Edward Samuel Herman (April 7, 1925 – November 11, 2017) was an American economist, media scholar and social critic. Herman is known for his media criticism, in particular the propaganda model hypothesis he developed with Noam Chomsky, a frequent co-writer. He held an appointment as Professor Emeritus of finance at the Wharton School of Business of the University of Pennsylvania. He also taught at Annenberg School for Communication at the University of Pennsylvania.

Ideologically, Herman has been described as a "dedicated radical democrat", an ideology which opposes corporate control in favor of direct democracy while distancing itself from other radical movements. His writings frequently dealt with what he called "Western corporate media reports" on violent regional conflicts, disputing mainstream reports to an extent that he has been criticised for downplaying genocide figures.

Early life
Herman was born in Philadelphia to a liberal Democratic family, the son of Abraham Lincoln Herman, a pharmacist and Celia Dektor, a homemaker.

Herman received his Bachelor of Arts (in 1945), and later his MA, from the University of Pennsylvania. At University of California, Berkeley, from which he received his PhD in 1953, he met economist Robert A. Brady, who had studied the economics of fascist regimes, who was a significant influence upon him. Herman joined the Wharton School of Business of the University of Pennsylvania in 1958, where he taught finance and became professor emeritus in 1989.

Political views

Vietnam War
Following the Vietnam War, Herman and Noam Chomsky challenged the veracity of media accounts of war crimes and repression by the Vietnamese communists, stating: "the basic sources for the larger estimates of killings in the North Vietnamese land reform were persons affiliated with the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) or the Saigon Propaganda Ministry" and "the NLF-DRV 'bloodbath' at Hue (in South Vietnam) was constructed on flimsy evidence indeed". Commenting on postwar Vietnam, Chomsky and Herman argued: "[i]n a phenomenon that has few parallels in Western experience, there appear to have been close to zero retribution deaths in postwar Vietnam." This they described as a "miracle of reconciliation and restraint". In discussing the 1977 Congressional testimony of defecting SRV official Nguyen Cong Hoan, on the subjects of mass repression and the abrogation of civic and religious freedoms, Herman and Chomsky pointed to contradictory accounts of post-war Vietnam, concluding that while "some of what Hoan reports is no doubt accurate ... the many visitors and Westerners living in Vietnam who expressly contradict his claims" suggest "Hoan is simply not a reliable commentator."

Chomsky and Herman authored Counter-Revolutionary Violence: Bloodbaths in Fact & Propaganda, a book which criticised U.S. military involvement in Southeast Asia and highlighted how mainstream media neglected to cover stories about these activities; the publisher Warner Modular initially accepted it, and it was published in 1973. However, Warner Modular's parent company, Warner Communications, disapproved of the book's contents and ordered all copies to be destroyed. According to Jim Neilson's book Warring Fictions: Cultural Politics and the Vietnam War Narrative, the publication of Counter-Revolutionary Violence was stopped by an executive of Warner Publications, William Sarnoff, who thought its discussion of American foreign policy "was a pack of lies, a scurrilous attack on respected Americans, undocumented, a publication unworthy of a serious publisher". Because of a binding contract, copies were passed to another publisher rather than destroyed.

In 1967, Herman was among more than 500 writers and editors who signed the "Writers and Editors War Tax Protest" pledge, vowing to refuse to pay the 10% Vietnam War tax surcharge implemented by Congress upon the initiation of President Johnson.

Cambodia

The two men later collaborated on works about the media treatment of post-war Indochina, Cambodia in particular, beginning with "Distortions at Fourth Hand", an article written for the American left-wing periodical The Nation in June 1977. While they did not "pretend to know [...] the truth" about what was going on in Cambodia during the Khmer Rouge regime of Pol Pot, they believed, in reviewing material on the topic then available: "[w]hat filters through to the American public is a seriously distorted version of the evidence available". Referring to what they saw as  "the extreme unreliablity of refugee reports", they noted: "Refugees are frightened and defenseless, at the mercy of alien forces. They naturally tend to report what they believe their interlocutors wish to hear. While these reports must be considered seriously, care and caution are necessary. Specifically, refugees questioned by Westerners or Thais have a vested interest in reporting atrocities on the part of Cambodian revolutionaries, an obvious fact that no serious reporter will fail to take into account". They concluded by stating Khmer Rouge Cambodia might be more closely comparable to "France after liberation, where many thousands of people were massacred within a few months" than to Nazi Germany.

In 1979, Chomsky and Herman revised Counter-Revolutionary Violence and published it with South End Press as the two-volume The Political Economy of Human Rights. In this work they compared U.S. media reactions to the Cambodian genocide and the Indonesian occupation of East Timor. They argued that because Indonesia was a U.S. ally, U.S. media ignored the East Timorese situation while focusing on that in Cambodia, a U.S. enemy. Volume II of the book The Political Economy of Human Rights, Volume II: After the Cataclysm: Postwar Indochina and the Reconstruction of Imperial Ideology (1979), which appeared after the regime had been deposed, has been described by area specialist Sophal Ear as "one of the most supportive books of the Khmer revolution" in which they "perform what amounts to a defense of the Khmer Rouge cloaked in an attack on the media". In their book, Chomsky and Herman wrote: "The record of atrocities in Cambodia is substantial and often gruesome" but questioned their scale, which may have been inflated "by a factor of 100". They wrote that the evacuation of Phnom Penh "may actually have saved many lives", that the Khmer Rouge's agricultural policies reportedly produced positive results and there might have been "a significant degree of peasant support for the Khmer Rouge".

Herman replied to critics in 2001: "Chomsky and I found that the very asking of questions about the numerous fabrications, ideological role, and absence of any beneficial effects for the victims in the anti-Khmer Rouge propaganda campaign of 1975–1979 was unacceptable, and was treated almost without exception as 'apologetics for Pol Pot.

Todd Gitlin, in an email to The New York Times, wrote that for Herman and Chomsky "the suffering of the Cambodians is less important than their need to pin the damage done to Cambodia in the 1970s primarily on the American bombing that preceded the rise of the Khmer Rouge to power".

The "propaganda model"
Herman and Chomsky's best known co-authored book is Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media, first published in 1988, and largely written by Herman. The book introduced the notion of the "propaganda model" to the debates on the workings of the corporate media. They argued: "market forces, internalized assumptions and self-censorship" motivate newspapers and television networks to stifle dissent. They wrote: "in our model", the Polish priest Jerzy Popieluszko (a victim of the Communist state police) "murdered in an enemy state, will be a worthy victim, whereas priests murdered in our client states in Latin America will be unworthy. The former may be expected to elicit a propaganda outburst by the mass media, while the latter will not generate sustained coverage".

Rather than needing direct control over the media as in dictatorships, in the views of Herman and Chomsky, industrial democracies control popular opinion using "filters" which prevent politically controversial ideas from reaching the public. The two men specified five filters, in particular: the concentration of media ownership to a few corporations, the need to please advertisers and funding sources, the reliance on government-provided sources, flak, and anti-communist ideology. These influences combine to prevent politically inconvenient knowledge and ideas from reaching the general public.

Historian Walter LaFeber, reviewing the original 1988 edition for The New York Times, thought "their argument is sometimes weakened by overstatement" citing Herman and Chomsky's attack on major American news sources for reproducing false government assertions about Nicaragua but failing to note that those same sources quickly attacked the government when the deliberate error was discovered. Derek N. Shearer, also in 1988 for the Los Angeles Times, described the work as "important" and the "case studies" as "required reading" for foreign correspondents but in his view the authors "don't adequately explore the extent to which the mass media fail to manufacture consent, and why this might be so". To support his point, Shearer used the examples of the Contras in Nicaragua and the deposed Ferdinand Marcos in the Philippines, both supported by the US government and conservatives but not by American public opinion. Shearer also commented Herman and Chomsky "persuasively demonstrate that in countries where the American government is involved—either openly or covertly—the press is frequently less than critical, and sometimes a partner in outright deception of the American public."

"The whole approach of the book is deeply simplistic", according to Todd Gitlin, a professor of journalism and communications at Columbia University. "If you think that The New York Times is Pravda, which is essentially what they're saying, then what vocabulary do you have left for Fox News? Their model is so clumsy that it disables you from distinguishing between a straight-out propaganda network and a more complex, hegemonic mainstream news organ".

