Polyethylene or polythene (abbreviated PE; IUPAC name polyethene or poly(methylene)) is the most commonly produced plastic. It is a polymer, primarily used for packaging (plastic bags, plastic films, geomembranes and containers including bottles, etc.). , over 100 million tonnes of polyethylene resins are being produced annually, accounting for 34% of the total plastics market.

Many kinds of polyethylene are known, with most having the chemical formula (C2H4)n. PE is usually a mixture of similar polymers of ethylene, with various values of n. It can be low-density or high-density and many variations thereof.  Its properties can be modified further by crosslinking or copolymerization.  All forms are nontoxic as well as chemically resilient.  As a consequence of these factors, PE is used on an immense scale.  Its widespread use is also problematic because it resists biodegradation.  Like the hydrocarbon it is, PE is white or colorless and combustable.

History
Polyethylene was first synthesized by the German chemist Hans von Pechmann, who prepared it by accident in 1898 while investigating diazomethane. When his colleagues Eugen Bamberger and Friedrich Tschirner characterized the white, waxy substance that he had created, they recognized that it contained long −CH2− chains and termed it polymethylene.

The first industrially practical polyethylene synthesis (diazomethane is a notoriously unstable substance that is generally avoided in industrial application) was again accidentally discovered in 1933 by Eric Fawcett and Reginald Gibson at the Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI) works in Northwich, England. Upon applying extremely high pressure (several hundred atmospheres) to a mixture of ethylene and benzaldehyde they again produced a white, waxy material. Because the reaction had been initiated by trace oxygen contamination in their apparatus, the experiment was difficult to reproduce at first. It was not until 1935 that another ICI chemist, Michael Perrin, developed this accident into a reproducible high-pressure synthesis for polyethylene that became the basis for industrial low-density polyethylene (LDPE) production beginning in 1939. Because polyethylene was found to have very low-loss properties at very high frequency radio waves, commercial distribution in Britain was suspended on the outbreak of World War II, secrecy imposed, and the new process was used to produce insulation for UHF and SHF coaxial cables of radar sets. During World War II, further research was done on the ICI process and in 1944, DuPont at Sabine River, Texas, and Union Carbide Corporation at South Charleston, West Virginia, began large-scale commercial production under license from ICI.

The landmark breakthrough in the commercial production of polyethylene began with the development of catalysts that promoted the polymerization at mild temperatures and pressures. The first of these was a catalyst based on chromium trioxide discovered in 1951 by Robert Banks and J. Paul Hogan at Phillips Petroleum. In 1953 the German chemist Karl Ziegler developed a catalytic system based on titanium halides and organoaluminium compounds that worked at even milder conditions than the Phillips catalyst. The Phillips catalyst is less expensive and easier to work with, however, and both methods are heavily used industrially. By the end of the 1950s both the Phillips- and Ziegler-type catalysts were being used for high-density polyethylene (HDPE) production. In the 1970s, the Ziegler system was improved by the incorporation of magnesium chloride. Catalytic systems based on soluble catalysts, the metallocenes, were reported in 1976 by Walter Kaminsky and Hansjörg Sinn. The Ziegler- and metallocene-based catalysts families have proven to be very flexible at copolymerizing ethylene with other olefins and have become the basis for the wide range of polyethylene resins available today, including very-low-density polyethylene and linear low-density polyethylene. Such resins, in the form of UHMWPE fibers, have (as of 2005) begun to replace aramids in many high-strength applications.

Properties
The properties of polyethylene depends strongly on type.  The molecular weight, crosslinking, and presence of comonomers all strongly affect its properties.  It is for this structure-property relation that intense effort has been invested into diverse kinds of PE. LDPE is softer and more transparent than HDPE. For medium- and high-density polyethylene the melting point is typically in the range . The melting point for average commercial low-density polyethylene is typically . These temperatures vary strongly with the type of polyethylene, but the theoretical upper limit of melting of polyethylene is reported to be . Combustion typically occurs above .

The standard method to test plastic density is  ISO 1183 part 2 (gradient columns), alternatively ISO 1183 part 1 (MVS2PRO density analyzer).

Most LDPE, MDPE, and HDPE grades have excellent chemical resistance, meaning that they are not attacked by strong acids or strong bases and are resistant to gentle oxidants and reducing agents. Crystalline samples do not dissolve at room temperature. Polyethylene (other than cross-linked polyethylene) usually can be dissolved at elevated temperatures in aromatic hydrocarbons such as toluene or xylene, or in chlorinated solvents such as trichloroethane or trichlorobenzene.

Polyethylene absorbs almost no water; the gas and water vapour permeability (only polar gases) is lower than for most plastics. Oxygen, carbon dioxide and flavorings, on the other hand, can pass it easily.

Polyethylene burns slowly with a blue flame having a yellow tip and gives off an odour of paraffin (similar to candle flame). The material continues burning on removal of the flame source and produces a drip.

Polyethylene cannot be imprinted or bonded with adhesives without pretreatment. High-strength joints are readily achieved with plastic welding.

Electrical
Polyethylene is a good electrical insulator. It offers good electrical treeing resistance; however, it becomes easily electrostatically charged (which can be reduced by additions of graphite, carbon black or antistatic agents).
When pure, the dielectric constant is in the range 2.2 to 2.4 depending on the density  and the loss tangent is very low, making it a good dielectric for building capacitors.

Optical
Depending on thermal history and film thickness, PE can vary between almost clear (transparent), milky-opaque (translucent) and opaque. LDPE has the greatest, LLDPE slightly less, and HDPE the least transparency. Transparency is reduced by crystallites if they are larger than the wavelength of visible light.

Manufacturing process

Monomer

The ingredient or monomer is ethylene (IUPAC name ethene), a gaseous hydrocarbon with the formula C2H4, which can be viewed as a pair of methylene groups (−−) connected to each other. Typical specifications for PE purity are <5 ppm for water, oxygen, and other alkenes contents. Acceptable contaminants include N2, ethane (common precursor to ethylene), and methane. Ethylene is usually produced from petrochemical sources, but also is generated by dehydration of ethanol.

Polymerization

Polymerization of ethylene to polyethylene is described by the following chemical equation:

   (gas) → − (solid)Δ/ =

Ethylene is a stable molecule that polymerizes only upon contact with catalysts. The conversion is highly exothermic. Coordination polymerization is the most pervasive technology, which means that metal chlorides or metal oxides are used. The most common catalysts consist of titanium(III) chloride, the so-called Ziegler–Natta catalysts. Another common catalyst is the Phillips catalyst, prepared by depositing chromium(VI) oxide on silica. Polyethylene can be produced through radical polymerization, but this route has only limited utility and typically requires high-pressure apparatus.

Joining

Commonly used methods for joining polyethylene parts together include:

 Welding
 Hot gas welding
 Infrared welding
 Laser welding
 Ultrasonic welding
 Heat sealing
 Heat fusion
 Fastening
 Adhesives
 Pressure-sensitive adhesive (PSAs)
 Dispersion of solvent-type PSAs
 Polyurethane contact adhesives
 Two-part polyurethane
 Epoxy adhesives
 Hot-melt adhesives
 Solvent bonding – Adhesives and solvents are rarely used as solvent bonding because polyethylene is nonpolar and has a high resistance to solvents.
Pressure-sensitive adhesives (PSA) are feasible if the surface chemistry or charge is modified with plasma activation, flame treatment, or corona treatment.

Classification
Polyethylene is classified by its density and branching. Its mechanical properties depend significantly on variables such as the extent and type of branching, the crystal structure, and the molecular weight. There are several types of polyethylene:

Ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene (UHMWPE)
Ultra-low-molecular-weight polyethylene (ULMWPE or PE-WAX)
High-molecular-weight polyethylene (HMWPE)
High-density polyethylene (HDPE)
High-density cross-linked polyethylene (HDXLPE)
Cross-linked polyethylene (PEX or XLPE)
Medium-density polyethylene (MDPE)
Linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE)
Low-density polyethylene (LDPE)
Very-low-density polyethylene (VLDPE)
Chlorinated polyethylene (CPE)

With regard to sold volumes, the most important polyethylene grades are HDPE, LLDPE, and LDPE.

Ultra-high-molecular-weight (UHMWPE)

UHMWPE is polyethylene with a molecular weight numbering in the millions, usually between 3.5 and 7.5 million amu. The high molecular weight makes it a very tough material, but results in less efficient packing of the chains into the crystal structure as evidenced by densities of less than high-density polyethylene (for example, 0.930–0.935 g/cm3). UHMWPE can be made through any catalyst technology, although Ziegler catalysts are most common. Because of its outstanding toughness and its cut, wear, and excellent chemical resistance, UHMWPE is used in a diverse range of applications. These include can- and bottle-handling machine parts, moving parts on weaving machines, bearings, gears, artificial joints, edge protection on ice rinks, steel cable replacements on ships, and butchers' chopping boards. It is commonly used for the construction of articular portions of implants used for hip and knee replacements. As fiber, it competes with aramid in bulletproof vests.

