This article details the geographical distribution of speakers of the German language, regardless of the legislative status within the countries where it is spoken. In addition to the German-speaking area () in Europe, German-speaking minorities are present in many countries and on all six inhabited continents.

Mostly depending on the inclusion or exclusion of certain varieties with a disputed status as separate languages (e.g., Low German/Plautdietsch), it is estimated that approximately 90–95 million people speak German as a first language, 10–25 million as a second language, and 75–100 million as a foreign language. This would imply approximately 175–220 million German speakers worldwide.

Europe

German-speaking Europe

The German language is spoken in a number of countries and territories in Europe, where it is used both as an official language and as a minority language in various countries. To cover this language area, they are often referred to as the German-speaking countries, the German-speaking area (), or equivalently German-speaking Europe (non-European German-speaking communities are not commonly included in the concept).

German is the main language of approximately 95 to 100 million people in Europe, or 13.3% of all Europeans. This makes it the second most spoken native language in Europe, behind only Russian (with 144 million speakers), and ahead of French (with 66.5 million) and English (with 64.2 million).

The European countries with German-speaking majorities are Germany (95%, 78.3 million), Austria (89%, 8.9 million), and Switzerland (65%, 4.6 million), also known as the "D-A-CH" countries, an acronym for Deutschland (Germany), Austria, and Confoederatio Helvetica (the Swiss Confederation). Other European countries and regions with a German-speaking majority include Liechtenstein (30,000), the Italian autonomous region of South Tyrol (0.5 million), the Alsace region of France, and the German-speaking Community of Belgium with around 90,000 native speakers, constituting around 1% of the total population of Belgium.

Since 2004, there has been an annual informal meeting of the heads of state of German-speaking countries including the Presidents of Germany, Austria, and Switzerland and the Hereditary Prince of Liechtenstein. Since 2014, the King of Belgium and the Grand Duke of Luxembourg take part.

D-A-CH or DACH is an acronym used to represent the dominant states of the German language Sprachraum. It is based on the international vehicle registration codes for:

 Germany (D for Deutschland)
 Austria (A for Austria, in German "Österreich")
 Switzerland (CH for Confoederatio Helvetica, in German "(die) Schweiz")

"Dach" is also the German word for "roof", and is used in linguistics in the term Dachsprache, which standard German arguably is in relation to some outlying dialects of German, especially in Switzerland, France, Luxembourg, and Austria.

The term is sometimes extended to D-A-CH-Li, DACHL, or DACH+ to include Liechtenstein. Another version is DACHS (with Dachs meaning "Badger" in German) with the inclusion of the German-speaking region of South Tyrol in Italy.

DACH is also the name of an Interreg IIIA project, which focuses on crossborder cooperation in planning.

Rest of Europe
In the early modern period, German varieties were a lingua franca of Central, Eastern, and Northern Europe (Hanseatic League).

German is a recognised minority language in Czechia, Hungary, Italy (Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol), Poland, Romania, Russia, and Slovakia.

Today German, together with French, is a common second foreign language in the western world, with English well established as a first foreign language. German ranks second (after English) among the best known foreign languages in the EU (on a par with French) as well as in Russia. In terms of student numbers across all levels of education, German ranks third in the EU (after English and French) as well as in the United States (after Spanish and French). In 2015, approximately 15.4 million people were in the process of learning German across all levels of education worldwide. This number has remained relatively stable since 2005 (± 1 million) and roughly 75–100 million people able to communicate in German as a foreign language can be inferred, assuming an average course duration of three years and other estimated parameters. According to a 2012 survey, ca. 47 million people within the EU (i.e., up to two thirds of the 75–100 million worldwide) claimed to have sufficient German skills to have a conversation. Within the EU, and not counting countries where it is a (co-)official language, German as a foreign language is most widely taught in Central and Northern Europe, namely Croatia, the Czech Republic, Denmark, the Netherlands, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Sweden.

German as a foreign language is promoted by the Goethe Institute, which works to promote German language and culture worldwide. In association with the Goethe Institute, the German foreign broadcasting service, Deutsche Welle, offers a range of online German courses and worldwide television as well as radio broadcasts produced with non-native German speakers in mind.

Africa

Namibia

Namibia was a a colony of the German Empire from 1884 to 1915. Mostly originating from Germans who settled there during this time, 25,000 to 30,000 people still speak German as a native tongue today. German, along with English and Afrikaans used to be a co-official language of Namibia from 1984 until its independence from South Africa in 1990. At this point, the Namibian government perceived Afrikaans and German as symbols for Apartheid and colonialism, and decided for English to be the sole official language, claiming that it was a "neutral" language as virtually no English native speakers existed in Namibia at that time. German, Afrikaans and several indigenous languages became "national languages" by law, identifying them as cultural heritages of the nation and ensuring the state to acknowledge and support their presence in the country. Today, German is used in myriad spheres, especially business and tourism, as well as churches (most notably the German-speaking Evangelical Lutheran Church in Namibia (GELK)), schools (e.g., the Deutsche Höhere Privatschule Windhoek), literature (German-Namibian authors include ), radio (the Namibian Broadcasting Corporation produces radio programs in German), and music (e.g., artist EES). The Allgemeine Zeitung is also one of the three biggest newspapers in Namibia and the only German-language daily in Africa.

South Africa
Mostly originating from different waves of immigration during the 19th and 20th centuries, an estimated 12,000 people speak German or a German variety as a first language in South Africa. Germans settled quite extensively in South Africa, with many Calvinists immigrating from Northern Europe. Later on, more Germans settled in the KwaZulu-Natal and elsewhere. Here, one of the largest communities are the speakers of "Nataler Deutsch", a variety of Low German, who are concentrated in and around Wartburg and to a lesser extent around Winterton. German is slowly disappearing elsewhere, but a number of communities still have a large number of speakers and some even have German language schools, such as the Hermannsburg German School. Furthermore, German was often a language taught as a foreign language in White South African schools during the Apartheid years (1948–1994). Today, the South African constitution identifies German as a "commonly used" language and the Pan South African Language Board is obligated to promote and ensure respect for it.

Americas

Latin America

Nowadays, at least one million German speakers live in Latin America. There are German-speaking minorities in almost every Latin American country, including Argentina, Belize, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, the Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Guatemala, Mexico, Nicaragua, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay, and Venezuela.

Initially, in the eighteenth century, only isolated or small groups of German emigrants left for Latin America; however, at the start of the nineteenth, this pattern was reversed as a tidal wave of German emigration totaling some 200,000 people began. These included groups such as land-hungry peasants, political refugees known as Forty-Eighters, and religious minorities such as Russian Mennonites fleeing religious persecution at home. During the 1880s, during the wave of mass emigration, this figure was reached annually.

The Handbuch des Deutschtums im Ausland (The Germans Abroad Handbook) from 1906 puts a figure of 11 million people in North and South America with a knowledge of the German language, of which 9 million were in the US. Although the US was the focal point for emigration in the 19th century, emigration to Latin America was also significant for differing economic and political reasons.

The majority of German emigrants to Latin America went especially to Brazil, but also to Argentina, Mexico, Uruguay, Chile, Paraguay, Guatemala, and Costa Rica. The three countries with the biggest ethnic German populations in Latin America to this day are Brazil, Argentina, and Mexico.

Starting in 1818, when King D. João VI brought the first German and Swiss immigrants to Brazil, German immigration continued a constant flow with an average of 25 to 30 thousand immigrants per decade entering the country since 1818. It peaked in the years following World War I, to around 90 thousand, and again in the 1940s to around 50,000. In the 1880s and 1890s, German emigration to Latin America grew and in some years was the destination of up to 30% of German emigrants.

During the Nazi period which lasted from 1933 to 1945, some 100,000 Jews from Central Europe, the vast majority of which were German-speaking, moved to South America, with 90% of these moving to the Cono Sur or Southern Cone. This ended when the ban on emigration came into effect in 1941, which was roughly also the beginning of the holocaust. From the start of the 20th century until 1946, 80% of Jews lived in Europe; but by the end of World War II this was reduced to 25%. However, after the war over 50% of Jews lived in the Americas. This change was aided by Jewish emigration groups such as the Hilfsverein deutschsprechender Juden (later to become Asociación Filantrópica Israelita) which was based in Buenos Aires, Argentina.

The majority of German minorities in Latin America – as well as elsewhere around the world – experienced a decline in the use of the German language, with the exception of Brazil, where the dialect Riograndenser Hunsrückisch is being taught in schools and in some media, totaling over 200 thousand speakers spread over the Brazilian southern states.
The main cause of this decrease is the integration of communities, often originally sheltered, into the dominant society, and as well as the invariable pull of societal assimilation which confronts all immigrant groups.

German migration to colonial Mexico is less accounted for due to the geopolitical isolation following independence from Spain, as well as the deterrents of Mexico's ensuing civil wars. Despite these obstacles and lack of documentation, however, over 200,000 Prussian/German nationals have been registered entering the country between 1860 and 1960.

The first wave of Germans immigrated from northern Prussia under the reign of Princess Carlota during the 2nd French Mexican empire. Of special interest is the settlement Villa Carlota: that was the name under which two German farming settlements, in the villages of Santa Elena and Pustunich in Yucatán, were founded during the Second Mexican Empire (1864–1867). Villa Carlota attracted a total of 443 German-speaking immigrant families, most of them were farmers and artisans who emigrated with their families: the majority came from Prussia and many among them were Protestants.

The second wave was during Porfirio Díaz's open settlement policy in the Yucatán Peninsula that favored and attracted many Europeans. Most German-speaking or self identifying German-Mexicans today are descended from these two events as well as around 20,000 ethnic Germans from Russia and around 100,000 Mennonites from Canada.