Writings on Srebrenica
Herman wrote about the 1995 Srebrenica massacre in articles such as "The Politics of the Srebrenica Massacre". He wrote: "the evidence for a massacre, certainly of one in which 8,000 men and boys were executed, has always been problematic, to say the least" and "the 'Srebrenica massacre' is the greatest triumph of propaganda to emerge from the Balkan wars... the link of this propaganda triumph to truth and justice is non-existent". He criticized the validity of the term genocide in the case of Srebrenica, alleging inconsistencies in the case of organized extermination such as the Bosnian Serb Army's bussing of Muslim women and children out of Srebrenica. In a 2004 review of Samantha Power's "A Problem from Hell": America and the Age of Genocide, Herman wrote: "It is truly Orwellian to see the [UN] Yugoslavia Tribunal struggling to pin the 'genocide' label on Milosevic and to have done that already against Bosnian Serb General Radislav Krstic." Krstić was convicted of aiding genocide for his role in the Srebrenica massacre and is serving 35 years for those charges.

Marko Attila Hoare criticized Herman's position on the Srebrenica massacre, claiming the Srebrenica Research Group was formed "to propagate the view that the Srebrenica massacre never happened". Michael F. Bérubé said the SRG is dedicated to overturning the findings of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia. Herman's writings on the Srebrenica massacre were criticized by John Feffer and Oliver Kamm, who accused him in 2013 of "using bogus statistics for years", Martin Shaw who said he was "mediating denial", and the website Balkan Witness which accused him of "insulting the survivors". Starting from year 2000, the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia physically exhumed  8372 bodies of most of the Srebrenica massacre victims, which were then examined and most of identified by DNA analysis, confirming the fact of execution and its scale.

The Politics of Genocide

In The Politics of Genocide (co-authored by David Peterson, with a foreword by Noam Chomsky, 2010), Herman and Peterson argue "genocide" has become a politicized notion through analysis of the media and comparative studies of what they title  "constructive" and "nefarious" genocides.  They argue the Kosovo War, the Rwandan genocide in 1994, and the War in Darfur have been publicized as "genocides" in the West to advance an economic and intellectual agenda.  They contrast media coverage of these events with Sanctions against Iraq and the Iraq War, arguing that despite similar casualties to those massacres which receive the label genocide, massacres in which Western powers were directly involved are not labelled "genocides". By analyzing cases where the term "genocide" has been used, Herman argues the West has leveraged human rights abuses to advance its own agenda. He says this has resulted in a minority controlled government of pro-Western and pro-business Tutsi.  "Genocides", such as East Timor, for which the West has some responsibility, have been largely ignored.

Journalists John Pilger and Dan Kowalik, recommended The Politics of Genocide. The book also received negative critical reactions, accusing the authors of denialism, from writers Gerald Caplan, George Monbiot, and James Wizeye, first secretary at the Rwandan High Commission in London. Genocide scholar Adam Jones criticized the account of the Rwandan genocide as "radically revisionist" if not "fantasist".

Private life
Herman was married to Mary Woody, who died in 2013, for 67 years. He married long-time friend Christine Abbott in 2015.

Death
Herman died from complications of bladder cancer in Penn Valley, Pennsylvania, on November 11, 2017, at age 92.

Books
 1966:  America's Vietnam Policy: the Strategy of Deception (with Richard Du Boff)
 1968: Principles And Practices Of Money And Banking
 1968: The Great Society Dictionary
 1970: Atrocities in Vietnam
 1973: Counter-Revolutionary Violence: Bloodbaths in Fact & Propaganda (with Noam Chomsky)
 1979: The Political Economy of Human Rights, Volume I: The Washington Connection and Third World Fascism (with Noam Chomsky)
 1979: The Political Economy of Human Rights, Volume II: After the Cataclysm: Postwar Indochina and the Reconstruction of Imperial Ideology (with Noam Chomsky)
 1981: Corporate Control, Corporate Power: A Twentieth Century Fund Study
 1982: The Real Terror Network
 1984: Demonstration Elections (with Frank Brodhead)
 1986: The Rise and Fall of the Bulgarian Connection (with Frank Brodhead). .
 1988: Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media (with Noam Chomsky)
 1990: The "Terrorism" Industry
 1992: Beyond hypocrisy : decoding the news in an age of propaganda : including A doublespeak dictionary for the 1990s
 1995: Triumph of the Market
 1997: The Global Media (with Robert McChesney)
 1999: The Myth of The Liberal Media: An Edward Herman Reader
 2000 Degraded capability : the media and the Kosovo crisis (edited by Philip Hammond and Edward S. Herman)
 2010: The Politics of Genocide (with David Peterson)
 2019: Like A Cuttlefish Spurting Out Ink: Studies in the Art of Deceit (with David Peterson)

See also
 Z Communications

Notes

References
 Anglo-American Name Authority File, s.v. "Herman, Edward S.", LC Control Number 79135236. Accessed July 10, 2008.

External links

 Ed Herman , The Real News, July 2012
 A collection of Edward Herman's writings from various sources, including the author himself.
 Essays by Edward Herman on ColdType.net
 Archives at FAIR
 Archives at Swans.com
 Gerald Caplan's review of 'The Politics of Genocide'

1925 births
2017 deaths
20th-century American male writers
20th-century American non-fiction writers
21st-century American Jews
21st-century American male writers
21st-century American non-fiction writers
American male journalists
American media critics
American political writers
American tax resisters
Deaths from bladder cancer
Deaths from cancer in Pennsylvania
Deniers of the Bosnian genocide
Economists from Pennsylvania
Historical negationism
Jewish American social scientists
Jewish American writers
Journalists from Philadelphia
Non-interventionism
University of California, Berkeley faculty
Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania faculty

Edward S. Herman


The  is a Japanese visual novel studio under the publisher . Although the company's name is spelled in Japanese using katakana, on the Internet August is known by the slang term . Hazuki and Hachigatsu mean August in Japanese.

Hazuki founded a label named Aria for consumer video games in March 2006. Aria is composed of almost staffs of August. They aim to port PC video games to consumer video games with the original qualities and world views.

Works

August
 Binary Pot (February 22, 2002)
 Princess Holiday (September 27, 2002)
 Tsuki wa Higashi ni Hi wa Nishi ni: Operation Sanctuary (September 26, 2003)
 August Fan Box (August 27, 2004)
 Yoake Mae yori Ruriiro na (September 22, 2005)
 Fortune Arterial (January 25, 2008)
 Yoake Mae yori Ruriiro na -Moonlight Cradle- (February 27, 2009)
 Aiyoku no Eustia (April 28, 2011)
 Daitoshokan no Hitsujikai (January 25, 2013)
 Daitoshokan no Hitsujikai: Hōkago Shippo Days (August 10, 2013)
 Daitoshokan no Hitsujikai: Dreaming Sheep (March 28, 2014)
  (September 23, 2016)

Aria
 Yoake Mae yori Ruriiro na -Brighter than dawning blue- (December 7, 2006)
 PlayStation 2, release by Digital Gain (later Kaga Create)
 Yoake Mae yori Ruriiro na Portable (February 25, 2010)
 PlayStation Portable, released by Kadokawa Shoten
 Fortune Arterial: Akai Yakusoku (cancelled)
 PlayStation 3, released by Kadokawa Shoten

External links
August's official website
Aria's official website

Hentai companies
Video game companies of Japan

August (company)


Gerber Products Company is an American purveyor of baby food and baby products headquartered in Florham Park, New Jersey, with plans to relocate to Arlington, Virginia. Gerber is a subsidiary of Nestlé.

Other Gerber products currently produced include breastfeeding supplies, such as the Premium Feeding System Manual Massaging Pump, as well as baby bottles and nipples. They also market a line of health care products, including Tooth and Gum Cleanser and Vitamin Drops.

History

Beginning and consolidation

Gerber was founded in 1927 in Fremont, Michigan, by Daniel Frank Gerber, owner of the Fremont Canning Company, which produced canned fruit and vegetables. At the suggestion of a pediatrician, Gerber's wife, Dorothy, began making hand-strained food for their seven-month-old daughter, Sally. Recognising a business opportunity, Gerber began making baby food. By 1928 he had developed five products for the market: beef vegetable soup and strained peas, prunes, carrots, and spinach. Six months later, Gerber's baby foods were distributed nationwide.

Some believe that Dorothy Gerber was the initial inspiration behind their baby food products. One day after a visit to her infant daughter's pediatrician she toiled in the kitchen straining fruits and vegetables for her child. After much hard work she suggested to her husband Daniel, whose family already owned the Fremont Canning Company, to create this food in an industrial setting, lightening the load of mothers everywhere. A different interpretation of the story is that he was frustrated and upset having come home to find his wife looking strained and miserable in the kitchen. Not wanting to "exchange" his beautiful wife for this kitchen-bound monstrosity, he then invented the Gerber baby food product line.

The brand eventually became a major company in the baby food industry, currently offering more than 190 products in 80 countries, with labeling in 16 languages. Its primary competitors are Beech-Nut and Del Monte Foods. , Gerber controls 61 percent of the baby food market in the United States.

