Yvo de Boer (born 12 June 1954) is an advisor and consultant on international environmental policy. De Boer is the former Executive Secretary of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), a position he held from 2006 until 2010. After his UN tenure, de Boer was Global Chairman of Climate Change and Sustainability Services at KPMG. From 2014 to 2016 de Boer was Director-General of the Global Green Growth Institute (GGGI), a Seoul-based international environmental organization.

Life
De Boer was born in Vienna on 12 June 1954. He holds a technical degree in social work from the Netherlands. De Boer is married and has three children.

Career
De Boer has been involved in climate change policies since 1994, most notably helping to prepare the position of the European Union in the lead-up to the negotiations on the Kyoto Protocol. Since then, de Boer has sought broad stakeholder involvement on the issues of climate change and public policy. To that end, he launched an international dialogue on the Clean Development Mechanism and has partnered international discussions with the World Business Council on Sustainable Development, aimed at increasing private sector involvement.

De Boer was Director for International Affairs of the Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and Environment of the Netherlands, also working for the United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-HABITAT) earlier in his career. In 2006 he was appointed by then Secretary-General Kofi Annan as Executive Director of the UNFCCC; in 2010 he resigned. De Boer was succeeded as Executive Director of the UNFCC by Christiana Figueres.

De Boer became a Fellow for the International Center for Integrated Assessment and Sustainable Development at the University of Maastricht on 1 July 2010. Later, de Boer served on numerous climate change policy councils, including the China Council for International Cooperation on Environment and Development and the Board of Directors of the Center for Clean Air Policy.

UN legacy
De Boer's resignation came at a time when the general utility of the United Nations' framework itself was being questioned as to "whether any significant progress toward a global treaty would be made." Additionally, de Boer's tenure had come to be seen as "too confrontational by some nations," whilst for others, a notable misstep for de Boer was in being "too enthusiastic in raising expectations for an international treaty, even after it became obvious that no such treaty would be forthcoming." De Boer purportedly lacked "ambition for a global emissions deal," and was taken to task by one British commentator over "expensive carbon offset schemes."

Nonetheless, de Boer's work on the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference represented a breakthrough, with former British Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change Ed Miliband noting "Yvo de Boer's patient work helped produce the Copenhagen accord which contains commitments covering 80% of global emissions, something never previously achieved."

References

External References

 Appearances on C-SPAN

1954 births
Living people
Dutch civil servants
21st-century Dutch diplomats
Dutch environmentalists
Dutch officials of the United Nations
KPMG people

Yvo de Boer


Canada Games was a Canadian games manufacturing company, originally based in Brampton, Ontario, before moving to nearby Concord.  Its slogan was "The Best in Fun from Canada Games."

It's notable that despite being a far smaller company than its American competition, the Canada Games Company was able to remain a force in the market for many years.

Its products included toys, board games and puzzles, particularly those related to popular movies and television shows.

The company's most popular item was Pogs. With the end of the Pogs fad, Canada Games went out of business in 1997.

Canada Games in its 14-year history  produced a large number of items still commonly found on store shelves especially in smaller towns. They were aggressive in getting licensing rights for Canada for certain items and appeared to have taken over other companies as they progressed.

Games
Five in a Row
Tye Dye Teddy
Pogs
Stock Ticker
Zeddy Jigsaw Puzzles
VCR Hockey Night in Canada
CFL Canadian Armchair Football
InQUIZitive
Gotta Second
Face to Face
How to Host a Murder - Class of '54 (or "The Return of Rock N. Roley")
How to Host a Mystery - Star Trek: The Next Generation
Rummoli
Disney Story-Boards
Mighty Morphin Power Rangers: Gigantik Game
Balderdash
Biker Mice From Mars
Gigantik Checker Game
Jabberwocky
Trivia Challenge
Beyond the Grave (An Evening of Murder Party Game)
Traveler Safari (How to host a Scavenger Hunt)
Modern Backgammon
Batman: The Animated Series Gigantik Crime Wave Game
Mighty Morphin Power Rangers: Attack of the Putty Patrol Box Game
Gargoyles Gigantik Game
a Question of Scruples - 90's edition
Siege

McMichael Canadian Art Collection Jigsaw Puzzles
Group of Seven 1000 Pieces Jigsaw Puzzles with 19" inch by 28" poster included - 4 titles
Alexander Young Jackson: Church at St.Urbain, 1931
Thomas John Thomson: Afternoon, Algonquin Park, 1914
James Edward Hervey MacDonald: Forest Wilderness, 1921
Alfred Joseph Casson: White Pine, 1957

References

Defunct toy manufacturers
Toy companies of Canada
Jigsaw puzzle manufacturers

Canada Games Company


Walter Francis Willcox (March 22, 1861 – October 30, 1964) was an American statistician. He was born in Reading, Massachusetts, to William Henry Willcox and Anne Holmes Goodenow. He was graduated from Phillips Academy, Andover, in 1880, from Amherst College in 1884 with an A.B., and in 1888 received an A.M. degree from Amherst College. He received an LL.B degree (1887) and a Ph.D. (1891) from Columbia University. In 1906 he received an honorary LL.D. degree from Amherst College.

Life
Willcox was a Cornell University faculty member from 1891 to 1931 within the President White School of History and Political Science. He held the presidency of the American Statistical Association from 1911 to 1912 and of the American Economic Association in 1915. As well as essays and magazine articles, he published The Divorce Problem, A Study in Statistics (1891; second edition, 1897), and Supplementary Analysis and Derivative Tables, twelfth census (1906). He contributed the "Negroes in the United States" subsection to the "Negro"  article  in the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica. (The main section, by Thomas Athol Joyce,
is of interest today for the insight it gives into racial prejudices of the time.)

Willcox initiated the first statistics course at Cornell in 1892, one of the earliest university courses in statistics in the United States, and one among 16 universities with such courses in the 1890s.  His research interest was in vital statistics. Emil Julius Gumbel described his body of work, collected in Studies in American Demography, as "the type of old-fashioned writings which will continue to be of value notwithstanding all progress achieved in mathematical statistics."

In 1911, Willcox claimed there would be "no children in the United States under five years of age" by the year 2020. Perpetuating ideas of race suicide, Willcox erroneously explained that the United States' birth rate meant that importing babies from France would be the only option for maintaining population levels.

After serving as one of five chief statisticians for the U.S. Census in 1900, Willcox proved that for any method of apportionment that involves rounding, a priority list can be created by dividing the rounding point into each state's population, by which each seat can be assigned in successive order based on each state's priority listings.

His son, Alan Willcox, served as general counsel to the U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare.

Publications
 Studies in American Demography, Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press (1940).
 International Migrations, Volume II: Interpretations (Editor), New York: National Bureau of Economic Research (1931).
 Walter Francis Willcox papers, #14-10-504. Division of Rare and Manuscript Collections, Cornell University Library.

References

1861 births
1964 deaths
Phillips Academy alumni
20th-century American mathematicians
American statisticians
American centenarians
Men centenarians
Amherst College alumni
Columbia Law School alumni
Cornell University Department of History faculty
Presidents of the American Statistical Association
Presidents of the International Statistical Institute
20th-century American essayists
Presidents of the American Economic Association

Walter Francis Willcox


In mathematics, the category of topological vector spaces is the category whose objects are topological vector spaces and whose morphisms are continuous linear maps between them. This is a category because the composition of two continuous linear maps is again a continuous linear map.  The category is often denoted TVect or TVS.

Fixing a topological field K, one can also consider the subcategory TVectK of topological vector spaces over K with continuous K-linear maps as the morphisms.

TVect is a concrete category

Like many categories, the category TVect is a concrete category, meaning its objects are sets with additional structure (i.e. a vector space structure and a topology) and its morphisms are functions preserving this structure. There are obvious forgetful functors into the category of topological spaces, the category of vector spaces and the category of sets.

TVect is a topological category

The category is topological, which means loosely speaking that it relates to its "underlying category", the category of vector spaces, in the same way that Top relates to Set. Formally, for every K-vector space  and every family  of topological K-vector spaces  and K-linear maps  there exists a vector space topology  on  so that the following property is fulfilled:

Whenever  is a K-linear map from a topological K-vector space  it holds that
 is continuous   is continuous.

The topological vector space  is called "initial object" or "initial structure" with respect to the given data.

If one replaces "vector space" by "set" and "linear map" by "map", one gets a characterisation of the usual initial topologies in Top. This is the reason why categories with this property are called "topological".

There are numerous consequences of this property. For example:

 "Discrete" and "indiscrete" objects exist. A topological vector space is indiscrete iff it is the initial structure with respect to the empty family. A topological vector space is discrete iff it is the initial structure with respect to the family of all possible linear maps into all topological vector spaces. (This family is a proper class, but that does not matter: Initial structures with respect to all classes exists iff they exists with respect to all sets)
 Final structures (the similar defined analogue to final topologies) exist. But there is a catch: While the initial structure of the above property is in fact the usual initial topology on  with respect to , the final structures do not need to be final with respect to given maps in the sense of Top. For example: The discrete objects (= final with respect to the empty family) in  do not carry the discrete topology.
 Since the following diagram of forgetful functors commutes

and the forgetful functor from  to Set is right adjoint, the forgetful functor from  to Top is right adjoint too (and the corresponding left adjoints fit in an analogue commutative diagram). This left adjoint defines "free topological vector spaces". Explicitly these are free K-vector spaces equipped with a certain initial topology.
 Since  is (co)complete,  is (co)complete too.

See also

References

Topological vector spaces
Topological vector spaces

Category of topological vector spaces


The Lent Bumps 2004 were a series of rowing races held at Cambridge University from Tuesday, 24 February 2004 until Saturday 28 February 2004. The event was run as a bumps race and is one of the series of Lent Bumps which have been held annually in late-February or early March since 1887. See Lent Bumps for the format of the races. In 2004, a total of 121 crews took part (69 men's crews and 52 women's crews), with nearly 1100 participants in total.

Head of the River crews
 Caius men rowed-over in 1st position retaining the headship, their 3rd successively.

 Downing women bumped Emmanuel and Caius to take their first ever women's bumps headship.

Highest 2nd VIIIs
 The highest men's 2nd VIII for the 5th consecutive year was Caius II.

 The highest women's 2nd VIII for the 4th consecutive year was Jesus II.

Links to races in other years

Bumps Charts
Below are the bumps charts all 4 men's and all 3 women's divisions, with the men's event on the left and women's event on the right. The bumps chart represents the progress of every crew over all four days of the racing. To follow the progress of any particular crew, simply find the crew's name on the left side of the chart and follow the line to the end-of-the-week finishing position on the right of the chart.

