Certain lithium compounds, also known as lithium salts, are used as psychiatric medications, primarily for bipolar disorder and for major depressive disorder. In lower doses, other salts such as lithium citrate are known as nutritional lithium and have occasionally been used to treat ADHD. Lithium is taken orally.

Common side effects include increased urination, shakiness of the hands, and increased thirst. Serious side effects include hypothyroidism, diabetes insipidus, and lithium toxicity. Blood level monitoring is recommended to decrease the risk of potential toxicity. If levels become too high, diarrhea, vomiting, poor coordination, sleepiness, and ringing in the ears may occur. Lithium is teratogenic at high doses, especially during the first trimester of pregnancy. The use of lithium while breastfeeding is controversial; however, many international health authorities advise against it, and the long-term outcomes of perinatal lithium exposure have not been studied. The American Academy of Pediatrics lists lithium as contraindicated for pregnancy and lactation. The United States Food and Drug Administration categorizes lithium as having positive evidence of risk for pregnancy and possible hazardous risk for lactation.

Lithium salts are classified as mood stabilizers. Lithium's mechanism of action is not known.

In the nineteenth century, lithium was used in people who had gout, epilepsy, and cancer. Its use in the treatment of mental disorders began with Carl Lange in Denmark and William Alexander Hammond in New York City, who used lithium to treat mania from the 1870s onwards, based on now-discredited theories involving its effect on uric acid. Use of lithium for mental disorders was re-established (on a different theoretical basis) in 1948 by John Cade in Australia. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines, and is available as a generic medication. In 2020, it was the 197th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 2million prescriptions. It appears to be under-utilised in older people, though the reason for that is unclear.

Medical uses

In 1970, lithium was approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the treatment of bipolar disorder, which remains its primary use in the United States. It is sometimes used when other treatments are not effective in a number of other conditions, including major depression, schizophrenia, disorders of impulse control, and some psychiatric disorders in children. Because the FDA has not approved lithium for the treatment of other disorders, such use is off-label.

Bipolar disorder
Lithium is primarily used as a maintenance drug in the treatment of bipolar disorder to stabilize mood and prevent manic episodes, but it may also be helpful in the acute treatment of manic episodes. Lithium carbonate treatment was previously considered to be unsuitable for children; however, more recent studies show its effectiveness for treatment of early-onset bipolar disorder in children as young as eight. The required dosage is slightly less than the toxic level (representing a low therapeutic index), requiring close monitoring of blood levels of lithium carbonate during treatment. A limited amount of evidence suggests lithium carbonate may contribute to treatment of substance use disorders for some people with bipolar disorder.

Schizophrenic disorders
Lithium is recommended for the treatment of schizophrenic disorders only after other antipsychotics have failed; it has limited effectiveness when used alone. The results of different clinical studies of the efficacy of combining lithium with antipsychotic therapy for treating schizophrenic disorders have varied.

Major depressive disorder
Lithium is widely prescribed as a treatment for depression.

Augmentation
If therapy with antidepressants does not fully treat the symptoms of major depressive disorder (MDD) then a second augmentation agent is sometimes added to the therapy. Lithium is one of the few augmentation agents for antidepressants to demonstrate efficacy in treating MDD in multiple randomized controlled trials and it has been prescribed (off-label) for this purpose since the 1980s.

Monotherapy
There are a few old studies indicating efficacy of lithium for acute depression with lithium having the same efficacy as tricyclic antidepressants. A recent study concluded that lithium works best on chronic and recurrent depression when compared to modern antidepressant (i.e. citalopram) but not for patients with no history of depression.

Prevention of suicide
Lithium is widely believed to prevent suicide, and often used in clinical practice towards that end. However, meta-analyses, faced with evidence-base limitations, have yielded differing results, and it therefore remains unclear whether or not lithium is efficacious in the prevention of suicide.

Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease affects forty-five million people and is the fifth leading cause of death in the 65 plus population. There is no complete cure for the disease, currently. However, lithium is being evaluated for its effectiveness as a potential therapeutic measure. One of the leading causes of Alzheimer's is the hyperphosphorylation of the tau protein by the enzyme GSK-3, which leads to the overproduction of amyloid peptides that cause cell death. To combat this toxic amyloid aggregation, lithium upregulates the production of neuroprotectors and neurotrophic factors, as well as it inhibits the GSK-3 enzyme. Lithium also stimulates neurogenesis within the hippocampus, making it thicker. Yet another cause of Alzheimer's disease is the dysregulation of calcium ions within the brain. Too much or too little calcium within the brain can lead to cell death. Lithium is able to restore the intracellular calcium homeostasis through inhibiting the wrongful influx of calcium upstream. It also promotes the redirection of the influx of the calcium ions into the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum of the cells to reduce the oxidative stress within the mitochondria.

In 2009, a study was performed by Hampel and colleagues that asked patients with Alzheimer's to take a low dose of lithium daily for three months; it resulted in a significant slowing of cognitive decline, benefitting patients being in the prodromal stage the most. Upon a secondary analysis, the brains of the Alzheimer's patients were studied and shown to have an increase in BDNF markers, meaning they had actually shown cognitive improvement. Another study, a population study this time by Kessing et al., showed a negative correlation between Alzheimer's disease deaths and the presence of lithium in drinking water. Areas with increased lithium in their drinking water showed less dementia overall in their population.

Monitoring
Those who use lithium should receive regular serum level tests and should monitor thyroid and kidney function for abnormalities, as it interferes with the regulation of sodium and water levels in the body, and can cause dehydration. Dehydration, which is compounded by heat, can result in increasing lithium levels. The dehydration is due to lithium inhibition of the action of antidiuretic hormone, which normally enables the kidney to reabsorb water from urine. This causes an inability to concentrate urine, leading to consequent loss of body water and thirst.

Lithium concentrations in whole blood, plasma, serum or urine may be measured using instrumental techniques as a guide to therapy, to confirm the diagnosis in potential poisoning victims or to assist in the forensic investigation in a case of fatal overdosage. Serum lithium concentrations are usually in the range of 0.5–1.3 mmol/L (0.5–1.3 mEq/L) in well-controlled people, but may increase to 1.8–2.5 mmol/L in those who accumulate the drug over time and to 3–10 mmol/L in acute overdose.

Lithium salts have a narrow therapeutic/toxic ratio, so should not be prescribed unless facilities for monitoring plasma concentrations are available. Doses are adjusted to achieve plasma concentrations of 0.4 to 1.2 mmol /L  on samples taken 12 hours after the preceding dose.

Given the rates of thyroid dysfunction, thyroid parameters should be checked before lithium is instituted and monitored after 3–6 months and then every 6–12 months.

Given the risks of kidney malfunction, serum creatinine and eGFR should be checked before lithium is instituted and monitored after 3–6 months at regular interval. Patients who have a rise in creatinine on three or more occasions, even if their eGFR is > 60 ml/min/
1.73m2 require further evaluation, including a urinalysis for haematuria, proteinuria, a review of their medical history with attention paid to cardiovascular, urological and medication history, and blood pressure control and management. Overt proteinuria should be further quantified with a urine protein to creatinine ratio.

Discontinuation
For patients who have achieved long term remission, it is recommended to discontinue lithium gradually and in a controlled fashion.

Discontinuation symptoms may occur in patients stopping the medication including irritability, restlessness and somatic symptoms like vertigo, dizziness or lightheadedness. Symptoms occur within the first week and are generally mild and self-limiting within weeks.

Cluster headaches, migraine and hypnic headache
Studies testing prophylactic use of lithium in cluster headaches (when compared to verapamil), migraine attacks and hypnic headache indicate good efficacy.

Adverse effects
Sources for the following lists.

Very Common (> 10% incidence) adverse effects of lithium include
 Confusion
 Constipation (usually transient, but can persist in some)
 Decreased memory
 Diarrhea (usually transient, but can persist in some)
 Dry mouth
 EKG changes — usually benign changes in T waves
 Hand tremor (usually transient, but can persist in some) with an incidence of 27%. If severe, psychiatrist may lower lithium dosage, change lithium salt type or modify lithium preparation from long to short acting (despite lacking evidence for these procedures) or use pharmacological help
 Headache
 Hyperreflexia — overresponsive reflexes
 Leukocytosis — elevated white blood cell count
 Muscle weakness (usually transient, but can persist in some)
 Myoclonus — muscle twitching
 Nausea (usually transient)
 Polydipsia — increased thirst
 Polyuria — increased urination
 Renal (kidney) toxicity which may lead to chronic kidney failure
 Vomiting (usually transient, but can persist in some)
 Vertigo
 Weight gain

Common (1–10%) adverse effects include
 Acne
 Extrapyramidal side effects — movement-related problems such as muscle rigidity, parkinsonism, dystonia, etc.
 Euthyroid goitre — i.e. the formation of a goitre despite normal thyroid functioning
 Hypothyroidism — a deficiency of thyroid hormone.
 Hair loss/hair thinning

Unknown
 Sexual dysfunction
 Hypoglycemia
 Glycosuria

Lithium carbonate can induce a 1–2 kg of weight gain.

In addition to tremors, lithium treatment appears to be a risk factor for development of parkinsonism-like symptoms, although the causal mechanism remains unknown.

Most side effects of lithium are dose-dependent. The lowest effective dose is used to limit the risk of side effects.

In a systematic literature review, the authors found 250 reports containing 1100 individuals who developed lithium-related movement disorders. The abnormal movements encountered were parkinsonism, dyskinesia, myoclonus, dystonia, Creutzfeldt-Jakob-like syndrome, akathisia, restless legs syndrome symptoms, tics, cerebellar syndromes, and stuttering.

Hypothyroidism
The rate of hypothyroidism is around six times higher in people who take lithium. Low thyroid hormone levels in turn increase the likelihood of developing depression. People taking lithium thus should routinely be assessed for hypothyroidism and treated with synthetic thyroxine if necessary.

Because lithium competes with the antidiuretic hormone in the kidney, it increases water output into the urine, a condition called nephrogenic diabetes insipidus. Clearance of lithium by the kidneys is usually successful with certain diuretic medications, including amiloride and triamterene. It increases the appetite and thirst ("polydypsia") and reduces the activity of thyroid hormone (hypothyroidism). The latter can be corrected by treatment with thyroxine and does not require the lithium dose to be adjusted. Lithium is also believed to permanently affect renal function, although this does not appear to be common.

Pregnancy and breast feeding
Lithium is a teratogen, causing birth defects in a small number of newborn babies. Case reports and several retrospective studies have demonstrated possible increases in the rate of a congenital heart defect known as Ebstein's anomaly, if taken during a woman's pregnancy. As a consequence, fetal echocardiography is routinely performed in pregnant women taking lithium to exclude the possibility of cardiac anomalies. Lamotrigine seems to be a possible alternative to lithium in pregnant women for the treatment of acute bipolar depression or for the management of bipolar patients with normal mood. Gabapentin and clonazepam are also indicated as  antipanic medications during the childbearing years and during pregnancy. Valproic acid and carbamazepine also tend to be associated with teratogenicity.