Product diversification
In 1960, Gerber started selling its baby food in glass jars, which often found new life as household storage, especially in home workshops. Soon after, other items such as pacifiers, baby bottles, and small baby toys were introduced. In 2003 Gerber partially replaced the glass jars with plastic tubs for vegetables and some fruits. Other fruits and meats are still sold in jars.

In 1967, executives at Gerber Products decided to offer a line of life insurance products aimed at young families. Today, the Gerber Life Insurance Company is one of the largest purveyors of direct-marketed life insurance in the United States. Gerber Life currently has more than two million life insurance policies in force, with more than $650 million in assets. The company's term and whole life insurance products for adults and children are available in the United States, Puerto Rico, and most of Canada. Gerber Life currently has an "A" ("Excellent") rating with independent rating entity AM Best, the third-highest rating out of thirteen categories. In 2018, Gerber Life Insurance was sold to Western & Southern Financial Group, who continue to use the Gerber trademark under license.

Early in the 1990s, Gerber tried to enter into the sugar-free food market with a Sugar Free Vanilla Custard flavor, favorable to diabetic babies. The product did not see as much demand as expected, so it was dropped after a few years. Gerber also began to produce juices, which were still being sold as of March 2009. In 1999 Gerber established skincare products for babies.

Merger
In 1994, Gerber merged with Sandoz Laboratories. Two years later, Sandoz merged with CIBA-Geigy to form Novartis, one of the largest pharmaceutical companies in the world. In 2007, Gerber was sold to Nestlé for $5.5 billion.

Consumer relations
Gerber has a long history of projecting a family-friendly image. When Gerber Products established a consumer relations department in 1938, then ten-year-old Sally Gerber began answering each customer's letter individually, a practice she would continue for many years, even after she became a senior vice president of the company. In 1986 the company set up the Gerber Parents' Resource Center, a toll-free customer relations hotline, which has been providing information on baby food and parenting issues ever since.

Gerber Baby

According to Gerber, Ann Turner Cook is the famous Gerber Baby whose portrait is featured prominently on all Gerber product packaging. Cook later retired from teaching and was a mystery writer. She was depicted in a charcoal sketch by her neighbor, Dorothy Hope Smith. Smith entered the sketch for the company's logo contest. A huge draw to the image of the Gerber baby is largely due to the fact that this baby is alone, not in the presence of adults, innocently peering straight into the eyes of the consumer. This innocent outward gaze was surely a marketing, if not psychological, technique to suck in female "mother-consumers". This forced many mothers to seek the happiness of their own child via the eyes of the iconic Gerber baby. Thus the notion that if their babies were fed Gerber, they would also be as content, smiley, and "cute" as the Gerber baby.

Tax break and expansion

In September 2008, Gerber's Fremont facilities were designated as a Michigan Agricultural Renaissance Zone, receiving $43 million in tax breaks over 15 years. In order to receive the incentives, Gerber agreed to continue its employment in Fremont at 1,100 jobs and invest $50 million in its Fremont facilities over the course of the next ten years. However, to get the full 15 years of tax breaks, Gerber agreed to increase employment by 200 and spend a total of $75 million on its facilities.
The tax breaks have been largely supported, despite large revenue losses by local governments: $300,000 in losses per year for the City of Fremont (10% of their budget) and $160,000 a year for Newaygo County. It is estimated local governments would give up potentially $15 million in revenue over the 15 years as part of the tax break. Both the county and the city will be working with the Fremont Area Community Foundation to receive funds in the initial years to help with specific projects and programs. The Fremont Public School District would receive assistance through the state school aid formula. Nestlé Nutrition North America CEO Kurt Schmidt said that the Fremont research and development center will be one of 23 worldwide Nestlé "product technology centers" and also include scientific research for baby and infant nutritional products. It is expected that the new investment will help make Newaygo County a "global leader in scientific research".

Gerber products

See also
Gerber Singles

References

External links

1927 establishments in Michigan
1994 mergers and acquisitions
2007 mergers and acquisitions
American companies established in 1927
American subsidiaries of foreign companies
Baby food manufacturers
Companies based in Michigan
Companies based in Morris County, New Jersey
Florham Park, New Jersey
Food and drink companies based in Michigan
Food and drink companies based in New Jersey
Food and drink companies established in 1927
Nestlé brands
Newaygo County, Michigan

Gerber Products Company


Afrikan tähti is a popular Finnish board game. It was designed by Kari Mannerla. It has been produced since 1951.
Afrikan tähti has remained one of the most sold board games in Finland for 65 years. During this time it has been translated to over 16 languages. It is most popular in the Nordic countries, where it became widely marketed in Sweden, Norway and Denmark in 1960. In Sweden the game is called Den Försvunna Diamanten, in Norway Den Forsvunne Diamanten (both meaning "The Lost [or, Vanished] Diamond") and in Denmark Afrikas Stjerne (Star of Africa). In Finland over two million games have been sold, in Sweden and Norway almost one million and in Denmark half a million. There are over 4.5 million sold games internationally. During his retirement years Kari Mannerla revived one of his old creations Inkan Aarre in a completely modified version. Inkan Aarre has sold over 100,000 in Finland.

References

Board games
Finnish culture

Afrikan tähti


Closed-circuit television (CCTV), also known as video surveillance, is the use of video cameras to transmit a signal to a specific place, on a limited set of monitors. It differs from broadcast television in that the signal is not openly transmitted, though it may employ point-to-point (P2P), point-to-multipoint (P2MP), or mesh wired or wireless links. Even though almost all video cameras fit this definition, the term is most often applied to those used for surveillance in areas that require additional security or ongoing monitoring (Videotelephony is seldom called "CCTV").

Surveillance of the public using CCTV is common in many areas around the world. Video surveillance has generated significant debate about balancing its use with individuals' right to privacy even when in public.

In industrial plants, CCTV equipment may be used to observe parts of a process from a central control room, especially if the environments observed are dangerous or inaccessible to humans. CCTV systems may operate continuously or only as required to monitor a particular event. A more advanced form of CCTV, using digital video recorders (DVRs), provides recording for possibly many years, with a variety of quality and performance options and extra features (such as motion detection and email alerts). More recently, decentralized IP cameras, perhaps equipped with megapixel sensors, support recording directly to network-attached storage devices, or internal flash for completely stand-alone operation.

By one estimate, there will be approximately 1 billion surveillance cameras in use worldwide by 2021. About 65% of these cameras are installed in Asia. The growth of CCTV has been slowing in recent years. The deployment of this technology has facilitated significant growth in state surveillance, a substantial rise in the methods of advanced social monitoring and control, and a host of crime prevention measures throughout the world.

History

An early mechanical CCTV system was developed in June 1927 by Russian physicist Léon Theremin (cf. Television in the Soviet Union). Originally requested by CTO (the Soviet Council of Labor and Defense), the system consisted of a manually-operated scanning-transmitting camera and wireless shortwave transmitter and receiver, with a resolution of a hundred lines. Having been commandeered by Kliment Voroshilov, Theremin's CCTV system was demonstrated to Joseph Stalin, Semyon Budyonny, and Sergo Ordzhonikidze, and subsequently installed in the courtyard of the Moscow Kremlin to monitor approaching visitors.

Another early CCTV system was installed by Siemens AG at Test Stand VII in Peenemünde, Nazi Germany in 1942, for observing the launch of V-2 rockets.

In the United States, the first commercial closed-circuit television system became available in 1949, called Vericon. Very little is known about Vericon except it was advertised as not requiring a government permit.

Technology
The earliest video surveillance systems involved constant monitoring because there was no way to record and store information. The development of reel-to-reel media enabled the recording of surveillance footage. These systems required magnetic tapes to be changed manually, which was a time-consuming, expensive and unreliable process, with the operator having to manually thread the tape from the tape reel through the recorder onto a take-up reel. Due to these shortcomings, video surveillance was not widespread. VCR technology became available in the 1970s, making it easier to record and erase information, and the use of video surveillance became more common.

During the 1990s, digital multiplexing was developed, allowing several cameras to record at once, as well as time lapse and motion-only recording. This saved time and money which then led to an increase in the use of CCTV.

Recently CCTV technology has been enhanced with a shift toward Internet-based products and systems, and other technological developments.

Application
Early CCTV systems were installed in central London by the Metropolitan Police between 1960 and 1965. By 1963 CCTV was being used in Munich to monitor traffic.