Note that this chart may not be displayed correctly if you are using a large font size on your browser.

References
CUCBC – the organisation that runs the bumps
First and Third Trinity Boat Club
Cambridge University Radio (CUR1350) downloadable MP3s of race commentary

Lent Bumps results
2004 in rowing
2004 in English sport

Lent Bumps 2004


The 1808 United States presidential election in New Jersey took place between November 4 and December 7, 1808, as part of the 1808 United States presidential election. The state chose eight representatives, or electors to the Electoral College, who voted for President and Vice President.

During this election, New Jersey cast its eight electoral votes to Democratic Republican candidate and Secretary of State James Madison.

See also
 United States presidential elections in New Jersey

References

New Jersey
1808
1808 New Jersey elections


George and Margaret is a comedy play by British writer Gerald Savory, which was first staged in 1937. It had a very successful run in the West End, beginning at Wyndham's Theatre before transferring to the Piccadilly Theatre, lasting for over seven hundred performances. The cast was headed by Nigel Patrick, Jane Baxter, Ann Casson and Joyce Barbour. The New Statesman critic singled out Irene Handl's brief appearance as a maid as a highlight.

The new monarch George VI and his wife Elizabeth attended a performance of the show. Following its London success, Noël Coward directed the work for its transfer to Broadway.

Plot
The play portrays a day in the lives of a middle-class London family and their servants. They are thrown into chaos by the suddenly-announced arrival of their old friends George and Margaret for dinner that evening. The snobbish and domineering mother forces all family members to attend, despite the resentment of her children. However, the anticipated arrival eventually provides a catalyst for various members of the family to resolve their personal crises. The play ends without the title characters George and Margaret ever having appeared on stage.

Film adaptation
The play was adapted into an eponymous film in 1940. It was made at Teddington Studios by the British branch of Warner Brothers. Several of the original stage cast appeared in the production.

References

Bibliography
 Goble, Alan. The Complete Index to Literary Sources in Film. Walter de Gruyter, 1999.
 Hoare, Philip. Noel Coward: A Biography of Noel Coward. Simon & Schuster, 2013.
 Wearing, J.P. The London Stage 1940-1949: A Calendar of Productions, Performers, and Personnel. Rowman & Littlefield, 2014.

1937 plays
British plays adapted into films
Plays set in London
Comedy plays
West End plays

George and Margaret


The Breakers was a rock band from Denmark consisting of Toke Nisted (vocals), Anders Bruus (guitar) and Jackie Larsen (bass). They were influenced by the music of the 60s and 70s, such as The Faces and The Rolling Stones.

History
The Breakers was founded in Copenhagen, Denmark in 2002. Their first album, What I Want, was released in January 2004 on Sony Denmark. Their second album, Here For A Laugh, was released in Denmark in January 2006 on Good Guy's Recording Company and later in USA and Canada in May 2007 on Funzalo Records. The US/Canada release was sent out under the name "The Breakers DK", as they had to add the "DK" to differentiate themselves from other bands named "the Breakers".

The band performed at the Danish musical festival SPOT in 2005 (SPOT11), a festival renowned for showcasing the premier Danish musical talent.

In May 2007 Steven Van Zandt named the band's first US single "Dance the Go-Go" the Coolest Song in The World on his Underground Garage radio show. The Breakers signed a record contract in June 2008 with Wicked Cool Records run and owned by Steven Van Zandt.

The band performed at South by Southwest music festival in 2009. The band closed the second stage at Hard Rock Calling on June 27, 2010 right before Paul McCartney played the main stage.

The Breakers recorded their third album in May 2010 in Stratosphere Sound in New York. Steven Van Zandt has produced the album and co-written several tracks. The album is mixed by Bob Clearmountain and is released June 6, 2011.

Continuing with their relationship with Steven van Zandt, in 2012, The Breakers appeared in S1:E6 of Lilyhammer, a Norwegian television series that stars Van Zandt and lists him as an executive producer.

The band split up in late 2012.

Discography

References

External links
 The Breakers website

 The Breakers Record Label
 Underground Garage playlist

Danish alternative rock groups
Musical groups established in 2002
2002 establishments in Denmark

The Breakers (band)


A premise is a statement which an argument claims will justify a conclusion. The proof of a conclusion depends on both the truth of the premises and the validity of the argument.

Aristotelian logic
Aristotle held that any logical argument could be reduced to three premises and a conclusion. Premises are sometimes left unstated in which case they are called missing premises, for example:

Socrates is mortal, since all men are mortal.

It is understood that Socrates is a man.  The fully expressed reasoning is thus:

Since all men are mortal and Socrates is a man, Socrates is mortal.

In this example, the first two independent clauses before the comma (namely, "all men are mortal" and "Socrates is a man") are the premises, while "Socrates is mortal" is the conclusion.

Mathematical logic
In logic, an argument requires a set of two declarative sentences (or "propositions") known as the premises, with another declarative sentence (or "proposition") known as the conclusion. This structure of two premises and one conclusion forms the basic argumentative structure.

More complex arguments can use a series of rules to connect several premises to one conclusion, or to derive a number of conclusions from the original premises. An example of this is the use of the rules of inference found within symbolic logic.

Related pages
 Apples and oranges
 False dilemma
 Falsifiability

References

Logic

Premise


The National Business Review (or NBR) is a New Zealand online news publication aimed at the business sector.
It has journalists based in Auckland and Wellington.

History
The NBR was founded in 1970 by then-23 year old publisher Henry Newrick. Initially published as a fortnightly tabloid-format newspaper, it was briefly published as a daily newspaper from 1987 to 1991. New Zealand businessman Barry Colman was the NBR's publisher for 24 years, after buying it from John Fairfax & Sons in 1988. He sold it to Todd Scott in 2012.

The publication's website has a paywall model, where businesses and individual subscribers pay to access certain content. As of June 2016, the NBR had more than 4000 paying subscribers. The NBR launched an online radio platform in March 2015, NBR Radio, and in early 2018 it launched a video-on-demand platform  provided by Shift72, NBR View. In 2020, the NBR ceased printing and became an online newspaper.

Rich List
The publication produces an annual Rich List with the estimated wealth of the richest New Zealanders. In 2020, Todd Scott announced that NBR had "called off the 2020 NBR Rich List" due to the economic impact of COVID-19, saying it would be "vulgar" to focus on wealthy people.

References

External links
National Business Review
Pay to View Archives

National Business Review
Business newspapers
1970 establishments in New Zealand
Newspapers established in 1970

National Business Review


Metra is a commuter railroad in the Chicago city area. The railroad operates 241 stations on 11 different rail lines. It is the fourth busiest commuter rail system in the United States by ridership and the largest and busiest commuter rail system outside the New York City area. There were 83.4 million passenger rides in 2014, up 1.3% from the previous year.

The estimated busiest day for Metra ridership occurred on Nov. 4, 2016—the day of the Chicago Cubs 2016 World Series victory rally.

References

Transport in Chicago

Metra


A bandolier or a bandoleer is a pocketed belt for holding either individual cartridges or belts of ammunition. It is usually slung sash-style over the shoulder and chest, with the ammunition pockets across the midriff and chest. Though functionally similar, they are distinct from chest rigs, which are designed to hold magazines instead.

History

By the late 15th century, the earliest viable handheld firearms in Europe were the arquebus fitted with a matchlock mechanism. The user kept his shot in a leather pouch and his powder in a flask with a volumetric spout. The spout was calibrated to deliver the proper charge for the user's arquebus. With the advent of the heavy arquebus (later known as a musket) in the early 16th century, a spout large enough to measure the required powder was impractical. Furthermore, trying to double or triple charge from a flask was time consuming and could create a "missed" charge. A bandolier from whence would hang several little flasks each filled with a dedicated premeasured charge was the solution to this problem. Since these were loaded prior to going into battle, the musketeer could take the time to accurately measure each charge.

The bandolier was fitted with small wooden bottles called charges. The charges were recommended to be turned from a single piece of wood; a two-piece design (tube with a bottom) could come apart and metal charges make too much noise. The number of charges was determined from the size of the musket, that is, the weight of the ball it fired. Each musketeer was issued a pound of lead from which they would cast their ammunition. For instance, if they had a 1⅓ ounce () musket ball, a pound of lead would provide them with 12 balls, hence, 12 charges. A "two-ouncer" would have eight charges. Throughout Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries, the number of charges varied between 8 and 16. Additionally, the bandolier would be fitted with a bullet pouch and a priming flask. It might also carry an oil flask for the lock mechanism, a match keeper or other accessories.

The evolution of a sparking type lock mechanism, such as the flintlock, paved the way for the development of paper cartridge containing a premeasured powder charge and a lead ball wrapped in paper. The bandolier then became a shoulder strap fitted to a bag or satchel wherein the cartridges could be carried. Eventually, any bag worn in the same style may also be described as a bandolier bag or possibles bag; similarly, pocketed belts holding ammunition worn around the waist may also be called bandoliers.

A somewhat different form of bandolier came into use in the late 19th century that held modern metallic cartridges and hand grenades. Bandoliers are now less common due to the use of detachable magazines and belt-fed firearms, though extra ammunition belts are often carried around the body like a bandolier. They are, however, still often used with shotguns, hand grenades, and grenade launchers.

Shotgun shells can easily be stored in traditionally designed bandoliers. In fact, some aftermarket shotgun slings are designed in a fashion similar to traditional bandoliers, albeit with a far more limited capacity.

In World War I and World War II, bandoliers were issued primarily to riflemen. They were made of cloth, stitched into pockets which held clips of rifle ammunition. In civilian use, bandoliers are often worn by hunters and recreational shooters using shotguns.

The Chetniks of World War II made heavy use of bandoliers, often carrying two over the shoulder and two around the hip, using the latter as a holster for revolvers and daggers.

Another modern use of a bandolier is for the automatic rifleman of a military fireteam. Since a squad automatic weapon is often belt-fed, an automatic rifleman will carry an extra belt on his person; either in a separate compartment or slung over the chest in bandolier fashion.
The bandolier was used to keep ammunition off a soldier's hips, as carrying too much weight on the hips can constrain movement and cause difficulty in retrieving the ammunition.

See also
 Baldric
 Gazyr
 Sam Browne belt
 Shoulder belt (military)

References

Ammunition
Military uniforms
Belts (clothing)

Bandolier


The Barlaeus Gymnasium is a secondary school in Amsterdam in the Netherlands. It is one of the five categorial gymnasia in Amsterdam, the other four being Vossius Gymnasium, Ignatius Gymnasium, Het 4e gymnasium and Cygnus Gymnasium. It offers a classical curriculum, including studies in Latin and Greek. The school stands opposite the music venue Paradiso, close to the Leidseplein.