While it appears to be safe to use while breastfeeding a number of guidelines list it as a contraindication including the British National Formulary.

Kidney damage
Lithium has been associated with several forms of kidney injury.  It is estimated that impaired urinary concentrating ability is present in at least half of individuals on chronic lithium therapy, a condition called lithium-induced nephrogenic diabetes insipidus. Continued use of lithium can lead to more serious kidney damage in an aggravated form of diabetes insipidus. Chronic kidney disease caused by lithium has not been proven with various contradicting results presented by a 2018 review. In rare cases, some forms of lithium-caused kidney damage may be progressive and lead to end-stage kidney failure with a reported incidence of 0.2% to 0.7%.

Hyperparathyroidism
Lithium-associated hyperparathyroidism is the leading cause of hypercalcemia in lithium-treated patients. Lithium may lead to exacerbation of pre-existing primary hyperparathyroidism or cause an increased set-point of calcium for parathyroid hormone suppression, leading to parathyroid hyperplasia.

Interactions

Lithium plasma concentrations are known to be increased with concurrent use of diuretics—especially loop diuretics (such as furosemide) and thiazides—and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as ibuprofen. Lithium concentrations can also be increased with concurrent use of ACE inhibitors such as captopril, enalapril, and lisinopril.

Lithium is primarily cleared from the body through glomerular filtration, but some is then reabsorbed together with sodium through the proximal tubule. Its levels are therefore sensitive to water and electrolyte balance. Diuretics act by lowering water and sodium levels; this causes more reabsorption of lithium in the proximal tubules so that the removal of lithium from the body is less, leading to increased blood levels of lithium. ACE inhibitors have also been shown in a retrospective case-control study to increase lithium concentrations. This is likely due to constriction of the afferent arteriole of the glomerulus, resulting in decreased glomerular filtration rate and clearance. Another possible mechanism is that ACE inhibitors can lead to a decrease in sodium and water. This will increase lithium reabsorption and its concentrations in the body.

There are also drugs that can increase the clearance of lithium from the body, which can result in decreased lithium levels in the blood. These drugs include theophylline, caffeine, and acetazolamide. Additionally, increasing dietary sodium intake may also reduce lithium levels by prompting the kidneys to excrete more lithium.

Lithium is known to be a potential precipitant of serotonin syndrome in people concurrently on serotonergic medications such as antidepressants, buspirone and certain opioids such as pethidine (meperidine), tramadol, oxycodone, fentanyl and others. Lithium co-treatment is also a risk factor for neuroleptic malignant syndrome in people on antipsychotics and other antidopaminergic medications.

High doses of haloperidol, fluphenazine, or flupenthixol may be hazardous when used with lithium; irreversible toxic encephalopathy has been reported.
Indeed, these and other antipsychotics have been associated with increased risk of lithium neurotoxicity, even with low therapeutic lithium doses.

Classical psychedelics such as psilocybin and LSD may cause seizures if taken while using lithium, although further research is needed.

Overdose

Lithium toxicity, which is also called lithium overdose and lithium poisoning, is the condition of having too much lithium in the blood. This condition also happens in persons that are taking lithium in which the lithium levels are affected by drug interactions in the body.

In acute toxicity, people have primarily gastrointestinal symptoms such as vomiting and diarrhea, which may result in volume depletion. During acute toxicity, lithium distributes later into the central nervous system resulting in mild neurological symptoms, such as dizziness.

In chronic toxicity, people have primarily neurological symptoms which include nystagmus, tremor, hyperreflexia, ataxia, and change in mental status. During chronic toxicity, the gastrointestinal symptoms seen in acute toxicity are less prominent. The symptoms are often vague and nonspecific.

If the lithium toxicity is mild or moderate, lithium dosage is reduced or stopped entirely. If the toxicity is severe, lithium may need to be removed from the body.

Mechanism of action
The specific biochemical mechanism of lithium action in stabilizing mood is unknown.

Upon ingestion, lithium becomes widely distributed in the central nervous system and interacts with a number of neurotransmitters and receptors, decreasing norepinephrine release and increasing serotonin synthesis.

Unlike many other psychoactive drugs,  typically produces no obvious psychotropic effects (such as euphoria) in normal individuals at therapeutic concentrations.
Lithium may also increase the release of serotonin by neurons in the brain. In vitro studies performed on serotonergic neurons from rat raphe nuclei have shown that when these neurons are treated with lithium, serotonin release is enhanced during a depolarization compared to no lithium treatment and the same depolarization.

Lithium both directly and indirectly inhibits GSK3β (glycogen synthase kinase 3β) which results in the activation of mTOR. This leads to an increase in neuroprotective mechanisms by facilitating the Akt signaling pathway. GSK-3β is a downstream target of monoamine systems. As such, it is directly implicated in cognition and mood regulation. During mania, GSK-3β is activated via dopamine overactivity. GSK-3β inhibits the transcription factors β-catenin and cyclic AMP (cAMP) response element binding protein (CREB), by phosphorylation. This results in a decrease in the transcription of important genes encoding for neurotrophins. In addition, several authors proposed that pAp-phosphatase could be one of the therapeutic targets of lithium. This hypothesis was supported by the low Ki of lithium for human pAp-phosphatase compatible within the range of therapeutic concentrations of lithium in the plasma of people (0.8–1 mM). The Ki of human pAp-phosphatase is ten times lower than that of GSK3β (glycogen synthase kinase 3β). Inhibition of pAp-phosphatase by lithium leads to increased levels of pAp (3′-5′ phosphoadenosine phosphate), which was shown to inhibit PARP-1.

Another mechanism proposed in 2007 is that lithium may interact with nitric oxide (NO) signalling pathway in the central nervous system, which plays a crucial role in neural plasticity. The NO system could be involved in the antidepressant effect of lithium in the Porsolt forced swimming test in mice. It was also reported that NMDA receptor blockage augments antidepressant-like effects of lithium in the mouse forced swimming test, indicating the possible involvement of NMDA receptor/NO signaling in the action of lithium in this animal model of learned helplessness.

Lithium possesses neuroprotective properties by preventing apoptosis and increasing cell longevity.

Although the search for a novel lithium-specific receptor is ongoing, the high concentration of lithium compounds required to elicit a significant pharmacological effect leads mainstream researchers to believe that the existence of such a receptor is unlikely.

Oxidative metabolism
Evidence suggests that mitochondrial dysfunction is present in patients with bipolar disorder.
Oxidative stress and reduced levels of anti-oxidants (such as glutathione) lead to cell death. Lithium may protect against oxidative stress by up-regulating complex I and II of the mitochondrial electron transport chain.

Dopamine and G-protein coupling
During mania, there is an increase in neurotransmission of dopamine that causes a secondary homeostatic down-regulation, resulting in decreased neurotransmission of dopamine, which can cause depression.  Additionally, the post-synaptic actions of dopamine are mediated through G-protein coupled receptors. Once dopamine is coupled to the G-protein receptors, it stimulates other secondary messenger systems that modulate neurotransmission. Studies found that in autopsies (which do not necessarily reflect living people), people with bipolar disorder had increased G-protein coupling compared to people without bipolar disorder. Lithium treatment alters the function of certain subunits of the dopamine associated G-protein, which may be part of its mechanism of action.

Glutamate and NMDA receptors
Glutamate levels are observed to be elevated during mania. Lithium is thought to provide long-term mood stabilization and have anti-manic properties by modulating glutamate levels. It is proposed that lithium competes with magnesium for binding to NMDA glutamate receptor,  increasing the availability of glutamate in post-synaptic neurons, leading to a homeostatic increase in glutamate re-uptake which reduces glutamatergic transmission.
The NMDA receptor is also affected by other neurotransmitters such as serotonin and dopamine. Effects observed appear exclusive to lithium and have not been observed by other monovalent ions such as rubidium and caesium.

GABA receptors
GABA is an inhibitory neurotransmitter that plays an important role in regulating dopamine and glutamate neurotransmission. It was found that patients with bipolar disorder had lower GABA levels, which results in excitotoxicity and can cause apoptosis (cell loss). Lithium has been shown to increase the level of GABA in plasma and cerebral spinal fluid. Lithium counteracts these degrading processes by decreasing pro-apoptotic proteins and stimulating release of neuroprotective proteins. Lithium's regulation of both excitatory dopaminergic and glutamatergic systems through GABA may play a role in its mood stabilizing effects.

Cyclic AMP secondary messengers
Lithium's therapeutic effects are thought to be partially attributable to its interactions with several signal transduction mechanisms. The cyclic AMP secondary messenger system is shown to be modulated by lithium. Lithium was found to increase the basal levels of cyclic AMP but impair receptor coupled stimulation of cyclic AMP production. It is hypothesized that the dual effects of lithium are due to the inhibition of G-proteins that mediate cyclic AMP production. Over a long period of lithium treatment, cyclic AMP and adenylate cyclase levels are further changed by gene transcription factors.

Inositol depletion hypothesis
Lithium treatment has been found to inhibit the enzyme inositol monophosphatase, involved in degrading inositol monophosphate to inositol required in PIP2 synthesis. This leads to lower levels of inositol triphosphate, created by decomposition of PIP2. This effect has been suggested to be further enhanced with an inositol triphosphate reuptake inhibitor. Inositol disruptions have been linked to memory impairment and depression. It is known with good certainty that signals from the receptors coupled to the phosphoinositide signal transduction are affected by lithium. myo-inositol is also regulated by the high affinity sodium mI transport system (SMIT). Lithium is hypothesized to inhibit mI entering the cells and mitigating the function of SMIT. Reductions of cellular levels of myo-inositol results in the inhibition of the phosphoinositide cycle.

Neurotrophic Factors
Various neurotrophic factors such as BDNF and mesencephalic astrocyte-derived neurotrophic factor have been shown to be modulated by various mood stabilizers.

History
Lithium was first used in the 19th century as a treatment for gout after scientists discovered that, at least in the laboratory, lithium could dissolve uric acid crystals isolated from the kidneys. The levels of lithium needed to dissolve urate in the body, however, were toxic. Because of prevalent theories linking excess uric acid to a range of disorders, including depressive and manic disorders, Carl Lange in Denmark and William Alexander Hammond in New York City used lithium to treat mania from the 1870s onwards.