Closed-circuit television was used as a form of pay-per-view theatre television for sports such as professional boxing and professional wrestling, and from 1964 through 1970, the Indianapolis 500 automobile race. Boxing telecasts were broadcast live to a select number of venues, mostly theaters, where viewers paid for tickets to watch the fight live. The first fight with a closed-circuit telecast was Joe Louis vs. Joe Walcott in 1948. Closed-circuit telecasts peaked in popularity with Muhammad Ali in the 1960s and 1970s, with "The Rumble in the Jungle" fight drawing 50million CCTV viewers worldwide in 1974, and the "Thrilla in Manila" drawing 100million CCTV viewers worldwide in 1975. In 1985, the WrestleMania I professional wrestling show was seen by over one million viewers with this scheme. As late as 1996, the Julio César Chávez vs. Oscar De La Hoya boxing fight had 750,000 viewers. Although closed-circuit television was gradually replaced by pay-per-view home cable television in the 1980s and 1990s, it is still in use today for most awards shows and other events that are transmitted live to most venues but do not air as such on network television, and later re-edited for broadcast.

In September 1968, Olean, New York was the first city in the United States to install CCTV video cameras along its main business street in an effort to fight crime.

Marie Van Brittan Brown received a patent for the design of a CCTV-based home security system in 1969. ().

Another early appearance was in 1973 in Times Square in New York City. The NYPD installed it to deter crime in the area; however, crime rates did not appear to drop much due to the cameras. Nevertheless, during the 1980s video surveillance began to spread across the country specifically targeting public areas. It was seen as a cheaper way to deter crime compared to increasing the size of the police departments. Some businesses as well, especially those that were prone to theft, began to use video surveillance. From the mid-1990s on, police departments across the country installed an increasing number of cameras in various public spaces including housing projects, schools and public parks departments. CCTV later became common in banks and stores to discourage theft, by recording evidence of criminal activity. In 1997, 3,100 CCTV systems were installed in public housing and residential areas in New York City.

Experiments in the UK during the 1970s and 1980s, including outdoor CCTV in Bournemouth in 1985, led to several larger trial programs later that decade. The first use by local government was in King's Lynn, Norfolk, in 1987.

Uses

Crime prevention

A 2009 systematic review by researchers from Northeastern University and University of Cambridge used meta-analytic techniques to pool the average effect of CCTV on crime across 41 different studies.

The studies included in the meta-analysis used quasi-experimental evaluation designs that involve before-and-after measures of crime in experimental and control areas. However, several researchers have pointed to methodological problems associated with this research literature. First, researchers have argued that the British car park studies included in the meta-analysis cannot accurately control for the fact that CCTV was introduced simultaneously with a range of other security-related measures. Second, some have noted that, in many of the studies, there may be issues with selection bias since the introduction of CCTV was potentially endogenous to previous crime trends. In particular, the estimated effects may be biased if CCTV is introduced in response to crime trends.

It has been argued that problems of selection bias and endogeneity can be addressed by stronger research designs such as randomized controlled trials and natural experiments. A 2017 review published in Journal of Scandinavian Studies in Criminology and Crime Prevention compiles seven studies that use such research designs. The studies included in the review found that CCTV reduced crime by 24-28% in public streets and urban subway stations. It also found that CCTV could decrease unruly behaviour in football stadiums and theft in supermarkets/mass merchant stores. However, there was no evidence of CCTV having desirable effects in parking facilities or suburban subway stations. Furthermore, the review indicates that CCTV is more effective in preventing property crimes than in violent crimes.

Another question in the effectiveness of CCTV for policing is around uptime of the system; in 2013 City of Philadelphia Auditor found that the $15M system was operational only 32% of the time. There is strong anecdotal evidence that CCTV aids in detection and conviction of offenders; for example, UK police forces routinely seek CCTV recordings after crimes. Moreover, CCTV has played a crucial role in tracing the movements of suspects or victims and is widely regarded by anti-terrorist officers as a fundamental tool in tracking terrorist suspects. Large-scale CCTV installations have played a key part of the defenses against terrorism since the 1970s. Cameras have also been installed on public transport in the hope of deterring crime.

A more open question is whether most CCTV is cost-effective. While low-quality domestic kits are cheap, the professional installation and maintenance of high definition CCTV is expensive. Gill and Spriggs did a Cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA) of CCTV in crime prevention that showed little monetary saving with the installation of CCTV as most of the crimes prevented resulted in little monetary loss. Critics however noted that benefits of non-monetary value cannot be captured in a traditional Cost Effectiveness Analysis and were omitted from their study. A 2008 Report by UK Police Chiefs concluded that only 3% of crimes were solved by CCTV. In London, a Metropolitan Police report showed that in 2008 only one crime was solved per 1000 cameras. In some cases CCTV cameras have become a target of attacks themselves.

Cities such as Manchester in the UK are using DVR-based technology to improve accessibility for crime prevention.

In October 2009, an "Internet Eyes" website was announced which would pay members of the public to view CCTV camera images from their homes and report any crimes they witnessed. The site aimed to add "more eyes" to cameras which might be insufficiently monitored. Civil liberties campaigners criticized the idea as "a distasteful and a worrying development".

In 2013 Oaxaca hired deaf police officers to lip read conversations to uncover criminal conspiracies.

In Singapore, since 2012, thousands of CCTV cameras have helped deter loan sharks, nab litterbugs, and stop illegal parking, according to government figures.

Crime solving

CCTV can also be used to help solve crimes. In London alone, six crimes are solved each day on average using CCTV footage.

Body worn

In recent years, the use of body worn video cameras has been introduced for a number of uses. For example, as a new form of surveillance in law enforcement, with cameras located on a police officer's chest or head.

Traffic flow monitoring

Vehicle traffic

Many cities and motorway networks have extensive traffic-monitoring systems, using closed-circuit television to detect congestion and notice accidents. Many of these cameras however, are owned by private companies and transmit data to drivers' GPS systems.

Highways England has a publicly owned CCTV network of over 3000 Pan-Tilt-Zoom cameras covering the British motorway and trunk road network. These cameras are primarily used to monitor traffic conditions and are not used as speed cameras. With the addition of fixed cameras for the active traffic management system, the number of cameras on the Highways England's CCTV network is likely to increase significantly over the next few years.

The London congestion charge is enforced by cameras positioned at the boundaries of and inside the congestion charge zone, which automatically read the number plates of vehicles that enter the zone. If the driver does not pay the charge then a fine will be imposed. Similar systems are being developed as a means of locating cars reported stolen.

Other surveillance cameras serve as traffic enforcement cameras.

Pedestrian traffic
In Mecca, CCTV cameras are used for monitoring (and thus managing) the flow of crowds.

In the Philippines, barangay San Antonio used CCTV cameras and artificial intelligence software to detect the formation of crowds during an outbreak of a disease. Security personnel were sent whenever a crowd formed at a particular location in the city.

Management of infection

Increasing safety and security in public transport

On a driver-only operated train CCTV cameras may allow the driver to confirm that people are clear of doors before closing them and starting the train.

A trial by RET in 2011 with facial recognition cameras mounted on trams made sure that people who were banned from them did not sneak on anyway.

Sporting events
Many sporting events in the United States use CCTV inside the venue, either to display on the stadium or arena's scoreboard, or in the concourse or restroom areas to allow fans to view action outside the seating bowl. The cameras send the feed to a central control center where a producer selects feeds to send to the television monitors that fans can view. CCTV monitors for viewing the event by attendees are often placed in lounges, hallways, and restrooms.
In a trial with CCTV cameras, football club fans no longer needed to identify themselves manually, but could pass freely after being authorized by the facial recognition system.

Employee monitoring

Organizations use CCTV to monitor the actions of workers. Every action is recorded as an information block with subtitles that explain the performed operation. This helps to track the actions of workers, especially when they are making critical financial transactions, such as correcting or cancelling of a sale, withdrawing money, or altering personal information.

Actions which an employer may wish to monitor could include:
 Scanning of goods, selection of goods, introduction of price and quantity;
 Input and output of operators in the system when entering passwords;
 Deleting operations and modifying existing documents;
 Implementation of certain operations, such as financial statements or operations with cash;
 Moving goods, revaluation scrapping and counting;
 Control in the kitchen of fast food restaurants;
 Change of settings, reports and other official functions.

Each of these operations is transmitted with a description, allowing detailed monitoring of all actions of the operator. Some systems allow the user to search for a specific event by time of occurrence and text description, and perform statistical evaluation of operator behaviour. This allows the software to predict deviations from the standard workflow and record only anomalous behaviour.

Use in schools

In the United States, Britain, Canada, Australia and New Zealand, CCTV is widely used in schools due to its success in preventing bullying, vandalism, monitoring visitors and maintaining a record of evidence of a crime. There are some restrictions, cameras not being installed in areas where there is a "reasonable expectation of privacy", such as bathrooms, gym locker areas, and private offices (unless consent by the office occupant is given). Cameras are generally acceptable in hallways, parking lots, front offices where students, employees, and parents come and go, gymnasiums, cafeterias, supply rooms, and classrooms. Some teachers object to the installation of cameras.

A study of high school students in Israeli schools shows that students' views on CCTV used in school are based on how they think of their teachers, school, and authorities. It also stated that most students do not want CCTV installed inside a classroom.