High-density (HDPE)

HDPE is defined by a density of greater or equal to 0.941 g/cm3. HDPE has a low degree of branching. The mostly linear molecules pack together well, so intermolecular forces are stronger than in highly branched polymers. HDPE can be produced by chromium/silica catalysts, Ziegler–Natta catalysts or metallocene catalysts; by choosing catalysts and reaction conditions, the small amount of branching that does occur can be controlled. These catalysts prefer the formation of free radicals at the ends of the growing polyethylene molecules. They cause new ethylene monomers to add to the ends of the molecules, rather than along the middle, causing the growth of a linear chain.

HDPE has high tensile strength. It is used in products and packaging such as milk jugs, detergent bottles, butter tubs, garbage containers, and water pipes.

Cross-linked (PEX or XLPE)

PEX is a medium- to high-density polyethylene containing cross-link bonds introduced into the polymer structure, changing the thermoplastic into a thermoset. The high-temperature properties of the polymer are improved, its flow is reduced, and its chemical resistance is enhanced. PEX is used in some potable-water plumbing systems because tubes made of the material can be expanded to fit over a metal nipple and it will slowly return to its original shape, forming a permanent, water-tight connection.

Medium-density (MDPE)

MDPE is defined by a density range of 0.926–0.940 g/cm3. MDPE can be produced by chromium/silica catalysts, Ziegler–Natta catalysts, or metallocene catalysts. MDPE has good shock and drop resistance properties. It also is less notch-sensitive than HDPE; stress-cracking resistance is better than HDPE. MDPE is typically used in gas pipes and fittings, sacks, shrink film, packaging film, carrier bags, and screw closures.

Linear low-density (LLDPE)

LLDPE is defined by a density range of 0.915–0.925 g/cm3. LLDPE is a substantially linear polymer with significant numbers of short branches, commonly made by copolymerization of ethylene with short-chain alpha-olefins (for example, 1-butene, 1-hexene, and 1-octene). LLDPE has higher tensile strength than LDPE, and it exhibits higher impact and puncture resistance than LDPE. Lower-thickness (gauge) films can be blown, compared with LDPE, with better environmental stress cracking resistance, but they are not as easy to process. LLDPE is used in packaging, particularly film for bags and sheets. Lower thickness may be used compared to LDPE. It is used for cable coverings, toys, lids, buckets, containers, and pipe. While other applications are available, LLDPE is used predominantly in film applications due to its toughness, flexibility, and relative transparency. Product examples range from agricultural films, Saran wrap, and bubble wrap to multilayer and composite films.

Low-density (LDPE)

LDPE is defined by a density range of 0.910–0.940 g/cm3. LDPE has a high degree of short- and long-chain branching, which means that the chains do not pack into the crystal structure as well. It has, therefore, less strong intermolecular forces as the instantaneous-dipole induced-dipole attraction is less. This results in a lower tensile strength and increased ductility. LDPE is created by free-radical polymerization. The high degree of branching with long chains gives molten LDPE unique and desirable flow properties. LDPE is used for both rigid containers and plastic film applications such as plastic bags and film wrap.

The radical polymerization process used to make LDPE does not include a catalyst that "supervises" the radical sites on the growing PE chains. (In HDPE synthesis, the radical sites are at the ends of the PE chains, because the catalyst stabilizes their formation at the ends.) Secondary radicals (in the middle of a chain) are more stable than primary radicals (at the end of the chain), and tertiary radicals (at a branch point) are more stable yet. Each time an ethylene monomer is added, it creates a primary radical, but often these will rearrange to form more stable secondary or tertiary radicals. Addition of ethylene monomers to the secondary or tertiary sites creates branching.

Very-low-density (VLDPE)
VLDPE is defined by a density range of 0.880–0.915 g/cm3. VLDPE is a substantially linear polymer with high levels of short-chain branches, commonly made by copolymerization of ethylene with short-chain alpha-olefins (for example, 1-butene, 1-hexene and 1-octene). VLDPE is most commonly produced using metallocene catalysts due to the greater co-monomer incorporation exhibited by these catalysts. VLDPEs are used for hose and tubing, ice and frozen food bags, food packaging and stretch wrap as well as impact modifiers when blended with other polymers.

Much research activity has focused on the nature and distribution of long chain branches in polyethylene. In HDPE, a relatively small number of these branches, perhaps one in 100 or 1,000 branches per backbone carbon, can significantly affect the rheological properties of the polymer.

Copolymers
In addition to copolymerization with alpha-olefins, ethylene can be copolymerized with a wide range of other monomers and ionic composition that creates ionized free radicals. Common examples include vinyl acetate (the resulting product is ethylene-vinyl acetate copolymer, or EVA, widely used in athletic-shoe sole foams) and a variety of acrylates. Applications of acrylic copolymer include packaging and sporting goods, and superplasticizer, used in cement production.

Types of polyethylenes
The particular material properties of "polyethylene" depend on its molecular structure. Molecular weight and crystallinity are the most significant factors; crystallinity in turn depends on molecular weight and degree of branching. The less the polymer chains are branched, and the lower the molecular weight, the higher the crystallinity of polyethylene. Crystallinity ranges from 35% (PE-LD/PE-LLD) to 80% (PE-HD). Polyethylene has a density of 1.0 g/cm3 in crystalline regions and 0.86 g/cm3 in amorphous regions. An almost linear relationship exists between density and crystallinity.

The degree of branching of the different types of polyethylene can be schematically represented as follows:

The figure shows polyethylene backbones, short-chain branches and side-chain branches. The polymer chains are represented linearly.

Chain branches
The properties of polyethylene are highly dependent on type and number of chain branches. The chain branches in turn depend on the process used: either the high-pressure process (only PE-LD) or the low-pressure process (all other PE grades). Low-density polyethylene is produced by the high-pressure process by radical polymerization, thereby numerous short chain branches as well as long chain branches are formed. Short chain branches are formed by intramolecular chain transfer reactions, they are always butyl or ethyl chain branches because the reaction proceeds after the following mechanism:

Environmental issues

Moreover, the widespread usage of polyethylene poses potential difficulties for waste management because it is not readily biodegradable.

In Japan, getting rid of plastics in an environmentally friendly way was the major problem discussed until the Fukushima nuclear disaster in 2011 became a larger issue. It was listed as a US$90 billion market for solutions. Since 2008, Japan has rapidly increased the recycling of plastics, but still has a large amount of plastic wrapping which goes to waste.

In 2010, a Japanese researcher, Akinori Ito, released the prototype of a machine which creates oil from polyethylene using a small, self-contained vapor distillation process.

Biodegradability
Polyethylene, like other synthetic plastics, is not readily biodegradable, and thus accumulates in landfills. However, there are a number of species of bacteria and animals that are able to degrade polyethylene.

In May 2008, Daniel Burd, a 16-year-old Canadian, won the Canada-Wide Science Fair in Ottawa after discovering that Pseudomonas fluorescens, with the help of Sphingomonas, can degrade over 40% of the weight of plastic bags within six weeks. He later guessed that it would be gone after six more weeks.

The thermophilic bacterium Brevibacillus borstelensis (strain 707) was isolated from a soil sample and found to use low-density polyethylene as a sole carbon source when incubated together at 50 °C. Biodegradation increased with time exposed to ultraviolet radiation.

Acinetobacter sp. 351 can degrade lower molecular-weight PE oligomers. When PE is subjected to thermo- and photo-oxidization, products including alkanes, alkenes, ketones, aldehydes, alcohols, carboxylic acid, keto-acids, dicarboxylic acids, lactones, and esters are released.

In 2014, a Chinese researcher named Jun Yang discovered that Indian mealmoth larvae could metabolize polyethylene from observing that plastic bags at his home had small holes in them. Deducing that the hungry larvae must have digested the plastic somehow, he and his team analyzed their gut bacteria and found a few that could use plastic as their only carbon source. Not only could the bacteria from the guts of the Plodia interpunctella moth larvae metabolize polyethylene, they degraded it significantly, dropping its tensile strength by 50%, its mass by 10% and the molecular weights of its polymeric chains by 13%.

In 2017, researchers reported that the caterpillar of Galleria mellonella eats plastic garbage such as polyethylene.

Climate change
When exposed to ambient solar radiation the plastic produces two greenhouse gases, methane and ethylene. The plastic type which releases gases at the highest rate is low-density polyethylene (LDPE). Due to its low density it breaks down more easily over time, leading to higher surface areas. The production of these trace gases from virgin LDPE increase over time. When incubated in air, LDPE emits gases at rates ~2 times and ~76 times higher in comparison to incubation in water for methane and ethylene, respectively. However, based on the rates measured in the study methane production by plastics is presently an insignificant component of the global methane budget.

Chemically modified polyethylene
Polyethylene may either be modified in the polymerization by polar or non-polar comonomers or after polymerization through polymer-analogous reactions. Common polymer-analogous reactions are in case of polyethylene crosslinking, chlorination and sulfochlorination.