By the turn of the 20th century, as theory regarding mood disorders evolved and so-called "brain gout" disappeared as a medical entity, the use of lithium in psychiatry was largely abandoned; however, a number of lithium preparations were still produced for the control of renal calculi and uric acid diathesis. As accumulating knowledge indicated a role for excess sodium intake in hypertension and heart disease, lithium salts were prescribed to patients for use as a replacement for dietary table salt (sodium chloride). This practice and the sale of lithium itself were both banned in the United States in February 1949, following publication of reports detailing side effects and deaths.

Also in 1949, the Australian psychiatrist John Cade and Australian biochemist Shirley Andrews rediscovered the usefulness of lithium salts in treating mania while working at the Royal Park Psychiatric Hospital in Victoria. They were injecting rodents with urine extracts taken from manic patients in an attempt to isolate a metabolic compound which might be causing mental symptoms. Since uric acid in gout was known to be psychoactive, (adenosine receptors on neurons are stimulated by it; caffeine blocks them), they needed soluble urate for a control. They used lithium urate, already known to be the most soluble urate compound, and observed that it caused the rodents to become tranquil. Cade and Andrews traced the effect to the lithium ion itself, and after Cade ingested lithium himself to ensure its safety in humans, he proposed lithium salts as tranquilizers. He soon succeeded in controlling mania in chronically hospitalized patients with them. This was one of the first successful applications of a drug to treat mental illness, and it opened the door for the development of medicines for other mental problems in the next decades.

The rest of the world was slow to adopt this treatment, largely because of deaths which resulted from even relatively minor overdosing, including those reported from use of lithium chloride as a substitute for table salt. Largely through the research and other efforts of Denmark's Mogens Schou and Paul Baastrup in Europe, and Samuel Gershon and Baron Shopsin in the U.S., this resistance was slowly overcome. Following the recommendation of the APA Lithium Task Force (William Bunney, Irvin Cohen (Chair), Jonathan Cole, Ronald R. Fieve, Samuel Gershon, Robert Prien, and Joseph Tupin), the application of lithium in manic illness was approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration in 1970, becoming the 50th nation to do so. In 1974, this application was extended to its use as a preventive agent for manic-depressive illness.

Fieve, who had opened the first lithium clinic in North America in 1966, helped popularize the psychiatric use of lithium through his national TV appearances and his bestselling book, Moodswing. In addition, Fieve and David L. Dunner developed the concept of "rapid cycling" bipolar disorder based on non-response to lithium.

Lithium has now become a part of Western popular culture. Characters in Pi,  Premonition, Stardust Memories,  American Psycho, Garden State, and An Unmarried Woman all take lithium. It's the chief constituent of the calming drug in Ira Levin's dystopian This Perfect Day. Sirius XM Satellite Radio in North America has a 1990s alternative rock station called Lithium, and several songs refer to the use of lithium as a mood stabilizer. These include: "Equilibrium met Lithium" by South African artist Koos Kombuis, "Lithium" by Evanescence, "Lithium" by Nirvana, "Lithium and a Lover" by Sirenia, "Lithium Sunset", from the album Mercury Falling by Sting, and "Lithium" by Thin White Rope.

7 Up

As with cocaine in Coca-Cola, lithium was widely marketed as one of a number of patent medicine products popular in the late-19th and early-20th centuries, and was the medicinal ingredient of a refreshment beverage. Charles Leiper Grigg, who launched his St. Louis-based company The Howdy Corporation, invented a formula for a lemon-lime soft drink in 1920. The product, originally named "Bib-Label Lithiated Lemon-Lime Soda", was launched two weeks before the Wall Street Crash of 1929. It contained the mood stabilizer lithium citrate, and was one of a number of patent medicine products popular in the late-19th and early-20th centuries. Its name was soon changed to 7 Up. All American beverage makers were forced to remove lithium in 1948.  Despite the 1948 ban, in 1950 the Painesville Telegraph still carried an advertisement for a lithiated lemon beverage.

Salts and product names
Many different lithium salts can be used as medication, including lithium carbonate, lithium acetate, lithium sulfate, lithium citrate, lithium orotate and lithium gluconate.

Lithium carbonate (), sold under several trade names, is the most commonly prescribed, while lithium citrate () is also used in conventional pharmacological treatments. Lithium orotate (), has been presented as an alternative. Lithium bromide and lithium chloride have been used in the past as table salt; however, they fell out of use in the 1940s, when it was discovered they were toxic in those large doses. Many other lithium salts and compounds exist, such as lithium fluoride and lithium iodide, but they are presumed to be as toxic or more so than the chloride and have never been evaluated for pharmacological effects.

As of 2017 lithium was marketed under many brand names worldwide, including Cade, Calith, Camcolit, Carbolim, Carbolit, Carbolith, Carbolithium, Carbolitium, Carbonato de Litio, Carboron, Ceglution, Contemnol, D-Gluconsäure, Lithiumsalz, Efadermin (Lithium and Zinc Sulfate), Efalith (Lithium and Zinc Sulfate), Elcab, Eskalit, Eskalith, Frimania, Hypnorex, Kalitium, Karlit, Lalithium, Li-Liquid, Licarb, Licarbium, Lidin, Ligilin, Lilipin, Lilitin, Limas, Limed, Liskonum, Litarex, Lithane, Litheum, Lithicarb, Lithii carbonas, Lithii citras, Lithioderm, Lithiofor, Lithionit, Lithium, Lithium aceticum, Lithium asparagicum, Lithium Carbonate, Lithium Carbonicum, Lithium Citrate, Lithium DL-asparaginat-1-Wasser, Lithium gluconicum, Lithium-D-gluconat, Lithiumcarbonaat, Lithiumcarbonat, Lithiumcitrat, Lithiun, Lithobid, Lithocent, Lithotabs, Lithuril, Litiam, Liticarb, Litijum, Litio, Litiomal, Lito, Litocarb, Litocip, Maniprex, Milithin, Neurolepsin, Plenur, Priadel, Prianil, Prolix, Psicolit, Quilonium, Quilonorm, Quilonum, Téralithe, and Theralite.

Research

Tentative evidence in Alzheimer's disease showed that lithium may slow progression. It has been studied for its potential use in the treatment of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), but a study showed lithium had no effect on ALS outcomes.

See also
 Lithia water
 Sodium in biology

References

Further reading

External links

Biology and pharmacology of chemical elements
Drugs with unknown mechanisms of action
Lithium
Lithium in biology
Metal-containing drugs
Mood stabilizers
Nephrotoxins
World Health Organization essential medicines
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Lithium (medication)


Pope John XVIII (; died June or July 1009) was the bishop of Rome and nominal ruler of the Papal States from January 1004 (25 December 1003 NS) to his abdication in July 1009. He wielded little temporal power, ruling during the struggle between John Crescentius and Emperor Henry II for the control of Rome.

Family
John was born to the Fasano family in Rome. His father was a priest, either named Leo according to Johann Peter Kirsch, or Ursus according to Horace K Mann.

Pontificate
John owed his election to the influence and power of the Crescentii clan. During his whole pontificate, he was allegedly subordinate to the head of the Crescentii, who controlled Rome, the patricius (an aristocratic military leader) John Crescentius III. This period was disrupted by continuing conflicts between the Ottonian Emperor Henry II and Arduin of Ivrea, who had claimed the Kingdom of Italy in 1002 after the death of Emperor Otto III. Rome was wracked with bouts of plague, and Saracens operated freely out of the Emirate of Sicily ravaging the Tyrrhenian coasts.

As pope, John XVIII occupied his time mainly with details of ecclesiastical administration. He authorized a new Diocese of Bamberg to serve as a base for missionary activity among the Slavs, a concern of Henry II. He also adjudicated the over-reaching of the bishops of Sens and Orléans regarding the privileges of the abbot of Fleury. John was successful in creating, at least temporarily, a rapprochement between the Eastern and Western churches. His name could be found on Eastern diptychs and he was prayed for in Masses in Constantinople.

John XVIII abdicated in July 1009 and, according to one catalogue of popes, retired to a monastery, where he died shortly afterwards. His successor was Pope Sergius IV.

References

Sources

1009 deaths
People from the Province of Fermo
Popes
Italian popes
11th-century archbishops
Year of birth unknown
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11th-century popes

Pope John XVIII


John Bowen LL.D. (21 November 1815 – 2 June 1859) was an Anglican bishop in Sierra Leone.

Bowen, son of Thomas Bowen, captain in the 85th regiment, by his third wife, Mary, daughter of the Rev. John Evans, chaplain to the garrison at Placentia, Newfoundland, was born at Court, near Fishguard, Pembrokeshire. At twelve years of age he was sent to school at Merlin's Vale, near Haverfordwest, and in 1830 continued his studies at the same place under the care of the Rev. David Adams. He entered Trinity College, Dublin in 1840.

He emigrated to Canada in April 1835, and took a farm at Dunnville, Ontario, on the shores of Lake Erie, where, during the rebellion of 1837–8, he served in the militia. On Sunday, 6 March 1842, he heard a sermon in the church at Lakeshore, Ontario, which made a great impression on his mind, and ultimately led to a desire to prepare himself for the ministerial office.

A favourable opportunity having occurred for disposing of his farm advantageously, he returned to England, and in January 1843 entered himself at Trinity College, Dublin, where he graduated B.A. in 1847, and became LL.B. and LL.D. ten years later.

Ecclesiastic career
His first appointment was to the assistant-curacy of Knaresborough, Yorkshire, in 1848. While residing here he asked the Church Missionary Society to allow him to visit their numerous foreign stations. The society suggested that he should proceed to Jerusalem, there to confer with Bishop Gobat, and then to visit the missionary stations at Syra, Smyrna, and Cairo; afterwards to journey to Mount Lebanon, Nablous, and other places in Syria, and thence to proceed to Mosul by Constantinople and Trebizond, returning by Bagdad and Damascus to Jerusalem. All this he accomplished, going through many hardships and dangers, and returning to England in December 1851.

In 1853 he was named, by the Marquis of Huntly, rector of Orton-Longueville with Botolph Bridge in Huntingdonshire. Having obtained permission from his bishop, he again left England in September 1854, and was absent in the East until July 1856. He had by this time made such good use of his opportunities for the study of Arabic, that he was able to preach with fluency in that difficult language.

Bishop of Sierra Leone

He was consecrated bishop of Sierra Leone on 21 September by John Bird Sumner, the Archbishop of Canterbury, George Davys, the Bishop of Peterborough and George Smith  Bishop of Victoria.

On 24 November 1857, he married Catharine Butler, second daughter of Dr. George Butler, dean of Peterborough. They sailed for Sierra leone two days later. However their stay there was brief. His wife died at Freetown, after giving birth to a stillborn son, on 4 August 1858. The bishop died the following year. He had recovered from several attacks of yellow fever. However a malignant fever broke out in the colony, of which he died. He had occupied the see two years and five months.

His sister edited The Memorials of John Bowen primarily composed of his letters and journals.