Specific reasons for language change from German to the national language usually derive from the desire of many Germans to belong to their new communities after the end of World War II. This is a common feature among the German minorities in Latin America and those in Central and Eastern Europe: the majority of countries where German minorities lived had fought against the Germans during the war. With this change in situation, the members of the German minorities, previously communities of status and prestige, were turned into undesirable minorities (though there were widespread elements of sympathy for Germany in many South American countries as well).

For many German minorities, World War II thus represented the breaking point in the development of their language. In some South American countries the war period and immediately afterwards was a time of massive assimilation to the local culture (for example during the Getúlio Vargas period in Brazil).

Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Mexico, and Paraguay show some clear demographic differences that affect the minority situation of the German language: Brazil, Mexico, and Argentina are massive countries and offer large amounts of land for immigrants to settle. The population density of the Southern Cone countries is relatively low (Brazil has 17 inhabitants/km2, Chile has 15/km2, Argentina and Paraguay both have 10/km2, data from 1993), but there are major differences in the areas settled by Germans: Buenos Aires Province, which was settled by Germans, has a far higher population density than that of the Chaco in northern Paraguay (with 1 inhabitant/km2).

While Argentina and Chile have a far greater proportion of city dwellers (86% and 84% respectively); in contrast, Brazil and Paraguay are 82% and 47% urbanized, respectively. Most of the German immigrants that arrived in Brazil and Mexico went on to live in small inland communities. The original 58 German communities of the early 19th century Brazil, grew today to over 250 towns where Germans are a majority, and German-speaking is encouraged.

Argentina

There are about 500,000 German speakers and around 320,000 Volga-Germans alone, of which 200,000 hold German citizenship. This makes Argentina one of the countries with the largest number of German speakers and is second only in Latin America to Brazil. In the 1930s there were about 700,000 people of German descent.
Regional concentrations can be found in the provinces of Entre Ríos and Buenos Aires (with around 500,000 to 600,000) as well as Misiones and in the general area of the Chaco and the Pampas.

However, most German-descended Argentinians do not speak German with native fluency (that role has been taken by Spanish). The 300,000 German speakers are estimated to be immigrants and not actually born in Argentina, and because of this they still speak their home language while their descendants who were born in Argentina speak primarily Spanish.

Brazil

According to Deutsche Welle, there are some twelve million people of German ancestry in Brazil. Nevertheless, the number of people speaking any sort of German (Standard German, Hunsrückisch or East Pomeranian) is on the decrease, with 3 million speaking German as a first language today.

The main variety of German in Brazil is Riograndenser Hunsrückisch which is found in the southern states. This version of German there has changed over 180 years of contact with Portuguese as well as the languages of other immigrant communities. Such contact has led to a new dialect of German concentrated in the German colonies in the southern province of Rio Grande do Sul. Although Riograndenser Hunsrückisch has long been the most widely spoken German dialect in southern Brazil, like all other minority languages in the region, it is experiencing very strong decline – especially in the last three or four decades.

The vast majority of German-descended Brazilians speak Portuguese as their mother tongue today. German is known only as a second or third language, if at all, to the point of initiatives to preserve the language being started recently in areas with strong German-descended presence, with government-sponsored Gemeindeschulen. This is especially true for younger German-Brazilians. Another place where the German language continues alive is in some of the more of 4,000 Brazilian Lutheran churches, in which some of the services continue to be in German.

The German language is co-official in the municipality of Pomerode, besides being cultural patrimony of the State of Espírito Santo. In Rio Grande do Sul, the Riograndenser Hunsrückisch German is an integral part of the State's historical and cultural heritage.

Chile

Chile (with a population of 19 million) has an estimated 40,000 German-speakers.
About 30,000 ethnic Germans arrived in Chile. During the first flux of German immigration (between 1846 and 1875) German colonies were primarily set up in the "Frontera" region. The second wave of immigration occurred between 1882 and 1914 and consisted mainly of industrial and agricultural workers, mainly from eastern Germany; the third wave (after 1918) settled mainly in the cities. As in Argentina and Brazil, these populations are today overwhelmingly Spanish speaking, and German as a home language is in heavy decline (The German language is far from disappearing in Chile because there are more than 100 German-language schools throughout the country) German is taught from preschool to middle school; where if German-Chileans can still speak German, most of them speak German only as a second or third language.

Colombia

Colombia has a population of about 40 million people. Of them, only 5,000 people of German descent speak the language. Many of these people settled in Antioquia and el Eje Cafetero. Most of the immigration occurred during World War I until the end of the Cold War. Many of these ethnic Germans now speak primarily Spanish at home.

Germans came to South America in World War I and II, settling first in Colombia because of its wealth in natural resources as well as weather conditions conducive to agriculture. German immigrants built the Bavaria, Pilsen, and Club Soda Klausen factories in Cali, Barranquilla, Pereira, Medellin, and other cities. Nowadays, Germans born in Colombia celebrate Oktoberfest in Cali, along with other traditions. There are currently German schools in various major cities around the country.

Costa Rica
Costa Rica has a population of 4.9 million, and a German speaker population of 8,000 people. Many of these people are immigrants or native German speakers from Germany or Switzerland and 18th, 19th and 20th centuries massive immigration descendants. But also in the northern area of the country, there are 2,200 German Mennonites communities in Sarapiquí and San Carlos that spoke Plautdietsch and other Low German dialects.

This German-Costa Rican community is one of the most important and biggest collectivities of German speakers in Central America and the Caribbean, and has a lot of cultural and social institutions, churches, farms, business companies and schools.

Mexico

Mexico (with a population of over 120 million) has an estimated 200,000 speakers of standard German either as a first or second language, not counting foreign learned German speakers or the Low-German dialects. Documented immigration of Germans to Mexico began in 1856, though historical research suggest as many as 1.2 million German speaking immigrants arrived in Mexico during the colonial period likely as agricultural laborers.

Due to pro-nationalistic propagation by the federal government which encouraged mixed-race identification, many Mexicans do not know their ancestral origins and demographic numbers of German Mexicans are sourced on recent and limited data. Regardless, Mexico stands as the 3rd country with the largest German community in Latin America, behind Brazil and Argentina. Included in the ethnic German immigration to Mexico is the immigration from Austria, Switzerland, and the French region of Alsace which was part of France since the end of WWI, as well as that from Bavaria and High German regions of Germany. .

There are about 2,000,000 Mexicans with recent German ancestry, without counting those with partial or unknown German ancestry. Like Argentina, however, most German-descended citizens do not speak German with native fluency. Rather, it is spoken as a second language or influenced their regional varieties of Spanish.

As of 2012, about 20,000 Germans nationals resided in Mexico. The number has risen to almost 40,000 in 2020. Despite groggy heritage claims to the language, German is slightly ahead of French as the second most studied foreign language in Mexico, behind only English. Mexico is home to over 3,000 German language schools, second only to Brazil. The Colegio Humboldt campuses in Mexico are the biggest German language K-12 schools in the Americas, with each of the 3 branches graduating over 2,000 students per year.

Northern America

Canada
In Canada, there are 622,650 speakers of German according to the most recent census in 2006, with people of German ancestry (German Canadians) found throughout the country. German-speaking communities are particularly found in British Columbia (118,035) and Ontario (230,330). There is a large and vibrant community in the city of Kitchener, Ontario, which was at one point named Berlin. German immigrants were instrumental in the country's three largest urban areas: Montreal, Toronto, and Vancouver. Post-Second World War immigrants managed to preserve a fluency in the German language in their respective neighborhoods and sections. In the first half of the 20th century, over a million German-Canadians made the language Canada's third most spoken after French and English.

United States

In the United States, the states of North Dakota and South Dakota are the only states where German is the most common language spoken at home after English. German geographical names can be found throughout the Midwest region of the country, such as New Ulm and many other towns in Minnesota; Bismarck (North Dakota's state capital), Munich, Karlsruhe, and Strasburg (named after a town near Odesa in Ukraine) in North Dakota; New Braunfels, Fredericksburg, Weimar, and Muenster in Texas; Corn (formerly Korn), Kiefer and Berlin in Oklahoma; and Kiel, Schleswig, Berlin, and Germantown in Wisconsin.

Between 1843 and 1910, more than 5 million Germans emigrated overseas, mostly to the United States. German remained an important language in churches, schools, newspapers, and even the administration of the United States Brewers' Association through the early 20th century, but was severely repressed during World War I. Over the course of the 20th century, many of the descendants of 18th century and 19th century immigrants ceased speaking German at home, but small populations of speakers are still found in Pennsylvania (Amish, Hutterites, Dunkards and some Mennonites historically spoke Hutterite German and a West Central German variety of German known as Pennsylvania German or Pennsylvania Dutch), Kansas (Mennonites and Volga Germans), North Dakota (Hutterite Germans, Mennonites, Russian Germans, Volga Germans, and Baltic Germans), South Dakota, Montana, Texas (Texas German), Wisconsin, Indiana, Oregon, Oklahoma, and Ohio (72,570). A significant group of German Pietists in Iowa formed the Amana Colonies and continue to practice speaking their heritage language. Early twentieth century immigration was often to St. Louis, Chicago, New York City, Milwaukee, Pittsburgh, and Cincinnati.

The dialects of German which are or were primarily spoken in colonies or communities founded by German-speaking people resemble the dialects of the regions the founders came from. For example, Hutterite German resembles dialects of Carinthia. Texas German is a dialect spoken in the areas of Texas settled by the Adelsverein, such as New Braunfels and Fredericksburg. In the Amana Colonies in the state of Iowa, Amana German is spoken. Plautdietsch is a large minority language spoken in Northern Mexico by the Mennonite communities, and is spoken by more than 200,000 people in Mexico. Pennsylvania German is a West Central German dialect spoken by most of the Amish population of Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Indiana, and resembles Palatinate German dialects.