Non-polar ethylene copolymers

α-olefins
In the low pressure process α-olefins (e.g. 1-butene or 1-hexene) may be added, which are incorporated in the polymer chain during polymerization. These copolymers introduce short side chains, thus crystallinity and density are reduced. As explained above, mechanical and thermal properties are changed thereby. In particular, PE-LLD is produced this way.

Metallocene polyethylene (PE-MC)
Metallocene polyethylene (PE-M) is prepared by means of metallocene catalysts, usually including copolymers (z. B. ethene / hexene). Metallocene polyethylene has a relatively narrow molecular weight distribution, exceptionally high toughness, excellent optical properties and a uniform comonomer content. Because of the narrow molecular weight distribution it behaves less pseudoplastic (especially under larger shear rates). Metallocene polyethylene has a low proportion of low molecular weight (extractable) components and a low welding and sealing temperature. Thus, it is particularly suitable for the food industry.

Polyethylene with multimodal molecular weight distribution
Polyethylene with multimodal molecular weight distribution consists of several polymer fractions, which are homogeneously mixed. Such polyethylene types offer extremely high stiffness, toughness, strength, stress crack resistance and an increased crack propagation resistance. They consist of equal proportions higher and lower molecular polymer fractions. The lower molecular weight units crystallize easier and relax faster. The higher molecular weight fractions form linking molecules between crystallites, thereby increasing toughness and stress crack resistance. Polyethylene with multimodal molecular weight distribution can be prepared either in two-stage reactors, by catalysts with two active centers on a carrier or by blending in extruders.

Cyclic olefin copolymers (COC)
Cyclic olefin copolymers are prepared by copolymerization of ethene and cycloolefins (usually norbornene) produced by using metallocene catalysts. The resulting polymers are amorphous polymers and particularly transparent and heat resistant.

Polar ethylene copolymers
The basic compounds used as polar comonomers are vinyl alcohol (Ethenol, an unsaturated alcohol), acrylic acid (propenoic acid, an unsaturated acid) and esters containing one of the two compounds.

Ethylene copolymers with unsaturated alcohols
Ethylene/vinyl alcohol copolymer (EVOH) is (formally) a copolymer of PE and vinyl alcohol (ethenol), which is prepared by (partial) hydrolysis of ethylene-vinyl acetate copolymer (as vinyl alcohol itself is not stable). However, typically EVOH has a higher comonomer content than the VAC commonly used.

EVOH is used in multilayer films for packaging as a barrier layer (barrier plastic). As EVOH is hygroscopic (water-attracting), it absorbs water from the environment, whereby it loses its barrier effect. Therefore, it must be used as a core layer surrounded by other plastics (like LDPE, PP, PA or PET). EVOH is also used as a coating agent against corrosion at street lights, traffic light poles and noise protection walls.

Ethylene/acrylic acid copolymers (EAA)
Copolymer of ethylene and unsaturated carboxylic acids (such as acrylic acid) are characterized by good adhesion to diverse materials, by resistance to stress cracking and high flexibility. However, they are more sensitive to heat and oxidation than ethylene homopolymers. Ethylene/acrylic acid copolymers are used as adhesion promoters.

If salts of an unsaturated carboxylic acid are present in the polymer, thermo-reversible ion networks are formed, they are called ionomers. Ionomers are highly transparent thermoplastics which are characterized by high adhesion to metals, high abrasion resistance and high water absorption.

Ethylene copolymers with unsaturated esters
If unsaturated esters are copolymerized with ethylene, either the alcohol moiety may be in the polymer backbone (as it is the case in ethylene-vinyl acetate copolymer) or of the acid moiety (e. g. in ethylene-ethyl acrylate copolymer). Ethylene-vinyl acetate copolymers are prepared similarly to LD-PE by high pressure polymerization. The proportion of comonomer has a decisive influence on the behaviour of the polymer.

The density decreases up to a comonomer share of 10% because of the disturbed crystal formation. With higher proportions it approaches to the one of polyvinyl acetate (1.17 g/cm3). Due to decreasing crystallinity ethylene vinyl acetate copolymers are getting softer with increasing comonomer content. The polar side groups change the chemical properties significantly (compared to polyethylene): weather resistance, adhesiveness and weldability rise with comonomer content, while the chemical resistance decreases. Also mechanical properties are changed: stress cracking resistance and toughness in the cold rise, whereas yield stress and heat resistance decrease. With a very high proportion of comonomers (about 50%) rubbery thermoplastics are produced (thermoplastic elastomers).

Ethylene-ethyl acrylate copolymers behave similarly to ethylene-vinyl acetate copolymers.

Crosslinking

A basic distinction is made between peroxide crosslinking (PE-Xa), silane crosslinking (PE-Xb), electron beam crosslinking (PE-Xc) and azo crosslinking (PE-Xd).

Shown are the peroxide, the silane and irradiation crosslinking. In each method, a radical is generated in the polyethylene chain (top center), either by radiation (h·ν) or by peroxides (R-O-O-R). Then, two radical chains can either directly crosslink (bottom left) or indirectly by silane compounds (bottom right).

Peroxide crosslinking (PE-Xa): The crosslinking of polyethylene using peroxides (e. g. dicumyl or di-tert-butyl peroxide) is still of major importance. In the so-called Engel process, a mixture of HDPE and 2% peroxide is at first mixed at low temperatures in an extruder and then crosslinked at high temperatures (between 200 and 250 °C). The peroxide decomposes to peroxide radicals (RO•), which abstract (remove) hydrogen atoms from the polymer chain, leading to radicals. When these combine, a crosslinked network is formed. The resulting polymer network is uniform, of low tension and high flexibility, whereby it is softer and tougher than (the irradiated) PE-Xc.
Silane crosslinking (PE-Xb): In the presence of silanes (e.g. trimethoxyvinylsilane) polyethylene can initially be Si-functionalized by irradiation or by a small amount of a peroxide. Later Si-OH groups can be formed in a water bath by hydrolysis, which condense then and crosslink the PE by the formation of Si-O-Si bridges. [16] Catalysts such as dibutyltin dilaurate may accelerate the reaction.
Irradiation crosslinking (PE-Xc): The crosslinking of polyethylene is also possible by a downstream radiation source (usually an electron accelerator, occasionally an isotopic radiator). PE products are crosslinked below the crystalline melting point by splitting off hydrogen atoms. β-radiation possesses a penetration depth of 10 mm, ɣ-radiation 100 mm. Thereby the interior or specific areas can be excluded from the crosslinking. However, due to high capital and operating costs radiation crosslinking plays only a minor role compared with the peroxide crosslinking. In contrast to peroxide crosslinking, the process is carried out in the solid state. Thereby, the cross-linking takes place primarily in the amorphous regions, while the crystallinity remains largely intact.
Azo crosslinking (PE-Xd): In the so-called Lubonyl process polyethylene is crosslinked preadded azo compounds after extrusion in a hot salt bath.

Chlorination and sulfochlorination
Chlorinated Polyethylene (PE-C) is an inexpensive material having a chlorine content from 34 to 44%. It is used in blends with PVC because the soft, rubbery chloropolyethylene is embedded in the PVC matrix, thereby increasing the impact resistance. It also increases the weather resistance. Furthermore, it is used for softening PVC foils, without risking the migrate of plasticizers. Chlorinated polyethylene can be crosslinked peroxidically to form an elastomer which is used in cable and rubber industry. When chlorinated polyethylene is added to other polyolefins, it reduces the flammability.

Chlorosulfonated PE (CSM) is used as starting material for ozone-resistant synthetic rubber.

Bio-based polyethylene

Braskem and Toyota Tsusho Corporation started joint marketing activities to produce polyethylene from sugarcane. Braskem will build a new facility at their existing industrial unit in Triunfo, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil with an annual production capacity of , and will produce high-density and low-density polyethylene from bioethanol derived from sugarcane.

Polyethylene can also be made from other feedstocks, including wheat grain and sugar beet. These developments are using renewable resources rather than fossil fuel, although the issue of plastic source is currently negligible in the wake of plastic waste and in particular polyethylene waste as shown above.

Nomenclature and general description of the process
The name polyethylene comes from the ingredient and not the resulting chemical compound, which contains no double bonds. The scientific name polyethene is systematically derived from the scientific name of the monomer. The alkene monomer converts to a long, sometimes very long, alkane in the polymerization process. In certain circumstances it is useful to use a structure-based nomenclature; in such cases IUPAC recommends poly(methylene) (poly(methanediyl) is a non-preferred alternative). The difference in names between the two systems is due to the opening up of the monomer's double bond upon polymerization. The name is abbreviated to PE. In a similar manner polypropylene and polystyrene are shortened to PP and PS, respectively. In the United Kingdom and India the polymer is commonly called polythene, from the ICI trade name, although this is not recognized scientifically.