References

1815 births
1859 deaths
People from Fishguard
19th-century Anglican bishops in Sierra Leone
English Anglican missionaries
Anglican missionaries in Sierra Leone
Deaths from yellow fever
Infectious disease deaths in Sierra Leone
Anglican bishops of Sierra Leone
Burials in Sierra Leone

John Bowen (bishop)


RiverSculpture! are public art displays found along the Milwaukee Riverwalk in downtown Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Information kiosks stationed near each presentation offer self-guided walking tours of this annual outdoor exhibition.

Description
Each year, new sculpture pieces are unveiled at the opening of RiverSplash!,  a three-day summer festival held annually along the Milwaukee River, until the festival's cancellation  prior to the 2010 festival. The 2009 exhibition featured 15 unique contemporary sculptures from various artists, which are positioned at locations between Wisconsin Avenue and Cherry Street.

 Limitation Series: Bowls by Paul Sebben, 1993
 Epiphanic Recurve Redux by Bilhenry Walker, 1995
 Laureate by Seymour Lipton, 1969
 Acqua Grylli by Beth Sahagian, 2001
 Pere Jacques Marquette restored by Tom Queoff, 1987
 Trigon by Allen Ditson, 1970
 Victoria by Jim Agard, 2001
 Round Ring by John Ready, 2009
 Dream with the Fishes for Aurora by Cork Marcheschi, 1998
 Gertie the Duck by Gwendolyn Gillen, 1997
 Octagonal Ring by John Ready, 2009
 Dancing Through Life by Schomer Lichtner, 2003
 Gertie Gets Her Ducks in a Row by Benjamin Rothschild, 2007
 You Rise Above The World by Richard Taylor, 1999
 The Manpower Sculpture Collection

History
In 1998, seven sculptors from Wisconsin were selected by a committee of educators, artists, business people and architects, to lend artworks for installation along the Milwaukee River. The first installment included: Stephen Feren's OK Ready for Zora, Narendra Patel's Cuculidae, Bilhenry Walker's Epiphanic Recurve Redux, John Richardson's Dura-Membrane, Claire Lieberman's Riversponge, Thomas Uebelherr's Bath Tub Madonna, and Peter Flanary's Island. An initial 30,000 brochures were printed to describe each piece and give locations to the various sculptures, which also included permanent sculptures by Seymour Lipton, Allen Ditson and Gwendolyn Gillen. The sculptures are intended to be on loan for one year, but the artists or owners of the artworks have allowed for longer displays, and a few are owned by the Milwaukee Riverwalk District which organizes the exhibit.

Since its first presentation, RiverSculpture! has displayed works by more than 75 sculptors, and includes 12 permanent sculptures. John Ready's River Gems Urban Jewelry Collection which was created from items of daily life was the featured installation of 2009. The entire multi-piece sculpture exhibit will be on display through October 2010.

References

External links
 RiverSculpture! 2009

Outdoor sculptures in Milwaukee

RiverSculpture!


The Mullum Mullum Creek Linear Park is located east of Melbourne, Australia in the suburbs of Doncaster East and Donvale. It stretches for roughly 9 km along the western banks of the Mullum Mullum Creek between Heidelberg-Warrandyte Road and The Eastlink Trail. Facilities include sealed pathways, barbecues and shelters. Other features include, bush walking tracks, trails and equestrian trails. Throughout much of the 1990s, extensive regenerative planting was conducted throughout the entire length of the park; this has restored much of the native riparian bushland within the park, most prominently the Mullum Mullum Wetlands.

Recreation

Cycling is popular in the park, which hosts part of the northern section of the Mullum Mullum Creek Trail. The park sprawls out into residential housing and is linked to some surrounding roads directly or via other parks, where the park crosses major roads; these are indicated in bold:
Heidelberg-Warrandyte Road
Deep Creek Drive
Larnoo Drive
Reynolds Road
Parklands Close
Jolen Court
Baradine Terrace
Springvale Road
Tindals Road

Surrounding Parklands
The park adjoins other parks surrounding the Mullum Mullum Creek:
Buck Reserve (equestrian facilities)
Mullum Mullum Reserve (hockey, bowls, tennis)
 Currawong Bush Park
Deep Creek Reserve (baseball)

Access

Busses run along Heidelberg-Warrandyte Road (numbers 154, 155, 156, 159, 304, 364) and Reynolds Road (number 154). There are carparks at Heidelberg-Warrandyte Road, Reynolds Road and Tindals Road each either a capacity of 10-20 cars. The Mullum Mullum Creek Trail provides cycling and pedestrian access.

Parks in Melbourne
City of Manningham

Mullum Mullum Creek Linear Park


Michael Andrew Murphy (born 29 November 1973 in Brisbane, Queensland) is a former Olympic diver for Australia. He was an Australian Institute of Sport scholarship holder. Murphy competed twice at the Olympic Games (in 1992 and 1996), placing 4th in the 3-metre springboard event at the 1992 Games in Barcelona.

Murphy also represented Australia twice at the Commonwealth Games (in 1990 and 1994), winning two gold medals and one silver medal at the 1994 Games in Victoria (Canada). After retiring from competitive diving, Murphy served as both a Board Member and National Team Selector for Diving Australia. In recognition of his contribution to the sporting community, he was awarded the Australian Sports Medal (an Australian federal government honour) in 2000.

Murphy completed his undergraduate studies at Bond University, where he gained a Bachelor of Commerce (BCom) and a Bachelor of Laws with Honours (LLB (Hons)). He was winner of both the Sir Robert Gordon Menzies Scholarship to Harvard, and the Macquarie Bank Graduate Management Scholarship.  He holds a Master of Business Administration (MBA) from Harvard Business School. He is currently a managing director with Bain Capital, and was previously a management consultant with Bain & Company.

References

External links

Living people
1973 births
Divers at the 1990 Commonwealth Games
Divers at the 1992 Summer Olympics
Divers at the 1994 Commonwealth Games
Divers at the 1996 Summer Olympics
Olympic divers for Australia
Bond University alumni
Harvard Business School alumni
Australian Institute of Sport divers
Commonwealth Games gold medallists for Australia
Sportspeople from Brisbane
Australian male divers
Commonwealth Games silver medallists for Australia
Commonwealth Games medallists in diving
Medallists at the 1994 Commonwealth Games
Sportsmen from Queensland

Michael Murphy (diver)


MB, Mb, mB or mb may mean:
 Megabit (1,000,000 bits), preferred symbols Mb
 Megabyte (1,000,000 bytes), preferred symbol MB
 Mebibyte (220 = 1,048,576 bytes), preferred symbol MiB

MB may mean:
 Bachelor of Medicine, an academic degree (Latin Medicinae Baccleureus)
 MacBook, an Apple Computer
 Manitoba (Canadian Province/Territory Code)
 Maribor, a city in Slovenia
 Martinique: FIPS PUB 10-4 territory code
 Medal of Bravery (Canadian decoration post-nominal letters)
 Mercedes-Benz, a German brand of automobiles, buses, coaches and trucks
 Motherboard

Mb may mean:
 Myoglobin, a type of protein chain

mb may mean:
 Millibar, a unit of pressure. Sometimes written as mBar.

MB


Solomon Airlines is the national airline of Solomon Islands, based in Honiara.

History
Solomon Airlines was established in 1962 as a charter airline by Laurie Crowley. Crowley had a charter operation in Papua New Guinea with occasional charter flights to the Solomons using a single Piper Aztec. As no commercial aircraft were based in Solomon Islands, Crowley decided to start an airline and called it Megapode Airlines.

Papua New Guinea-based Macair purchased Megapode in 1968, and changed the airline's name to Solomon Islands Airways, with the acronym of SOLAIR, and changed the operation from a charter airline to a regular schedule. Under Macair, SOLAIR served the island of Bougainville, Papua New Guinea, with two De Havilland Doves and two Beechcraft Barons.

In 1975, Macair (including its SOLAIR subsidiary) were bought by Dennis Buchanan, owner of Talair in Papua New Guinea, and in 1976, the airline received two Beechcraft Queen Air 80 airplanes. At the time, the Solomon Islands Government bought 49 percent of the airline's shares and with rights to purchase the remaining 51 percent by the next five years.

For the next five years, growth was slow but steady. A brand new Fairchild Swearingen Metroliner was bought, and services were established to Vanuatu.

In 1984 the Government decided to purchase all of the airline's remaining shares, and two De Havilland Canada DHC-6 Twin Otters and one Embraer EMB 110 Bandeirante were leased from Talair. Soon after full Government take-over, the three leased planes were returned. In 1987, the sale of the airline and its assets Pacific Car Rental (a subsidiary of Avis) and the tour company Hunts of the Pacific, were completed.

The new ownership was met with skepticism and distrust by airline workers, and many trained personnel left the company, including some on the managerial level. The government was faced with the task of rebuilding the airline, and it started doing so by investing 2 million dollars to buy two DHC-6-300 Twin Otters. Soon, a new livery was introduced, and the name was changed to "Solomon Airlines" officially.

A joint venture with Qantas followed, and then Solomon Airlines entered the jet age by leasing a Boeing 737 from Air Pacific. Solomon Airlines and Air Pacific soon also made a joint venture, but when Air Pacific announced in 1989 it was planning to substitute its Boeing 737 with a Boeing 767 to upgrade international services, Solomon Airlines was forced to lease one from another company, and so it decided on leasing a 737 owned by International Lease Finance Corporation. Since then, the airline has operated with leased 737s alongside its own turbo-props.

In 1999, after ethnic violence broke out in the Solomons, the United Nations imposed sanctions which severely damaged the airline's international operations, and at one point, the airline was forced to retain only is scheduled services to Brisbane. Since the end of the conflict, the airline has reestablished its international network.

In November 2006, Solomon Airlines obtained a Boeing B737-300 aircraft including pilots and cabin crew, leased by the Spanish AirClass Airways.

For the months of January and February 2009, Solomon Airlines leased a De Havilland Canada Dash 8 seating 40, from Vincent Aviation of Wellington, New Zealand while one of its Twin Otter aircraft was undergoing heavy maintenance at Honiara.

In August 2009, Solomon Airlines obtained an Airbus A320-200 aircraft including pilots, leased by Strategic Airlines. When the lease with Strategic Airlines expired Solomon Airlines acquired an Airbus A320-211 and obtained its own Air Operators Certificate.

On 7 June 2016 Solomon Airlines suspended all operations, including international and domestic flights and ground operations, stranding passengers at Honiara. The airline's CEO, Ron Sum Sum, said that the grounding was caused by the government's failure to pay millions of dollars in arrears. The airline resumed operations two days later.

On May 12 2023, CEO Gus Kraus confirmed that the airline was looking to acquire a second A320-200 to expand services and cater to an expected increase in demand from the 2023 Pacific Games to be held in Honiara later in the year.