Hutterite German is an Upper German dialect of the Austro-Bavarian variety of the German language, which is spoken by Hutterite communities in Canada and the United States. Hutterite is spoken in the U.S. states of Washington, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Minnesota; and in the Canadian provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba. Its speakers belong to some Schmiedleit, Lehrerleit, and Dariusleit Hutterite groups, but there are also speakers among the older generations of Prairieleit (the descendants of those Hutterites who chose not to settle in colonies). Hutterite children who grow up in the colonies learn to speak Hutterite German before learning English, the standard language of the surrounding areas, in school. Many of these children, though, continue with German Grammar School, in addition to public school, throughout a student's elementary education.

Australia

Australia has an estimated population of around 75,600 German speakers. Australians of German ancestry constitute the fourth largest ethnic group in Australia, numbering around 1,026,138. German immigrants played a significant role in settling the states of Queensland and South Australia. Barossa German, a dialect of German, was once common in and around the German-settled Barossa Valley in South Australia. However, the German language was actively suppressed by Australian governments during World War I and World War II, resulting in a sharp decline in the use of German in Australia. German Australians are today overwhelmingly English speaking, with the German language as a home language in heavy decline.

Rest of the world
Minorities exist in the countries of Latin America and the former Soviet Union, as well as Australia, Belgium, Canada, Chile, Czechia, Denmark, France, Hungary, Israel, Italy, Namibia, Poland, Romania, South Africa, and the United States. These German minorities, through their ethno-cultural vitality, exhibit an exceptional level of heterogeneity: variations concerning their demographics, their status within the majority community, the support they receive from institutions helping them to support their identity as a minority.

Among them are small groups, such as those in Namibia, and many very large groups, such as the almost 1 million non-evacuated Germans in Russia and Kazakhstan or the near 500,000 Germans in Brazil (see: Riograndenser Hunsrückisch German), groups that have been greatly "folklorised" and almost completely linguistically assimilated, such as most people of German descent in Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, the United States, and others, such as the true linguistic minorities (like the still German-speaking minorities in Argentina, Brazil, and the United States, in Western Siberia or Hungary and Romania); other groups, which are classified as religio-cultural groups rather than ethnic minorities, such as the Eastern-Low German-speaking Mennonites in Belize, Mexico, Paraguay or in the Altay region of Siberia, and the groups who maintain their status thanks to strong identification with their ethnicity and their religious sentiment, such as the groups in Southern Jutland, Denmark or Upper Silesia, Poland.

Statistics

Native speakers
Below is a list of countries and one notable region with German-language-speaking populations.

Subnational territories

Native and non-native speakers

Ethnologue estimates

See also

 Distribution of German diasporas
 Germanic languages
 Germans
 List of countries and territories where German is an official language

Notes

References

External links
 German language studying in the world in 2010 (with evolution from 2005)
 German language studying in the world in 2005 (with evolution from 2000)
 German language in the world in 2012 (full report)
 Development of German in South America
 Deutsche Minderheiten/Riograndenser Hunsrückisch

Linguistic minorities
German

Geographical distribution of German speakers


Thurgood is a one-man play about the life of Thurgood Marshall. It was written by George Stevens, Jr. The show premiered in 2006 at the Westport Country Playhouse, starring James Earl Jones and directed by Leonard Foglia.

The production featured Scenic Design by Allen Moyer, Costume Design by Jane Greenwood, Lighting Design by Brian Nason, Sound Design by Ryan Rumery and Projection Design by Elaine J. McCarthy.

The play started on Broadway at the Booth Theatre on April 30, 2008, starring Laurence Fishburne. On February 24, 2011, HBO screened a filmed version of the play which Fishburne had performed at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts. The production was described by the Baltimore Sun as "one of the most frank, informed and searing discussions of race you will ever see on TV." On February 16, 2011, a screening of the film was hosted by the White House as part of its celebrations of Black History Month.

Notes

References

External links
The Booth Theatre's production of Thurgood

Plays for one performer
Monodrama
Broadway plays
2007 plays
Biographical plays
Cultural depictions of judges
Plays set in the 1960s
Plays set in the United States
Plays about race and ethnicity
Articles containing video clips
Thurgood Marshall

Thurgood (play)


A convergent plate boundary is the boundary that occurs when two tectonic plates collide with each other.  This causes very large earth movements.  Plate collisions can produce earthquakes, volcanoes, the formation of mountains, and other geological events over time.  The Himalayas were formed by such a collision.  Earthquakes and volcanoes are common near convergent boundaries.  This is because of pressure, friction, and plate material melting in the mantle.

The diagram shows some differences between the two types of subduction.
 Oceanic crust moves under. A deep ocean trench forms at the coast, and an arc of mountainous volcanoes forms inland. Seen along the west edge of the Americas.
 Continental crust moves under. The edge of the continental plate folds into a huge mountain range. Behind it is a high plateau. The Himalayas and the Tibetan plateau are a perfect example of this.

References

Plate tectonics

Convergent boundary


Moderator may refer to:

Government

Moderator (town official), elected official who presides over the Town Meeting form of government in various American states.

Internet
Internet forum moderator, a person given special authority to enforce the rules on a forum or social media platforms
Game moderator
 Moderator of a Usenet newsgroup
Google Moderator, an application to assist chairmen of online meetings

Religion
Moderator of the General Assembly, the chairperson of the highest court in Presbyterian and Reformed churches
Moderators and clerks in the Church of Scotland, the chairperson of any of the courts of the Church of Scotland
Moderator of the curia, an administrative position in the Catholic church

Nuclear engineering
Neutron moderator, a medium that reduces the velocity of fast neutrons, for example in a nuclear reactor

Other uses
Moderator variable, in statistics, a qualitative or quantitative variable that affects the direction and/or strength of the relation between dependent and independent variables
Sound moderator, a suppressor attached to a firearm
A faction in the Regulator–Moderator War
Discussion moderator, a person who controls the tone of a discussion or debate

Moderator


Terrestrial locomotion has evolved as animals adapted from aquatic to terrestrial places. Movement on land makes different problems than that on water, with less friction instead being the effects of gravity.

There are three basic forms of movement found among land animals:
Legged - Moving by using legs
Limbless locomotion - moving without legs, mostly using the body
Rolling - rotating the body

Legged locomotion
Movement on legs is the most common form of land movement. It is the simple form of movement of two big groups with many members, the vertebrates and the arthropods.

Limbless locomotion

There are a number of land and amphibious limbless vertebrates and invertebrates. These animals, due to lack of legs, use their bodies to move.  These movements are sometimes called to as "slithering" or "crawling".

Rolling

Although animals have never have wheels for locomotion, some animals can move by rolling their whole body.

Limits and extremes

The fastest terrestrial animal is the cheetah, which can get speeds of about 104 km/h (64 mph).

Related pages
Walking fish

References

 Charig, A.J. (1972) The evolution of the archosaur pelvis and hind-limb: an explanation in functional terms. In Studies in Vertebrate Evolution (eds K.A.Joysey and T.S.Kemp). Oliver & Boyd, Edinburgh, pp. 121–55.
 Reilly, Stephen M. and Elias, Jason A. 1998, Locomotion in alligator mississippiensis: kinematic effects of speed and posture and their relevance to the sprawling-to-erect paradigm , J. exp. Biol 201,2559-2574.
 García-París, M. & Deban, S. M. 1995. A novel antipredator mechanism in salamanders: rolling escape in Hydromantes platycephalus. Journal of Herpetology 29, 149-151.
 Tenaza, R. R. 1975. Pangolins rolling away from predation risks. Journal of Mammalogy 56, 257.

Animal locomotion

Terrestrial locomotion


One Shot is the ninth book in the Jack Reacher series written by Lee Child. The book title is based on
"One shot, one kill," the military sniper's creed. The novel was adapted into the 2012 film Jack Reacher, starring Tom Cruise as the title character. This book is written in the third person.

Plot
In an Indiana city, a gunman in a parking garage fires into a rush-hour crowd in a public plaza, killing five apparently random victims with six shots. The shooter leaves a trail behind for the police to track him down. Evidence of a shell case and a quarter bearing the same fingerprints, points to James Barr, a former Army infantry sniper. He is arrested, but will only say two things to the police: "They got the wrong guy," and "Get Jack Reacher for me." Reacher, a former Army military police officer and now a drifter, is  away, but sees the news on CNN and gets on a bus to Indiana. Reacher has no job, no home, no car, and a shrinking savings account from his past military pay.

Instead of clearing Barr, Reacher wants to assist the prosecution in convicting him. When Reacher was an investigating military policeman years past, Barr had gone on a killing spree similar to the Indiana shootout, murdering four men during the war in Kuwait. Convoluted military politics and a technicality let Barr walk free. Reacher swore to track the sniper down if he ever tried it again. Reacher believes Barr is guilty, but Barr's sister Rosemary is convinced of her brother's innocence. She entreats lawyer Helen Rodin to defend him. Helen's father is the district attorney who will prosecute the case. When Reacher arrives in Indiana, Barr has been beaten so badly while in prison that he cannot remember anything about the day of the murders. Local NBC news reporter Ann Yanni is looking for information about the case, and Reacher includes her in his investigation, in exchange for the use of her car and a guaranteed public exposé on Barr. Reacher knows that 35 yards, the parking garage shooting distance to the victims, is point-blank range for a trained military sniper like Barr. That would indicate that the shooter missed one shot on purpose.