Footnotes

References

Bibliography

External links

Polythene's story: The accidental birth of plastic bags
Polythene Technical Properties & Applications
Article describing the discovery of Sphingomonas as a biodegrader of plastic bags  Kawawada, Karen, Waterloo Region Record (22 May 2008).

Polyolefins
Dielectrics
Ethylene
Thermoplastics
Packaging materials
Transparent materials
Bioplastics
Commodity chemicals
German inventions
1898 in science
1898 in Germany

Polyethylene


In mechanics, the net force is the sum of all the forces acting on an object. For example, if two forces are acting upon an object in opposite directions, and one force is greater than the other, the forces can be replaced with a single force that is the difference of the greater and smaller force. That force is the net force.

When forces act upon an object, they change its acceleration. The net force is the combined effect of all the forces on the object's acceleration, as described by Newton's second law of motion.

When the net force is applied at a specific point on an object, the associated torque can be calculated. The sum of the net force and torque is called the resultant force, which causes the object to rotate in the same way as all the forces acting upon it would if they were applied individually.

It is possible for all the forces acting upon an object to produce no torque at all. This happens when the net force is applied along the line of action.

In some texts, the terms resultant force and net force are used as if they mean the same thing. This is not always true, especially when in complex topics like the motion of spinning objects or situations where everything is perfectly balanced, known as static equilibrium. In these cases, it's important to understand that "net force" and "resultant force" can have distinct meanings.

The Concept of Total Force

In physics, a force is considered a vector quantity. This means that it not only has a size (or magnitude) but also a direction in which it acts. We typically represent force with the symbol F in boldface, or sometimes, we place an arrow over the symbol to indicate its vector nature, like this: .

When we need to visually represent a force, we draw a line segment. This segment starts at a point A, where the force is applied, and ends at another point B. This line not only gives us the direction of the force (from A to B) but also its magnitude: the longer the line, the stronger the force.

One of the essential concepts in physics is that forces can be added together, which is the basis of vector addition. This concept has been central to physics since the times of Galileo and Newton, forming the cornerstone of Vector calculus, which came into its own in the late 1800s and early 1900s.

The picture to the right shows how to add two forces using the "tip-to-tail" method. This method involves drawing forces , and  from the tip of the first force. The resulting force, or 'total' force, , is then drawn from the start of the first force (the tail) to the end of the second force (the tip). Grasping this concept is fundamental to understanding how forces interact and combine to influence the motion and equilibrium of objects.

When forces are applied to an extended body (a body that's not a single point), they can be applied at different points. Such forces are called 'bound vectors'. It's important to remember that to add these forces together, they need to be considered at the same point.

The concept of 'net force' comes into play when you look at the total effect of all these forces on the body. However, the net force alone may not necessarily preserve the motion of the body. This is because, besides the net force, the 'torque' or rotational effect associated with these forces also matters. The net force must be applied at the right point, and with the right associated torque, to replicate the effect of the original forces.

When the net force and the appropriate torque are applied at a single point, they together constitute what is known as the resultant force. This resultant force-and-torque combination will have the same effect on the body as all the original forces and their associated torques.

Parallelogram rule for the addition of forces
A force is known as a bound vector—which means it has a direction and magnitude and a point of application.  A convenient way to define a force is by a line segment from a point A to a point B.  If we denote the coordinates of these points as A = (Ax, Ay, Az) and  B = (Bx, By, Bz), then the force vector applied at A is given by

The length of the vector
defines the magnitude of  and is given by

The sum of two forces F1 and  F2 applied at A can be computed from the sum of the segments that define them.  Let F1 = B−A and F2 = D−A, then the sum of these two vectors is

which can be written as

where E is the midpoint of the segment BD that joins the points B and D.

Thus, the sum of the forces F1 and F2 is twice the segment joining A to the midpoint E of the segment joining the endpoints B and D of the two forces.  The doubling of this length is easily achieved by defining a segments BC and DC parallel to AD and AB, respectively, to complete the parallelogram ABCD.  The diagonal AC of this parallelogram is the sum of the two force vectors.  This is known as the parallelogram rule for the addition of forces.

Translation and rotation due to a force

Point forces
When a force acts on a particle, it is applied to a single point (the particle volume is negligible): this is a point force and the particle is its application point. But an external force on an extended body (object) can be applied to a number of its constituent particles, i.e. can be "spread" over some volume or surface of the body. However, determining its rotational effect on the body requires that we specify its point of application (actually, the line of application, as explained below). The problem is usually resolved in the following ways:

 Often, the volume or surface on which the force acts is relatively small compared to the size of the body, so that it can be approximated by a point. It is usually not difficult to determine whether the error caused by such approximation is acceptable.
 If it is not acceptable (obviously e.g. in the case of gravitational force), such "volume/surface" force should be described as a system of forces (components), each acting on a single particle, and then the calculation should be done for each of them separately. Such a calculation is typically simplified by the use of differential elements of the body volume/surface, and the integral calculus. In a number of cases, though, it can be shown that such a system of forces may be replaced by a single point force without the actual calculation (as in the case of uniform gravitational force).

In any case, the analysis of the rigid body motion begins with the point force model. And when a force acting on a body is shown graphically, the oriented line segment representing the force is usually drawn so as to "begin" (or "end") at the application point.

Rigid bodies

In the example shown in the diagram opposite, a single force  acts at the application point H on a free rigid body. The body has the mass  and its center of mass is the point C. In the constant mass approximation, the force causes changes in the body motion described by the following expressions:

    is the center of mass acceleration; and

    is the angular acceleration of the body.

In the second expression,  is the torque or moment of force, whereas  is the moment of inertia of the body. A torque caused by a force  is a vector quantity defined with respect to some reference point:

   is the torque vector, and

   is the amount of torque.

The vector  is the position vector of the force application point, and in this example it is drawn from the center of mass as the reference point of (see diagram). The straight line segment  is the lever arm of the force  with respect to the center of mass. As the illustration suggests, the torque does not change (the same lever arm) if the application point is moved along the line of the application of the force (dotted black line). More formally, this follows from the properties of the vector product, and shows that rotational effect of the force depends only on the position of its line of application, and not on the particular choice of the point of application along that line.

The torque vector is perpendicular to the plane defined by the force and the vector , and in this example it is directed towards the observer; the angular acceleration vector has the same direction. The right hand rule relates this direction to the clockwise or counter-clockwise rotation in the plane of the drawing.

The moment of inertia  is calculated with respect to the axis through the center of mass that is parallel with the torque. If the body shown in the illustration is a homogeneous disc, this moment of inertia is . If the disc has the mass 0,5 kg and the radius 0,8 m, the moment of inertia is 0,16 kgm2. If the amount of force is 2 N, and the lever arm 0,6 m, the amount of torque is 1,2 Nm. At the instant shown, the force gives to the disc the angular acceleration α = /I = 7,5 rad/s2, and to its center of mass it gives the linear acceleration a = F/m = 4 m/s2.

Resultant force

Resultant force and torque replaces the effects of a system of forces acting on the movement of a rigid body.  An interesting special case is a torque-free resultant, which can be found as follows:
 Vector addition is used to find the net force;
 Use the equation to determine the point of application with zero torque:

where  is the net force,  locates its application point, and individual forces are  with application points .  It may be that there is no point of application that yields a torque-free resultant.

The diagram opposite illustrates simple graphical methods for finding the line of application of the resultant force of simple planar systems:
 Lines of application of the actual forces  and  on the leftmost illustration intersect. After vector addition is performed "at the location of ", the net force obtained is translated so that its line of application passes through the common intersection point. With respect to that point all torques are zero, so the torque of the resultant force  is equal to the sum of the torques of the actual forces.
 The illustration in the middle of the diagram shows two parallel actual forces. After vector addition "at the location of ", the net force is translated to the appropriate line of application, where it becomes the resultant force . The procedure is based on decomposition of all forces into components for which the lines of application (pale dotted lines) intersect at one point (the so-called pole, arbitrarily set at the right side of the illustration). Then the arguments from the previous case are applied to the forces and their components to demonstrate the torque relationships.
 The rightmost illustration shows a couple, two equal but opposite forces for which the amount of the net force is zero, but they produce the net torque    where   is the distance between their lines of application. Since there is no resultant force, this torque can be [is?] described as "pure" torque.

Usage

In general, a system of forces acting on a rigid body can always be replaced by one force plus one pure (see previous section) torque. The force is the net force, but to calculate the additional torque, the net force must be assigned the line of action. The line of action can be selected arbitrarily, but the additional pure torque depends on this choice. In a special case, it is possible to find such line of action that this additional torque is zero.

The resultant force and torque can be determined for any configuration of forces.  However, an interesting special case is a torque-free resultant. This is useful, both conceptually and practically, because the body moves without rotating as if it was a particle.

Some authors do not distinguish the resultant force from the net force and use the terms as synonyms.

