 2006 podcast Limmy's World of Glasgow. Several o the chairacters seen in Limmy's Show war oreeginally creatit throu this podcast, includin Jacqueline McCafferty, Wee Gary and Dee Dee.  The first series, whit wis appruived follaein a sonsie pilot in Februar 2009, first aired on 11 Januar 2010 an ran weekly for six episodes. In July 2012, it wis revealed bi Limond via Twitter that he wis currently filming the third series, whit wis aired frae 12 November 2012. Additionally, a Christenmas special wis broadcast in December 2013. Limmy haes said that he disna want tae mak any maire episodes o the show efter the Christmas special. Limmy proposed a sitcom based aroond Falconhoof, aka "Ped", but the show wis turned doun bi BBC Scotland.

Recurring chairacters

 Limmy – Limmy appears as himsel makkin blunt observations on life an modern culture. "Hae ye ever noticed…?", "Ye know whit A hate?", "Whit would ye do?" an "Let me tell ye something aboot life..." are common intros tae these musings. He appears as himsel in frequent, wee segments ranging frae wee pieces o satire tae dancing an complete non-sequitur jokes. On several occasions, he criticises Top of the Pops performances, wi himsel keyed in iver the footage.
 Jacqueline McCafferty – An ex-junkie wha spent three years o her life on heroin an a further five years on a methadone treatment programme. Jacqueline tries her best tae fit in wi the middle an upper classes an is very bitter aboot people looking doun their nose at her.
 Falconhoof – The humble an conseestently well-intentioned costumed host o "Adventure Call", a live televised caw-in show in whit he guides players throu a fantasy role-playing game in order tae win cash prizes. He regularly haes tae deal wi angry, unexpected an sometimes misleading or threatening cawers an situations, such as those wha hae wasted money as a result o cawin the premium rate service.
 Derek "Dee Dee" Durie – A spaced-oot waster wha spends his time doing nothing but iver-analysing trivial things an bringing his kitchen tae life throu hallucination. He prefaces each monologue wi "Fockin..."
 Raymond Day (series 2-3) – A smug, sadistic cold reading television psychic medium based on Colin Fry wha imparts terrible information on particular members o his otherwise gay crowd.
 Mr. Mulvaney (series 1 & special) – A mischievous 60-year-auld businessman constantly cammin up wi weys tae avoid trouble wi the law.
 Wee Gary (series 1) – A bairn wha spends his breaks an lunch times trying tae capitalise upon his fellow pupils wi manipulative tact an bi selling anything an everything.
 John Paul (series 1) – A teenage working class ned and aw-roond trouble makker wha terrorises an humiliates his victims, behaving in a loutish wey. He has a persistent, negative social media presence.
 Major Boo Boo (series 2, only two sketches) – An animated character, wha awtho is dressed in a major's uniform, disna actually seem tae be in the army. He maks mistakes frequently, or "major boo boos".
 The Spies (series 2) - Twa inept spies wha are intent on 'getting something' on the ither ane.

Honours
Limmy's Show! haes won a Scottish BAFTA award for Best Entertainment Programme twace, the first time in November 2011 an the second in 2013

References

External links

 BBC Programmes

 British Comedy Guide

BBC Scotland televeesion programmes

Limmy's Show


Anastasia Vasilyevna Martiusheva (; born 17 March 1995) is a Russian pair skater. With Alexei Rogonov, she is the 2012 Ondrej Nepela Memorial champion, a two-time (2010, 2011) Golden Spin of Zagreb champion, and the 2009 World Junior silver medalist. They are the 2012 Russian national senior bronze medalists and 2009 junior champions.

Career
Martiusheva began skating at the age of five-and-a-half. Initially a singles skater, she switched to pair skating at age ten.

Partnership with Rogonov

Martiusheva and Alexei Rogonov first met in Perm, skating in the same group but with different partners. After she relocated to Moscow and he made the same journey six months later, Natalia Pavlova paired them together, in 2006. The pair won the 2009 Russian Junior title. At the 2009 World Junior Championships, they were 11th after the short program but finished first in the long program, ahead of Lubov Iliushechkina / Nodari Maisuradze. They moved up to second overall and took the silver medal.

Martiusheva/Rogonov made their senior Grand Prix debut at the 2009 Cup of Russia, where they finished seventh. They finished 9th at Russian Nationals. During the 2010–11 season, they were assigned to 2010 Skate Canada International but withdrew from the event. They won the 2010 Golden Spin of Zagreb. At the 2011 Russian Nationals, they placed 9th in the short program and 7th in the long, to finish 9th overall.

During the 2011–12 season, Martiusheva/Rogonov won the 2011 Golden Spin of Zagreb and Warsaw Cup. At the 2012 Russian Nationals, they placed second in the short program and third in the free skate and won the bronze medal.

In the 2012–13 season, Martiusheva/Rogonov won gold at the 2012 Ondrej Nepela Memorial. They competed on the Grand Prix series for the first time since 2009, finishing 5th at both of their events, the 2012 Rostelecom Cup and the 2012 NHK Trophy. They set their personal best overall score of 162.25 points. They finished 6th at the 2013 Russian Championships.

In 2013–14, Martiusheva/Rogonov began their season by taking silver at the Lombardia Trophy, followed by another silver at the 2013 Ondrej Nepela Trophy. They were seventh at their first Grand Prix assignment, the 2013 Cup of China. A week later, the pair replaced the injured Yuko Kavaguti / Alexander Smirnov at the 2013 NHK Trophy. Two days before the 2014 Russian Championships, Martiusheva injured a leg muscle in a bad fall and doctors ordered the pair to withdraw. The partnership ended soon after.

In January 2014, Martiusheva began searching for a new partner. In June 2014, she tried out with Alexander Korovin.

Programs
(with Rogonov)

Competitive highlights
(with Rogonov)

References

External links

 Anastasia Martiusheva / Alexei Rogonov at sport-folio.net
 Anastasia Martiusheva at fskate.ru

Russian female pair skaters
Living people
1995 births
Sportspeople from Perm, Russia
World Junior Figure Skating Championships medalists

Anastasia Martiusheva