Reacher drives to Kentucky to the shooting range where the sniper practiced and learns more facts from Gunny Samuel Cash, the former US Marine who owns the place. This makes Reacher doubt the solidity of the case against Barr. Cash is unwilling to reveal information or his records to Reacher, but grudgingly agrees to talk if Reacher hits a paper target dead center at 300 yards with one shot. After succeeding, Reacher is shown 32 sheets of target paper from three years' worth of Barr's practice shootings, every single sheet with dead-on maximum scores.  Reacher deduces that the target sheets were faked by using a handgun at point blank range.

After the visit to the shooting range, Reacher adds Cash's information to the case evidence. Helen and Rosemary sift through the clues and get Reacher to conclude that Barr is innocent, which means someone set up Barr as the sniper. Someone is also trying to get Reacher off the case, which formerly seemed a slam-dunk, but is now falling apart. Reacher is teamed with Helen, working against a prosecution team that has a secret of its own. Reacher gets closer to the unseen enemy pulling the strings, leading him to the real perpetrators, a Russian gang masquerading as legitimate businessmen. The gang's 80-year-old capo spent much of his life in a Soviet gulag and is known only as the Zec (prisoner). Reacher outwits the mob guards in the Russian gang's fortress, dispatching five hoods before confronting the boss and forcing him to come clean on the conspiracy: covering up the murder of the one victim he wants dead with the other four victims. The real killer is shot, the Zec chooses to confess to the authorities who arrive on the scene, Barr goes free, and Reacher moves on.

Awards and nominations
2006 Macavity Award nominee, Best Mystery Novel
New York Times Bestseller

Film adaptation

The novel was adapted into the 2012 film Jack Reacher. Written and directed by Christopher McQuarrie, the film stars Tom Cruise as the title character. The film entered production in October 2011, and concluded in January 2012. The setting, however, was changed from Indiana to Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, where the film was shot in its entirety. Lee Child has a cameo role as the property desk officer in the police station after Reacher's arrest. The film was released on 21 December 2012. A premiere at Pittsburgh's Southside Works megaplex on 15 December, to have been attended by the film's stars and Child, was postponed following the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting.

See also
List of books, articles and documentaries about snipers

References

External links
One Shot official website.

2005 British novels
British thriller novels
British novels adapted into films
Jack Reacher books
English-language novels
Books about snipers
Novels set in Indiana
Third-person narrative novels
Bantam Press books
Delacorte Press books

One Shot (novel)


Catherine "Kate" Bush  CBE  (born 30 July 1958) is an English singer-songwriter. In 1978, her first single "Wuthering Heights" was Number 1 in the UK for a month, making her the first woman to have a No.1 in the UK with a song she had written by herself. She has released ten studio albums and 25 UK hit singles. She is also known for her 1985 single "Running Up That Hill".

Early life
Bush was born in Welling, Kent and raised in East Wickham. At the age of 11 she taught herself piano. At 13 she was writing songs, some of which featured on her first album.

Career
In July 1976 Bush was signed to EMI. Bush's first album The Kick Inside was released 17 February 1978 and reached number three in the UK album charts. The album had her brother Paddy playing harmonica and mandolin. She released her second album Lionheart nine months afterwards. It reached number six in the UK album chart.
In 1979 she did The Tour of Life, her only tour until August 2014.

In 1980 she had her first UK No.1 album, Never for Ever. "Babooshka" was the best-selling single from the album. It reached number five in the UK and was the 20th best-selling single of the year in Australia.

In 1982 her fourth album, The Dreaming, was released. It was the first album she had produced. It was also her first album to enter the US Billboard 200 chart. It went straight to number 3 in the UK chart but it is her lowest-selling album so far.

Hounds of Love's 1985 release gave Bush her second No.1 album. It is her best-selling studio album so far. Its first single, "Running Up That Hill", was her most successful 1980s release. It reached No.3 in the UK, her second highest chart place for a single ever. In 1986 it was used as the theme tune for the BBC children's drama Running Scared. In 2022, the song became popular again when it was used in the Netflix series Stranger Things which resulted in the song reaching No.1 in many countries including the UK. The Whole Story, a collection of her "greatest hits" so far, was released and reached No.1 in the UK chart.
1989's The Sensual World reached number 2 in the UK album chart. It is Bush's best-selling album in the US.

In 1990 she played a bride called Angela in a comedy film, Les Dogs.

In 1993 Bush released The Red Shoes, her last album for twelve years. Bush released a short film called The Line, the Cross and the Curve in 1994.

Her eighth studio album and first double album, Aerial, was released on CD and vinyl in 2005. It took nine years to make.

In 2007 she was asked to write a song for The Golden Compass soundtrack. It was played in the credits at the end of the film.

In 2011 she released two albums, Director's Cut and 50 Words for Snow  on her own record label Fish People.

Director's Cut is made of songs from The Sensual World and The Red Shoes. They have been remixed and three have been re-recorded. It got mostly good reviews.

50 Words for Snow got good responses from critics and won the 2012 Best Album at the South Bank Arts Awards.

On 26 August 2014 Bush performed her first concert in 35 years.

Personal life
Bush lives in Devon with her husband Dan McIntosh and son Albert "Bertie" Jack, who was born in 1998.

Albums

Studio albums

 The Kick Inside (1978)
 Lionheart (1978)
 Never for Ever (1980)
 The Dreaming (1982)
 Hounds of Love (1985)
 The Sensual World (1989)
 The Red Shoes (1993)
 Aerial (2005)
 50 Words for Snow (2011)

Remix albums

 Director's Cut (2011)

Live albums

 Live at Hammersmith Odeon (1994)
 Before the Dawn (2016)

Compilation albums

 Kate Bush (1984)
 The Whole Story (1986)
 The Other Sides (2019)

Concerts

Tour

 The Tour of Life (1979)

Residency

 Before the Dawn (2014)

References

Other websites
Official website

1958 births
Brit Award winners
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
English rock musicians
Living people
Musicians from Kent
Singers from London

Kate Bush


Viola tomentosa is a species of violet known by the common names feltleaf violet and woolly violet. It is endemic to the central Sierra Nevada of California, where it occurs in various types of dry mountain forest habitat. This small herb grows from a deep taproot, reaching a maximum height of 5 to 10 centimeters. The herbage is coated with woolly hairs. The leaves have oval blades borne on petioles a few centimeters long. A solitary flower is borne on a short upright stem. It is under a centimeter long with five yellow petals. The lower three petals are veined with dark brown and the upper two are stained brown or purplish on the back sides.

References

External links
Jepson Manual Treatment
USDA Plants Profile
Photo gallery

tomentosa
Endemic flora of California

Viola tomentosa


Hill Court Manor () is a country house built in 1700 at Hom Green, Walford near Ross-on-Wye in Herefordshire. The house is a Grade I listed building. It is currently owned and occupied by the Rehau Group.

A Short History
Although Hill Court has only been owned by four families since its construction nearly  three hundred years ago, each family has been instrumental in the development of  different aspects of this fine country estate from the structure of the building to the lay out of the gardens and the management of the land.

In 1698 the building of Hill Court was initiated by Richard Clarke, the son of a country gentleman, whose family, it is believed, made their fortune importing clover seed to England in the seventeenth century. Work on Hill Court progressed, but Richard died in 1702 before his house was finished and the task of completing the building was passed on to his brother Joseph.

There were not many surviving accounts from the building but records show that on 21 September 1700 the sum of £71 12s 9d was paid to Robert Wayman for all the brickwork in the house walls and drains.

When Joseph Clarke finished building Hill Court in 1708 it was a rectangular, two storey house with a large hipped roof. Looking at the house today it is possible to see the darker bricks of the original building finishing in a line just above the first floor windows of the central block. Joseph lived in his new country house with his wife and eight children and he was sufficiently established in the county to become Sheriff of Herefordshire in 1715.

In the 1700s the impressive avenue in the front of the house was planted with elm trees by John Kyrle, a friend of Joseph Clarke. Kyrle was a local gentleman and benefactor to the town of Ross. It is documented that he rebuilt the church spire and laid out the Prospect, a public garden in the town. The stone work at Hill Court bears resemblance to that in the Prospect gardens and this  suggests that there may be some truth in the tradition that he designed Hill Court.

Joseph Clarke died in 1728 and was succeeded by his eldest son Richard. It is probable, that about eight years later, Richard began extending Hill Court, creating the house as we know it today. Unfortunately he died in 1748 before his alterations were completed. As it turned out the extensions were scarcely needed by Richard's family. His brother John died in 1759; their mother died in 1765 and was succeeded by her daughters, Alice who died in 1779, Mary who died in 1789 and Jane who died in 1806.

After Jane's death the Clarke estate was divided and Hill Court was inherited by her second cousin Kingsmill Evans, who, in the early nineteenth century, extended and improved the gardens belonging to the house. As he had no children when he died in 1851, he left the house to his nephew Captain Kingsmill Manley Power the son of Sir Manley Power and Anne Evans.

After the death of Captain Kingsmill Manley Power in 1888 Hill Court was bought in 1893 by Major Lionel James Trafford. Major Trafford was succeeded in 1900 by his brother Guy Rawson Trafford who married Miss Dorothy Moffatt, the daughter of Harold Moffat. After the death of her brother in 1916 Dorothy became heiress to Goodrich Court and so the two estates were united creating one estate of nearly two thousand acres, spanning several parishes. Guy Rawson Trafford was Sheriff of Herefordshire in 1919.
In 1933 the main gate piers were moved to the position they are in today in front of the house, and details of the sad story connected with them can be found on a brass plate attached to one of the piers. It reads:- "These piers, moved from the east end of the avenue were in course of erection and the gates were in the making as a 21st Birthday present to Guy Harold Trafford when he was killed in a motor accident on his way to Queens College Oxford, 8 October 1933."