See also
 Screw theory
 Center of mass
 Centers of gravity in non-uniform fields

References

Force
Dynamics (mechanics)

Net force


Title VII: Increased information sharing for critical infrastructure protection is the seventh of ten titles which comprise the USA PATRIOT Act, an anti-terrorism bill passed in the United States after the September 11, 2001 attacks. Title VII has one section. The purpose of this title is to increase the ability of U.S. law enforcement to counter terrorist activity that crosses jurisdictional boundaries. It does this by amending the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968.

This title allows the Director of the Bureau of Justice Assistance to "make grants and enter into contracts" with some groups to deal with terrorist organizations that cross jurisdictional boundaries. In addition, it gives the Bureau a budget with which to carry out these acts.

It consists of only one section, section 701, titled Expansion Of Regional Information Sharing System To Facilitate Federal-State-Local Law Enforcement Response Related To Terrorist Attacks. It modifies , which is part of the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968. This code, as stated before the USA PATRIOT Act, allowed the Director of the Bureau of Justice Assistance (a division of the Justice Department) to "make grants and enter into contracts" with State, local criminal authorities, and non-profit organizations to stop criminal activities that cross jurisdictional boundaries.

The section adds "terrorist conspiracies and activities" to "criminal activities." It also adds to the list of items that grants and contacts may be made for "secure information sharing systems" to aid in "addressing multi-jurisdictional terrorist conspiracies and activities." It also gives the Bureau of Justice Assistance a budget to use in carrying out these sections in the amount of $50,000,000 for the 2002 fiscal year, and $100,000,000, for the 2003 fiscal year.

Notes and references

External links

 The USA PATRIOT Act (.pdf file)

Title VII

Title VII of the Patriot Act


Pierre-Gabriel Gardel (4 February 1758, in Nancy, France – 18 October 1840, in Paris) was a French ballet dancer, ballet master, violinist, and composer. He was the younger brother of Maximilien Gardel, seventeen years his senior. In 1795 he married the dancer Marie Miller, whom he showcased in many of his works.

Career
Entering the school of the Opéra de Paris (Paris Opera) in 1772, he began his studies under his brother's watch. He became a soloist in 1780, but had to give up his performing career for health reasons, paired with the rising jealousy of his contemporary Auguste Vestris, who was a natural technician. Upon his brother Maximillien's death in 1787, Pierre took over as the Opera's ballet master.

Assisted by Louis Milon, Gardel went on to head the Ballet de l'Opéra de Paris for 40 years, adapting to the turmoil of the French Revolution and the reign of Napoleon.

His first three ballets: Le Jugement de Pâris (1787), Psyché (1790), Télémaque (1790) drew upon classical myths and were considered compatible with the old regime. As the French Revolution caused a political upheaval, Gardel created patriotic dances which combined political content with neoclassical ideas. He collaborated with Jacques-Louis David, a painter who shared Gardel's views on showcasing the Revolution's ideas in works of art. In L'Offrande à la Liberté (1792) Gardel reproduced the events of the Revolution as an opera with music composed by François-Joseph Gossec. It included the revolutionary national anthem The Marseillaise, which was sung on stage.

Pierre Gardel argued that strong technical dancing was equally important to a ballet's story and theatrics.  He was influenced by Noverre's reforms, although Gardel didn't see the need to limit technique when including pantomime. He kept mime to a minimum and cast those with natural dramatic ability.  His choreography offered dancers what he saw as challenging and dramatic work.  Outside of the Opera ballet masters were focusing on pantomime. It was at this time that Gardel enabled changes in the training to reflect his focus on expanding technique to encompass great bodily feats. Gardel allowed and encouraged the creation of divertissements for the dancers. Auguste Vestris was a principal dancer at this time and well known for pushing the boundaries of turning and jumping. The very thing that caused Gardel discomfort as a dancer became valuable once Gardel became the Opéra's ballet master.

The uniformity of training that the Opera is known for was first seen under his rule. Criticized for not allowing outside choreographers access to his dancers "he kept them in a type of artistic isolation." (Au 42)  Some argue that Gardel's leadership was the reason that so few notable dancers emerged from the Opera during and in the years that followed his reign. A talented choreographer, he enthused the public from his first productions in 1790 right through to those just before his retirement. In 1820 he began lessening his work load, opting to create works for the operas, rather than full ballets. From 1820, the creation of ballets was transferred to Jean-Pierre Aumer, although Gardel didn't step down from his position and fully retire until 1827.

Main works
All put on at the Opéra de Paris.
 1784 : Dardanus
 1786 : Les Sauvages
 1790 : Télémaque dans l'île de Calypso
 1790 : Psyché
 1791 : Bacchus et Ariane
 1793 : Le Jugement de Pâris
 1800 : La Dansomanie
 1802 : Le Retour de Zéphire
 1803 : Daphnis et Pandore
 1804 : Une demi-heure de caprice
 1804 : Achille à Scyros
 1806 : Paul et Virginie
 1808 : Vénus et Adonis
 1808 : Alexandre chez Apelles
 1809 : La Fête de Mars
 1810 : Vertumne et Pomone
 1810 : Persée et Andromède
 1812 : L'Enfant prodigue
 1814 : Le Retour des lys
 1815 : L'Heureux Retour
 1817 : Les Fiancé de Caserte
 1818 : Proserpine
 1818 : Zirphile
 1818 : La Servante justifiée

References

External links
His ballets and their 18th century productions on CESAR

1758 births
1840 deaths
French ballet masters
French male ballet dancers
French choreographers
Ballet choreographers
Musicians from Nancy, France
18th-century French ballet dancers
Paris Opera Ballet étoiles
19th-century French ballet dancers
Paris Opera Ballet artistic directors

Pierre Gardel


Tharcisse Renzaho (born 17 July 1944) is a Rwandan soldier, former politician and war criminal. He is best known for his role in the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi.

Renzaho was born in the Gaseta sector of the Kigarama commune, in the Rwandan prefecture of Kibungo. He was educated as a military engineer in various academies in Germany, France and Belgium. After returning to Rwandan he rose to the rank of colonel in the Rwandan Armed Forces.

In 1990, he entered politics.  An ethnic Hutu, he was a part of Juvénal Habyarimana's dominant MRND party. He became governor of the prefecture of Kigali-ville, and president of the Civil Defence Committee for Kigali.

According to the prosecutor for the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR), Renzaho is alleged to have contributed to the genocide in numerous ways between 7 April and July 1994, including exercising his authority to set up roadblocks for the interception and murder of Tutsis, dismissing councillors who objected to the genocide, personally ordering the detainment and murder of Tutsis, equipping genocidaires with Kalashnikov rifles, and ordering the murder of the journalist André Kameya.

Following the collapse of the interim government and the victory of the RPF, Renzaho fled to Zaire.

He was arrested on 26 September 2002 in the Democratic Republic of Congo, and was turned over the ICTR on 29 September.

On 14 July 2009 the ICTR sentenced Renzaho to life in prison. On 1 April 2011 the Appeals Chamber confirmed Renzaho's sentence.

References

External links
 U.S. State Department statement on Renzaho's arrest
 Rwanda genocide suspect held by tribunal, Daily Telegraph, October 1, 2002

Rwandan soldiers
Rwandan politicians
1944 births
Living people
National Republican Movement for Democracy and Development politicians
People convicted by the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda
Rwandan people convicted of genocide
Prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment by international courts and tribunals
Rwandan prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment
Rwandan expatriates in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
People extradited from the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Hutu people
Rwandan politicians convicted of crimes

Tharcisse Renzaho


is a Japanese film director, writer, and producer.

Biography
Most famous for his entries in the Heisei Godzilla series, Takao Okawara joined Tōhō in 1973, but would not get his first shot in the director's chair until 1980, when he joined Akira Kurosawa and Ishirō Honda on the film Kagemusha (1980). Four years later, he worked as an assistant director for the first Godzilla film of the Heisei series: The Return of Godzilla (1984). Okawara debuted as primary director seven years later on the film Reiko, the Psyche Resurrected (1991), which he also wrote. His most notable credit is perhaps the crafting the most profitable Godzilla film, Godzilla vs. Mothra, in 1992. The director stated that his work on the first film in the Millennium series, Godzilla 2000: Millennium (1999), would be his last for the series. It would also mark the end of his career at Tōhō.

Filmography

References

External links

1949 births
Living people
Japanese male actors
Film people from Tokyo

Takao Okawara


Dark Discoveries is an internationally distributed, quarterly slick magazine formerly published by Dark Discoveries Publications, and now published by Journalstone, LLC. It focuses primarily on the horror fiction, dark fantasy, and science fiction genres. The magazine's content includes short fiction, interviews, nonfiction articles, profiles of industry notables, and is fully illustrated.

Dark Discoveries was founded in January, 2004 by James R. Beach of Longview, WA. The magazine began as a black and white periodical with David Emrich, of David Emrich Design, doing the layout and art direction from 2004 to 2007. Together Editor-in-chief Beach and designer Emrich created the basic look and feel of the magazine that continued through the first ten issues. Designer Cesar Puch briefly took over the layout for two issues in 2008, but left for a job with Bad Moon Books after that.