Destinations
Solomon Airlines currently operates regular return services from Honiara to Brisbane-Australia, Nadi-Fiji (own aircraft & codeshare), Port Vila, Vanuatu (own aircraft & codeshare), Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea (codeshare only), and Tarawa, Kiribati.

Solomon Airlines also operates an extensive domestic network around Solomon Islands.

Current destinations

Livery
The airline's original livery consisted of an overall white fuselage, with a cheatline extending up onto the vertical fin in colours mirroring those of the national flag.  The vertical fin was mainly royal blue, with five white stars prominently displayed.  The single word "Solomons" was carried above the window line forward, along with the national flag.

With the acquisition of the Airbus A320 in 2011 a decision was made to "refresh" the livery. The new livery consists of an all-white fuselage with the single word "Solomons" carried above the forward windows and "Spirit of Solomons" in grey below the forward window line. The tail and winglets have a stylised version of the national flag. The underside of the fuselage has a large white flysolomons.com on a blue background.

Fleet

, the Solomon Airlines fleet comprises the following aircraft:

Historical fleet
In the past, Solomon Airlines operated:
Boeing 737-200
Boeing 737-300
Boeing 737-400
Embraer 170

Codeshare agreements
Solomon Airlines has codeshare agreements with the following airlines:

 Air Kiribati
 Air Niugini
 Air Vanuatu
 Fiji Airways
 Qantas

Accidents
Solomon Airlines have lost two aircraft during their history. These were a BN-2A Islander in 1978 near Bellona Island and a DH6 Twin Otter in 1991 over Guadalcanal, resulting in 26 fatalities.

References

External links

Solomon Airlines
Solomon Airlines UK

Airlines of the Solomon Islands
Airlines established in 1962
Government-owned airlines
1962 establishments in the United Kingdom

Solomon Airlines


Raynold Edward Acre (1889–1966) was a member of the Early Birds of Aviation, a small group of pilots that flew before World War I.

Biography
He was born on July 16, 1889, in Auburn, New York, to David Acre and Anna Forgette.

Acre's first flight was in a Montgomery tandem-wing glider replica at Daytona Beach, Florida, in 1909.

He married Anne M. Schatz (1894-1967) in 1910 and they had a son, Harry Raymond Acre (1911–1984).

In 1910 Acre was living in a tent outside the Hawthorne Race Track in Chicago, Illinois. Acre and Edward Andrews (aviator) worked on a 1905 glider built by John Joseph Montgomery, fitted with a 12 hp Bates engine. Victor Loughead and his half brother Allan Haines Loughead were licensed distributors of Montgomery gliders with Chicago auto dealer James E. Plew as a client. They also purchased a 30 hp Curtiss pusher which Acre was able to fly after Allen.

In 1928 Acre was working with Air Associates Inc, an exclusive east coast distributor of Lockheed aircraft. Acre flew as a passenger in the 1928 National Air Tour demonstrating the new Lockheed Vega. Acre became vice president in 1941 following a rare wartime government seizure by Franklin D. Roosevelt during a C.I.O strike. Acre stayed in the position through World War II. He remained active as a general aviation pilot, owning and flying a Beechcraft Bonanza.

He died on January 16, 1966, in Los Angeles, California.

References

External links

Members of the Early Birds of Aviation
1966 deaths
1889 births
Aviation pioneers
Aviation history of the United States
Aviators from New York (state)
American glider pilots
People from Auburn, New York

Raynold E. Acre


Sir Peter Thomas Blake  (born 25 June 1932) is an English pop artist. He co-created the sleeve design for the Beatles' 1967 album Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band. His other works include the covers for two of The Who's albums, the cover of the Band Aid single "Do They Know It's Christmas?", and the Live Aid concert poster. Blake also designed the 2012 Brit Award statuette.

Blake is a prominent figure in the pop art movement. Central to his paintings are his interest in images from popular culture which have infused his collages. In 2002 he was knighted at Buckingham Palace for his services to art.

Early life
Peter Blake was born in Dartford, Kent, on 25 June 1932. He was educated at the Gravesend Technical College school of art, and the Royal College of Art.

Career

From the late 1950s, Blake's paintings included imagery from advertisements, music hall entertainment, and wrestlers, often including collaged elements. Blake was included in group exhibitions at the Institute of Contemporary Arts. In the "Young Contemporaries" exhibition of 1961 in which he exhibited alongside David Hockney and R. B. Kitaj, he was first identified with the emerging British Pop Art movement. Blake won the (1961) John Moores junior award for Self Portrait with Badges. He came to wider public attention when, along with Pauline Boty, Derek Boshier and Peter Phillips, he featured in Ken Russell's Monitor film on pop art, Pop Goes the Easel, broadcast on BBC television in 1962.  From 1963, Blake was represented by Robert Fraser placing him at the centre of Swinging London and bringing him into contact with leading figures of popular culture. Blake had his first solo exhibition with Robert Fraser Gallery in 1965 and appeared on the front cover of LIFE International in a photograph by Lord Snowdon. Blake was given the final exhibition held at Robert Fraser Gallery which closed in 1969. The same year, Blake had his first exhibition with Waddington Galleries, owned by Leslie Waddington who became his lifelong supporter and representative. In 1999, Blake painted Leslie Waddington with Portrait of a Young Man by Hans Memling.

Blake participated in Prince Edward's charity television special The Grand Knockout Tournament in 1987.

Work
On the Balcony (1955–1957) is a significant early work which remains an iconic piece of British Pop Art, showing Blake's interest in combining images from pop culture with fine art. The work, which appears to be a collage but is wholly painted, shows, among other things, a boy on the left of the composition holding Édouard Manet's The Balcony, badges and magazines. It was inspired by a painting by Honoré Sharrer depicting workers holding famous paintings, Workers and Paintings. At the "Pop Art in Changing Britain" exhibit and as reported by The Telegraph on 21 February 2018, his Girls with Their Hero, a 1959 painting of facets of Elvis Presley was said to have "fashioned a highly personal form of Pop Art, infused by nostalgia for Victoriana and a long-lost world of native pastimes". Blake has referred to the work of other artists many times. His Captain Webb Matchbox, based on a Bryant & May matchbox design featuring the first man to swim the Channel unaided, is another of his early works in the pop art movement. Another example, The First Real Target (1961) a standard archery target with the title written across the top is a play on paintings of targets by Kenneth Noland and Jasper Johns.

Blake has been commissioned to create many album sleeves. He designed the sleeve for Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band with his wife Jann Haworth, the American-born artist whom he married in 1963 and divorced in 1979. The Sgt. Pepper's sleeve has become an iconic work of pop art, much imitated and Blake's best-known work. Producing the collage necessitated the construction of a set with cut-out photographs and objects, such as flowers, centred on a drum (sold in auction in 2008) with the title of the album. Blake has subsequently complained about the one-off fee he received for the design (£200), with no subsequent royalties. Blake made sleeves for the Band Aid single, "Do They Know It's Christmas?" (1984), Paul Weller's Stanley Road (1995) and the Ian Dury tribute album Brand New Boots and Panties (2001; Blake was Dury's tutor at Walthamstow School of Art in the early 60s). He designed the sleeves for Pentangle's Sweet Child, The Who's Face Dances (1981), which features portraits of the band by a number of artists, and 38 years later, The Who's WHO (2019).

In 1968, commissioned by Dodo Editions, Blake made Babe Rainbow, a screen-print on tinplate, in an edition of 10,000, which sold for £1 each.

In 1969, Blake left London to live near Bath. His work changed direction to feature scenes based on English Folklore and characters from Shakespeare. In the early 1970s, he made a set of watercolour paintings to illustrate Lewis Carroll's Through the Looking-Glass using a young artist, Celia Wanless, as the model for Alice and in 1975 he was a founder of the Brotherhood of Ruralists. Blake moved back to London in 1979 and his work returned to earlier popular culture references.

In 1990 and 1991, Blake painted the artwork to Eric Clapton's 1991 million-selling live album 24 Nights. A scrapbook featuring all of Blake's drawing was later released. In January 1992, Blake appeared on BBC2's acclaimed Arena Masters of the Canvas documentary and painted the portrait of the wrestler Kendo Nagasaki.

In June 2006, as The Who returned to play Leeds University 36 years after recording their seminal Live at Leeds album in 1970, Blake unveiled a Live at Leeds 2 artwork to commemorate the event. The artist and The Who's Pete Townshend signed an edition which will join the gallery's collection. More recently, Blake has created artist's editions for the opening of the Pallant House Gallery which houses collections of his most famous paintings. The works are homages to his earlier work on the Stanley Road album cover and Babe Rainbow prints. He designed a series of deck chairs.

In 2006, Blake designed the cover for Oasis greatest hits album Stop the Clocks. According to Blake, he chose all of the objects in the picture at random, but the sleeves of Sgt. Pepper's and Definitely Maybe were in the back of his mind. He claims, "It's using the mystery of Definitely Maybe and running away with it." Familiar cultural icons which can be seen on the cover include Dorothy from Wizard of Oz, Michael Caine (replacing the original image of Marilyn Monroe, which could not be used for legal reasons) and the seven dwarfs from Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs. Blake revealed that the final cover wasn't the original which featured an image of the shop 'Granny Takes a Trip' on the Kings Road in Chelsea, London.

Blake created an updated version of Sgt. Pepper—with famous figures from Liverpool history—for the campaign for Liverpool to become European Capital of Culture in 2008, and created a series of prints to celebrate Liverpool's status. In 2008, Blake painted a pig for the public art event King Bladud's Pigs in Bath in the city of Bath.

A fan of Chelsea Football Club, Blake designed a collage to promote the team's home kit in 2010. He also designed a shopping bag for the Lucky Brand Jeans company for the holiday season.

As part of 'The Big Egg Hunt' February 2012 Sir Peter Blake designed an egg on behalf of Dorchester Collection. Blake created the carpet which runs through the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom's Middlesex Guildhall building.

As he approached his 80th birthday, Blake undertook a project to recreate the Sgt. Pepper album cover with images of British cultural icons of his life that he most admires. He stated: "I had a very long list of people who I wanted to go in but couldn't fit everyone in – I think that shows how strong British culture and its legacy of the last six decades is." The new version was created for a special birthday celebration of Blake's life at fashion designer Wayne Hemingway's Vintage festival at Boughton House, Northamptonshire in July 2012.

An exhibition was held at Pallant House Gallery in Chichester to celebrate the artist's long associations with music called Peter Blake and Pop Music (23 June to 7 October 2012). In 2014, he exhibited his illustrations inspired by Under Milk Wood at National Museum Cardiff. In 2016, Blake designed the artwork for Eric Clapton's studio album I Still Do.