Het Stedelijk Gymnasium was established in 1885. It is the oldest of the four gymnasia, although its origins stretch back to the Latijnse scholen (Latin schools) whose existence is documented as far back as 1594. Since 1927, the school has been named after Caspar Barlaeus. Famous alumni include politicians Frits Bolkestein, Els Borst and writer Willem Frederik Hermans.

Former pupils

 Frits Bolkestein
 Els Borst
 Manja Croiset
 Eduard Douwes Dekker
 Hubertine Heijermans
 Willem Frederik Hermans
 Xaviera Hollander
 Lucie Horsch
 Willy Lindwer
 Taylan Susam
 A. G. van Hamel

References

Sources
Education inspection report
 Article on the school's reception of funding intended for "problem" schools

External links

1885 establishments in the Netherlands
Educational institutions established in 1885
Gymnasiums in the Netherlands
Schools in Amsterdam

Barlaeus Gymnasium


Paul Albert Laurens (18 January 1870 - 27 September 1934) was a French painter.

Biography
Laurens was the eldest son of painter Jean-Paul Laurens (1838-1921), who was of humble origins, and his wife, Madeleine Willemsens (1848-1913). Laurens was born in Rue Taranne, off the Boulevard Saint-Germain in Paris, to where his parents had moved. Aware of the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, his father quickly moved his family back to the relative safety his native village, Fourquevaux in the Haute-Garonne department in southwestern France. The family home may still be found in the village today, near the church.

Laurens' younger brother, Jean-Pierre Laurens (1875-1932), was also a painter. Laurens attended school on Rue d'Assas where he met, among others, André Gide and it was with Gide that he made his first trip to Biskra, Algeria in 1894. Meanwhile, in 1890 the Académie Julian founded new workshops at 31 Rue du Dragon and Laurens and his brother were taught there alongside Paul Landowski and Henri Bouchard.

On 18 October 1893 Laurens sailed from Marseille with his friend Gide bound for Tunis, and from there on to Sousse. In January 1894 Laurens and Gide settled in Biskra, in the former home of the White Fathers (Missionaries of Africa). Madame Gide, concerned about the health of her son, also joined them.

Laurens married Bertha Guerin in 1900 and moved with her to 126 Boulevard du Montparnasse, in the same building as the painter Émile-René Ménard.

Around 1912, with his father and a student of his, Ulysses Ravaut, Laurens worked to decorate the Capitole at the request of the municipality of Toulouse. During the First World War, he worked with other artists including Dunoyer de Segonzac, Forain, Georges Paul Leroux (brother of Auguste Leroux), Abel Truchet, Henri Callot, Avy and Devambez on camouflage within the armed forces and their work served as a model for the Allied armies.

Academic career
Laurens was Professor of Drawing at the École Polytechnique between 1919 and 1934. was appointed member of the French Academy of Fine Arts in 1933.

Among his students were , Jean Bertholle, Yvonne Kleiss-Herzig, René Marie Castaing, Robert Lepeltier, Raoul Dastrac, Albert Demarest, Monique Cras, Lucien Simon, Yvon Dieulafé, Roger Marius Debat, Lucien-Victor Delpy, Achener Maurice, Jean Jules Louis Cavaillès, Lucienne Capdevielle, André Leroux, Nicolas Untersteller, Feyhaman Duran, Fang Ganmin, Pierre Langlade and Dominique Frassati.

Selected works

Paintings

1893: Les Saintes Femmes(oil on canvas), Salon No. 1052
1894: Rue a Tunis, (oil on board), 27 cm x 35 cm
1895: St. Paul (oil on canvas), Altar of the parish church of Saint-Germier, Fourquevaux
c. 1895: Joueur de Tambour sur un Chameau (oil on canvas)
c. 1895: La Maison du Baron d'Erlanger, Sidi Bou Saïd (oil on card), 19 cm x 24 cm
1896: La Dignitaure (oil on canvas), 46.5 cm x 35 cm
1897: La robe noire au col de dentelle (oil on canvas), 61 cm x 49 cm
1899: Vénus accueillie par les heures (oil on canvas)
not dated:
 Scène d'intérieur (oil on board), 35.5 cm x 26.4 cm
 Scene Galante in Pierrot (oil on card) 32.8 cm x 40.7 cm
 Fantasie (oil on canvas)
 Dans le Jardin de l'Amour (oil on canvas), 85.1 cm x 62.2 cm
 Femme nue et ses chiens (oil on canvas)
 Jeune femme assise au châle et aux orchidées (oil on canvas), 100 cm x 86 cm
 Jeune femme au bouquet de roses (oil on canvas), 46 cm x 38 cm
 Jeune femme à la Cascade (oil on canvas), 38 cm x 45 cm
 Bouquet de fleurs (oil on canvas), 35.5 cm x 26.3 cm
 Bouquet au pichet d'étain (oil on canvas), 27 cm x 22 cm
 Rose thé dans un verre oil on card), 27 cm x 21 cm
 Personnages de la Comédia dell'Arte (oil on canvas),  31 cm x 56 cm
 Paris (oil on board), 34.5 cm x 30.5 cm
 Pierrot attablé (oil on canvas), 33 cm x 46 cm
 Pierrot sous la Tonnelle (oil on canvas), 61 cm x 50 cm
 Colombine et Pierrot (oil on card),  40 cm x 33 cm
 Amoureux au clair de Lune (oil on canvas), 54 cm x 46 cm
 Danseuses (oil on paper, card), 39.5 cm x 49.5 cm
 Une élégante au bord de la rivière (oil on canvas), 61 cm x 50.8 cm
 Après la Baignade (oil on canvas), 46 cm x 55 cm
 Conversation au crépuscule (oil on canvas), 55 cm x 46 cm
 Les Caravaniers (oil on canvas), 61 cm x 60 cm
 Dame élégante dans un parc (oil on card), 35.6 cm x 25.4 cm
 Scène symboliste (oil on canvas), 53 cm x 2.60m
 Terrasse en Provence (oil on canvas), 56 cm x 46 cm
 Terrasse dans le Midi (oil on canvas), 55 cm x 46 cm
 Tête de jeune fille (oil on canvas), 46 cm x 38 cm
1900: Solitude, 86 cm x 146.5 cm, Salon n°763, Musée de Brou à Bourg-en-Bresse
1900: Portrait de Jean-Paul Laurens, the artist's father, 61 cm x 50 cm, Musée du Louvre, acquired by the state for Luxembourg in 1902
1910: Didon (oil on canvas)
c. 1911: Le Salon Jaune (oil on canvas), 55 cm x 46 cm, Musée de Laval
1911: La Dame en Bleu (oil on canvas), exhibited at the Salon of 1911
Elégante au châle bleu  (oil on canvas), 54 cm x 45 cm
Le Châle Vert (oil on canvas), 55 cm x 45 cm
La Danseuse (oil on canvas), 72 cm x 48 cm
Jeune femme à la robe longue devant un escalier, card, 45 cm x 37 cm
La Crique de l'Apothicaire (oil on canvas), 51 cm x 61 cm
1912: Suzanne (oil on canvas), exhibited at the Salon
c. 1912: Triomphe de Clémence Isaure, oil on ceiling of the grand staircase at the Capitole de Toulouse (Mayor of Toulouse)
c. 1912: La Poésie, oil at the Capitole de Toulouse
c. 1912: La Musique, oil at the Capitole de Toulouse
c. 1912: Jeune musicien et Danseuse, fragment of a decorative panel for Toulouse Town Hall and exhibited at the Salon of 1913
1913: Les Soupirants (oil on canvas), exhibited at the Salon of 1913
1914: Divertissement dans un parc (oil on canvas), 39 cm x 46 cm, exhibited at the Salon of 1914
1920: Travest (oil on canvas), 92 cm X 60 cm, Musée du Petit-Palais in Paris
Portrait d'Émile Picard (1856-1941) (oil on canvas), Member of the French Academy of Sciences
1923: Portrait de Famille (oil on canvas), the artist and his family, 1.65 m x 1.84 m, donated by the artist to Luxembourg in 1931
1924: André Gide (oil on canvas), 61 cm x 50 cm, writer (1869-1951), acquired by the state for Luxembourg in 1928
c. 1925: La Robe d'Argen (oil on canvas), 73 cm x 50 cm, acquired by the state
c. 1929: Portrait de Jacques Copeau (1879-1949),  writer and actor, 84 cm x 29 cm, Musée des Beaux-Arts Dijon

Drawings, Watercolours, Lithographs
c. 1895: Portrait of Andre Gide'', Gide in his youth, the mustachioed romantic pose (etching) 44 cm x 30 cm
c. 1900: Le Duc d'Albe demande l'absolution au Pape Paul IV (watercolour), 30 cm x 18 cm, preparatory to photoengraving published by Goupil 1900.
c. 1900: Arrestation de Don Carlos par son père Philippe II d'Espagne (watercolour), 30 cm x 18 cm
c. 1900: Un Roi de Navarre devant la présentation des couleurs (watercolour), 30 cm x 17 cm
c. 1900: Louis XIV découvre le portrait de Mme de Lavallière chez le Surintendant Fouquet (watercolor), 30 cm x 17 cm
(not dated): Portrait d'Andre Gide de profil (drawing, watercolour, ink on paper), 22 cm x 17 cm
(not dated): La Ronde (drawing, watercolour, charcoal), 40 cm x 48 cm
c. 1900: Réception d'Elisabeth de Valois par Philippe II d'Espagne, (watercolour), 30cm x 17cm
c. 1900: Don Juan reconnu par Philippe II d'Espagne, (watercolour), 30 cm x 17 cm
c. 1900: Un roi de France sur un champ de bataille (watercolour), 17.5 cm x 30 cm
1903: Papillons (pastel)
1924: Portrait de André Gide1930: Avion survolant Marseil, design for a postage stamp, engraver Abel Mignon, face value 1f 50. blue
1932: La Paix, Allegory of the Republic, Phrygian cap and holding an olive branch (symbolizing peace), in her left hand, right hand on the hilt of her sword in its scabbard. At the request of André Tardieu, Chairman of the Board at the Post Office. Printing by Antonin Delzers.