Dark Discoveries then became a color publication in 2009 after Jason V Brock became Managing Editor, Graphic Designer (via JaSunni Productions, LLC, who also maintained the Dark Discoveries website) and Art Director in 2008, helping to salvage the magazine from being discontinued by publisher Beach. Among many novel ideas and new perspectives introduced by Brock (editorially, visually, and content-wise) was the concept of having each issue follow a topic to unify its thrust, a more graphically compelling look, and a renewed focus on media outside of the small press, namely film, television, and the art world. Brock left the magazine and the website in mid-2012; his last full issue was #19, which focused on extreme horror, though some of his ideas for topics were utilized into 2013, and he was credited as Art Director for issue #20, as the magazine was transitioned to new staff following Brock's departure to become Editor-in-Chief of the biannual horror literary publication Nameless Digest, published by Cycatrix Press.

Dark Discoveries, both the magazine and name, were purchased by JournalStone, LLC. Owner/President Christopher C. Payne in August, 2012. The page count was expanded, the format changed to a perfect-bound magazine, and color was added to all of the pages, the page count was increased, and the format enlarged (all concepts Brock had predicted would be needed to continue the magazine). The current staff is led by Editor-in-Chief James R. Beach, Managing Editor Aaron J. French, Designer/Art Director Cyrus Wraith Walker, Assistant Editors Chuck Caruso, and Elizabeth Reuter, and Submissions Editor Lacey Friedly. Regular contributors and columnists include: Joel B. Kirkpatrick, Dr. Michael R. Collins, Yvonne Navarro, Robert Morrish, and Amy Shane.

References

External links

Science fiction magazines published in the United States
Quarterly magazines published in the United States
Horror fiction magazines
Magazines established in 2004
Magazines published in California
Magazines published in Washington (state)
2004 establishments in Washington (state)

Dark Discoveries


Sperafico is the surname of a family of Brazilian racing drivers.  Ten members of the family have competed in racing series both worldwide and in Brazil.

The four most notable members of the family are listed below.  Two are brothers and the other two are their cousins.

The members are two brothers:
 Ricardo Sperafico (born July 23, 1979 in Toledo, Paraná) — at least one season in the Champ Car World Series.  Also raced in Formula 3000, finishing as series runner-up in 2003.
 Rodrigo Sperafico (born July 23, 1979 in Toledo, Paraná) — raced in F3000 and F3 series. Also raced in the Brazilian stock car series, although not in the same category as cousin Rafael.

and two cousins:
 Alexandre Sperafico (born January 21, 1974) from Toledo, Paraná — currently competing in the Champ Car Atlantic Championship. He is the oldest of the four racing Speraficos.
 Rafael Sperafico (April 22, 1981 in Toledo, Paraná – December 9, 2007 in São Paulo) — killed while racing at Interlagos in a junior league race to the Stock Car Brasil series (Stock Car Light) when his car was t-boned by another driver.

The four family members often competed against each other in Brazilian F3 racing during the late 1990s among other series. Rodrigo and Ricardo also competed against each other for competing teams during the 2000 Italian Formula 3000 season. The two were joined by Alexandre in the 2002 International Formula 3000 season.

References

Surnames
Brazilian families

Sperafico family


Ho Chi Minh City College of Stage Performance and Cinematics is a college in District 1, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. The college provides college degree courses (3-3.5 years) in stage performance, cinematics. Most of the actors and actresses in Ho Chi Minh graduated from this college.

History
July 10, 1998: The Ho Chi Minh City College of Theater and Cinema was established on the basis of merging the School of Dramatic Arts II and the Vietnam Film School in Ho Chi Minh City, which was established in 5 years. 1977.

On February 11, 2007, Prime Minister Nguyen Tan Dung signed an opinion on the proposal to establish the Ho Chi Minh City University of Theater and Cinema under the Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism. Department of upgrading the College of Theater and Cinema in Ho Chi Minh City under the Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism.

On October 13, 2009, the school was upgraded to a university by the government's signed procedures.

In January 2010, the school held a ceremony to receive the official decision to establish Ho Chi Minh City University of Theater and Cinema.

Departments
Faculty of Film - Television;
Faculty of Theater;
Faculty of National Drama;
Faculty of Fine Arts Design - Make-up;
Department of Photography.

Famous characters
Characters who studied at the school:

Meritorious Artist Thanh Loc, Meritorious Artist Huu Chau, Artist Huu Nghia
Tiet Cuong, Thuy Nga, Meritorious Artist Hanh Thuy, Viet Huong, Ngoc Thuan
Meritorious Artist Manh Trang
Tran Thanh, comedian, film actor, MC...
Dai Nghia, comedian and MC
Truong Giang, comedian and MC.
Thanh Van snail, actor and MC
Thu Trang, comedian, film actress

Actors
Nam Thu
Nha Phuong
Ninh Duong Lan Ngoc.
Dieu Nhi
Puka
Oanh Kieu
Actor, Model, MC, Miss Universe Vietnam 2019 Nguyen Tran Khanh Van
Actress, model, runner-up Thuy Ngan Jewelry
Le Be La
Luong The Thanh
Lam Vy Da
Van Trang
Mai Tai Phan
Hai Trieu
Duong Gia My
Huynh Quy
Quang Trung
Phuong Anh Dao

Directors and producers
Director and actor Trinh Kim Chi
Nguyen Quang Dung.
Director of Meritorious Artist Nguyen Phuong Dien
Vu Ngoc Dang.
Van Cong Vien
Tran Thanh Huy.
Le Binh Giang.
Luk Van.
Ngoc Hung.
Tran Toan.
Vo Thach Thao.
Producer Le Thi Kieu Nhi

Other websites

 Thư Viện Trường Đại Học Sân khấu Điện ảnh

Colleges and universities in Asia
1998 establishments in Asia
Organizations based in Vietnam


In physics, persistent current is a perpetual electric current that does not require an external power source. Such a current is impossible in normal electrical devices, since all commonly-used conductors have a non-zero resistance, and this resistance would rapidly dissipate any such current as heat. However, in superconductors and some mesoscopic devices, persistent currents are possible and observed due to quantum effects. In resistive materials, persistent currents can appear in microscopic samples due to size effects.
Persistent currents are widely used in the form of superconducting magnets.

In magnetized objects

In electromagnetism, all magnetizations can be seen as microscopic persistent currents.
By definition a magnetization  can be replaced by its corresponding microscopic form, which is an electric current density:
.
This current is a bound current, not having any charge accumulation associated with it since it is divergenceless.
What this means is that any permanently magnetized object, for example a piece of lodestone, can be considered to have persistent electric currents running throughout it (the persistent currents are generally concentrated near the surface).

The converse is also true: any persistent electric current is divergence-free, and can therefore be represented instead by a magnetization.
Therefore, in the macroscopic Maxwell's equations, it is purely a choice of mathematical convenience, whether to represent persistent currents as magnetization or vice versa.
In the microscopic formulation of Maxwell's equations, however,  does not appear and so any magnetizations must be instead represented by bound currents.

In superconductors

In superconductors, charge can flow without any resistance. It is possible to make pieces of superconductor with a large built-in persistent current, either by creating the superconducting state (cooling the material) while charge is flowing through it, or by changing the magnetic field around the superconductor after creating the superconducting state. This principle is used in superconducting electromagnets to generate sustained high magnetic fields that only require a small amount of power to maintain. The persistent current was first identified by H. Kamerlingh Onnes, and attempts to set a lower bound on their duration have reached values of over 100,000 years.

In resistive conductors

Surprisingly, it is also possible to have tiny persistent currents inside resistive metals that are placed in a magnetic field, even in metals that are nominally "non-magnetic".
The current is the result of a quantum mechanical effect that influences how electrons travel through metals, and arises from the same kind of motion that allows the electrons inside an atom to orbit the nucleus forever.

This type of persistent current is a mesoscopic low temperature effect: the magnitude of the current becomes appreciable when the size of the metallic system is reduced to the scale of the electron quantum phase coherence length and the thermal length. Persistent currents decrease with increasing temperature and will vanish exponentially above a temperature known as the Thouless temperature. This temperature scales as the inverse of the circuit diameter squared. Consequently, it has been suggested that persistent currents could flow up to room temperature and above in nanometric metal structures such as metal (Au, Ag,...) nanoparticles. This hypothesis has been offered for explaining the singular magnetic properties of nanoparticles made of gold and other metals.
Unlike with superconductors, these persistent currents do not appear at zero magnetic field, as the current fluctuates symmetrically between positive and negative values; the magnetic field breaks that symmetry and allows a nonzero average current.
Although the persistent current in an individual ring is largely unpredictable due to uncontrolled factors like the disorder configuration, it has a slight bias so that an average persistent current appears even for an ensemble of conductors with different disorder configurations.