Dorothy's mother, Mrs Harold Moffatt, whose home was Goodrich Court, died in 1938. Upon her mother's death Dorothy left Hill Court and went to live at Goodrich Court. At her invitation Felsted School from Essex was evacuated to Mrs Trafford's three Herefordshire houses  for the duration of the Second World War to be out of the way of German bombing. Hill Court was occupied from 1940 to March 1945 by Windsor's and Ingle's Houses of Felsted. When Felsted School left it became clear that it was impossible to maintain two large houses, so Dorothy Trafford moved back to Hill Court. There was no apparent use for Goodrich Court and in 1946 it was pulled down.

Dorothy died in 1954 and was succeeded by her son John Lionel Trafford who died unmarried in 1978. After his death the tenant farmers of the 2,000 acre estate were given the opportunity to purchase their farms. As a result of the division of the estate, Hill Court was reduced to its current size of approximately 40ha. In the early 1980s Hill Court was sold to Christopher Rowley who turned part of the estate into a garden centre. In 1994 the property was sold to Rehau Ltd, a private German Industrial Group and was completely renovated. In 1997 Rehau acquired the Church of the Paraclete  to the east of the house. The Grade II listed closed church was built in 1905–06 to designs by George Frederick Bodley in memory of Major Lionel James Trafford.

Former Residents
Richard Clarke (d.1702), whom the house was originally built for
Jane Clarke (d. 1806)
Colonel Kingsmill Evans
Sir Manley Power
Kingsmill Manley Power (d. 1888)
Major Lionel Trafford, purchased it in 1893
 In early 1980, interior designer Christopher Rowley and George Hartman bought Hill Court from Trafford Family. They lived there with another family Jose, Ana and Vanessa Marques until the house been sold
 They sold it to Rehau in 1994.

References

Hill Court House:: OS grid SO5721, Geograph Britain and Ireland
Historic Herefordshire Online SMR record 7494

Houses completed in 1700
Country houses in Herefordshire
Grade I listed buildings in Herefordshire
1700 establishments in England

Hill Court Manor


In education, a curriculum (; : curriculums or curricula ) is broadly defined as the totality of student experiences that occur in the educational process. The term often refers specifically to a planned sequence of instruction, or to a view of the student's experiences in terms of the educator's or school's instructional goals. A curriculum may incorporate the planned interaction of pupils with instructional content, materials, resources, and processes for evaluating the attainment of educational objectives. Curricula are split into several categories: the explicit, the implicit (including the hidden), the excluded, and the extracurricular.

Curricula may be tightly standardized or may include a high level of instructor or learner autonomy.  Many countries have national curricula in primary and secondary education, such as the United Kingdom's National Curriculum.

UNESCO's International Bureau of Education has the primary mission of studying curricula and their implementation worldwide.

Etymology

The word "curriculum" began as a Latin word which means "a race" or "the course of a race" (which in turn derives from the verb currere meaning "to run/to proceed"). The word is "from a Modern Latin transferred use of classical Latin curriculum "a running, course, career" (also "a fast chariot, racing car"), from currere "to run" (from PIE root *kers- "to run")." The first known use in an educational context is in the Professio Regia, a work by University of Paris professor Petrus Ramus published posthumously in 1576. The term subsequently appears in University of Leiden records in 1582. The word's origins appear closely linked to the Calvinist desire to bring greater order to education.

By the seventeenth century, the University of Glasgow also referred to its "course" of study as a "curriculum", producing the first known use of the term in English in 1633. By the nineteenth century, European universities routinely referred to their curriculum to describe both the complete course of study (as for a degree in surgery) and particular courses and their content. By 1824, the word was defined as "a course, especially a fixed course of study at a college, university, or school."

Definitions and interpretations

Professional interpretations
There is no generally agreed upon definition of curriculum.  There various definitions that describe the term.

Through the readings of Smith, Dewey, and Kelly, four types of curricula could be defined as:

 Explicit curriculum: subjects that will be taught, the identified "mission" of the school, and the knowledge and skills that the school expects successful students to acquire.
 Implicit curriculum: lessons that arise from the culture of the school and the behaviors, attitudes, and expectations that characterize that culture, the unintended curriculum.
 Hidden curriculum: things which students learn, 'because of the way in which the work of the school is planned and organized but which are not in themselves overtly included in the planning or even in the consciousness of those responsible for the school arrangements (Kelly, 2009).  The term itself is attributed to Philip W. Jackson and is not always meant to be a negative.  Hidden curriculum, if its potential is realized, could benefit students and learners in all educational systems.  Also, it does not just include the physical environment of the school, but the relationships formed or not formed between students and other students or even students and teachers (Jackson, 1986).
 Excluded curriculum: topics or perspectives that are specifically excluded from the curriculum.

It may also come in the form of extracurricular activities. This may include school-sponsored programs, which are intended to supplement the academic aspect of the school experience or community-based programs and activities. Examples of school-sponsored extracurricular programs include sports, academic clubs, and performing arts. Community-based programs and activities may take place at a school after hours but are not linked directly to the school. Community-based programs frequently expand on the curriculum that was introduced in the classroom. For instance, students may be introduced to environmental conservation in the classroom. This knowledge is further developed through a community-based program.  Participants then act on what they know with a conservation project. Community-based extracurricular activities may include "environmental clubs, 4-H, boy/girl scouts, and religious groups" (Hancock, Dyk, & Jones, 2012).

Kerr defines curriculum as "all the learning which is planned and guided by the school, whether it is carried on in groups or individually, inside or outside of school."

Braslavsky states that curriculum is an agreement among communities, educational professionals, and the State on what learners should take on during specific periods of their lives. Furthermore, the curriculum defines "why, what, when, where, how, and with whom to learn."

Smith (1996, 2000) says that, "[a] syllabus will not generally indicate the relative importance of its topics or the order in which they are to be studied. Where people still equate curriculum with a syllabus they are likely to limit their planning to a consideration of the content or the body of knowledge that they wish to transmit."

According to Smith, a curriculum can be ordered into a procedure:
Step 1: Diagnosis of needs.
Step 2: Formulation of objectives.
Step 3: Selection of content.
Step 4: Organization of content.
Step 5: Selection of learning experiences.
Step 6: Organization of learning experiences.
Step 7: Determination of what to evaluate and of the ways and means of doing it.

Types of curricula
Under some definitions, curriculum is prescriptive, and is based on a more general syllabus which merely specifies what topics must be understood and to what level to achieve a particular grade or standard.

A curriculum may also refer to a defined and prescribed course of studies, which students must fulfill in order to pass a certain level of education. For example, an elementary school might discuss how its curricula is designed to improve national testing scores or help students learn fundamental skills. An individual teacher might also refer to his or her curriculum, meaning all the subjects that will be taught during a school year. The courses are arranged in a sequence to make learning a subject easier. In schools, a curriculum spans several grades.

On the other hand, a high school might refer to their curricula as the courses required in order to receive one's diploma. They might also refer to it in exactly the same way as an elementary school and use it to mean both individual courses needed to pass as well as the overall offering of courses, which help prepare a student for life after high school.

A curriculum can be seen from different perspectives. What societies envisage as important teaching and learning constitutes the "intended" curriculum. Since it is usually presented in official documents, it may be also called the "written" or "official" curriculum. However, at a classroom level this intended curriculum may be altered through a range of complex classroom interactions, and what is actually delivered can be considered the "implemented" curriculum. What learners really learn (i.e. what can be assessed and can be demonstrated as learning outcomes or competencies) constitutes the "achieved" or "learned" curriculum. In addition, curriculum theory points to a "hidden" curriculum (i.e. the unintended development of personal values and beliefs of learners, teachers, and communities; the unexpected impact of a curriculum; or the unforeseen aspects of a learning process). Those who develop the intended curriculum should have all these different dimensions of the curriculum in view. While the "written" curriculum does not exhaust the meaning of curriculum, it is important because it represents the vision of the society. The "written" curriculum is usually expressed in comprehensive and user-friendly documents, such as curriculum frameworks or subject curricula/syllabi, and in relevant and helpful learning materials, such as textbooks, teacher guides, and assessment guides.

In some cases, people see the curriculum entirely in terms of the subjects that are taught, and as set out within the set of textbooks, and forget the wider goals of competencies and personal development. This is why a curriculum framework is important. It sets the subjects within this wider context, and shows how learning experiences within the subjects need to contribute to the attainment of the wider goals.

Curriculum is almost always defined with relation to schooling. According to some, it is the major division between formal and informal education. However, under some circumstances it may also be applied to informal education or free-choice learning settings. For instance, a science museum may have a "curriculum" of what topics or exhibits it wishes to cover. Many after-school programs in the US have tried to apply the concept; this typically has more success when not rigidly clinging to the definition of curriculum as a product or as a body of knowledge to be transferred. Rather, informal education and free-choice learning settings are more suited to the model of curriculum as practice or praxis.

Historical conception

Whatever the origins and intentions of early curricula, the function of inculcating culture had emerged by the time of ancient Babylonia.  Ancient Roman curricula came to emphasise Greek as well as Latin skills, with emphasis on the study of classical poetry. This model influenced the curricula of medieval and Renaissance
education.

In the early years of the 20th century, the traditional concept held of the curriculum was "that it is a body of subjects or subject matter prepared by the teachers for the students to learn". It was synonymous to the "course of study" and "syllabus".