Posters
(not dated): ''Ramses'', 91.5 cm x 53 cm,
1926: Theatre de la Gaite: ''Wounded Spaniards''
(not dated): ''Blessed Spanish" 82 cm x 60 cm

Illustrations
1898: Lêda ou la louange des bienheureuses ténèbres by Pierre Louÿs, Paris, Editions of the Mercure de France, with ten colour drawings by Laurens, five large ornate initials and vignettes at the end of five chapters
1900: Thaïs d'Anatole France ed. by A. Ramagnol, compositions by Laurens, engraving and etching by Léon Boisson
1904: La Morte amoureuse Paris Romagnol, illustrations by Laurens in three states
(not dated): Les Romanesques de Edmond Rostand, Paris Libr., Pierre Lafitte & Co, "Complete Works Illustrated", 100pp. in four books, adorned with a frontispiece and partially illustrated in colour, integrated with the text, Avy JM, Chabas Paul and Paul Albert Laurens, binding editor half brown leather, gilt title.
1910: Cyrano de Bergerac by Edmond Rostand, ed. Pierre Lafitte, illustrators: François Flaming, Albert Besnard, Auguste, F. Gorguet and Paul Albert Laurens.
1914: Les Caves du Vatican by André Gide, Paris, NRF, 1914, two volumes 8vo, half morocco with caramel corners, top edge gilt, decorated with a portrait of the author as a frontispiece to the soft ground by Paul Albert Laurens, Edition 550
1924: Thaïs by Anatole France 16 original etchings by Laurens for an edition of Thais

 Exhibitions
1893: Salon des artistes français, Les Saintes Femmes1897: Salon Champs Élysées, Glauké et Thaleia1899: Salon des artistes français, Vénus accueillie par les heures, No.1136, Palais des Champs-Elysées.
1900: Salon des artistes français, Solitude, Place de Breteuil, in Paris
1902: Salon de la Nationale des Beaux-Arts de Paris, No.698, Portrait de J. P. Laurens1910 - Salon des artistes français, Didon1911: Salon des artistes français, La Dame en Bleu1912: Salon des artistes français, Suzanne1913: Salon des artistes français, Jeune musicien et danseuse, and Les Soupirants1914: Salon des artistes français, Divertissement dans un parc1924: Exhibition in Canada, as part of a group including: Charles Hoffbauer, Emile Aubry, Henri Dabadie, André Devambez, Louis Jourdan, Georges Paul Leroux, Auguste Leroux et al.
1929: Salon des artistes français, Portrait de Jacques Copeau (1879-1949), homme de lettre et comédien'', No.1342 in the catalogue

Honours and awards
1899:  Member of the Society of French Artists
1933:  Member of the  (Academy of Fine Arts)

Museums exhibiting his works
Museum Petit Palais in Paris
Musée du Luxembourg in Paris
Museum of Brou in Bourg-en-Bresse
Musée du Louvre, Department of Painting
Musée d'Orsay in Paris
Musée des Beaux-Arts de Dijon
Museum of the Old Castle in Laval
Capitole de Toulouse

Notes and references

External links

1870 births
1934 deaths
19th-century French painters
French male painters
20th-century French painters
20th-century French male artists
Painters from Paris
Members of the Académie des beaux-arts
People from Biskra
Grandes écoles
Académie Julian alumni
Academic staff of the Académie Julian
19th-century French male artists

Paul Albert Laurens


Mount Kinabalu (, Dusun: Gayo Ngaran or Nulu Nabalu) is the highest mountain in Borneo and Malaysia. With an elevation of , it is third-highest peak of an island on Earth, and 20th most prominent mountain in the world. The mountain is located in Ranau district, West Coast Division of Sabah, Malaysia. It is protected as Kinabalu Park, a World Heritage Site.

In 1997, a re-survey using satellite technology established its summit (known as Low's Peak) height at  above sea level, which is some  less than the previously thought and hitherto published figure of .

The mountain and its surroundings are among the most important biological sites in the world, with between 5,000 and 6,000 species of plants, 326 species of birds, and more than 100 mammalian species identified. Among this rich collection of wildlife are famous species such as the gigantic Rafflesia plants and orangutans. Mount Kinabalu has been accorded UNESCO World Heritage status.

Low's Peak can be climbed by a person in good physical condition and there is no need for mountaineering equipment at any point on the main route, but climbers must be accompanied by accredited guides at all times due to national park regulations and may experience altitude sickness.

Geology
Mount Kinabalu is essentially a massive pluton formed from granodiorite which is intrusive into sedimentary and ultrabasic rocks, and forms the central part, or core, of the Kinabalu massif. The granodiorite is intrusive into strongly folded strata, probably of Eocene to Miocene age, and associated ultrabasic and basic igneous rocks. It was pushed up from the earth's crust as molten rock millions of years ago. In geological terms, it is a very young mountain as the granodiorite cooled and hardened only about 10 million years ago.

The present landform is considered to be a mid-Pliocene peneplain, arched and deeply dissected, through which the Kinabalu granodiorite body has risen in isostatic adjustment. It is still pushing up at the rate of  per annum. During the Pleistocene Epoch of about 100,000 years ago, the massive mountain was covered by huge sheets of ice and glaciers which flowed down its slopes, scouring its surface in the process and creating the  deep Low's Gully (named after Hugh Low) on its north side. Its granitic composition and the glacial formative processes are readily apparent when viewing its craggy rocky peaks.

IUGS geological heritage site
In respect of it being 'one of the youngest granitic intrusions exposed on Earth and the site of spectacular tropical glacial landscapes', the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) included the 'Mount Kinabalu Neogene granite' in its assemblage of 100 'geological heritage sites' around the world in a listing published in October 2022. The organisation defines an IUGS Geological Heritage Site as 'a key place with geological elements and/or processes of international scientific relevance, used as a reference, and/or with a substantial contribution to the development of geological sciences through history.'

Climate
The climate of the mountain varies from humid tropical at its base to alpine at its summit. The temperature at the summit of Mount Kinabalu usually stands from  from December to January, and  from June to September. Due to the coldness of the mountain from December to January, there are a few occasions where frost and ice appear at the summit of Mount Kinabalu. Snow has been recorded three times in this area; in 1975, 1993 and 2022.

Biology
Mount Kinabalu along with other upland areas of the Crocker Mountains is known worldwide for its biodiversity with plants of Himalayan, Australasian, and Indomalayan origin. A recent botanical survey of the mountain estimated a staggering 5,000 to 6,000 plant species (excluding mosses and liverworts but including ferns). It is therefore one of the world's most important biological sites. A reason for its rich diversity and endemisms is that its great height could have provided refuge to cold-adapted species during interglacials.

In 2015, a major Malaysian-Dutch study showed that the unique flora, fauna, and fungi on the mountain summit are younger than the mountain itself, and have evolved from both local and distant montane ancestors.

Flora
The flora of the mountain varies with elevation and geology. Lowland forest extends up to about 1500 metres elevation, and consists of two main types, based on the dominant tree species – mixed dipterocarp forest and mixed Casuarina forest. Lowland forests generally have a closed canopy 40 meters tall, along with an understory stratum of lower trees, and an emergent stratum of taller trees which extend above the canopy.

Montane rain forest, also known as cloud forest, extends from approximately 1400 metres elevation up to 2900 metres. Montane forest typically has a closed canopy with single stratum, and the canopy height generally decreases with elevation. Typical trees include species of the plant families Fagaceae and Lauraceae, with conifers increasingly abundant at higher elevations. The lower montane forests have a high diversity of orchid and fern species. Carnivorous plants, including species of Nepenthes, Drosera, and Utricularia, are most diverse between 2200 and 2550 meters elevation, in areas with high rainfall and a stunted, open tree canopy. The montane forests are interspersed with areas of graminoid scrub, generally associated with hypermagnesic cambisol soils.

Sub-alpine scrub extends from . It includes short trees and shrubs such the conifer Dacrydium gibbsiae, Leptospermum recurvum, and species from the plant families Myrtaceae and Ericaceae, along with dwarf shrubs, mosses, lichens, liverworts, and ferns. Orchids are abundant and diverse in subalpine and alpine plant communities, except for at the highest summits. Above 3,500 meters conditions are too extreme for trees, and above 3,700 meters persistent ground frost limits plants to the hardiest grasses, sedges and dwarf shrubs, including Leptospermum recurvatum and Rhododendron ericoides, which grow in crevices and other sheltered areas on the rocky summits.

The plants of Mount Kinabalu have high levels of biodiversity and endemism (i.e. species which are found only within Kinabalu Park and are not found anywhere else in the world). Orchids are the best-known example, with 866 species in 134 genera, including species of species of Bulbophyllum, Dendrobium, Coelogyne, Liparis, and Calanthe, and some of the highly-valued Paphiopedilum slipper orchids. There are also over 600 species of ferns (more than the whole of Africa's 500 species) of which 50 are found nowhere else. Mount Kinabalu has the richest collection in the world of Nepenthes pitcher plants (five of the thirteen are found nowhere else on earth), some of which reach spectacular proportions (the largest-pitchered in the world being the endemic Nepenthes rajah). The parasitic Rafflesia plant, which has the largest single flower in the world, is also found in Kinabalu (particularly Rafflesia keithii whose flower grows to   in diameter), though blooms of the flower are rare and difficult to find. Meanwhile, another Rafflesia species, Rafflesia tengku-adlinii, can be found on the neighbouring Mount Trus Madi and the nearby Maliau Basin.

Mount Kinabalu's above-average biodiversity in plant life is due to a combination of several unique factors: its setting in one of the richest plant regions of the world (the tropical biogeographical region known as western Malesia which comprises the island of Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula, and the island of Borneo), the fact that the mountain covers a wide climatic range from near sea level to freezing ground conditions near the summit, the jagged terrain and diversity of rocks and soils, the high levels of rainfall (averaging about  a year at park HQ), and the climatic instability caused by periods of glaciation and catastrophic droughts which result in evolution and speciation. This diversity is greatest in the lowland regions (consisting of lowland dipterocarp forests, so called because the tree family Dipterocarpaceae are dominant). However, most of Kinabalu's endemic species are found in the mountain forests, particularly on ultramafic soils.

The ultramafic rocks which make up parts of the mountain create soils rich in certain metallic elements (nickel, cobalt, chromium, and manganese), high cation imbalances (high Mg:Ca molar quotients), and deficiencies of some nutrients including potassium and phosphorus. These soil conditions affect the plant life, and plant communities on ultramafic soils show lower stature and lower biomass, higher levels of endemism, and a distinct species composition compared to plant communities at similar elevations elsewhere on the mountain.