This kind of persistent current was first predicted to be experimentally observable in micrometer-scale rings in 1983 by Markus Büttiker, Yoseph Imry, and Rolf Landauer. Because the effect requires the phase coherence of electrons around the entire ring, the current can not be observed when the ring is interrupted by an ammeter and thus the current must by measured indirectly through its magnetization.
In fact, all metals exhibit some magnetization in magnetic fields due a combination of de Haas–van Alphen effect, core diamagnetism, Landau diamagnetism, Pauli paramagnetism, which all appear regardless of the shape of the metal.
The additional magnetization from persistent current becomes strong with a connected ring shape, and for example would disappear if the ring were cut.

Experimental evidence of the observation of persistent currents were first reported in 1990 by a research group at Bell Laboratories using a superconducting resonator to study an array of copper rings. Subsequent measurements using superconducting resonators and extremely sensitive magnetometers known as superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUIDs) produced inconsistent results.
In 2009, physicists at Stanford University using a scanning SQUID and at Yale University using microelectromechanical cantilevers reported measurements of persistent currents in nanoscale gold and aluminum rings respectively that both showed a strong agreement with the simple theory for non-interacting electrons.

The 2009 measurements both reported greater sensitivity to persistent currents than previous measurements and made several other improvements to persistent current detection. The scanning SQUID's ability to change the position of the SQUID detector relative to the ring sample allowed for a number of rings to be measured on one sample chip and better extraction of the current signal from background noise. The cantilever detector's mechanical detection technique made it possible to measure the rings in a clean electromagnetic environment over a large range of magnetic field and also to measure a number of rings on one sample chip.

See also

References

Mesoscopic physics
Electrical engineering
Electric current

Persistent current


Transcendental Wild Oats: A Chapter from an Unwritten Romance is a prose satire written by Louisa May Alcott, about her family's involvement with the Transcendentalist community Fruitlands in the early 1840s. The work was first published in a New York newspaper in 1873, and reprinted in 1874, 1876, and 1915 and after.

In her account, Alcott provides the real people involved with thin pseudonymous disguises. Her father Amos Bronson Alcott is "Abel Lamb," while his partner and community co-founder Charles Lane is "Timon Lion;" Abigail May Alcott, Louisa's mother and Bronson's wife, is "Sister Hope." Alcott depicts her father as dominated by his more forceful partner, and both men as feckless and impractical dreamers. The men of the community spend their time in pointless debates while Sister Hope works from dawn to dusk to maintain their existence.

A crisis arises at harvest time, when the grain crop is threatened by an approaching storm. In Alcott's words, "About the time the grain was ready to house, some call of the Oversoul wafted all the men away." Sister Hope organizes the only available help, three little girls and a boy, and manages to save the crop.

The little community collapses as soon as the weather turns cold, when it becomes clear that their provisions are too meager to last the coming winter. Timon Lion and his son abscond to join the Shakers — though Timon is unhappy to learn that life among them is "all work and no play." Abel is crushed by the failure of the enterprise; after days of despair he begins to eat again only when he realizes that his family needs him. Sister Hope finds a way for them to subsist and persevere.

Alcott's view of male arrogance and female exploitation in this piece is paralleled in her novel Work, published in the same year as Transcendental Wild Oats.

Transcendental Wild Oats has been reprinted in several modern editions.

References

External links

Satirical works
Literary autobiographies
1873 short stories
Works by Louisa May Alcott

Transcendental Wild Oats


Alan Gua (, Alun gua, lit. "Alun the Beauty". Gua or Guva/Quwa means beauty in Mongolian) is a mythical figure from The Secret History of the Mongols, eleven generations after the blue-grey wolf and the red doe, and ten generations before Genghis Khan.

Her five sons are described as the ancestors of the various Mongol clans. (That is, the Dörvöd are said to have been the descendants of Alan Gua's brother-in-law, , and the origins of the Khori Tümed and Uriankhai  are not explained at all.) She also figures in the Central Asian version of the parable of the five arrows, known in Western sources as The Old Man and his Sons.

Secret History of the Mongols

The Secret History says that Alan Gua's clan was originally from the area of the Khori Tümed, and moved to the Burkhan Khaldun when their hunting grounds were fenced off. Alan Gua was first spotted by Duva Sokhor, and later married to Duva Sokhor's brother, Dobun Mergen.

Five arrows

Alan Gua had two sons (Begünütei and Belgünütei) during the lifetime of Dobun Mergen, and three more (Bukha Khatagi, Bukhatu-Salji and Bodonchar Munkhag) after her husband's death. This caused her two older sons to suspect the three younger sons were fathered by an Uriankhai servant.

Hearing of these suspicions, Alan Gua summoned her five sons for a meal, then gave each of them one arrow and asked them each to break it. Next she made a bundle of five arrows and asked them to break it, and they could not, showing them the power of unity: a lesson Hogelun later discussed with her own sons.

The glittering visitor

Alan Gua's explanation for the conception of her three younger sons is the visit of a glittering visitor, who come through her yurt's roof opening each night and left each morning by crawling on the sun- or moonbeams "like a yellow dog". She concluded that the younger sons must be children of heaven and that it was therefore inappropriate to compare them to ordinary people. Her older sons suspected that their family's Bayad servant was the likely father. She advised her five sons that if they tried to stay on their own, they would be broken like the five arrows. But if they stuck together like the bundle of five arrows, nothing could harm them. Therefore, the so-called "Nilun" Mongols might be the descendant of Bayad tribesmen who made love to Alan, it is more than likely that Alan has remarried secretly to the Bayad servant and gave birth to what would later become "Nilun Mongols". Due to the favoritism, Alan Gua is able to use the religions to manipulate her sons who are Dobun Mergen's descendants into believing the illegitimate "Nilun" Mongols are the descendant of gods. The descendants of Dobun has therefore became the "Dilegun?" or "Commoners".

Statue

The Secret History states that Alan Gua's clan is from a place called Arig usun (= pure water), and  some Mongolian authors believe that this refers to the Arig gol in Mongolian Khövsgöl aimag. A statue of her, three metres high, has been erected at the river in 1992, at the confluence with the Khökhöö gol and twelve kilometres from the center of Chandmani-Öndör sum.

References

9th-century Mongols
History of Mongolia
Mongol mythology
Legendary progenitors
Women in mythology

Alan Gua


Fort Lupin, also known as Fort de la Charente, is an artillery battery in Saint-Nazaire-sur-Charente, in the department of Charente-Maritime, France. It was built in the 1680s to a design by Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban, and it is now in good condition.

History
Fort Lupin was built on the southern bank of the Charente, and commanded the approach to Rochefort and its arsenal along with Fort Lapointe on the opposite bank of the river.

The first proposal to build a fortification in the area was made in 1672 by the engineer La Favolliere, and it was eventually built between 1683 and 1686. The fort's initial design was made by François Ferry, but the plans were extensively modified by Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban, who reduced its size due to a lack of funds.

The fort consists of a semi-circular gun battery ringed by a parapet with twenty-two embrasures. A tour-réduit and two blockhouses are located at the gorge. The fort is further protected by a ditch, a covertway and a glacis.

Fort Lupin was never attacked, and it never fired its guns in anger. It was decommissioned in the late 19th century, and was subsequently abandoned and vandalized.

The fort was classified as a monument historique on 26 June 1950, and was sold to a private owner in 1964. The owners have restored the fort, and today it is in good condition. It is not open to the public on a regular basis.

Gallery

References

Vauban fortifications in France
Buildings and structures in Charente-Maritime
Monuments historiques of Nouvelle-Aquitaine
Buildings and structures completed in 1686
Military installations closed in the 19th century
Artillery batteries
1686 establishments in France

Fort Lupin


This article is about the frog from Tanzania.  For the frog from New Guinea, see Ranoidea exophthalmia.

The big-eyed tree frog, Amani Forest tree frog, vermiculated tree frog (Leptopelis vermiculatus) is a frog from the Eastern Arc Mountains and a few other places in Tanzania. Scientists saw it on between 900 and 1800 meters above sea level.

The adult male frog is 3.9 to 5.0 cm long and the female is 6.1 to 8.5 cm long.  It lives in forests.  It likes to sit on tree limbs hanging over the water.

All young frogs and some adult males are bright green with a black pattern.  Adult females and many adult males are gold-brown in color, with patterns on their backs and dark marks behind their eyes. This frog has discs at the ends of its toes.  These discs help it climb.

This frog is endangered because humans like to cut down its forests to build farms.  These are mostly small farms, not large corporate farms.  In many of the places where this frog lives, there are no laws against doing this.

References

Frogs of Africa

Big-eyed tree frog


David Griffiths Dicks, OAM, CitWA, (born 6 October 1978) is an Australian sailor. He became the youngest person to sail non-stop and solo around the world. In February 1996, at the age of 17, he set out from Fremantle, Western Australia in his family's 10m S&S 34 sloop named 'Seaflight'. During his 9-month circumnavigation, he faced many challenges such as numerous knockdowns, bad weather, equipment failure, and food poisoning. Because of accepting a bolt to fix his rig near the Falkland Islands, his circumnavigation was not considered unassisted.  He returned safely to Fremantle in November 1996 amid great fanfare, including a ticker-tape parade and being given the 'keys' to Perth City.