In The Curriculum, the first textbook published on the subject, in 1918, John Franklin Bobbitt said that curriculum, as an idea, has its roots in the Latin word for race-course, explaining the curriculum as the course of deeds and experiences through which children become the adults they should be to succeed later in life. Furthermore, the curriculum encompasses the entire scope of formative deed and experience occurring in and out of school - such as experiences that are unplanned and undirected or those that are intentionally directed for the purposeful formation of adult members of society - not only experiences occurring in school. (cf. image at right.)

To Bobbitt, the curriculum is a  social-engineering arena. Per his cultural presumptions and social definitions, his curricular formulation has two notable features:

 that scientific experts would best be qualified to and justified in designing curricula based upon their expert knowledge of what qualities are desirable in adult members of society, and which experiences would generate said qualities
 curriculum defined as the deeds-experiences the student ought to have to become the adult he or she ought to become

Hence, he defined the curriculum as an ideal, rather than as the concrete reality of the deeds and experiences that form who and what people become.

Contemporary views of curriculum reject these features of Bobbitt's postulates, but retain the basis of curriculum as the course of experience(s) that form humans into persons. Personal formation via curricula is studied both at the personal and group levels, i.e. cultures and societies (e.g. professional formation, academic discipline via historical experience). The formation of a group is reciprocal, with the formation of its individual participants.

Although it formally appeared in Bobbitt's definition, curriculum as a course of formative experience also pervades the work of John Dewey (1859-1952), who disagreed with Bobbitt on important matters. Although Bobbitt's and Dewey's idealistic understanding of "curriculum" is different from current, restricted uses of the word, writers of curricula and researchers generally share it as common, substantive understanding of curriculum. Development does not mean just getting something out of the mind. It is a development of experience and into experience that is really wanted.

Robert M. Hutchins (1899-1977), president of the University of Chicago, regarded curriculum as "permanent studies" where the rules of grammar, rhetoric, logic, and mathematics for basic education are emphasized. Basic education should emphasize the three Rs and college education should be grounded on liberal education. On the other hand, Arthur Bestor (1908-1994), an  essentialist, believes that the mission of the school should be intellectual training. Hence, curriculum should focus on the fundamental intellectual disciplines of grammar, literature, and writing. It should also include mathematics, science, history, and foreign language.

According to Joseph Schwab,  discipline is the sole source of curriculum. In our education system, curriculum is divided into chunks of knowledge called subject areas in basic education including English, mathematics, science, and social studies. In college, discipline may include humanities, sciences, languages, and many more. Curricula should consist entirely of knowledge which comes from various disciplines. Dewey proposed that learning the lesson should be more interesting and beneficial than receiving a scolding, being ridiculed, or being required to stay after school, among other punishments.

Thus, a curriculum can be viewed as a field of study. It is made up of its foundations (philosophical, historical, psychological, and social foundations), domains of knowledge, as well as its research theories and principles. Curricula as an area of study should be scholarly and theoretical. The field is concerned with broad, historical, philosophical social issues and academics. Mark Smith suggests a starting definition of "curriculum" offered by John Kerr and taken up by Vic Kelly in his standard work on the curriculum: "All the learning which is planned and guided by the school, whether it is carried on in groups or individually, inside or outside the school".

There are four ways of approaching curriculum theory and practice:
 curriculum as a body of knowledge to be transmitted
 curriculum as an attempt to help students achieve a goal
 curriculum as a process
 curriculum as  praxis
In recent years the field of education and curriculum has expanded outside the walls of the classroom and into other settings, such as museums. Within these settings curriculum is an even broader topic, including various teachers, inanimate objects such as audio-tour devices, and even the learners themselves. As with the traditional idea of curriculum, curriculum in a free-choice learning-environment can consist of the explicit stated curriculum and the hidden curriculum; both of which contribute to the learner's experience and lessons from the experience. These elements are further compounded by the setting, cultural influences, and the state of mind of the learner. Museums and other similar settings are most commonly leveraged within traditional classroom settings as enhancements to the curriculum when educators develop curricula that encompass visits to museums, zoos, and aquariums.

Progressivist views

On the other hand, to a progressivist, a listing of school subjects, syllabi, courses of study, and lists of courses of specific discipline do not make a curriculum. These can only be called curriculum if the written materials are actualized by the learner. Broadly speaking, curriculum is defined as the total learning experiences of the individual. This definition is anchored on John Dewey's definition of experience and education. He believed that reflective thinking is a means that unifies curricular elements. Thought is not derived from action but tested by application.

Caswell and Campbell viewed curricula as "all experiences children have under the guidance of teachers." This definition is shared by Smith, Stanley, and Shores when they defined curriculum as "a sequence of potential experiences set up in schools for the purpose of disciplining children and youth in group ways of thinking and acting."

Curriculum as a process is when a teacher enters a particular schooling and situation with the ability to think critically, an understanding of their role and the expectations others have of them, and a proposal for action which sets out essential principles and features of the educational encounter. Guided by these, they encourage conversations between, and with, people in the situation out of which may come a course of thinking and action. Plus, the teacher continually evaluates the process and what they can see of outcomes.

Marsh and Willis view curricula as all the "experiences in the classroom which are planned and enacted by teacher, and also learned by the students."

Any definition of curriculum, if it is to be practically effective and productive, must offer much more than a statement about knowledge-content or merely the subjects which schooling is to teach, transmit, or deliver. Some would argue of the course that the values implicit in the arrangements made by schools for their pupils are quite clearly in the consciousness of teachers and planners, again especially when the planners are politicians, and are equally clearly accepted by them as part of what pupils should learn in school, even if they are not overtly recognized by the pupils themselves. In other words, those who design curricula deliberately plan the schools' "expressive culture". If this is the case, then, the curriculum is 'hidden' only to or from the pupils, and the values to be learned clearly from a part of what is planned for pupils. They must, therefore, be accepted as fully a part of the curriculum, and especially as an important focus because questions must be asked concerning the legitimacy of such practices.

Currently, a spiral curriculum is promoted as allowing students to revisit a subject matter's content at the different levels of development of the subject matter being studied. The constructivist approach proposes that children learn best via pro-active engagement with the educational environment, as in learning through discovery.

Primary and secondary education

A curriculum may be partly or entirely determined by an external, authoritative body (e.g., the National Curriculum for England in English schools, or the International Primary Curriculum for International Schools).

Crucial to the curriculum is the definition of the course objectives that usually are expressed as learning outcomes and normally include the program's assessment strategy. These outcomes and assessments are grouped as units (or modules), and, therefore, the curriculum comprises a collection of such units, each, in turn, comprising a specialized, specific part of the curriculum. So, a typical curriculum includes communications, numeracy, information technology, and social skills units, with specific, specialized teaching of each.

Core curricula are often instituted, at the primary and secondary levels, by school boards, Departments of Education, or other administrative agencies charged with overseeing education. A core curriculum is a curriculum, or course of study, which is deemed central and usually made mandatory for all students of a school or school system. However, even when core requirements exist, they do not necessarily involve a requirement for students to engage in one particular class or activity. For example, a school might mandate a music appreciation class, but students may opt out if they take a performing arts class.

Australia
In Australia, the Australian Curriculum took effect nationwide in 2014, after a curriculum development process that began in 2010. Previously, each state's Education Department had traditionally established curricula. The Australian Curriculum consists of one curriculum covering eight subject areas through year 10, and another covering fifteen subjects for the senior secondary years.

Canada
In Canada each province and territory has the authority to create its own curriculum. However, the Northwest Territories and Nunavut both choose to use the Alberta Curriculum for select parts of their curriculum. The territories also use Alberta's standardized tests in some subjects.

Iran
Iran has recently changed back to 6 year instead of 5 Elementary schools and two three year junior and second middle/high schools. There is Islamic seminary Hawza are also with 10-14 year programming.

South Korea
The National Curriculum of Korea covers kindergarten, primary, secondary, and special education. The version currently in place is the 7th National Curriculum, which has been revised in 2007 and 2009.  The curriculum provides a framework for a common set of subjects through 9th grade, and elective subjects in grades 10 through 12.

Japan
The curriculum in Japan is determined based on the guidelines for education and the guidelines for learning presented by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT). When deciding on the curriculum for each school, the school's organizers will decide on the outline by referring to the manuals and explanations prepared by the Education, Science and Technology Ministry and other public offices, and the schools will decide on additional annual plans. The Courses of Education and Courses of Study are fully revised every 10 years. Before World War II, the curriculum was based on the school regulations corresponding to each school type.

The Netherlands

The Dutch system is based on directives coming from the Ministry of Education, Culture and Science (OCW). Primary and secondary education use key objectives to create curricula. For primary education the total number of objectives has been reduced from 122 in 1993 to 58 in 2006. Starting in 2009 and 2010 all key objectives are obligatory for primary education. The key objectives are oriented towards subject areas such as language, mathematics, orientation towards self and the world, art, and physical education. All of the objectives have accompanying concrete activities. Also final exams are determined by the OCW and required. Parts of those exams are taken in a national setting, created by the Centrale Examencommissie Vaststelling Opgaven (CEVO). Furthermore, the OCW will determine the number of hours to be spent per subject. Apart from these directives every school can determine its own curriculum.

Nigeria
In 2005, the Nigerian government adopted a national Basic Education Curriculum for grades 1 through 9.  The policy was an outgrowth of the Universal Basic Education program announced in 1999, to provide free, compulsory, continuous public education for these years.  In 2014, the government implemented a revised version of the national curriculum, reducing the number of subjects covered from 20 to 10.

Russia
Core curriculum has typically been highly emphasized in Soviet and Russian universities and technical institutes.

United Kingdom

England and Wales

The National Curriculum was introduced into England, Wales and Northern Ireland as a nationwide curriculum for primary and secondary state schools following the Education Reform Act 1988. It does not apply to private schools, which may set their own curricula, but it ensures that state schools of all local education authorities have a common curriculum. Academy schools have a significant degree of autonomy in deviating from the National Curriculum.