Fauna

The variety of plant life is also habitat for a great variety of birds and mammals. There are some 326 species of birds in Kinabalu Park, including the spectacular rhinoceros hornbill, mountain serpent-eagle, Dulit frogmouth, eyebrowed jungle flycatcher, and bare-headed laughingthrush. Twenty-four birds are mainly found on the mountain. The mountain is home to some 100 mammalian species mostly living high in the trees, including one of the great apes, the Bornean orangutan (though sightings of these are uncommon; estimates of its numbers in the park range from 25 to 120). Other mammals include three kinds of deer, the Malayan weasel (Mustela nudipes), Oriental small-clawed otter (Aonyx cinerea), and leopard cat (Prionailurus bengalensis). Endemic mammals include the black shrew (Suncus ater). However, others of its endemics, such as the Bornean ferret-badger (Melogale everetti) and Rattus baluensis, have also recently been recorded in the nearby Mount Tambuyukon.

Endemic annelids number less than a dozen known species but include the Kinabalu giant red leech that preys on various earthworms, including the Kinabalu giant earthworm. In the summit zone, at least 26 endemic species of land snail exist. In 2012, a major scientific expedition, jointly organised by the Malaysian Sabah Parks and the Dutch Naturalis Biodiversity Center, performed DNA analysis of several dozen endemic flora, fauna, and fungi, to understand the evolutionary origin of the unique biodiversity of Kinabalu.

Threats and preservation

The steep mountainsides with poor soil are not suitable for farming or for the timber industry so the habitats and animal life of Kinabalu remain largely intact, with about a third of the original habitat now degraded. Kinabalu Park was established in 1964 and the nearby mountains were protected as the Crocker Range National Park in 1984. However even national park status does not guarantee full protection, as logging permits were granted on Trus Madi in 1984. Climate Change is likely to reduce the suitable habitat for cold-adapted species from the montane habitats.

History
British colonial administrator Hugh Low made the first recorded ascent of Mount Kinabalu's summit plateau in March 1851 with local Dusun guide Lemaing of Kampung Kiau. Low did not scale the mountain's highest peak, however, considering it "inaccessible to any but winged animals". In April and July 1858, Low was accompanied on two further ascents by Spenser St. John, the British Consul in Brunei. The highest point of Mount Kinabalu was finally reached in 1888 by zoologist John Whitehead. British botanist Lilian Gibbs became the first woman and the first botanist to summit Mount Kinabalu in February 1910.

Botanist E. J. H. Corner led two important expeditions of the Royal Society of Great Britain to the mountain in 1961 and 1964. Kinabalu National Park was established in 1964. The park was designated a natural World Heritage Site in 2000.

2015 earthquake

On 5 June 2015 at 07:15 MST, the area around Mount Kinabalu was damaged by an earthquake. Eighteen people, including hikers and mountain guides, were killed by the earthquake and a massive landslide that followed it. Ranau and many parts of Sabah West Coast were affected and Donkey Ear's Peak was heavily damaged.

Six days before the earthquake, around ten western tourists (comprising six men and four women from Canada, Germany, Netherlands and the United Kingdom) "stripped and urinated at the mountain (which locals believe has angered the spirit at the sacred place)". The tourists also allegedly shouted vulgarities when they were told to desist by their mountain guide, but this was later dismissed by the judge in their trial. This provoked outrage among certain Sabahans, who want all of the alleged offenders charged in native court and forced to pay the "sogit", a type of compensation, given in the form of money or livestock, to appease the aggrieved party according to local Kadazan-Dusun customs. It is imposed on wrongdoers for the purpose of appeasing "the aggrieved", thus placating the community. However, as most of the detained tourists have been released from Malaysia's prison and escaping native court, the local villagers had to perform their own rituals. Following the incident, some of the tourists and their families have expressed their apologies to all involved parties, and the government of the United Kingdom began to review its travel advice for Malaysia.

Climbing the mountain

Climbers must be accompanied by accredited guides at all times due to national park regulations. There are two main starting points for the climb: the Timpohon Gate (located  from Kinabalu Park Headquarters, at an altitude of ), and the Mesilau Nature Resort. The latter starting point is slightly higher in elevation, but crosses a ridge, adding about two kilometres to the ascent and making the total elevation gain slightly higher. The Mesilau Trail is no longer accessible due to the earthquake in 2015. The two trails meet about  before Laban Rata.

Sabah Parks grants a summit-climbing permit only to climbers who stay at mountain huts. Due to the limited number of beds at the mountain huts, only 130 people are allowed to climb Mount Kinabalu per day.

Accommodation is available inside the park or outside near the headquarters. Sabah Parks has privatised Mount Kinabalu activities to an organisation called Sutera Sanctuary Lodges. The mountain may be climbed on a single day trip, or hikers may (usually) stay one night at Laban Rata Resthouse at  to complete the climb in 2 days, finishing the ascent and descending on the second day. The majority of climbers begin the ascent on day one of a two-day hike from Timpohon gate at , reaching this location either by minibus or by walking, and then walk to Laban Rata. Most people accomplish this part of the climb in 3 to 6 hours. Since there are no roads, the supplies for the Laban Rata Resthouse are carried by porters, who sometimes bring more than  of supplies on their backs. Hot food and beverages are available at Laban Rata. Most rooms have no hot water in the bathrooms and whilst the dining area is heated, most rooms are not. The last , from the Laban Rata Resthouse at  to Low's Peak (summit) at , takes between 2 and 4 hours. The last part of the climb is on bare granite rock.

Given the high altitude, some people may suffer from altitude sickness although staying overnight at the lodges before the climb and climbing at a lower rate of ascent may reduce the likelihood of this happening.

Low's Gully
Low's Gully (named after Hugh Low who first looked down into it in 1851) is a  deep gorge carved out by glaciation on the north side of Mount Kinabalu, which is exceptionally inhospitable due to its depth and high rainfall. In March 1994 two British Army officers were severely criticised after leading a party of 7 British and 3 Hong Kong soldiers in an attempt to abseil and climb down into the gully that required extensive rescue efforts from both the RAF and the Malaysian army. The party were not equipped with radios and the 2 officers and 3 Hong Kong soldiers were trapped for 16 days and did not eat for five days before being rescued when stretchers were lowered by helicopter. The breakaway party of five completed the first descent of the gully in three days. A book about the 31-day fight for survival entitled Descent into Chaos was published in 1996 and a film drama The Place of the Dead was released in 1997. The first successful complete descent of Low's Gully was achieved by a 27 strong joint Malaysian-British team led by mountaineer and former British Army officer Pat Gunson in 1998.

Naming myths

Several narratives exist that explain the primary beliefs surrounding the mountain's name.

The most plausible origin of the word "Kinabalu" is believed to be derived from the Dusun phrase 'Aki Nabalu,' signifying "the revered place of the dead"  . Another possible interpretation attributes the name to the Dusun expression "tina balu," which translates to "a widow mother," suggesting that tina balu may represent the spirit of the mountain itself.  Alternatively, some propose that "Kinabalu" results from the combination of two Dusun words, "ki" (have/has) and "nabalu" (mountain), forming "ki-nabalu" or "have mountain." It is a common practice among the Dusun people to name places based on their distinctive features or characteristics, exemplified by the place called "kiwaig," meaning "having water.

A popular story told to Western and Chinese tourists states that the name "Kinabalu" actually means "Cina Balu" (meaning "A Chinese Widow"). Due to the lingual influence among the Kadazan Dusun of Sabah, the pronunciation for the word "cina" (chee-na) was changed to "Kina" (kee-na). An earlier book by Spenser St. John published in 1863 mentioned the Kina Balu (Chinese widow) as a reference to the mountain. This story lacks coherence due to the likelihood that the Dusun people, who have lived in the area for approximately 6000 years, would not have been aware of the term "Cina" (Chinese in Malay) and thus could not have adapted it to "Kina" to refer to Chinese people or China. The Chinese language itself employs distinct words to represent Chinese individuals or the country of China, making the proposed adaptation very unlikely.

See also
 Borneo lowland rain forest – ecoregion
 Borneo montane rain forests – ecoregion
 Kinabalu Park
 Mount Kinabalu International Climbathon

References

Further reading

 Thomas Fuller (9 April 1999). Into the Mists of Borneo's Kinabalu . The New York Times.
 Hugh; Midori Paxton (7 March 2001). Climb rain forests to the clouds .  The Japan Times.
 Jim Solicki (23 June 2001). They came, they climbed: Mount Kinabalu conquered . The Globe and Mail.
 Jocasta Webb (1 September 2001). The truth about Mount Kinabalu . The Guardian
 Flip Byrnes (18 August 2010). Least-known, most exhilarating hikes . Stuff.co.nz
 Niall McIlroy (9 July 2011). Man versus mountain . The West Australian.
 Gabby Salazar (2 June 2014). Sunrise Hiking on Mount Kinabalu . National Geographic
 Sasha Gonzales (14 April 2015). 'If hell were a mountain, it would look like Mount Kinabalu': a Hong Kong hiker's Borneo blues . South China Morning Post
 Amy Willis (11 June 2015). What are the rules on climbing Mount Kinabalu and why is it so sacred? . Metro.

External links

 Sabah Parks website
 List of climbers who have hiked Mount Kinabalu

 Sabah's Fitus species

Mount Kinabalu
Mount Kinabalu
Ecoregions of Malesia
Four-thousanders of Asia
Highest points of countries
Mount Kinabalu
Mount Kinabalu
Mount Kinabalu
Sacred mountains
First 100 IUGS Geological Heritage Sites

Mount Kinabalu


The Overton window is a nickname for the set of opinions and ideas that it is possible for a politician to have without losing any chance of ever winning an election again. It is a reference to the ideas about politics that is generally fine to have.

Joseph Overton
Joseph Overton explained why libertarian think tanks exist by creating a chart of different political ideas that it's possible to have with a straight line from "most government, least freedom" to "least government, most freedom" and said that the ideas that politicians can get away with supporting are in the middle of it but sometimes where that is changes. For example,  Prohibition is something that people once supported while being in the mainstream but then society changed so that no politician could get away with supporting prohibition because society moved towards more freedom and less government. Overton also said that society could move in the direction of less freedom and more government. Overton said libertarian think tanks existed to move society to the point where more libertarian ideas were more mainstream and statism was seen as more radical. After Overton died, his think tank, the Mackinac Centre, started to call that idea, the Overton Window.

Glenn Beck
In 2010, Glenn Beck wrote a novel called The Overton Window based on conspiracy theories. When talking about it on Fox News, Beck said that the Overton Window meant things that politicians were willing to support and that the Overton Window changed when politicians decided that some ideas should become taboo or that some taboo ideas should become mainstream. The Mackinac Centre criticized him for saying this and said that it's not politicians who change The Overton Window (at least it usually isn't), it's society that changes and the politicians change with it.