Use in private homes
Many homeowners choose to install CCTV systems either inside or outside their own homes, sometimes both. CCTV cameras are an effective deterrent to potential intruders as their use increases the risk of identification through the camera footage. If someone scouts through an affluent suburb seeking the easiest house to break into, having an obvious CCTV system, alarm or another security measure, makes the house appear to be a more difficult target so they will likely move on to the next house.

Modern CCTV systems can be monitored through mobile phone apps which allows people to view live footage of their house from anywhere they have internet coverage. Some systems provide motion detection so when movement is detected, an alert can be sent to a phone.

Criminal use
Criminals may use surveillance cameras to monitor the public. For example, a hidden camera at an ATM can capture people's PINs as they are entered, without their knowledge. The devices are small enough not to be noticed, and are placed where they can monitor the keypad of the machine as people enter their PINs. Images may be transmitted wirelessly to the criminal. Even lawful surveillance cameras sometimes have their data go into the hands of people who have no legal right to receive it.

Use in shopping malls & retail stores
Theft is a huge concern for many department stores and shopping malls. CCTV helps to protect stores' assets, and ensures the safety of employees and customers. This instills a secure, safe, and inviting experience for visitors.

It is even more important to choose the right camera. A CCTV system must have:
 A high resolution camera to ensure image clarity
 High-capacity digital storage to ensure 24/7 recording
 The right placement with good lighting

Counter-terrorism

Material collected by surveillance cameras has been used as a tool in post-event forensics to identify tactics, techniques, and perpetrators of terrorist attacks. Furthermore, there are various projects − such as INDECT − that aim to detect suspicious behaviours of individuals and crowds. It has been argued that terrorists will not be deterred by cameras, that terror attacks are not really the subject of the current use of video surveillance and that terrorists might even see it as an extra channel for propaganda and publication of their acts. In Germany calls for extended video surveillance by the country's main political parties, SPD, CDU, and CSU have been dismissed as "little more than a placebo for a subjective feeling of security" by a member of the Left party.

Prevalence

Asia
About 65% of CCTV cameras in the world are installed in Asia. In Asia, different human activities attracted the use of surveillance camera systems and services, including but not limited to business and related industries, transportation, sports, and care for the environment.

In 2018, China was reported to have a huge surveillance network of over 170 million CCTV cameras with 400 million new cameras expected be installed in the next three years, many of which use facial recognition technology.

In Japan, CCTV cameras are often referred to as "surveillance cameras" or "security cameras". Nikkei Business estimated that the total number of security cameras in Japan is approximately 5 million in 2018.

United States

There were an estimated 30 million surveillance cameras in the United States in 2011. Video surveillance has been common in the United States since the 1990s; for example, one manufacturer reported net earnings of $120 million in 1995. With lower cost and easier installation, sales of home security cameras increased in the early 21st century. Following the September 11 attacks, the use of video surveillance in public places became more common to deter future terrorist attacks. Under the Homeland Security Grant Program, government grants are available for cities to install surveillance camera networks. In 2009, there were an estimated 15,000 CCTV systems in Chicago, many linked to an integrated camera network. New York City's Domain Awareness System has 6,000 video surveillance cameras linked together, there are over 4,000 cameras on the subway system (although nearly half of them do not work), and two-thirds of large apartment and commercial buildings use video surveillance cameras. In Washington, D.C. there are more than 30,000 surveillance cameras in schools, and the Metro has nearly 6,000 cameras in use across the system.

United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, the vast majority of CCTV cameras are operated not by government bodies, but by private individuals or companies, especially to monitor the interiors of shops and businesses. According to the Freedom of Information Act 2000 requests, the total number of local government operated CCTV cameras was around 52,000 over the entirety of the UK.

An article published in CCTV Image magazine estimated the number of private and local government operated cameras in the United Kingdom was 1.85 million in 2011. The estimate was based on extrapolating from a comprehensive survey of public and private cameras within the Cheshire Constabulary jurisdiction. This works out as an average of one camera for every 32 people in the UK, although the density of cameras varies greatly from place to place. The Cheshire report also claims that the average person on a typical day would be seen by 70 CCTV cameras.

The Cheshire figure is regarded as more dependable than a previous study by Michael McCahill and Clive Norris of UrbanEye published in 2002. Based on a small sample in Putney High Street, McCahill and Norris extrapolated the number of surveillance cameras in Greater London to be around 500,000 and the total number of cameras in the UK to be around 4,200,000. According to their estimate the UK has one camera for every 14 people. Although it has been acknowledged for several years that the methodology behind this figure is flawed, it has been widely quoted. Furthermore, the figure of 500,000 for Greater London is often confused with the figure for the police and local government operated cameras in the City of London, which was about 650 in 2011.

The CCTV User Group estimated that there were around 1.5 million private and local government CCTV cameras in city centres, stations, airports, and major retail areas in the UK.

Research conducted by the Scottish Centre for Crime and Justice Research and based on a survey of all Scottish local authorities, identified that there are over 2,200 public space CCTV cameras in Scotland.

Canada
Project SCRAM is a policing effort by the Halton Regional Police Service to register and help consumers understand the complex issues of privacy and safety that confront households when dealing with installations of home security systems. "The SCRAM program enables community members to voluntarily identify and register their residential video surveillance equipment through a simple, secure, confidential, online form." It has not been extended to commercial businesses. A wide-ranging effort to provide registration and monitoring of home security and systems. "Security camera registration and monitoring is a community-based crime prevention opportunity and investigative tool that enlists the help of residents and can help prevent crime on three levels. Residential video surveillance cameras can deter criminals from entering the area, can prevent crimes from occurring and help solve crimes by providing valuable evidence to the police."

South Africa
In South Africa due to the high crime rate CCTV surveillance is widely prevalent, but the country has been slow to implement the latest technology. For example, the first IP camera was released in 1996 by Axis Communications but IP cameras did not arrive in South Africa till 2008. To regulate the number of suppliers in 2001 the Private Security Industry Regulation Act was passed requiring all security companies to be registered with the Private Security Industry Regulatory Authority (PSIRA).

Latin America
In Latin America, the CCTV market is growing rapidly with the increase of property crime. Installation of CCTV camera is increasing day by day and the crime is somewhat controlled.

Russia

The number of CCTV cameras equipped with facial biometrics in Moscow's public surveillance network is set to grow by 70 times from the current 1,500 to 105,000 by the end of the year. The CCTV system in Moscow can now recognize faces using an algorithm based on neural networks. City camera recordings are analyzed in real-time. Faces on the screen are scanned and can be checked against several databases, such as the police database, to identify a suspect. This analytical system can also help police recreate a suspect's movements around the city. The system searches for related recordings from various CCTV cameras and identifies the same face from several sightings. The Moscow network includes 160,000 CCTV cameras and 95 percent of residential buildings. By the end of the year, residents will be able to install CCTV cameras on private buildings themselves while connecting them to the unified video observation system. This year, over 3,500 cameras have been connected to the General Centre for Data Storage and Processing. This includes cameras in entrance halls, schools and kindergartens, at MCC stations, stadiums, public transport stops and bus terminals, and in parks. Video recordings are used to solve 70 percent of offenses and crimes. The cameras also help monitor utility services. A department spokesperson added that Moscow has one of the largest security systems in the world with such a comprehensive identification system.

Privacy

Proponents of CCTV cameras argue that cameras are effective at deterring and solving crime, and that appropriate regulation and legal restrictions on surveillance of public spaces can provide sufficient protections so that an individual's right to privacy can reasonably be weighed against the benefits of surveillance. However, anti-surveillance activists have held that there is a right to privacy in public areas. Furthermore, while it is true that there may be scenarios wherein a person's right to public privacy can be both reasonably and justifiably compromised, some scholars have argued that such situations are so rare as to not sufficiently warrant the frequent compromising of public privacy rights that occurs in regions with widespread CCTV surveillance. For example, in her book Setting the Watch: Privacy and the Ethics of CCTV Surveillance, Beatrice von Silva-Tarouca Larsen argues that CCTV surveillance is ethically permissible only in "certain restrictively defined situations", such as when a specific location has a "comprehensively documented and significant criminal threat".

In the United States, the Constitution does not explicitly include the right to privacy although the Supreme Court has said several of the amendments to the Constitution implicitly grant this right. Access to video surveillance recordings may require a judge's writ, which is readily available. However, there is little legislation and regulation specific to video surveillance.

All countries in the European Union are signatories to the European Convention on Human Rights which protects individual rights including the right to privacy. The EU's Data Protection Directive regulates access to personal data including CCTV recordings. This directive is translated into the national law of each country within the European Union.