In March 2020, Blake's poster London Stands Together was distributed in every copy of London's Evening Standard newspaper.

Honours
Blake became a Royal Academician in 1981. He was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the 1983 Birthday Honours and Knight Bachelor in the 2002 Birthday Honours for his services to art. Blake was knighted by Prince Charles in an investiture ceremony at Buckingham Palace. Retrospectives of Blake's work were held at the Tate in 1983 and Tate Liverpool in 2008. In February 2005, the Sir Peter Blake Music Art Gallery, located in the School of Music, University of Leeds, was opened by the artist. The permanent exhibition features 20 examples of Blake's album sleeve art, including the only public showing of a signed print of his Sgt. Pepper's artwork.

In March 2011, Blake was awarded an honorary DMus from the University of Leeds, and marked by the public unveiling of his artwork for the Boogie For Stu album. On 18 July 2011, Blake was awarded an honorary degree for Doctor of Art from Nottingham Trent University. In 2014 he was made an honorary academician at the Royal West of England Academy, Bristol.

Solo exhibitions
source:
 1962 Portal Gallery, London
 1965 Robert Fraser Gallery, London
 1977 Waddington and Tooth Galleries, London
1983 Tate Gallery, London
1987 Watermans Art Centre, Brentford and Turnpike Gallery, Leigh
1996 Now We Are 64: Peter Blake at the National Gallery, The National Gallery, London
2000 Peter Blake: About Collage, Tate Liverpool
2005 1 to 10 (Collages, Constructions, Drawings & Sculpture) & The Marcel Duchamp Paintings, Waddington Galleries, London
2007 Peter Blake: A Retrospective, Tate Liverpool and Museo de Bellas Artes de Bilbao, Spain
2011 Peter Blake: A Museum for Myself, Holburne Museum, Bath
2013 Llareggub: Peter Blake Illustrates Dylan Thomas's Under Milk Wood, National Museum, Cardiff
2015 Peter Blake: Portraits and People, Waddington Custot Galleries, London
2018 Peter Blake: A Life in Drawings and Watercolours, Waddington Custot, London
2019 Peter Blake: The Artist's Studio, Garth Greenan Gallery, New York
2021 Peter Blake: Time Traveller, Waddington Custot, London

Personal life
Blake was married to the American-born artist Jann Haworth from 1963 to 1979, and they had two daughters together, Liberty and Daisy. In 1980, Blake met fellow artist Chrissy Wilson, they married in 1987, and have a daughter, Rose.

Blake has lived in Chiswick, London, since 1967. His "vast" studio there is a former ironmonger's warehouse.

Bibliography
 1983: Peter Blake by Michael Compton, Nicholas Usherwood and Robert Melville (art critic) (Tate Gallery)
1986: Peter Blake by Marina Vaizey (Weidenfeld & Nicolson)
 1991: 24 Nights by Eric Clapton – scrapbook by Peter Blake (Genesis Publications)
 2000: Peter Blake: About Collage by Lewis Biggs, Natalie Rudd and Dawn Ades (Tate Liverpool)
2003: Peter Blake by Natalie Rudd (Tate Publishing)
 2009: That Lucky Old Sun by Brian Wilson – 12 limited edition prints by Peter Blake (Genesis Publications)
 2009: Peter Blake: One Man Show by Marco Livingstone (Lund Humphries)
 2011: A Museum for Myself by Peter Blake – Published by Holburne Museum to accompany an exhibition held from 14 May to 4 September 2011
 2021: Peter Blake: Collage by Patrick Elliott and Natalie Rudd, foreword by David Hockney (Thames & Hudson / Waddington Custot)

See also
 Middlesex Guildhall
 Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band
 What Do Artists Do All Day?

Notes

References
 Eye, No. 35, Vol. 9, edited by John L. Walters, Quantum Publishing, 2000.

External links

 British Library Sound Archive: National Life Stories Artists' Lives: Peter Blake interviewed by Linda Sandino between April 2003 and February 2005

 theartsdesk Q&A: Peter Blake (13 November 2010)
 Blake's artworks made with Brian Wilson, 'That Lucky Old Sun' 2009
 Blake at the Tate Gallery, including a biography. and images of several of his works
 Jonathon Jones on Blake's Self-Portrait With Badges (1961) from The Guardian
 A profile of Peter Blake by Nicholas Wroe from The Guardian
 Brotherhood of Ruralists web site
 Peter Blake article in Art & Culture magazine
 June 2002 BBC article about Blake
 Autumn 2006 interview in Liverpool's Nerve magazine
 TateShots: Sir Peter Blake and The Museum of Everything About an exhibition curated by Peter Blake. 10 December 2010
 TateShots: Peter Blake: A Retrospective The artist talks about his works at the Tate Liverpool retrospective. 1 August 2007
 Oxford Times review of Peter Blake at Bohun Gallery
 Paul Stolper Gallery Limited Edition Print Gallery website
Waddington Custot Artist's representative

1932 births
20th-century English painters
English male painters
21st-century English painters
21st-century English male artists
British pop artists
Brotherhood of Ruralists
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
Knights Bachelor
Royal Academicians
People from Dartford
Alumni of the Royal College of Art
Academics of the Royal College of Art
Living people
Album-cover and concert-poster artists
Grammy Award winners
English contemporary artists
Alumni of Hospitalfield House
Royal Designers for Industry
People from Chiswick
20th-century English male artists
BRIT Award trophy designers

Peter Blake (artist)


A coroner is a government official. It is their job to confirm the death of any person in any area of a country. The coroner also gives a certificate to say that a person has died in some place, on some date, due to some reason.

Law occupations

Coroner


The science policy of the United States is the responsibility of many organizations throughout the federal government.  Much of the large-scale policy is made through the legislative budget process of enacting the yearly federal budget, although there are other legislative issues that directly involve science, such as energy policy, climate change, and stem cell research.  Further decisions are made by the various federal agencies which spend the funds allocated by Congress, either on in-house research or by granting funds to outside organizations and researchers.

Professor N. Rosenberg, one of the pioneers of technological innovation research, pointed out that industrial research laboratories (R&D), if not the most important institutional innovations in institutional innovation in the 20th century, are also one of the most important institutional innovations. Although not the first invention of the United States, this system has a wider spread and stronger influence in the US economy than in other countries.

The United States devoted 2.8% of GDP to research and development (R&D) in 2012. The private sector contributed two-thirds of the total. The Obama administration had fixed a target of a 3% ratio by the end of his presidency in 2016.

Legislating science policy

In the Executive Office of the President, the main body advising the president on science policy is the Office of Science and Technology Policy.  Other advisory bodies exist within the Executive Office of the President, including the President's Council of Advisors on Science and Technology and the National Science and Technology Council.

In the United States Congress, a number of congressional committees have jurisdiction over legislation on science policy, most notably the House Committee on Science and Technology and the Senate Committee on Commerce, Science and Transportation, and their subcommittees. These committees oversee the various federal research agencies that are involved in receiving funding for scientific research. Oversight of some agencies may fall under multiple committees, for example the Environmental Protection Agency.

The number of Congressional members and other politicians with backgrounds in science, engineering, and technology has grown in recent years, with the 116th Congress setting a record with 47 of 535 members with STEM backgrounds. Therefore, most U.S. politicians refer to various Congressional support agencies for analysis on science related issues, which do not solely focus on science, but provide insight for Congress to make decisions dealing with scientific issues. These agencies are nonpartisan and provide objective reports on topics requested by members of congress.  They are the Congressional Research Service, Government Accountability Office, and Congressional Budget Office. In the past, the Office of Technology Assessment provided Congressional members and committees with objective analysis of scientific and technical issues, but this office was abolished as a result of the Republican Revolution of 1994.

Further advice is provided by extragovernmental organizations such as The National Academies, which was created and mostly funded by the federal government, and the RAND Corporation, as well as other non-profit organizations such as the American Association for the Advancement of Science and the American Chemical Society among others.

Research and development in the federal budget

Only a small percentage of the overall federal budget is allocated to R&D.  The FY2015 budget request includes $135.110B in R&D spending out of a total budget of $3969.069B, representing 3.4% of the budget. Research and development funding in the federal budget is not centrally enacted, but is spread across many appropriations bills which are enacted in the annual United States budget process.  Of the twelve annual appropriations bills, the most important for R&D are those for Defense; Labor, Health and Human Services, and Education (which includes NIH); Commerce, Justice, and Science (which includes NSF, NASA, NIST, and NOAA); and Energy and Water Development.  Other appropriations bills include smaller amounts of R&D funding.

There are a number of federal agencies across the government which carry out science policy.  Some of these primarily perform their own research "in-house", while others grant funds to external organizations or individual researchers.  In addition, the federally funded research and development centers (FFRDC), which include most of the U.S. National Laboratories, are funded by the government but operated by universities, non-profit organizations, or for-profit consortia.

The FY2015 presidential budget request defines R&D as "the collection of efforts directed toward gaining greater knowledge or understanding and applying knowledge toward the production of useful materials, devices, and methods."  R&D is divided into five subcategories.  Basic research is directed toward understanding of the fundamental aspects of observable phenomena.  It may be directed towards broad but not specific applications. Applied research is directed towards gaining knowledge to meet a recognized and specific need.  Development is the application of knowledge or understanding for the production of useful materials, devices, and methods, including production of prototypes. R&D equipment includes acquisition or production of movable equipment, such as spectrometers, research satellites, or detectors. R&D facilities include the construction or major repairs to physical facilities including land, buildings, and fixed capital equipment such fixed facilities as reactors, wind tunnels, and particle accelerators.

The following chart shows a breakdown for the five agencies with the largest R&D budgets in the Obama administration's FY2015 proposal:

Defense research and development

Defense R&D has the goal of "maintaining strategic technological advantages over potential foreign adversaries." As of 2009, just over half of the R&D budget was allocated to defense spending. Most Defense R&D falls under the Research, Development, Test, and Evaluation (RTD&E) budget, although some R&D funding is outside this budget, such as the Defense Health Program and the chemical weapons destruction program.  The Department of Defense divides development further, based on the character of the work performed, giving each category a funding code in its budget justification which is used by Congressional appropriation reports: 6.1 is Basic Research, 6.2 is Applied Research, 6.3 is Advanced Technology Development, 6.4 is Advanced Component Development and Prototypes, 6.5 is System Development and Demonstration, 6.6 is Research, Development, Test and Evaluation (RDT&E) Management and Support, and 6.7 is Operational Systems Development.

Most of the Defense R&D budget is for weapon systems development, with nearly all activity in categories 6.4 and higher carried out by private defense contractors.  About one sixth of it is allocated to the Science and Technology (S&T) program, which includes all of 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, and medical research.  As of 2013, research funding (6.1 and 6.2) was disbursed 40% to industry, 33% to DoD laboratories, and 21% to academia. The Department of Defense was the third-largest supporter of R&D in academia in FY2012, with only NIH and NSF having larger investments, with DoD the largest federal funder for engineering research and a close second for computer science.