Donald Trump
After the election of Donald Trump as president of the United States, a lot of political commentators on both the Left and the Right started talking about how the Overton Window had changed or how to change it. So Lawrence Reed wrote an essay for the Foundation for Economic Education explaining the idea of the Overton Window.

Politics

Overton window


Pattukkottai   is a major town in Thanjavur district in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu and also important town in Delta districts and Commercial town of Thanjavur, Thiruvarur and Pudukkottai district Coastal areas. The town came to prominence throughout Southern India after the construction of the fort by Vanaji Pandithar, a feudatory of the Thanjavur Maratha ruler Shahuji I in 1686–87. The recorded history of Pattukkottai is known from the 17th century and has been ruled, at different times, by the Thanjavur Marathas and the British. It is the headquarters of the Pattukkottai taluk of Thanjavur district and is one of the two municipalities in the district.

Pattukkottai comes under the Pattukkottai assembly constituency which elects a member to the Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly once every five years and it is a part of the Thanjavur (Lok Sabha constituency) which elects its Member of Parliament (MP) once in five years. The town is administered by the Pattukkottai municipality, which covers an area of . As of 2011, the town had a population of 73,135. The town is a part of the fertile Cauvery delta region, but the fishery is the major occupation. Roadways and railways are the major mode of transportation to Pattukkottai and the nearest international airport is Tiruchirapalli Airport, located  away from the town, in the city of Tiruchirappalli.

History
According to an inscription, the fortress of Pattukkottai was constructed by Vanaji Pandithar, a feudatory of the Thanjavur Maratha ruler Shahuji I in 1686–87. Pattukkottai was ruled by the Thanjavur Marathas till 1799 when it was annexed by the British East India Company. It became a part of Tanjore district in 1801.

Having a population of 7,603 in 1901, Pattukkottai experienced a population splurge between 1941 and 1981, when its population quadrupled. Sri Nadiamman temple is the most important Hindu temple in Pattukkottai and is of considerable antiquity. In 2018, cyclone Kaja hit Pattukottai and majority of its farmland and vegetation were lost. It almost took more than year for normalcy to prevail.

Thiru S.D.Somasundaram,R.Venkatraman,V.Nadimuthu pillai and Kalyana Sundram,Alagiri are some of the most famous people born in this soil

Geography

Pattukkottai  is located along the southeastern coast of India in the East-central region of Tamil Nadu, in the general Kaveri River delta area. Pattukkottai Municipality covers an area of 21.83 km2., and has an average elevation of 5  meters (16  feet). Pattukkottai is 48 km from the city of Thanjavur. The coast of the Bay of Bengal is just 12  km away, with Manora fort 15  km away from this town.

Pattukkottai lies on an extremely dry, rugged plateau. The Pattukkottai division is the only division of Thanjavur district which is not watered either by the Kaveri River or any of its tributaries or distributaries. Pattukkottai comes under the "As" region of the Köppen climate classification, as it is situated in Tropical region and receive its maximum rainfall during the winter months from October, November and December. Due to its geographical position, Pattukkottai generally experiences hot and humid climates and there is little to no extreme variation in seasonal temperature. As it is nearer to the equator, the summer season starts from April and extends till early June. This period observes the hottest part of the year, locally known as "Agni Nakshatram" or "Khatri veyil".

Demographics

According to 2011 census, Pattukkottai had a population of 73,135 with a sex-ratio of 1,010 females for every 1,000 males, which is much higher than the national average of 929. A total of 7,019 people in the town were under the age of six, constituting 3,630 males and 3,389 females. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes accounted for 5.86% and 0.8% of the population respectively. The average literacy rate of the town is 80.68%, which is higher compared to the national average of 72.99%. The town had a total of 18,437 households. There were a total of 25,908 workers: 623 cultivators, 2,044 main agricultural labourers, 697 in household industries, 19,653 other workers, 2,891 marginal workers, 118 marginal cultivators, 534 marginal agricultural labourers, 172 marginal workers in household industries and 2,067 other marginal workers.

As per the religious census of 2011, Pattukkottai had 86.82% Hindus, 7.57% Muslims, 5.34% Christians, 0.02% Sikhs, 0.07% Buddhists, 0.06% Jains, 0.1% following other religions and 0.02% following no religion or did not indicate any religious preference.

Tamil is the official language and is predominantly spoken. The most commonly used dialects is the Central Tamil dialect. English is widely understood in the town area. Both languages are widely used for various purposes such as commerce, in the town.

Administration

The municipality of Pattukkottai was constituted on 1 April 1965 covering an area of 21.83 sq. kilometres. Pattukkottai was upgraded to a second-grade municipality on 1 April 1975 and a first-grade municipality on 7 April 1984. Presently, it is a
selection-grade municipality and consists of 33 wards. The municipality is sub-divided into five revenue villages – Nadiyambal Puram, Kailasanathapuram, Maharajasamudram, Rengojiyappa Thottam and Pappaveli Palayamkottai.

Pattukkottai (state assembly constituency) has been a part of the Thanjavur parliamentary constituency from 2009. As per the latest draft electoral rolls released by the election commission, the Pattukottai assembly segment comprises 1,77,798 voters (85,476 male and 83,902 female). K. Annadurai from Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam was elected as the MLA in the 2021 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election.

Pattukkottai is a part of the Thanjavur Lok Sabha constituency and elects a member to the Lok Sabha, the lower house of the Parliament of India, once every five years. In 2019 Indian general election S.S. Palanimanickam from Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam was elected as the MP.

Economy
In British times, brass vessels, cotton cloths and mats were the main manufactures of Pattukkottai. In 1951, anthropologist Kathleen Gough notes that Pattukkottai had the largest portion of zamindari and inam lands in Thanjavur district.

Agriculture, using water from the Kaveri, though the town hosts a number of other businesses. Paddy and coconut are the major crops, however, a large variety of produce is grown in and around Pattukkottai. Pattukkottai was declared a "coir cluster" in September 2007 in order to promote traditional coir-based industries.

In Tamil Nadu, after Pollachi, coconut cultivation has been extensively done in Pattukkottai's surroundings on 30,000 hectares of land along the coast. Pattukottai has been declared a Coir Cluster under a Central scheme called "Scheme Fund for Regeneration of Traditional Industries" (SFURT). A coconut complex at Ponnvarayankottai near Pattukottai is to be constructed at a cost of Rs.4 Crores and will have sections for trading, grading coconuts and separating copra, drying yard, shops for traders, and for tourists, restrooms, information centre and parking lots. It would be expanded in future depending upon the needs of farmers. There are also demands to set up industries to promote Coir-related products with value addition.

Utility services
Electricity supply to Pattukkottai is regulated and distributed by the Tamil Nadu Electricity Board (TNEB). The city along with its suburbs is a part of Trichy Electricity Distribution Circle. Water supply is handled by the municipality and the town gets an average of 7.65 million litres of water everyday from the Sathankadu head works pumped from 3 pumping stations. Pattukkottai has a total of 63 kilometres of metalled roads, 9.5 kilometres of cemented roads and 0.1 kilometre of unsurfaced roads.  The municipality maintains 5 parks, 5 shopping complexes and a daily market.

Solid waste are collected from Pattukkottai every day by door-to-door collection and subsequently the source segregation and dumping is carried out by the sanitary department of the Pattukottai municipality. The coverage of solid waste management had an efficiency of 100% as of 2001. There is no underground drainage system in the town and the current sewerage system for disposal of sullage is through septic tanks, open drains and public conveniences.

There is one government hospital, 24 private hospitals and a lot of practising doctors in Pattukkottai who take care of the health care needs of the citizens. There are a total of 2,883 street lamps: 448 sodium lamps, 2,432 tube lights and three high mast beam lamps. The municipality operates one markets, namely the Alagiri Daily Market, while there is a private market by name V.N.S.Market. Pattukkottai comes under the Thanjavur Telecom circle of the Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited (BSNL), India's state-owned telecom and internet services provider. Apart from telecom, BSNL also provides broadband internet service.

Pattukkottai has a total of 21 primary and secondary schools and a polytechnic college. There are two arts colleges and one government engineering college.

Transport
Pattukkottai is connected by road and rail with the rest of Tamil Nadu.

By Rail
Pattukkottai comes under Tiruchirappalli Railway Division of the Southern Railway.

Pattukkottai railway station is situated on the main route of Chennai Egmore - Rameswaram line, which is located approximately 500 metres east from Bus station towards Adirampattinam. The gauge conversion work completed by last quarter of 2019, but still not much trains are operational thru this route due to operational difficulties.

By Road
There are regular buses to Chennai, Bangalore, Thanjavur, Tiruchirappalli, Kumbakonam, Velankanni, Nagapattinam, Vedaranyam, Mannargudi, Madurai, Coimbatore, Tiruppur, Kanyakumari, Tiruchendur, Karaikudi, Pudukkottai, Palani, Tirupati, Rameswaram, Ramanathapuram, Tirunelveli, Nagercoil, Marthandam, Thiruvananthapuram, Tenkasi, Kollam, Thoothukudi, and other towns and cities throughout Tamil Nadu. There are some newly created routes which heads to inter state cities also. Pattukkottai forms a part of the division number. 1 of the Tamil Nadu State Transport Corporation which is headquartered at Kumbakonam. The town has 2 bus depots for inter-city bus services.

See also
Vedaranyam
Velankanni

Notes

References

External links
 pattukkottai info

Cities and towns in Thanjavur district

Pattukkottai


Alice Louise Reynolds (April 1, 1873 – December 5, 1938)  was the first woman professor at  Brigham Young University (BYU).  BYU magazine put her in a list of the 10 best BYU professors of the 20th century. She was the second woman in Utah to be a full professor.

Childhood and education
Alice was born in Salt Lake City, Utah Territory, United States. Her father was George Reynolds and her mother was Mary Ann Tuddenham. Her father was a general authority of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), and worked as secretary to the First Presidency of the church for many years. When Alice was six years old, her father went to jail because he had more than one wife (plural marriage).

Her father's sister, her aunt Julia Reynolds, helped raise Alice. Alice liked reading and being around grownups. When she was 12, her mother died while giving birth to one of her siblings. Alice's father sent her and her younger sister Florence to the Brigham Young Academy (BYA) for their high school education. Alice was inspired by one of her teachers, Academy Principal Karl G. Maeser. She graduated from BYA in 1890.

Alice had taught for two years when the president of BYA, Benjamin Cluff, asked her to start a literature department at BYA. Reynolds went to the University of Michigan to study literature from 1892 to 1894. When she came back she became a full-time teacher at BYA.

Later in her life Reynolds received more education in Chicago, Cornell, Berkeley and Columbia. She also traveled to Europe four different times.