Every state school must offer a curriculum which is balanced and broadly based and which promotes the spiritual, moral, cultural, mental and physical development of pupils at the school and of society, and prepares pupils at the school for the opportunities, responsibilities and experiences of later life. For each of the statutory curriculum subjects, the Secretary of State for Education is required to set out a Programme of Study which outlines the content and matters which must be taught in those subjects at relevant Key Stages.  Teachers should set high expectations for every pupil. They should plan stretching work for pupils whose attainment is significantly above the expected standard. Teachers should use appropriate assessment to set targets which are deliberately ambitious.

Scotland
In Scotland, the Curriculum for Excellence (CfE) was introduced in August 2010 in all schools.  The national qualifications were introduced in 2013 by the Scottish Qualifications Authority (SQA).  The national qualifications include the Life Skills Coursework (SFL), National 3 (NAT3), National 4 (NAT4), National 5 (NAT5), Higher, and Advanced Higher.

United States
In the U.S., each state, with the individual school districts, establishes the curricula taught. Each state, however, builds its curriculum with great participation of national academic subject groups selected by the United States Department of Education such as the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) for mathematical instruction.

The Common Core State Standards Initiative (CCSSI) promulgates a core set of standards which are specific information and skills a student needs to know at each grade level in order to graduate. States may adopt these standards in part or whole and expand upon them. Schools and states (depending on how much control a state gives to its local schools) then develop their curriculum to meet each of these standards. This coordination is intended to make it possible to use more of the same textbooks across states, and to move toward a more uniform minimum level of education attainment.

According to the CCSSI, "[d]ecisions on how to implement the standards, including the right supports to put in place, are made at the state and local levels. As such, states and localities are taking different approaches to implementing the standards and providing their teachers with the supports they need to help students successfully reach the standards."

Higher education

Many educational institutions are currently trying to balance two opposing forces. On the one hand, some believe students should have a common knowledge foundation, often in the form of a core curriculum whereas others want students to be able to pursue their own educational interests, often through early specialty in a major or through the free choice of courses. This tension has received a large amount of coverage due to Harvard University's reorganization of its core requirements.

An essential feature of curriculum design, seen in every college catalog and at every other level of schooling, is the identification of prerequisites for each course. These prerequisites can be satisfied by taking particular courses, and in some cases by examination, or by other means, such as work experience. In general, more advanced courses in any subject require some foundation in basic courses, but some coursework requires study in other departments, as in the sequence of math classes required for a physics major, or the language requirements for students preparing in literature, music, or scientific research. A more detailed curriculum design must deal with prerequisites within a course for each topic taken up. This in turn leads to the problems of course organization and scheduling once the dependencies between topics are known.

Core curriculum

At the undergraduate level, individual college and university administrations and faculties sometimes mandate core curricula, especially in the liberal arts. However, because of increasing specialization and depth in the student's major field of study, a typical core curriculum in higher education mandates a far smaller proportion of a student's course work than a high school or elementary school core curriculum prescribes.

Among the best known and most expansive core curricula programs at leading American colleges and universities are those of Columbia University and the University of Chicago. Both can take up to two years to complete without advanced standing, and are designed to foster critical skills in a broad range of academic disciplines, including the social sciences, humanities, physical and biological sciences, mathematics, writing and foreign languages.

In 1999, the University of Chicago announced plans to reduce and modify the content of its core curriculum, including lowering the number of required courses from 21 to 15 and offering a wider range of content. When The New York Times, The Economist, and other major news outlets picked up this story, the university became the focal point of a national debate on education. A set of university administrators, notably then-President Hugo F. Sonnenschein, argued that reducing the core curriculum had become both a financial and educational imperative, as the university was struggling to attract a commensurate volume of applicants to its undergraduate division compared to peer schools as a result of what was perceived by the pro-change camp as a reaction by "the average eighteen-year-old" to the expanse of the collegiate core.

As core curricula began to diminish over the course of the twentieth century at many American schools, some smaller institutions became famous for embracing a core curriculum that covers nearly the student's entire undergraduate education, often utilizing classic texts of the western canon to teach all subjects including science. Five Great Books colleges in the United States follow this approach: St. John's, Shimer, Thomas Aquinas, Gutenberg College and Thomas More.

Distribution requirements
Some colleges opt for the middle ground of the continuum between specified and unspecified curricula by using a system of distribution requirements. In such a system, students are required to take courses in particular fields of learning, but are free to choose specific courses within those fields.

Open curriculum

Other institutions have largely done away with core requirements in their entirety. Brown University offers the "Open Curriculum", implemented after a student-led reform movement in 1969, which allows students to take courses without concern for any requirements except those in their chosen concentrations (majors), plus two writing courses. In this vein, it is possible for students to graduate without taking college-level science or math courses, or to take only science or math courses. Amherst College requires that students take one of a list of first-year seminars, but has no required classes or distribution requirements. Similarly, Grinnell College requires students to take a First-Year Tutorial in their first semester, and has no other class or distribution requirements. Others include Evergreen State College, Hamilton College, and Smith College.

Wesleyan University is another school that has not and does not require any set distribution of courses. However, Wesleyan does make clear "General Education Expectations" such that if a student does not meet these expectations, he/she would not be eligible for academic honors upon graduation.

Gender inequality in curricula

Gender inequality in curricula shows how men and women are not treated equally in several types of curricula. More precisely, gender inequality is visible in the curriculum of both schools and Teacher Education Institutes (TEIs). Physical education (PE) is an example where gender equality issues are highlighted because of preconceived stereotyping of boys and girls. The general belief is that boys are better at physical activities than girls, and that girls are better at 'home' activities such as sewing and cooking. This is the case in many cultures around the world and is not specific to one culture only.

See also

 Academic advising
 Body of knowledge
 CSCOPE (education)
 Curriculum studies
 Educational program
 Europass
 Extracurricular activity
 Hidden curriculum
 Lesson
 Lesson plan
 Lifelong learning
 Open source curriculum
 Pedagogy
 Residential curriculum
 Structure of the disciplines
 Sudbury schools have no curriculum.
 Syllabus
 Unschooling emphasizes self-directed learning rather than a curriculum.
 Curricula in early childhood care and education

Works cited
 Bilbao, Purita P., Lucido, Paz I., Iringan, Tomasa C., and Javier, Rodrigo B. (2008). Curriculum Development. Quezon City: Lorimar Publishing, Inc.

References

External links

 World Council for Curriculum and Instruction
 OnCourse Systems for Education - Curriculum Builder

 UNESCO International Bureau of Education
 National Council of Teachers of Mathematics

 +
Didactics

Curriculum


Andrew Ian Porter (born March 24, 1946) is an American editor, publisher and active science fiction fan.

Background
Born Andrew Ian Silverberg on March 24, 1946, in Detroit, Michigan, he moved to New York City with his mother and brother in 1956 upon the death of his father the previous year. His name was legally changed in 1964 when his mother remarried. He was a student at Milford Academy, which at the time was operating as a boys' prep school.

Fandom
Porter entered science fiction fandom in 1960. He had been calling science fiction writers in the Bronx and Manhattan telephone books to discuss science fiction, and Donald Wollheim put him in touch with local science fiction fandom in New York City. He became active in fan groups including the Lunarians, FISTFA (the Fannish Insurgent, Scientifiction Association) and the Fanoclasts, then hosted by Ted White. In 1960 he had his first news-related column on upcoming paperbacks, printed in James V. Taurasi's Science Fiction Times.

He published many different fanzines, beginning with Algol, including the newszine S.F.Weekly from 1966 to 1968. He started his semiprozine Science Fiction Chronicle in 1979. He has attended hundreds of science fiction conventions and nearly 40 World Science Fiction Conventions (Worldcons) since his first in 1963. He worked on conventions in the US, Canada and overseas, and was on the central committee of the 1967 Worldcon, NYCon 3. With John Bangsund, he was responsible for Australia hosting its first Worldcon. He was Fan Guest of Honor at several conventions, most notably the 1990 Worldcon, ConFiction. He won the fanzine Hugo in 1974 for his fanzine/semiprozine Algol (later renamed Starship), and the semiprozine Hugo in 1993 and 1994 for Science Fiction Chronicle. He has a total of twenty-three additional nominations for Best Fanzine or Best Semipro Zine. In 1991, he received a Special Committee Award at the Worldcon, for Distinguished Semiprozine Work; in 1992 he received a Special British Fantasy Award. He sold Science Fiction Chronicle to DNA Publications in May 2000 and was fired in 2002. In 2006, he was diagnosed with liver bile duct cancer, for which he was operated on successfully in 2007, followed by five months of chemotherapy. He is now cancer free. At the 2009 Worldcon in Montreal, Anticipation, he received the Big Heart Award. In 2010, he finally realized his dream of going to an Australian WorldCon, AussieCon IV.

Professional work
In publishing, he was a proofreader and copy editor, was assistant editor on The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction from 1966 to 1974, associate editor at the paperback publisher Lancer Books in the late 1960s, and was a trade magazine editor and advertising production manager on such titles as Rudder, Quick Frozen Foods (under editor Sam Moskowitz), QFF International, Construction Equipment, and Electro-Procurement. He was editor/designer/publisher of The Book of Ellison, a hardcover/trade paperback published to honor Harlan Ellison's 1978 stint as Worldcon Pro Guest of Honor. His other publications, under the Algol Press imprint, are Dreams Must Explain Themselves by Ursula K. Le Guin, Exploring Cordwainer Smith, Experiment Perilous: The Art and Science of Anguish In Science Fiction (with essays by Marion Zimmer Bradley, Alfred Bester and Norman Spinrad), and The Fiction of James Tiptree, Jr. by Gardner Dozois. He has sold articles and photos to Publishers Weekly, Omni, and The New York Times. He is a New York City resident.