In the United Kingdom the Data Protection Act 1998 imposes legal restrictions on the uses of CCTV recordings and mandates the registration of CCTV systems with the Data Protection Agency. In 2004, the successor to the Data Protection Agency, the Information Commissioner's Office clarified that this required registration of all CCTV systems with the Commissioner, and prompt deletion of archived recordings. However, subsequent case law (Durant vs. FSA) limited the scope of the protection provided by this law, and not all CCTV systems are currently regulated.

A 2007 report by the UK Information Commissioner's Office, highlighted the need for the public to be made more aware of the growing use of surveillance and the potential impact on civil liberties. In the same year, a campaign group claimed the majority of CCTV cameras in the UK are operated illegally or are in breach of privacy guidelines. In response, the Information Commissioner's Office rebutted the claim and added that any reported abuses of the Data Protection Act are swiftly investigated. Even if there are some concerns arising from the use of CCTV such as involving privacy, more commercial establishments are still installing CCTV systems in the UK.

In 2012, the UK government enacted the Protection of Freedoms Act which includes several provisions related to controlling and restricting the collection, storage, retention, and use of information about individuals. Under this Act, the Home Office published a code of practice in 2013 for the use of surveillance cameras by government and local authorities. The aim of the code is to help ensure their use is "characterised as surveillance by consent, and such consent on the part of the community must be informed consent and not assumed by a system operator. Surveillance by consent should be regarded as analogous to policing by consent."

In Canada, the use of video surveillance has grown very rapidly. In Ontario, both the municipal and provincial versions of the Freedom of Information and Protection of Privacy Act outline very specific guidelines that control how images and information can be gathered by this method and or released.

In Sweden, the use of CCTV in public spaces is regulated both nationally and via GDPR (the European privacy act). The national legislation requires permits for public operators (except for law-enforcement agencies since 1 January 2020) to install CCTV in spaces that allow access to the general public. In an opinion poll commissioned by Lund University in August 2017, the general public of Sweden were asked to choose one measure that would ensure their need for privacy when subject to CCTV-operation in public spaces: 43% favored regulation in the form of clear routines for managing, storing and distributing image material generated from surveillance cameras, 39% favored regulation in the form of clear signage informing that camera surveillance in public spaces is present, 2% favored regulation in the form of having permits restricting the use of surveillance cameras during certain times of day/week, 10% favored regulation in the form of having restrictive policies for issuing permits for surveillance cameras in public spaces, and 6% were unsure or did not know.

In the Philippines, the main laws governing CCTV usage are Data Privacy Act of 2012 and the Cybercrime Prevention Act of 2012. The Data Privacy Act of 2012 (Republic Act No. 10173) is the primary law that governs data privacy in the Philippines. The Act mandates that the privacy of individuals must be respected and protected. The law applies to CCTV cameras as they collect and process personal data. This means that the use of CCTV cameras must respect the principles of transparency, legitimate purpose, and proportionality. The Cybercrime Prevention Act of 2012 (Republic Act No. 10175) includes provisions that apply to CCTV usage. Under the Act, the unauthorized access to, interception of, or interference with data is a criminal offense. This means that unauthorized access to CCTV footage could potentially be considered a cybercrime.

Technological developments

Computer-controlled analytics and identification
Computer-controlled cameras can identify, track, and categorize objects in their field of view.

Video content analysis, also referred to as video analytics, is the capability of automatically analyzing video to detect and determine temporal events not based on a single image, but rather object classification. In the last decade, improved VCA features have been developed. Beyond recognizing specific shapes and colors, VCA applications now can analyze more complex scenarios.

Advanced VCA applications can accurately classify object types based on their shape and motion behavior and they can also measure object speed. Some video analytics applications can be used to virtually apply rules to designated areas. These rules can relate to access control. For example, they can describe which objects can enter into a specific area, when they are allowed to enter or within what circumstances. Virtually applied rules can also relate to various motion situations. VCA based CCTV systems can be set to detect anomalies in a crowd, for instance a person moving in the opposite direction in which they are normally expected (e.g. debarking from a plane at an airport or exiting through an entrance in a subway).

There are different approaches to implementing VCA technology. Data may be processed on the camera itself (edge processing) or by a centralized server. Both approaches have their pros and cons.

To many, the development of CCTV in public areas, linked to computer databases of people's pictures and identity, presents a serious breach of civil liberties. Critics fear such technology will lead to the loss of anonymity in public places.

Retention, storage and preservation
There is a cost in the retention of the images produced by CCTV systems. The amount and quality of data stored on storage media is subject to compression ratios, images stored per second, image size, and is affected by the retention period of the videos or images. DVRs store images in a variety of proprietary file formats. Recordings may be retained for a preset amount of time and then automatically archived, overwritten, or deleted, the period being determined by the organisation that generated them.

IP cameras

A growing branch in CCTV is internet protocol cameras (IP cameras). It is estimated that 2014 was the first year that IP cameras outsold analog cameras. IP cameras use the Internet Protocol (IP) used by most local area networks (LANs) to transmit video across data networks in digital form. IP can optionally be transmitted across the public internet, allowing users to view their cameras remotely on a computer or phone via an internet connection. For professional or public infrastructure security applications, IP video is restricted to within a private network or VPN. IP cameras are considered part of the Internet of Things (IoT) and have many of the same benefits and security risks as other IP-enabled devices.

Main types of IP cameras include: fixed cameras, pan-tilt-zoom (PTZ) cameras and multi-sensor cameras. Fixed cameras' resolution can vary based on the application area, but typically does not exceed 20 MP. The main feature of a PTZ is its remote directional and optical zoom capability. With multi-sensor cameras, wider areas can be monitored and hundreds of megapixel resolution can be achieved.

Industrial video surveillance systems use network video recorders to support IP cameras. These devices are responsible for the recording, storage, video stream processing, and alarm management.

Since 2008, IP video surveillance manufacturers can use a standardized network interface (ONVIF) to support compatibility between systems.

Networking CCTV cameras
The city of Chicago operates a networked video surveillance system which combines CCTV video feeds of government agencies with those of the private sector, installed in city buses, businesses, public schools, subway stations, housing projects, etc. Even homeowners are able to contribute footage. It is estimated to incorporate the video feeds of a total of 15,000 cameras.

The system is used by Chicago's Office of Emergency Management in case of an emergency call: it detects the caller's location and instantly displays the real-time video feed of the nearest security camera to the operator, not requiring any user intervention. While the system is far too vast to allow complete real-time monitoring, it stores the video data for use as evidence in criminal cases.

Wireless security cameras

Many consumers are turning to wireless security cameras for home surveillance. Wireless cameras do not require a video cable for video/audio transmission, simply a cable for power. Wireless cameras are also easy and inexpensive to install but lack the reliability of hard-wired cameras. Previous generations of wireless security cameras relied on analogue technology; modern wireless cameras use digital technology which delivers crisper audio, sharper video, and a secure and interference-free signal.

Talking CCTV

In Wiltshire, UK, 2003, a pilot scheme for what is now known as "Talking CCTV" was put into action; allowing operators of CCTV cameras to order offenders to stop what they were doing, ranging from ordering subjects to pick up their rubbish and put it in a bin to ordering groups of vandals to disperse. In 2005, Ray Mallon, the mayor and former senior police officer of Middlesbrough implemented "Talking CCTV" in his area.

Other towns have had such cameras installed. In 2007 several of the devices were installed in Bridlington town centre, East Riding of Yorkshire.

Countermeasures
Due to the widespread implementation of surveillance cameras, glasses are being built which can defeat CCTV cameras. In December 2016 a form of anti-CCTV and facial recognition sunglasses called "reflectacles" were invented by a custom-spectacle-craftsman based in Chicago named Scott Urban. They reflect infrared and, optionally, visible light which makes the user's face a white blur to cameras. The project passed its funding goal of $28,000, and "reflectacles" became commercially available in June 2017.

See also

 Artificial intelligence for video surveillance
 Bugging
 "CATV" as cable television—not to be confused with CCTV
 Closed-circuit television camera
 Day and night camera
 Eye in the sky (camera)
 Fake security camera
 INDECT
 IP camera
 Security operations center
 Security smoke
 Smart camera
 Sousveillance (inverse surveillance)
 Surveillance
 The Convention on Modern Liberty
 TV Network Protocol
 Under vehicle inspection
 Video analytics
 Video evidence
 Videotelephony
 Washington County Closed-Circuit Educational Television Project
 Surveillance Drone

Notes

References

Further reading

 Wei Qi Yan (2019). Introduction to Intelligent Surveillance: Surveillance Data Capture, Transmission, and Analytics, Springer London.

External links

Assessing the Impact of CCTV, a UK Home office study on the effectiveness of closed-circuit television

Applications of computer vision
Assistive technology
Crime prevention
Law enforcement techniques
Physical security
Public safety
Security engineering
Security technology
Surveillance
Video surveillance
Video
Warning systems
Telecommunications-related introductions in 1942

Closed-circuit television


Carl Nicolai Stoud Platou (26 June 1809 – 11 September 1888) was a Norwegian civil servant and politician.