Career

Teaching

Reynolds was a Professor of English for 44 years. She became the first female to be a full professor at BYU. She taught approximately 5,000 students in 20 different English courses. Reynolds's absent-mindedness was famous at BYU. According to her students, she once walked through a herd of cows while reading a book and brought a teakettle to work instead of her purse.

Reynolds was an editor for the Relief Society Magazine from 1923 to 1930 and a writer for other LDS magazines. She also served in the General Board of the Relief Society of LDS Church for seven years.

Contributions to library
While working at BYA, Reynolds became the chairperson of the committee to establish the library. She was the chairperson of the committee for 19 years. She held a large fundraiser to obtain 1,200 books to add to the school's library. Over the course of her life, she organized several other campaigns to help the library grow to 100,000 volumes. Through the efforts of the club, over 10,000 volumes were donated to the BYU library.

References

1873 births
1938 deaths
Academics from Utah

Alice Reynolds


The Rugby Football League Challenge Cup, commonly known just as the Challenge Cup is a knockout rugby league cup competition organised by the Rugby Football League, held annually since 1896, it is the world's oldest cup competition in either code of rugby. A concurrent Women's Challenge Cup and Wheelchair Challenge Cup have been held since 2012 and 2015 respectively.

The competition is open to all eligible clubs down to Tier 5. Some amateur clubs have to qualify to enter in Round One while others can apply through the RFL to enter.

The final is traditionally played at Wembley Stadium although it has been played at other venues Wembley is seen as the home of the competition. "Abide with Me", sung before the game, has become a rugby league anthem.

The current holders of the Challenge Cup are Leigh Leopards, winning the competition for the third time, beating Hull Kingston Rovers 17-16 in the 2023 Final on 12 August 2023 at Wembley Stadium. The 2023 final was also the first to feature the Women's Challenge Cup showpiece at Wembley on the same day.

Wigan are the most successful club in the history of the competition, winning the Cup a record 20 times.

History

The clubs that formed the Northern Union had long been playing in local knock-out cup competitions under the auspices of the Rugby Football Union. The rugby union authorities refused to sanction a nationwide tournament, however, fearing that this would inevitably lead to professionalism. After the schism of 1895, the northern clubs were free to go ahead, and they started the Northern Rugby Football Union Challenge Cup. In 1896 Fattorini's of Bradford were commissioned to manufacture the Challenge Cup at a cost of just £60. Fattorini's also supplied three-guineas winners' medals then valued at thirty shillings (£1.50).

The first competition was held during the 1896–97 season (the second season of the new game), and 52 clubs entered to compete for the trophy. The first final was held at Headingley in Leeds, on 24 April 1897. Batley defeated St. Helens 10–3 in front of a crowd of 13,492 (see picture). The St Helens side did not play in a standardised team jersey.

The competition was later interrupted by the Great War, although it was held in 1915, when the season that had begun before the war was completed. It was then suspended until the end of hostilities. Initially, the final tie was held at one of the larger club grounds in the north, however, noting the excitement in Huddersfield that the town's football team were playing at Wembley in the FA Cup Final and the increasing difficulty for any of the rugby league grounds to satisfy spectator demand to see the final tie, the rugby league authorities voted 13–10 to move to the recently built Wembley Stadium in London, aiming to emulate the FA Cup's success and to put the game on the national stage.

The first final held at Wembley was in 1929 when Wigan beat Dewsbury 13–2 in front of a crowd of 41,500. The final was subsequently held at Wembley in 1930 & 31 but switched to Central Park in Wigan in 1932 as Wembley was not booked by the games administrators.

At the start of the Second World War, rugby league suspended its season immediately, but the Challenge Cup took a single year's break before restarting, on a limited basis and with the support of the authorities, as part of keeping up morale. The Challenge Cup finals, which took place in the game's Northern heartland, got big crowds as the game raised money for prisoners of war and for Lord Beaverbrook's armaments programme.

In 1946, the Lance Todd Trophy was introduced and awarded to the man of the match. The first winner was Billy Stott of Wakefield Trinity while the first winner of the trophy on the losing team was Frank Whitcombe of Bradford Northern in 1948. In itself, it is a prestigious trophy presented only at the Challenge Cup Final. The winner is selected by the members of the Rugby League Writers' Association present at the game and the trophy was presented at a celebratory dinner at the Willows, the home of Salford.

The post World War Two Final crowds almost immediately reached capacity at Wembley – which amounted to multiple 90,000 plus crowds.

1954 saw the Challenge Cup final drawn and the replay set the record for a rugby league match attendance. The match was on 5 May and 102,569 was the official attendance at Odsal Stadium, although it is believed that up to 120,000 spectators were present to see Warrington defeat Halifax 8–4.

The first final that was played under limited tackle rules (Originally 4, later changed to 6) Was the 1967 final between Barrow and Featherstone Rovers.

Wigan became well known for their successes in the Challenge Cup competition, winning every Challenge Cup Final from 1988 to 1995.

Until the 1993–94 season there were very few amateur clubs included in the cup, typically two. For part of the 1980s, and the 1992–93 season the cup was solely for professional clubs. The competition was then opened up to large numbers of amateur clubs as part of a deal between the Rugby Football League and British Amateur Rugby League Association over bridging the gap between the professional and amateur leagues.

In 1997, a Challenge Cup Plate took place for teams knocked out in the early rounds of the competition. The final took place at Wembley and was won by Hull Kingston Rovers who beat Hunslet 60–14.

The first final that featured use of the Video Referee, for try decisions, was the 1999 final between Leeds Rhinos and London Broncos, which saw the Broncos beaten by a record margin of 52–16 in a Challenge Cup Final.

The 1999 Challenge Cup Final was also the last to be played at the old Wembley Stadium before the construction of the new Wembley Stadium began in 2003. During this time a variety of venues were used to hold the Final including Twickenham, Murrayfield and the Millennium Stadium. The Challenge Cup Final moved back into the new Wembley Stadium for the 2007 Final.

There was a belief that the Challenge Cup final taking place early in the season had led to a decline in the prestige of the cup, so the timing of the competition was altered in 2005

On 26 August 2006 St. Helens scrum-half Sean Long became the first player in the history of the Challenge Cup to collect a third Lance Todd trophy following his man-of-the-match performance in the final against Huddersfield. His other Lance Todd trophy wins came in the 2001 and 2004 Challenge Cup Finals.

On 25 August 2018, Catalans Dragons became the first non-English team to win the Challenge Cup as they defeated Warrington Wolves 20–14 at Wembley.

Format
The modern Challenge Cup has eight rounds prior to the final. Teams are seeded, entering at different stages. The precise format has altered slightly from year to year, however the current format is as follows:
 First round: Amateur teams from around the United Kingdom are invited to participate. Most of the teams are English and affiliated to BARLA.  Also included are, or have been, the national champions of the Irish, Welsh and Scottish rugby leagues; teams representing the British Army, Royal Navy, Royal Air Force, the police, and student rugby league teams.  Occasionally other teams have been invited such as the inclusion for 2019 of Serbian side Red Star Belgrade.
 Second round: The first round winners play again.
 Third round: The League 1 clubs enter the draw with the winners from the second round.
 Fourth round: The Championship teams enter the draw with the third round winners.
 Fifth round: The bottom four Super League teams enter the draw with the fourth round winners.
 Sixth round: The top eight Super League teams enter the draw with the eight fifth round winners.
 Quarter finals: Last eight.
 Semi finals: Played at neutral venue(s).
 Final: Played at Wembley Stadium, on the Saturday of the August bank holiday weekend until 2019; was moved to July from 2020 onwards but was played in May in 2022 and returned to an August date in 2023.

Venues

During the first round right through to the quarter-finals the cup is hosted at the stadium of the team who has been drawn at home. The semi finals are hosted at neutral venues so there is no advantage for the home team.

The final is played at Wembley traditionally, having first been played there in 1929. Before, the final had been held in different neutral venues, mostly in the north of England. The first Challenge Cup final was held at Headingley, Leeds between Batley and St. Helens in front of a crowd of 13,492.

Trophy

The Challenge Cup trophy was designed by silversmiths Fattorini & Sons of Bradford in 1897. The trophy stands 36 inches high, manufactured of solid silver and sits on a black ebony base approximately 8 inches deep.

Tony Collins, the Rugby Football League's archivist, stated in 2007 that, "Fattorini's weren't given any particular commission, just told to come up with something prestigious". The trophy cost £60. The average wage in 1897 was around £2 per week which suggests an equivalent 2007 price of £16,000, although Collins says, "if you wanted something made of silver and with that level of craftsmanship these days, it would be far more expensive. In terms of its subsequent value, the RFL got a bargain."

The trophy currently presented to the winners after the final is not the original which had to be withdrawn due to its delicate condition. As well as the silver wearing thin, it had lost its fluted top and the players on each of the handles had been damaged. The original Fattorini trophy was last presented at the 2001 Challenge Cup Final to St Helens captain Chris Joynt after his team had beaten Bradford. The original trophy is now stored at the RFL's headquarters at Red Hall and only used for promotional appearances.

The trophy used today was created by Jack Spencer (goldsmith) of Sheffield in 800 man-hours and is an almost exact replica of the Fattorini piece. One improvement made with the new version is that the small shields displaying each winning team and captain are now the same size, whereas they had been getting smaller as space ran out on the original. The new trophy's neck has been strengthened. The second trophy was first presented to Wigan, winners of the 2002 Challenge Cup Final.

The winners of the cup in looking after the trophy must "follow a certain code of practice," says Collins. When not in a secure cabinet, the trophy must always be in the presence of someone. When the trophy is taken out overnight, somebody must sleep in the same room and if taken in a car there must be two people in attendance. Collins reveals that, "When it went down to France for some Catalans publicity photos, it even had its own seat on the plane."

Awards

The Lance Todd Trophy, named in memory of Lance Todd, is awarded to the man-of-the-match in the Challenge Cup Final. The winner is decided each year by those members of the Rugby League Writers' Association present at the match.

The Trophy was first presented in 1946 to William "Billy" Stott of Wakefield Trinity.

Sponsorship

The Challenge Cup has been sponsored since 1980, with the sponsor being able to determine the cup's sponsorship name. There have been eight sponsors with Betfred being the current sponsors.

The official rugby ball supplier is Steeden.

Notable events in finals

The most tries scored in a final was 5 scored by Tom Briscoe (Leeds Rhinos v Hull KR in 2015), who also holds the record for most tries in total from one player (7 for Leeds, 2014 – 1, 2015 – 5, 2020 – 1) one ahead of Kevin Iro (6 for Wigan, 1988 – 2, 1989 – 2, 1990 – 2).