The Defense Research Enterprise (DRE) consists of S&T programs within each of the three military departments within DoD.  The budget is prepared by each department's acquisition secretary, namely the Assistant Secretary of the Air Force (Acquisition), Assistant Secretary of the Navy (Research, Development and Acquisition), and Assistant Secretary of the Army for Acquisition, Logistics, and Technology. Air Force and Space Force S&T is executed by the Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL).  Navy and Marine Corps S&T is executed by the Office of Naval Research (ONR), with medical research performed by the Navy Bureau of Medicine and Surgery.  For the Army, 72% of the S&T budget is in Army Materiel Command's Research, Development and Engineering Command (RDECOM), with the remainder in Army Medical Research and Materiel Command (USAMRMC), Army Corps of Engineers (USACE), Army Space and Missile Defense Command (USASMDC) and the Deputy Chief of Staff (G1-Personnel) to the Assistant Secretary of the Army (Manpower and Reserve Affairs).  Each agency supports both in-house intramural research as well as grants to outside academic or industrial organizations.

The following chart shows a breakdown for the agencies with the most R&D funding within the Department of Defense in the Obama administration's FY2015 proposal.  The "Other" category includes $3.7B for classified programs such as NSA, DIA, and NGA, whose top-level budget numbers are not released, as well as the uncategorized R&D funds not included in the RDT&E budget.

The following information is based on a 2022 Congressional Research Service report. Approximately 97% ($119.3 billion) of DoD's RDT&E funding for FY 2022 ($122.9 billion) is appropriated in Title IV (Research, Development, Test, and Evaluation), which includes appropriations for the Army, Navy, Air Force, Space Force (under the Air Force account), a Defense-wide RDT&E account, and the Director of Operational Test and Evaluation. The Defense-wide account includes the MDA, DARPA, OSD and 17 other DOD organizations.  Below is a breakdown for FY 2022 DoD RDT&E by funding code:

6.1 Basic Research 2.3%; 6.2 Applied Research 5.8%; 6.3 Advanced Technology Development 7.7%; 6.4 Advanced Component Development and Prototypes 27.5%; 6.5 System Development and Demonstration 12.6%; 6.6 RDT&E Management Support 7.0%; 6.7 Operational System Development 36.4%; and 6.8 Software and Digital Technology Pilot Project 0.6%.

Prize competitions
In 2010, Congress passed the America COMPETES Reauthorization Act of 2010 (P.L. 111-358; 15 U.S.C. §3719). The law provides the federal agencies with the broad authority to carry out prize competitions "to stimulate innovation that has the potential to advance the mission of the respective agency." 15 U.S.C. §3718(c)(4). The term "federal agency" does "not include any agency of the legislative branch of the Federal Government." 15 U.S.C. §3719(a)(3).

In 2017, Congress passed the American Innovation and Competitiveness Act of 2017 (P.L. 114-329).  Among the amendments to the America COMPETES Reauthorization Act of 2010, it authorized federal agencies to use "Federal appropriated funds and funds provided by private sector for-profit and nonprofit entities" as well as from state and local governments." 15 U.S.C. §3719(m)(1).  P.L. 114-329 also provided federal agencies with the "explicit authority to use crowdsourcing and citizen science … to advance federal science agency missions and stimulate and facilitate broader public participation in the innovation process"

Challenge.gov contains a listing of active federal challenge and prize competitions. The website was launched in 2010 and is managed by the U.S. General Services Administration.

Intellectual property policy

Inventions "conceived or actually reduced to practice" in the performance of government-funded research may be subject to the Bayh–Dole Act. Congress set forth the U.S. patent policy in the Bayh-Dole Act in 1980 (codified in 35 U.S. Code § 200 as implemented by 37 CFR part 401). The policy and objective, as stated in the Bayh-Dole Act, is "to use the patent system to promote the utilization of inventions arising from federally supported research or development," among others. This policy and objective is incorporated verbatim in the Federal Acquisition Regulation. Contractors may elect to retain title to any subject invention made in the performance of U.S. government-funded research. If it happens, U.S. Government will have a world-wide, nonexclusive, nontransferable, irrevocable, paid-up license to practice the invention, or have it practiced for or on behalf of the United States.

The Federal Research Public Access Act (111th congress S.1373, introduced 25 June 2009 but still in a Senate committee) would require "free online public access to such final peer-reviewed manuscripts or published versions as soon as practicable, but not later than 6 months after publication in peer-reviewed journals".  The bill was later succeeded by the Fair Access to Science and Technology Research Act, which was introduced twice before it was introduced again in 115th Congress.

The Leahy-Smith America Invents Act of 2011 moved the United States from a 'first to invent' system to a 'first to file' model, the most significant patent reform since 1952. This act will limit or eliminate lengthy legal and bureaucratic challenges that used to accompany contested filings. However, the pressure to file early may limit the inventor's ability to exploit the period of exclusivity fully. It may also disadvantage very small entities, for which the legal costs of preparing an application are the main barrier to filing. This legislation has also fostered the rise of what are familiarly known as patent trolls.

Science in political discourse

Most of the leading political issues in the United States have a scientific component.  For example, healthcare, renewable energy, climate change, and national security. Amongst U.S. public opinion, 60% of Americans believe scientific experts should play an active role in policy debates over relevant issues, although this view is divided amongst Democrats and Republicans. Broadly, a majority of Americans believe that scientists should be involved in shaping policies related to medical and health, energy, education, environmental, infrastructure, defense, and agriculture policies.

Science policy in the states

State government initiatives
There are also a number of state and local agencies which deal with state-specific science policy and provide additional funding, such as the California Institute for Regenerative Medicine and the Cancer Prevention and Research Institute of Texas.

Overall research spending in the states
The level of research spending varies considerably from one state to another. Six states (New Mexico, Maryland, Massachusetts, Washington, California and Michigan) each devoted 3.9% or more of their GDP to R&D in 2010, together contributing 42% of national research expenditure.  In 2010, more than one-quarter of R&D was concentrated in California (28.1%), ahead of Massachusetts (5.7%), New Jersey (5.6%), Washington State (5.5%), Michigan (5.4%), Texas (5.2%), Illinois (4.8%), New York (3.6%) and Pennsylvania (3.5%).  Seven states (Arkansas, Nevada, Oklahoma, Louisiana, South Dakota and Wyoming) devoted less than 0.8% of GDP to R&D.

California is home to Silicon Valley, the name given to the area hosting the leading corporations and start-ups in information technology. This state also hosts dynamic biotechnology clusters in the San Francisco Bay Area, Los Angeles and San Diego. The main biotechnology clusters outside California are the cities of Boston/Cambridge, Massachusetts, Maryland, suburban Washington DC, New York, Seattle, Philadelphia and Chicago. California supplies 13.7% of all jobs in science and engineering across the country, more than any other state. Some 5.7% of Californians are employed in these fields. This high share reflects a potent combination of academic excellence and a strong business focus on R&D: the prestigious Stanford University and University of California rub shoulders with Silicon Valley, for instance. In much the same way, Route 128 around Boston in the State of Massachusetts is not only home to numerous high-tech firms and corporations but also hosts the renowned Harvard University and Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

New Mexico's high research intensity can be explained by the fact that it hosts both Los Alamos National Laboratory and the primary campus of Sandia National Laboratories, the two major United States Department of Energy research and development national laboratories. Maryland's position may reflect the concentration of federally funded research institutions there. Washington State has a high concentration of high-tech firms like Microsoft, Amazon and Boeing and the engineering functions of most automobile manufacturers are located in the State of Michigan.

Microsoft, Intel and Google figured among the world's top 10 corporations for research spending in 2014. They shared this distinction with Johnson & Johnson, a multinational based in New Jersey which makes pharmaceutical and healthcare products, as well as medical devices, and were closely followed by automobile giant General Motors (11th), based in Detroit, and pharmaceutical companies Merck (12th) and Pfizer (15th). Merck is headquartered in New Jersey and Pfizer in New York. Intel's investment in R&D has more than doubled in the past 10 years, whereas Pfizer's investment has dropped since 2012. Several pharmaceutical companies figure among the top 15 corporations for research spending. The US carries out almost half (46%) of all research in the life sciences, making it the world leader. In 2013, US pharmaceutical companies spent US$40 billion on R&D inside the US and nearly another US$11 billion on R&D abroad. Some 7% of the companies on Thomson Reuters' Top 100 Global Innovators list for 2014 are active in biomedical research, equal to the number of businesses in consumer products and telecommunications.

History

The first President's Science and Technology Advisor was James R. Killian, appointed in 1958 by President Dwight D. Eisenhower after Sputnik Shock created the urgency for the government to support science and education. President Eisenhower realized then that if Americans were going to continue to be the world leader in scientific, technological and military advances, the government would need to provide support. After World War II, the US government began to formally provide support for scientific research and to establish the general structure by which science is conducted in the US. The foundation for modern American science policy was laid way out in Vannevar Bush's Science – the Endless Frontier, submitted to President Truman in 1945. Vannevar Bush was President Roosevelt's science advisor and became one of the most influential science advisors as, in his essay, he pioneered how we decide on science policy today. He made recommendations to improve the following three areas: national security, health, and the economy—the same three focuses we have today.

Creation of the NSF

The creation of the National Science Foundation, although implemented in 1950, was a controversial issue that started as early as 1942, between engineer and science administrator Vannevar Bush and Senator Harley M. Kilgore (D-WV), who was interested in the organization of military research. Senator Kilgore presented a series of bills between 1942–1945 to Congress, the one that most resembles the establishment of the NSF, by name, was in 1944, outlining an independent agency whose main focus was to promote peacetime basic and applied research as well as scientific training and education. Some specifics outlined were that the director would be appointed and the board would be composed of scientists, technical experts and members of the public. The government would take ownership of intellectual property developed with federal funding and funding would be distributed based on geographical location, not merit.  Although both Bush and Kilgore were in favor of government support of science, they disagreed philosophically on the details of how that support would be carried out. In particular, Bush sided with the board being composed of just scientists with no public insight. When Congress signed the legislation that created the NSF, many of Bush's ideals were removed. It illustrates that these questions about patent rights, social science expectations, the distribution of federal funding (geographical or merit), and who (scientists or policymakers) get to be the administrators are interesting questions that science policy grapples with.

See also
 List of United States research and development agencies
 Science and technology in the United States
 Biomedical research in the United States
 Technological and industrial history of the United States
 Science policy
 NASA Budget
 STAR METRICS
 List of Books about the Politics of Science

References

Science policy
United States federal policy
Science and technology in the United States

Science policy of the United States


Wilfred Dwight Webb (March 23, 1921 – July 2, 2016) was an educator and a Democratic politician from Michigan who served in the state's House of Representatives representing part of Oakland County.