Personal life
He was born in Christiania as a son of educator, professor, politician and State Secretary Ludvig Stoud Platou (1749–1815) and his wife Karen Lumholtz (1785–1833). He was a maternal grandson of Nicolai Lumholtz and brother of Frederik Christian Stoud Platou, and through the latter an uncle of Oscar Ludvig Stoud Platou.

In August 1838 in Undrumsdal he married Christence Dorothea Plade Nielsen (1817–1889). They had the son Lars Hannibal Sommerfeldt Stoud Platou and the daughter Valborg Platou. A third son Carl Ludvig named his son Carl Nicolai Stoud Platou, Jr.

Career
He took his examen artium in 1827 and graduated from the university with the cand.jur. degree in 1832. He was hired as a clerk in the Norwegian Ministry of Justice in 1833, the same year his father died. He was later promoted, but started as an auditor in Christianssand in 1844. From 1846 to 1853 he was an assessor in Bergen, but in 1853 he returned to Christianssand as burgomaster. He was elected to the Parliament of Norway, representing his city in 1857–58. From 1860 to his death he was the burgomaster of Bergen. He was also the city's deputy mayor in 1853.

Platou laid down a sizeable amount of work for Bergen city. He was a board member of Bergen Museum from 1850 to 1853 and then from 1864, became a board member of Det Nyttige Selskab from 1871 (praeses from 1875 to 1876), helped found Bergen Public Library in 1872 and chaired the local railway committee from 1874. He was honored locally with a bust in the city hall in 1885, and a street at Nygårdshøyden being named for him in 1891. He was honored nationally with the Commander Cross of the Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav in 1885.

He was a member of the Royal Norwegian Society of Sciences and Letters from 1849, and wrote extensively. He reissued his father's textbook Udtog af Geographien for Begyndere seven times, the last in 1862. He died on 11 September 1888 in Bergen.

References

1809 births
1888 deaths
Carl Nicolai Stoud
Writers from Oslo
Norwegian people of Danish descent
Norwegian civil servants
Members of the Storting
Politicians from Kristiansand
Politicians from Bergen
Norwegian non-fiction writers
Royal Norwegian Society of Sciences and Letters
19th-century Norwegian writers

Carl Nicolai Stoud Platou


Thrombosis prevention or thromboprophylaxis is medical treatment to prevent the development of thrombosis (blood clots inside blood vessels) in those considered at risk for developing thrombosis. Some people are at a higher risk for the formation of blood clots than others, such as those with cancer undergoing a surgical procedure. Prevention measures or interventions are usually begun after surgery as the associated immobility will increase a person's risk.

Blood thinners are used to prevent clots, these blood thinners have different effectiveness and safety profiles. A 2018 systematic review found 20 studies that included 9771 people with cancer. The evidence did not identify any difference between the effects of different blood thinners on death, developing a clot, or bleeding. A 2021 review found that low molecular weight heparin (LMWH) was superior to unfractionated heparin in the initial treatment of venous thromboembolism for people with cancer.

There are medication-based interventions and non-medication-based interventions. The risk of developing blood clots can be lowered by life style modifications, the discontinuation of oral contraceptives, and weight loss. In those at high risk both interventions are often used. The treatments to prevent the formation of blood clots is balanced against the risk of bleeding.

One of the goals of blood clot prevention is to limit venous stasis as this is a significant risk factor for forming blood clots in the deep veins of the legs. Venous stasis can occur during the long periods of not moving. Thrombosis prevention is also recommended during air travel. Thrombosis prophylaxis is effective in preventing the formation of blood clots, their lodging in the veins, and their developing into thromboemboli that can travel through the circulatory system to cause blockage and subsequent tissue death in other organs. Clarence Crafoord is credited with the first use of thrombosis prophylaxis in the 1930s.

Pathophysiology of blood clot prevention
The development of blood clots can be interrupted and prevented by the use of medication, changing risk factors and other interventions. Some risk factors can be modified. These would be losing weight, increasing exercise and the cessation of oral contraceptives. Moving during periods of travel is a modifiable behavior. Preventing blood clots includes the use of medications that interrupt the complex clotting cascade and changing the proteins that are needed for clotting. Antiplatelet drugs also have an effect in preventing the formation of clots.

Medical treatments
Thrombosis prophylaxis is not only used for the prevention of deep vein thrombosis, but can be initiated for the prevention of the formation of blood clots in other organs and circumstances unrelated to deep vein thrombosis:

 cerebral complications
 abortion
 ectopic pregnancy
 molar pregnancy
 pregnancy
 childbirth and the puerperium
 coronary
 portal vein thrombosis
 intracranial, nonpyogenic
 intraspinal, nonpyogenic
 mesenteric
 pulmonary

Epidemiology of developing blood clots
The risk of developing deep vein thrombosis, or pulmonary embolism is different than the total risk of the formation of blood clots. This is due to the observation that not all blood clots form in the lower legs. Most hospitalized medical patients have at least 1 risk factor for thrombosis that progresses to thromboembolism and this risk persists weeks after discharge. Those who remain undiagnosed and not treated prophylactically have a 26% chance of developing a fatal embolism. Another 26% develop another embolism. Between 5% and 10% of all in hospital deaths are due to pulmonary embolism (as a consequence of thrombosis). Estimates of the incidence of pulmonary embolism in the US is 0.1% persons/year. Hospital admissions in the US for pulmonary embolism are 200,000 to 300,000 yearly. Thrombosis that develops into DVT will affect 900,000 people and kill up to 100,000 in the US. On average 28,726 hospitalized adults aged 18 and older with a VTE blood clot diagnosis die each year. Risk of thrombosis is related to hospitalization. In 2005 the UK the Parliamentary Health Select Committee determined the annual rate of death due to thrombosis was 25,000 with at least 50% being hospital-acquired.

The type of surgery performed prior to the formation of blood clots influences the risk.
Without prophylactic interventions, the calculated incidence of clot formation in the lower leg veins after surgery is:
 22% for neurosurgery
 26% for abdominal surgery
 45% for 60% in orthopedic surgery
 14% for gynecologic surgery

As the population of the US ages, the development of blood clots is becoming more common.

General risks and indications for blood clot prevention

Some risk factors for developing blood clots are considered higher that others. One scoring system analyzes the probability for clot formation by assigning a point value system to significant risk factors. The benefit of treating those who are at low risk of developing blood clots may not outweigh the higher risks of significant bleeding.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Probability and risk estimation for developing blood clots
! Major risk (=1 point) !! Minor risk (=2 points)
|-
| Cancer || Family history of deep vein thrombosis
|-
| Immobility || Hospitalization withinthe past 6 months
|-
| Calf swelling || superficial vein dilation
|-
| Recent major surgery || redness of area
|-
| Edema or swelling of only leg ||Recent traumato leg
|-
| Tenderness inthe calf and/or thigh ||
|-
|}

Risk for subsequent blood clots
Developing blood clots is more probable after the first episode. Risk assessment and intervention for those with one or more episodes of deep vein thrombosis or blood clots in the veins utilizes the Well's test. It has been inconsistently modified by a number of publishers with the results listed below:

Well's and modified Well's risk scoring

Adapted for the emergency department

Scoring:
 less than 2 points – low risk (3%)
 2–6 points moderate risk (17%)
 > 6 points high risk (75%)

General interventions
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention have issued general guidelines describing the interventions that can be taken to reduce the risk of the formation of blood clots:

Interventions during travel
Seat-edge pressure from the seat on an airplane on the popliteal area may contribute to vessel wall damage as well as venous stasis. Coagulation activation may result from an interaction between cabin conditions (such as hypobaric hypoxia) and individual risk factors for the formation of blood clots. Studies of the pathophysiologic mechanisms for the increased risk of Venous thrombosis embolism or VTE after long-distance travel have not produced consistent results, but venous stasis appears to play a major role; other factors specific to air travel may increase coagulation activation, particularly in passengers with individual risk factors for VTE.

Interventions for those hospitalized

Compression devices
Mechanical compression devices are used for prevention of thrombosis and are beneficial enough to be used by themselves with patients at low to moderate risk. The use of fitted intermittent pneumatic compression devices before, during and after procedures is used in inpatient settings. It consists of an air pump and inflatable auxiliary compartments that sequentially inflates and deflated to provide an external 'pump' that returns venous blood toward the heart. The use of intermittent pneumatic compression is common. These devices are also placed on a surgical patient in the operating room (the intra-surgical period) and remain on the person while recovering from the surgery.