The first hat trick of tries in a final was scored by Robbie Paul for Bradford Bulls v St Helens in 1996. Three years later, Leroy Rivett scored 4 for Leeds Rhinos against London Broncos in 1999. Some players previously missed out on becoming the first to score a hat trick due to tries being disallowed, such as Martin Offiah (Wigan v Castleford in 1992), Tony Iro (Wigan v Halifax in 1988) & Kevin Iro (Wigan v Warrington in 1990).

Graham Rees scored the quickest Challenge Cup Final try after just 35 seconds for St Helens against Leeds in 1972.

The most famous final was the 1968 'Watersplash' game between Leeds and Wakefield Trinity. Due to a heavy thunderstorm both before and during the match, the pitch became totally waterlogged. In the final minute, with Leeds 11 – 7 in front, Wakefield winger Ken Hurst scored under the posts, and Don Fox (Who had already won the Lance Todd Trophy that day) had a match winning conversion to take in injury time. But due to the saturated pitch, he miskicked the ball, sending it wide of the posts. Despite a successful career for both club and country, Fox has always been remembered for that one infamous moment.

The first player to be sent off in a final was Syd Hynes, for Leeds against Leigh in 1971, for headbutting Alex Murphy. Hynes has always protested his innocence over the incident. Richard Eyres of Widnes was shown a red card for an off the ball elbow on Martin Offiah of Wigan in the 1993 final, and was banned for 6 games as a result.

The first final to be decided by golden point was in 2023 with Leigh Leopards scoring a drop goal against Hull KR via Lachlan Lam. 2023 also saw the first occasion of the Women's Challenge Cup final featuring at Wembley Stadium, prior to the men's final.

Challenge Cup Finals

In total, 26 different clubs have won the Challenge Cup and 30 different teams have appeared in the final. Wigan Warriors hold the record for most wins with 20 and have appeared in 33 finals. In 2007, Catalans Dragons became the first non English team to reach the final but lost to St. Helens.

§ Denotes club now defunct
± Denotes a non-English club.

The Double

In British Rugby League, the term The Double refers to the achievement of a club that wins the Super League (Rugby Football League Championship First Division before 1996) and Challenge Cup in the same season. To date, this has been achieved by ten different clubs.

The Treble

The Treble refers to the team who wins all three domestic honours on offer during the season; Grand Final, League Leaders' Shield, and Challenge Cup. To date seven teams have won the treble, only Bradford, St. Helens and Leeds have won the treble in the Super League era.

The Quadruple

The Quadruple (not an official name) refers to winning the Super League, League Leaders' Shield, Challenge Cup and World Club Challenge in one season.

Note: Since the switch to summer rugby, the Word Club Challenge can only be won the season after the treble.

All Four Cups

Winning all Four Cups referred to winning the RFL First Division Championship, Challenge Cup, County League and County Cup in one season.

Broadcast
The BBC first covered the final of this competition when Wigan beat Bradford Northern in 1948. At that time though the only TV transmitter was in London, so fans up North never got to see it. It was another four years before another final was covered when Workington Town beat Featherstone Rovers in 1952. The cup final was not broadcast on TV again until the 1958 final between Wigan and Workington Town since when it has been shown every year. The inception of Grandstand also saw coverage of earlier rounds start to be shown during the 1960s with ITV's World of Sport even showing games as well for a short period.

The BBC has been the predominant broadcaster, showing every final live since 1958 (except the 1982 Final Replay shown as highlights). Eddie Waring was the first commentator for BBC coverage. When he retired, commentary was covered by Ray French and he continued to work for the BBC for a number of years, albeit in semi-retirement, with his last Challenge Cup Final in 2008. From 2009, the present day main commentator is Dave Woods. He usually commentates with Brian Noble, Jonathan Davies, Iestyn Harris or Ian Millward. Nowadays, the BBC continues to broadcast the tournament with Clare Balding hosting from 2006 to 2012 until her move to Channel 4 Racing. Mark Chapman was secondary host in 2012 when Balding was unavailable for the cup and international matches, and previous hosts for the BBC include John Inverdale and Steve Rider. The current main hosts (as of 2013) are Mark Chapman and Super League Show presenter Tanya Arnold.

From 2012–2021, Sky Sports held the rights for the early rounds with one match each round and two quarter finals; whilst BBC Sport showed two sixth round matches, two quarter finals, both semi-finals and the final.

From 2022 onwards, Premier Sports will begin to broadcast games from the fourth round up to the quarter-finals alongside BBC.

International

See also

Women's Challenge Cup
Wheelchair Challenge Cup
Amco Cup
Lord Derby Cup
British rugby league system
List of sports attendance figures
Super League

Notes

References

External links

Official website: (rugby-league.com);  https://www.rugby-league.com/competitions/pro-national/betfred-challenge-cup

Rugby league competitions in the United Kingdom
European rugby league competitions
National cup competitions

Challenge Cup


Manchester Aid to Kosovo (MAK) is a Manchester based charity dedicated to providing aid and support to the peoples of Kosovo.

History

MAK was started by five Manchester men in a pub. Their response to the unfolding reports of ethnic cleansing in Kosovo, caught the imagination of the Greater Manchester people. Within two weeks a convoy of 300 tonnes of aid was on its way from Manchester to Kosovo Albanians in refugee camps in Albania. 850,000 Kosovo Albanians fled the province. Within a year MAK transported a 1,000 tons of crisis aid to the region; MAK is committed to supporting the recovery of the people of Kosovo in both Kosovo and in the United Kingdom. Kosovo is administrated by the United Nations.

MAK has partnered with InterVol, a student-led international volunteering charity, to provide international volunteers for projects in the Podujevo region of Kosovo.

External links
 MAK Website - www.makonline.org.
 InterVol Kosovo Project.

Charities based in Manchester

Manchester Aid to Kosovo


Fray Jacobo de Testera or Jacobo de Tastera was a Franciscan Friar  of the 16th century who worked as a missionary to the indigenous peoples of New Spain. Born into a noble family in Bayonne, France he entered the Franciscan order around 1500 and went to Seville where he eventually became palace priest of Charles V. In 1527 he was recruited by Fray Antonio de Ciudad Rodrigo to go to Mexico where he arrived in 1529.

Among the first things he witnessed was the beating to death of the indigenous ruler of Tacubaya by Diego Delgadillo for not being able to provide the latter with sufficient workers to construct his palace. Testera became the companion of Archbishop Juan de Zumárraga before deciding to dedicate himself to the mission. He started to work closely with Fray Pedro de Gante, creating instructional materials for the natives. He missionized in Michoacán and in Atlixco before going to work among the Maya people of Yucatán and later among the Nahua people of Huejotzinco, where he spent the last part of his life in the monastery. He was a colleague of Toribio de Benavente "Motolinia" and a friend of Bartolomé de las Casas. As he never became fluent in an indigenous language he invented a way of proselytizing with images called Testerian codices employing the rebus system to teach Indians Christian doctrine.

References

1470 births
1543 deaths
Colonial Mexico
French Franciscans

Jacobo de Testera


The new neoclassical synthesis (NNS), which is now generally referred to as New Keynesian economics, and occasionally as the New Consensus, is the fusion of the major, modern macroeconomic schools of thought – new classical macroeconomics/real business cycle theory and early New Keynesian economics – into a consensus view on the best way to explain short-run fluctuations in the economy. This new synthesis is analogous to the neoclassical synthesis that combined neoclassical economics with Keynesian macroeconomics.  The new synthesis provides the theoretical foundation for much of contemporary mainstream macroeconomics.  It is an important part of the theoretical foundation for the work done by the Federal Reserve and many other central banks.

Prior to the synthesis, macroeconomics was split between partial-equilibrium New Keynesian work on market imperfections demonstrated with small models and new classical work on real business cycle theory that used fully specified general equilibrium models and used changes in technology to explain fluctuations in economic output. The new synthesis has taken elements from both schools, and is characterised by a consensus on acceptable methodology, the importance of empirical validation of theoretical work, and the effectiveness of monetary policy.

Four elements
Ellen McGrattan proposed a list of four elements that are central to the new synthesis described by Goodfried and King: intertemporal optimization, rational expectations, imperfect competition, and costly price adjustment (menu costs).  Goodfriend and King also find that the consensus models produce certain policy implications.  In contradiction with some new classical thought, monetary policy can affect real output in the short-run, but there is no long-run trade-off: money is not neutral in the short-run but it is in the long-run.  High inflation and fluctuations in the inflation rate, have  negative welfare effects. It is important for central banks to maintain credibility through rules based policy like inflation targeting.

Five principles
In the late 2000s, Michael Woodford attempted to describe the new synthesis with five elements.  First, he stated that there is now agreement on intertemporal general equilibrium foundations.  These allow both short-run and long-run impacts of changes in the economy to be examined in a single framework and microeconomic and macroeconomic concerns are no longer separated.  This element of the synthesis is partly a victory for the new classical, but it also includes the Keynesian desire for modeling short-run aggregate dynamics.

Second, the modern synthesis recognizes the importance of using observed data, but economists now focus on models built out of theory instead of looking at more generic correlations. Third, the new synthesis addresses the Lucas critique and uses rational expectations. However, based on sticky prices and other rigidities, the synthesis does not embrace the complete neutrality of money proposed by earlier new classical economists.

Fourth, the new synthesis accepts that shocks of varying types can cause economic output to fluctuate. This view goes beyond the monetarist view that monetary variables cause fluctuations and the Keynesian view that supply is stable while demand fluctuates.  Older Keynesian models measured output gaps as the difference between measured output and an ever-growing trend of output capacity.  Real business cycle theory did not consider the possibility of gaps and used changes in efficient output, caused by shocks to the economy, to explain fluctuations in output.  Keynesians rejected this theory and argued that changes in efficient output were not large enough to explain wider swings in the economy.

The new synthesis combines elements from both schools on this issue.  In the new synthesis, output gaps exist, but they are the difference between actual output and efficient output.  The use of efficient output recognizes that potential output does not grow continuously, but can move upward or downward in response to shocks. Fifth, it is accepted that central banks can control inflation through the use of monetary policy. This is partly a victory for monetarists, but new synthesis models also include an updated version of the Philips curve that draws from Keynesianism.

See also
 Neoclassical synthesis
 New classical macroeconomics
 New Keynesian macroeconomics

General
 History of macroeconomic thought
 Mainstream economics

Notes

References
 .
 .
 .
 .
 .
 .

New classical macroeconomics
New Keynesian economics

New neoclassical synthesis