Webb was hired as a teacher in the Hazel Park schools in 1941, ultimately becoming superintendent at age 36. Upon his retirement from the district, he worked as a K-12 education consultant with the Michigan Senate. He also was president of the Michigan Association of School Administrators, and was a member of several other organizations including Phi Delta Kappa. Webb was named to the Michigan Education Hall of Fame in 1985.

He was elected to the House in a special election in June 1982 and was re-elected for a full term that November. His one-term absence from the House was a result of the 1984 election in which Ronald Reagan won the state by 19 points. Webb was originally projected to win by just over 200 votes, but it was soon discovered that one precinct in Madison Heights had been counted twice. When the error was corrected, Webb lost to then-Wayne State University College Republicans chairman Gregory Gruse. The two faced each other again in 1986, and Webb won. While in the Legislature, Webb sponsored legislation to outlaw elder abuse. He declined to seek re-election in 1992.

References

1921 births
2016 deaths
People from Gratiot County, Michigan
Alma College alumni
Wayne State University alumni
Educators from Michigan
Democratic Party members of the Michigan House of Representatives
People from Hazel Park, Michigan
20th-century American politicians

Wilfred D. Webb


Mady Mesplé (7 March 1931 – 30 May 2020) was a French opera singer. She was a well known coloratura soprano in France. She was born in Toulouse, France. Her career lasted from 1953 to 1985.

Career
Mesplé appeared at the Bolshoi Theatre in Moscow, the Royal Opera House in London, La Scala in Milan, the Metropolitan Opera in New York and Teatro Colón in Buenos Aires.

During the 1960s, Mesplé appeared mant times on French television. She was also the first to sing the French version of Hans Werner Henze's Elegy for Young Lovers in 1965, and Pierre Boulez chose Mesplé for his performances of Arnold Schoenberg's Jacob's Ladder.

During the 1970s she added operettas to her repertoire, especially by Jacques Offenbach, such as La Vie parisienne, Orphée aux enfers and La Grande-Duchesse de Gérolstein, opposite Régine Crespin.

She was made Grand Officier of the Legion of Honour in 2015 and honored with the Grand Cross of the Ordre national du Mérite in 2019.

Death
Mesplé died on 30 May 2020 in Toulouse from Parkinson's disease-related problems at the age of 89.

More readings
 Alain Pâris, Dictionnaire des interprètes et de l'interprétation musicale au XX siècle (2 vols), Éditions Robert Laffont (Bouquins, Paris 1982, 4th Edn. 1995, 5th Edn 2004).
 Roland Mancini and Jean-Jacques Rouveroux,  (orig. H. Rosenthal and J. Warrack, French edition), Guide de l'opéra, Les indispensables de la musique (Fayard, 1995).

References

1931 births
2020 deaths
French singers
People from Toulouse
Deaths from Parkinson's disease

Mady Mesplé


The Communist Party of Indochina (Vietnamese: Đông Dương Cộng sản Đảng 1929–1930) is one of three predecessors of the Communist Party of Vietnam. Other two predecessors are the Communist Party of Annam (An Nam cộng sản Đảng, 1929–1930) and the Communist League of Indochina.

In March 1929, some radical members of the Vietnam Revolutionary Youth League (VARY) () including Trần Văn Cung, Nguyễn Đức Cảnh, Trịnh Đình Cửu, Đỗ Ngọc Du, Dương Hạc Đính, Ngô Gia Tự, Kim Tôn formed the first communist cell in French Indochina. This communist cell's mission as itself claimed is to be the core of a future communist party. Trần Văn Cung was voted to be the secretary of the cell. He together with Trịnh Đình Cửu and Kim Tôn were voted to be attendees of the congress of VARY, held in Hong Kong in May 1929. In this congress, these attendees proposed to transform VARY to be a communist party. Their proposal, however, was rejected by the leadership of VARY, Trần Văn Cung, Trịnh Đình Cửu and Kim Tôn then made a walkout from the congress. They were later expelled from the Youth League.

On 17 June 1929, the above communist cell hold a meeting in Hanoi and decided to form the Communist Party of Indochina, declared the party's political fundamental and proclamation, led by Trịnh Đình Cửu, Nguyễn Đức Cảnh, Ngô Gia Tự, Trần Văn Cung,... The party published Búa Liềm (Hammer and Sickle) newspaper. Soon thereafter, the Communist Party of Annam was formed in Cochinchina in August 1929 and the New Revolutionary Party of Vietnam was transformed to be the Communist League of Indochina in January 1930.

In 1930 following appeals for unity by Nguyễn Ái Quốc, the Communist Party of Indochina united with the Communist Party of Annam and the Communist League of Indochina and founded the Communist Party of Vietnam.

References

  Institute of History. History of Vietnam, Volume VIII (the period of 1919–1930). Publisher of Social Science. Hanoi.

 Noung. The prehistory of the Vietnamese Communist Party. Everything2.com.
 Smith, R.B., 'The Foundation of the Indochinese Communist Party, 1929–1930', Modern Asian Studies, 32,4 (1998), p. 799.

Defunct political parties in Vietnam
Communist parties in Vietnam
History of the Communist Party of Vietnam
Political parties established in 1929
Political parties disestablished in 1930
1929 establishments in French Indochina
1930 disestablishments in French Indochina
1929 establishments in Vietnam
1930 disestablishments in Vietnam
1920s in French Indochina
1920s in Vietnam

Communist Party of Indochina


King Faisal University (KFU) ( ) is a public university in Hofuf, Saudi Arabia. Founded in 1975, it is named after King Faisal bin Abdulalziz, the ruler of Saudi Arabia from 1964 until 1975. KFU was initially established with four colleges: two in Dammam and the other two in Al-Ahsa. Later, the colleges in Dammam have been segregated to become the Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University.

History
The university was founded in 1975 by the Royal Decree No. H / 67 1395 e in the eastern region of the country. In its first year, it leased buildings, and in subsequent years it used some prefabricated buildings for the colleges.

The first four scientific colleges were: The College of Agricultural and Food Sciences and the College of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Husbandry at the main campus in Al Ahsa; and the College of Architecture and Planning and the College of Medicine and Medical Sciences in Dammam. In later years, with the intent to meet the future needs of the Kingdom, with the issuance of Royal decree No. 7 / b / 11155, and with the consent of the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques and the Chairman of the Board of Higher Education, the College of Education was founded in 1981, and the Faculty of Administrative Sciences and Planning in 1984. The teaching hospital, the King Fahd University Hospital, is in Khobar, although a newer hospital is currently under construction near the main campus of the university.

In 1996, Royal decree No. 7 / b / 11155, with the consent of the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques and the Chairman of the Board of Higher Education, sought separate dental and technical laboratories from the college of medicine and medical science in Dammam. The Faculty of Dentistry and the Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences was founded in Klitin.

Goals
One of the main goals of the university was in the area of scientific research to be one of the basic requirements so as to address the problems of society. Since its inception, and through years of development, the university has sought to revitalize and strengthen scientific research in various fields and disciplines through intensive activity carried out by colleges and research centers, as well as through coordination with other centers from outside the university, the university has completed more than forty national research projects. It has also published more than 2,000 scientific articles in domestic and international scientific journals.

The university also developed and modernised its curriculum, study plans and educational programmes in all colleges to be consistent with the requirements of the Saudi society, as well as to cope with the latest scientific and technical developments.

Achievements
The University has also given special attention to conferences and symposia in scientific and cultural enrichment of knowledge and community service. It has organised more than 66 local and global conferences symposia. Additionally its faculty members have been represented at more than 300 scientific conference and a symposium at home and abroad.

This meant such beneficiaries as computer applications and expanded uses at the administrative and academic level to contribute to automated and streamlined administrative and academic management decisions, including the following regulations: automated information systems at the university level, students' record system, system stores procurement, financial system, a patient care system, and architectural designs.

In terms of ranking, KFU has been ranked #22 in QS Ranking for Arab Region 2016.

Colleges
By 2010 the number of colleges at KFU has risen to 15 including the following:
 Agriculture and Food Sciences.
 Veterinary Medicine.
 Medicine.
 Engineering.
 College of Clinical Pharmacy.
 Science.
 College of Computer Science and Information Technology.
 Business Administration.
 Education.
 Arts.
 Applied Studies and Community Service.
 Community College (for girls).
 Applied Medical Sciences.
 Dentistry.
 College of Law

Girls Sections
 College of Education for Girls - Scientific sections
 College of Education for girls art sections
 College of Community for Girls
 College of Intermediate Health for Girls
 College of Law

See also

 List of things named after Saudi Kings
 List of universities and colleges in Saudi Arabia

References

External links
King Faisal University (English Page)
Scientific Journal of King Faisal University

1975 establishments in Saudi Arabia
Educational institutions established in 1975
Universities and colleges in Saudi Arabia

King Faisal University


Koffi Sama (born 1944) was the Prime Minister of Togo from 29 June 2002 to 9 June 2005.

Biography
Sama was born at Amoutchou in Ogou Prefecture. He was Minister of Youth, Sports, and Culture from 1981 to 1984, Regional Director of Rural and Maritime Region Development from 1986 to 1990, and Director-General of the Togolese Cotton Company from 1990 to 1996, before re-entering the government as Minister of Health, in which position he served from 1996 to 1999.

In the March 1999 parliamentary election, Sama was elected to the National Assembly as the candidate of the ruling Rally of the Togolese People (RPT) in the Third Constituency of Ogou Prefecture; he ran unopposed and won the seat with 100% of the vote. He then served as Minister of National Education and Research from 1999 to 2002. On 7 December 2000, he also became the Secretary-General of the RPT.

President Gnassingbé Eyadéma appointed Sama as Prime Minister on 27 June 2002, replacing Agbeyome Kodjo; this move was said to have been done as part of preparations for the parliamentary election that was held later in the year. Following the death of Eyadéma on 5 February 2005, Sama, as Prime Minister, announced the news, calling it a "national catastrophe". Sama left office on 9 June 2005, when he was succeeded by Edem Kodjo.

After serving as Prime Minister, Sama became a Special Advisor to President Faure Gnassingbé, with the rank of Minister; he remains in that post as of 2008. He was the head of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) observer mission in the Malian April 2007 presidential election.

Sama was a member of the RPT College of Sages.

References

1944 births
Living people
Prime Ministers of Togo
Members of the National Assembly (Togo)
Rally of the Togolese People politicians
21st-century Togolese people
Culture ministers of Togo
Education ministers of Togo
Health ministers of Togo
Sports ministers of Togo

Koffi Sama