Sources
The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction page 949

References

External links

  (Algol)
 "Chronicle" at WorldCat (Science Fiction Chronicle)

1946 births
American magazine editors
American science fiction writers
American speculative fiction critics
American speculative fiction editors
Hugo Award-winning fan writers
Living people
Science fiction critics
Science fiction editors
Milford Academy alumni
American male novelists
Journalists from New York City
Novelists from New York (state)
American male non-fiction writers

Andrew I. Porter


The Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA; ) is a regulatory agency that is dedicated to the safeguarding of food, plants, and animals (FPA) in Canada, thus enhancing the health and well-being of Canada's people, environment and economy. The agency is responsible to the Minister of Health.

The agency was created in April 1997 by the Canadian Food Inspection Agency Act for the purpose of consolidating the delivery of all federal food safety, animal health, and plant health regulatory programs in Canada. As such, the CFIA was established by combining and integrating the related inspection services of three separate federal government departments:

 Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada,
 Fisheries and Oceans Canada, and
 Health Canada.

Role and responsibilities

The agency is part of the larger federal public service. According to the CFIA statement of values, science is the basis for regulatory decisions, though the need to consider other factors is recognized. Through the enforcement of various acts and regulations, the CFIA works to protect Canadians from preventable health risks and provide a fair and effective food, animal and plant regulatory regime that supports competitive domestic and international markets. A CFIA technocrat is appointed to be Canada's delegate on the FAO committee that drafts the Codex Alimentarius, which is a vital component of the WTO framework.

The CFIA is also responsible for monitoring pesticide residues in food. Health Canada establishes Maximum Residue Limits (MRLs) for pesticide residues in all foods. MRLs are supposedly set for each pesticide-crop combination.

Agency officials
The Minister of Health is responsible for:

 establishing policies and standards for the safety and nutritional quality of food sold in Canada;
 the administration of those provisions of the Canadian Food and Drugs Act that relate to public health, safety and nutrition; and
 for assessing the effectiveness of the Agency's activities related to food safety.

The CFIA has had many Presidents over its lifetime:
 Paul Glover, was promoted in January 2019 to head Shared Services Canada.
 Dr. Siddika Mithani was appointed President on 25 February 2019.
 Dr. Harpreet S. Kochhar was appointed President in February 2023.

The Chief Veterinary Officer (CVO) of Canada, Dr. Mary-Jane Ireland, resides in the CFIA hierarchy. As a delegate to the OIE, the CVO commits the nation to observe the standards created by the international body, which standards in turn serve the WTO.

The Chief Food Safety Officer for Canada resides in the CFIA hierarchy, and plays a key leadership and advisory role for managing food safety incidents and for the development of policies, regulations and programs aimed at preventing and responding to food safety risks. Most recently, Isabelle Laberge was appointed to the role.

The Chief Plant Health Officer for Canada also resides in the CFIA hierarchy. The occupant of this position sits on the North American Plant Protection Organization and the International Plant Protection Convention, the latter of which informs the WTO's Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures. Dr. Anthony Anyia is appointed to this post.

The Chief Science Operating Officer, currently Dr. Primal Silva, is responsible for the CFIA's 13 laboratories (one of which is Canada's contribution to the BSL4ZNet: National Centre for Foreign Animal Disease) and sits on the Scientific Advisory Board of the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development as well as the Global Coalition of Regulatory Science Research.

Food and Drugs Act
One of the main acts and regulations that CFIA uses is the Food and Drugs Act. There have been ongoing regulatory amendments brought forward with the most recent attempt at modernizing the Food and Drugs Act was the introduction of Bill C-51.

Other Acts and Regulations also specify inspection requirements and for certain trade requirements, the need to register with CFIA to conduct business. Such companies are termed "registered establishments" as opposed to those "non-federally registered establishments" that fall solely under the Food and Drugs Act. While the Food and Drugs Act provide for core food safety standards, many companies opt to use third-party standards such as HACCP or ISO 22000 (which in any case incorporates HACCP) in order to meet client specified standards. Due to the race to globalize and the push to standardize it is no wonder that the Global Food Safety Initiative has been endorsed by the CFIA. All of these standards are closely observed by the food industry due to the potential loss of business. Here, the reader is encouraged to review the CFIA white paper Private Certification Policy (Food Safety), which at some point between 2014 and 2020 replaced the Guide to Food Safety.

The Food and Drugs Act does not have any requirements for domestic manufacturers to notify the agency of their existence but companies generally require provincial registrations or municipal licenses to operate. Provincial authorities and local public health units carry out inspections and work with the CFIA to manage food safety risks.

There is no requirement in the Food and Drugs Act for importers to directly notify the CFIA of their existence. Import notification is required for other commodities such as fish and meat. All commercial importers must have an import/export account with Canada Border Services Agency (CBSA) who refers food, animal and plant imports to the CFIA as required. Through various phytosanitary requirements, CBSA import controls often cause the CFIA to take notice.

Power to recall
The Food and Drugs Act does not provide the power to recall food products and all recalls are done on a voluntary basis. However, Section 19 of the Canadian Food Inspection Agency Act provides authority for the Minister of Agriculture to order a recall, where there are reasonable grounds that the product poses a risk to public, animal or plant health. CFIA rates their recalls in three classifications (see below). Public notification of Class I and sometimes class II recalls are done by the CFIA. Lower risk recalls are listed in a published database on the CFIA web site. Recall classifications are conducted by the Office of Food Safety and Recall based on risk advice from Health Canada.
Class I is a situation in which there is a reasonable probability that the use of, or exposure to, a violative product will cause serious adverse health consequences or death.
Class II is a situation in which the use of, or exposure to, a violative product may cause temporary adverse health consequences or where the probability of serious adverse health consequences is remote.
Class III is a situation in which the use of, or exposure to, a violative product is not likely to cause any adverse health consequences.

Food Inspector corps
The CFIA Food Inspector Corps. is unionized by the Agriculture Union, which in turn is an affiliate of PSAC.

On 11 May 2020, the embedded inspectors at slaughterhouses (as represented by the AU) said that CFIA management is "threatening disciplinary action against employees who refuse to be reassigned to work at COVID-19-infected meat plants", while the intrepid journalist was keen to note that Deputy PM Chrystia Freeland had previously said that "those who feel unsafe won't be forced back to work."

Research laboratories
The CFIA houses 13 practical research facilities, among which are at least three containment laboratories, Fallowfield, Lethbridge, and the Winnipeg NCFAD:
Charlottetown Laboratory – Plant
Dartmouth – Food
Saint-Hyacinthe – Food and animal health
Longueuil – Food
Carling, Ottawa – Food, animal health, and plant - Central Experimental Farm
Fallowfield, Ottawa – Food, animal health, and plant
Greater Toronto Area – Food
Winnipeg – Animal health/disease control - National Centre for Foreign Animal Disease
Lethbridge – Animal health - National Centre for Animal Diseases
Saskatoon – Food, plant and animal health
Calgary – Food
Burnaby – Food
Sidney – Plant

Incidents

2008 Outsourcing controversy
In July 2008, CFIA biologist Luc Pomerleau was fired for disloyalty to the government, because he transmitted to his union a sensitive Treasury Board minutes document, in which President Vic Toews and ministers approved the cuts proposed by the Minister of Health Tony Clement that were to affect the inspection of animal feed mills, the certification of commercial seed, eliminate mandatory label registration of meat and processed products, the Avian Influenza Preparedness Program, and also called for the consolidation of three "import service centres" into one central facility. Pomerleau is no longer able to work for the government because he was deemed "unreliable" and fired for "gross misconduct".

August 2008 listeria outbreak

According to the findings of the Independent Investigator that was appointed by the government following the 2008 Listeriosis outbreak, there were 75 confirmed cases of listeriosis and was also the underlying or contributing cause of death for 22 of these individuals. Although most cases were in Ontario, illnesses occurred in seven provinces. The report identified response actions that worked well at the federal and provincial levels and gaps in the system should be corrected.
 Canadian researcher Sylvain Charlebois published a separate report suggesting that the listeria outbreak forces the agency to accept that food recalls are no longer mainly externally oriented; they are systemic in nature.

2012 brucella bacteria smuggling to China
In October 2012, Canadian Food Inspection Agency scientist Dr. Klaus Nielsen was arrested, with 17 vials of brucella bacteria, headed to Ottawa airport, en route to China. Nielsen pleaded guilty and was sentenced to two years' imprisonment. Wei Ling Yu, a fellow scientist, and Chinese national, fled from Canada. Both were fired from the Canadian Food Inspection Agency.

2017 glyphosate residue tests

In April 2017, it was reported that nearly a third of food samples in CFIA testing contain glyphosate residues. Glyphosate residues were detected in 29.7% of all food samples, with 1.3% containing residue levels above MRLs. For the grain products tested, 3.9% had residue levels about MRLs. The research focused on:
482 samples of fresh and processed fruits and vegetables.
2,497 samples of grains (barley, buckwheat, and quinoa), beverages, bean, pea, lentil, chickpea and soy products.
209 retail samples of infant foods.

See also
 Canada Border Services Agency

References

External links
 Canadian Food Inspection Agency

Health Canada
1997 establishments in Canada
Agriculture in Canada
Federal departments and agencies of Canada
Food and drink in Canada
Food safety organizations
Government agencies established in 1997
Meat inspection
Phytosanitary authorities
Veterinary medicine in Canada

Canadian Food Inspection Agency