The application of antiembolism stockings can be used to prevent thrombosis. The correct use and properly fitted graded compression stockings can reduce the rate of thrombosis by 50%. Contraindications for the use of antiembolism stockings include the presence of advanced peripheral and obstructive arterial disease, septic phlebitis, heart failure, open wounds, dermatitis and peripheral neuropathy. Differences between the use of thigh-high compression stockings and shorter types to prevent blood clots exist, but remain inconsistent.

Assessment
There has been some success in preventing blood clots by an early risk assessment upon admission to the hospital, which is a strategy recognized by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Hospitals that have participated in this effort to reduce the incidence of thrombosis found that rates of DVT decreased in some instances. Some hospitals developed a mandatory assessment quantifying the risk for developing blood clots and a plan of care developed from the results. The person's risk for developing blood clots is entered into their record, 'following' them through their treatment regime. If the hospital stay exceeds three days, the person will be reassessed for risk. Clinicians are then able to apply protocols for prevention based upon best clinical practices.

Interventions to treat immobility

Immobility is a significant risk factor in the development of thrombosis. Immediate post-surgical interventions, such as out of bed orders (OOB), are typically ordered by the physician to prevent thrombosis. These orders, typically delegated to a nurse, but may include the participation of a physical therapist and others trained to perform the intervention, are to perform range of motion (ROM) activities that include: muscle contractions of the lower legs for those who are very weak, moving the feet, wiggling the toes, bending the knees, raise and lower the legs. In addition, changes in positioning prevents immobility and shifts areas of venous stasis. If the person is too weak to perform these preventative activities, hospital personnel will perform these movements independently. Exercise of the lower extremities is a post-operative method of prophylaxis. Nursing personnel will often perform range of motion exercises and encourage frequent moving of the legs, feet, and ankles. Frequent positioning changes and adequate fluid intake. After a surgical procedure, ambulation as soon as possible is prophylactic in preventing the formation of blood clots.

Early ambulation also prevents venous stasis and physicians order OOB activities on the same day of surgery. This is accomplished in increments. The progression of increasing mobility proceeds by: raising the head of the bed, sitting up in bed, moving to the edge of the bed, dangling the legs off the bed and then ambulating to a close chair.

Patient education and compliance reduces the risk of developing blood clots. These exercises and use of equipment and follow up by clinicians reduces the risk of developing blood clots.

Note that if a blood clot has already formed in the deep veins of the leg, bedrest is usually prescribed and the treatment to prevent bloods with physical intervention is contraindicated.

Medication

Anticoagulants and antiplatelets
Thromboprophylaxis, such as anticoagulants or perioperative heparin, is effective for hospitalized patients at risk for VTE. Additional risk factors such as obesity, disease, malignancies, long surgeries, and immobility may influence the prescribed dosage. Anticoagulant medications may prevent the formation of blood clots in people who are at high risk for their development. Treating blood clots that have already formed is managed by the use of anti-hemolytic ("clot busters"). Despite its effectiveness, the use of thromboprophylaxis remains under-utilized, though alerts (computer or human) in hospitals are associated with increased prescription and reductions in symptomatic VTE. The list below describes some of the more common medications used to prevent blood clots. Note that generally since blood clotting is inhibited, a side effect typically is increased bleeding, though it can be reversed by administering a medication that stops the bleeding or by discontinuation of the medication itself. Anti-coagulant administration is often given before the start of the operation. Medications that inhibit blood clot formation include:

Heparins
Adding heparin to the use of compression stockings may prevent thrombosis for those of higher risk.

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The discontinuation of contraceptives also prevents blood clots.

Herbal interactions
The therapeutic effects of warfarin may be decreased by valerian. Anticoagulants can be affected by chamomile. Dong quai, garlic, ginger, Ginkgo biloba, bilberry  and feverfew can increase bleeding time. These same herbal supplements taken with warfarin increased prothrombin time.

Dietary interactions
By containing significant content of vitamin K, some foods act as antagonists to antiplatelet and anticoagulant medications; these include green leafy vegetables, like spinach, legumes, and broccoli.

Contraindications
Preventing blood clots with medication is not considered safe in the following circumstances:

 uncooperative patient
 recent childbirth
 gastrointestinal bleeding
 reproductive system bleeding
 genitourinary systembleeding
 hemorrhagic blood dyscrasias
 peptic ulcers
 alcoholism
 infection
 eye surgery
 brain surgery
 spinal cord surgery
 recent cerebrovascular hemorrhage

Research

An international registry and risk assessment calculator is being used to centralize data on post-surgical venous thrombosis and its prevention. Hospitals are implementing a multi-disciplinary approach to prevent of blood clots. This includes adequate assessment of the risks, follow up on missed doses of medication and instituting a 'patient-centered' approach endorsed by the Joint Commission. Recommendations regarding the prevention of blood clots vary widely between clinicians and treatment facilities. Research continues to clarify these discrepancies. The metabolic state of hypercoagulability (the tendency to form blood clots) tests are being developed. These include the evaluation of the thrombin–antithrombin complexes (TAT), low levels of the anticoagulants ATIII and protein C, but these tests are not yet widely available.

References
 Using Wikipedia for Research

Preventive medicine
Diseases of veins, lymphatic vessels and lymph nodes
Coagulopathies
Hematology
Antiplatelet drugs
Aspirin
Blood
Chemical substances for emergency medicine
Nutrition
Salicylates
Tissues (biology)

Thrombosis prevention


Jasper Lake is a lake located in the Rockies of Jasper National Park in Alberta, Canada. It is part of the Athabasca River, where the river broadens out. Its westernmost shore lies about  northeast from the town of Jasper along the Yellowhead Highway (Highway 16) and stretches farther east for about .

Jasper Lake Sand Dunes

A distinctive feature of the lake is the Jasper Lake Sand Dunes, the only sand dune ecosystem in the Canadian Rockies.  The dunes were formed at the edge of the lake during the last ice age and have been constantly reshaped by wind and water ever since. Acting as a kind of sieve, the lake removes silt and sand from the river, allowing it to sink to the lake bed. When the water level recedes in the fall, vast sand flats are exposed and dry out, becoming vulnerable to the strong westerly winds that sweep through the lower Athabasca Valley. In winter, these winds blow the sand and silt down the valley, forming two large dune islands near the northwest shore of Jasper Lake. In the lee of the dunes, mature clumps of spruce and balsam poplar have gained a stronghold, with colonizing grasses, rose bushes and willows.

Surrounded by mountains
The lake is surrounded by mountain ranges, many of which can be seen from various parts along the lake. From southeast to southwest:

 Miette Range.  Most prominent peaks include Utopia Mountain (2,602 m or 8,537 ft) and Roche Miette (2,316 m or 7,600 ft).
 Jacques Range. Prominent peaks: Cinquefoil Mountain (),  Roche Jacques (), and Mount Merlin ().
 Colin Range: Peaks include Mount Colin ()
Northwest to northeast:
 Victoria Cross Ranges—so named because six of the peaks are named after Canadian recipients of the Victoria Cross.
 De Smet Range. Prominent peaks include: Roche de Smet, () and Mount Greenock ().
 Bosche Range: Mount Aeolus () and  Roche à Bosche ()

Transportation corridors

The Canadian National Railway skirts the northern shore of the lake. Parts of its mainline have been built on causeways away from the shore, which have created several mini lakes. Via Rail's passenger train the Canadian uses this same CN line as part of its journey from Toronto to Vancouver, giving train passengers up-close views of the lake, sand dunes, and surrounding mountains. This area has been the site of many CN publicity photographs—including of the Super Continental—through the years, and it is still popular with photographers, railfans, the present-day Canadian and its advertisers and passengers.

The Yellowhead Highway (Highway 16) skirts the southern shore of the lake, built upon the abandoned grade of the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway, and it too has segments of its route on causeways, which have created  Edna and Talbot lakes. This highway is the main east-west route between Winnipeg and Edmonton and other points east and Jasper and points farther west and helps provide access to other parts of Jasper National Park.

References

External links

 Jasper National Park.com
 www.pc.gc.ca/

Jasper National Park
Lakes of Alberta

Jasper Lake (Alberta)


An energy mint is a mint candy that is designed to give the consumer a burst of energy through a combination of energy enhancing ingredients. Energy mints commonly contain caffeine, taurine, various forms of ginseng, B vitamins, or other herbal ingredients. Some contain high levels of sugar, while a few are sugar-free. These mints are popular among young people, computer programmers, gamers, and students.

According to the Wall Street Journal (February 13, 2008), energy mints are part of a relatively new and rapidly expanding "Energy Candy" trend. Major brand names in North America include Peak Energy Mints, Ed Hardy Energy Mints, Penguin Mints, Revive Energy Mints, Bawls mints, VoJo Energy Mints and YJ Stingers Mints.

References

Brand name confectionery
Breath mints
Energy food products

Energy mint