In 1999 he was awarded the Medal of the Order of Australia (OAM). David held the youngest (assisted) solo circumnavigation record for 13 years, from 1996 to 2009.  By some accounts he still holds the unofficial record for the youngest solo  non-stop assisted circumnavigation. Jessica Watson captured the unofficial youngest age record in May 2010 with an unassisted solo circumnavigation, but her course did not meet the minimum orthodromic distance requirement of 21,600 nautical miles set by the WSSRC. Jesse Martin completed a solo non-stop unassisted circumnavigation in 1999, he was 24 days older than Dicks at the completion of Dicks' voyage.

See also
 Circumnavigation
 List of youth solo sailing circumnavigations

References

1978 births
Living people
Australian sailors
Sportspeople from Perth, Western Australia
Recipients of the Medal of the Order of Australia
Teenage single-handed circumnavigating sailors
Single-handed circumnavigating sailors

David Dicks


The Nomi Song is a 2004 Documentary film about the life of singer Klaus Nomi, written and directed by Andrew Horn.  The film debuted at the Berlin International Film Festival in February 2004, where it won a Teddy Award for "Best Documentary Film."

Structure
Through interviews with Nomi's collaborators and family members, the documentary lightly brushes on the early life of Klaus Sperber before settling into the five-year period depicting the German singer's reinvention of himself as Klaus Nomi, his rise to fame in New York, his break into the international music market and his death from complications of AIDS in 1983. In addition to interview footage and still photography, the film features archival footage of Nomi performances. The film features East Village personalities such as Kristian Hoffman and songs by artists such as The Bongos, Marbles, the Mumps, and David Bowie.

Critical reception
In his review, Entertainment Weekly'''s Owen Gleiberman described the documentary as "loving and meticulous", giving the film an A−. MTV's Kurt Loder dubbed it "strange and fascinating". In its review of the film, The Advocate'' called it "engaging", indicating at the DVD release that "New Wave countertenor Klaus Nomi gets his posthumous due in this acclaimed doc."

DVD features
The DVD includes numerous bonus features, including remixes of Nomi songs by Richard Barone, Ana Matronic of the Scissor Sisters, The Moog Cookbook, and Man Parrish.

References

External links

2004 films
2004 documentary films
Documentary films about singers
2000s German-language films
2004 LGBT-related films
2000s English-language films
2000s German films
2004 multilingual films
German multilingual films
English-language German films
German LGBT-related documentary films

The Nomi Song


Channel O is a South African-based music channel which first started transmission in 1997. Its main concept is African music in Africa and the diaspora.

Channel O can be accessed via DStv, a satellite pay TV service for pan-African households. The channel broadcasts a variety of music videos.

It also holds the annual Channel O Music Video Awards ceremony, where artists are awarded for their outstanding contribution to music.

Channel O, in recent years, has lost a significant amount of popularity mainly due to the launch of rival channels MTV Base Africa, Trace Urban and Trace Africa. The channel has been trying several means to gain popularity including the increasingly popular method of creating a South African feed and a Rest of Africa feed (MTV Base and Trace have also adopted this).

Programming

Playlists

Only

This playlist views music videos dedicated to a specific artist or genre.

 Facts Only

Similar to Only, this playlist provides information on the specific artist or genre. This consists of mostly the artist background information, their real name opposed to their stage name, where they grow up, when they entered the entertainment industry, etc.

Crispy Fresh

Crispy Fresh plays the latest newly released music videos of the week.

 O-House

A playlist exclusively for music videos in the house genre, including club and dance.

 Zoom In
Similar to Only, this playlist consists of music dedicated to a specific artist or genre.

Uncensored
A late-night playlist displaying music videos that are uncensored and unedited, showing videos with nudity or sexual activity and strong language.

 The Hit List

Plays the freshest tracks from the biggest artists.

 Best of The Week

A round up of music videos that have appeared on Crispy Fresh.

 Lyrics On The Beat

Music videos shown with their lyrics.

 Collabos

A selection of music video collaborations

Chart Shows
 Ten2One
The top ten music video of a specific genre or region.

 The Channel O Top 30
These are the top 30 most popular music videos, voted for by the viewers on Channel O's website.

Music Shows

Interviews with music artists and personalities as they request their favourite music videos.
Massive Music

A 30-minute show hosted by Lalla Hirayama and Smash Afrika about the latest music releases, guest interviews, a countdown of the latest releases and live performances. The show airs on Mzansi Magic and Mzansi Wethu before airing on Channel O. However, the channel offers a blitz-speed bulletin titled Massive Music News during the day, providing updates on the latest music news.
The Mix Up

Music videos are mixed, blended and mashed up by resident DJ Mikey.
Remix Studio

Remix Studio takes a peek at the artist and what inspired them to create a smash hit. True to its name, it also provides a platform for the artist to "remix" their own song.

 Lockdown House Party

Shimza and PH host live performances and a mix of various music tracks during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Specials
Channel O Africa Music Video Awards (CHOAMVAs)*
American Music Awards (AMAs)**
Grammy Awards**
Billboard Music Awards**

* The Channel O Music Video Awards were last hosted in 2014. MultiChoice is yet to announce whether it will be hosted again

** These award shows are shown live on M-Net or One Magic. Channel O acts as a rerun channel for these award shows.

References

External links
Official Site

Television stations in South Africa
English-language television stations in South Africa
Television channels and stations established in 1993
Television channels and stations established in 1997
Music television channels
Music organisations based in South Africa

Channel O


DJhistory.com is a website dedicated to the history of dance music and DJing, and also an online record label and book publishing company. It aims to encourage interest in obscure, overlooked and collectable dance music (in its broadest sense), by creating an archive of reference material on the subject and by licensing and reissuing rare and exceptional music for download.

History
DJhistory.com was launched in November 1999 by dance music historians Bill Brewster and Frank Broughton as an online continuation of their book Last Night A DJ Saved My Life. The website developed into an expert forum of DJs and dance music collectors sharing knowledge about back-catalogue music, including notable DJs François Kevorkian, David Mancuso, Greg Wilson, Prins Thomas and Todd Terje.

Content
DJhistory.com contains full-length transcripts of interviews with many notable DJs and dance music pioneers, which were the source material for Broughton and Brewster's books; an archive of magazine articles relating to the history of dance music; reviews of music, books and DVDs; and "Mystery Mixes", DJ mixes of obscure music which the site's forum members attempt to identify.

In March 2008, DJhistory.com was relaunched with the addition of a music download service selling digital versions of rare and collectable records, including its signature "Secret Weapons" series of powerful but obscure or overlooked dance tracks chosen by a notable DJ from their own collection.

Discography
 DJH-SW001 Secret Weapons 1: Chris Duckenfield's Steely Torpedoes
 DJH-CP001 The Very Best of Swag
 DJH-SW002 Secret Weapons 2: Rhythm Doctor's Bloody Scalpels
 DJH-CP002 Le Disco: Tele Music Remixed

References

External links
 Official website
 DJhistory MySpace page
  Power, Mike. "Dance music's virtual basement is now open", The Guardian music blog, 2008-09-19

British record labels
Companies based in London
Netlabels
Online music stores of the United Kingdom

DJhistory.com


Rancho Dominguez is an unincorporated community in Los Angeles County, California, United States. Rancho Dominguez is located between the cities of Compton, Long Beach and Carson.

The communities of unincorporated Rancho Dominguez are: Rancho Dominguez, East Rancho Dominguez, and West Rancho Dominguez. Prior to earlier partitioning, Rancho Dominguez also contained the sites of the cities of Compton, Carson and a portion of North Long Beach.

History
Originally Rancho Dominguez was a small part of the Spanish land grant Rancho San Pedro, from the King of Spain in 1784.  The Dominguez Rancho Adobe Museum on South Alameda Avenue is the historic ranch home of land grantee Juan Dominguez and Manuel Dominguez, the men for whom the area is named. The Dominguez family lived in the home until the 1920s and it is now a retirement home for Claretian Catholic priests.

In the late 1800s most of the southern part of Rancho Dominguez and the land leading down to the Los Angeles Harbor was acquired by the railroad industry. Today these railroad tracks are used for the same purpose, and is a valuable tie between the Port of Los Angeles and Downtown Los Angeles.

Rancho Dominguez was home to California State University, Dominguez Hills. However, when Carson gained cityhood in 1968, it incorporated the Dominguez Hills section of Rancho Dominguez within its city boundaries.

Present day
The Los Angeles County Sheriff Department (LASD) from the Carson Sheriff Station patrols West Rancho Dominguez and Rancho Dominguez. East Rancho Dominguez is patrolled by the Compton Sheriff Station.

Developments
The Dominguez area south of Compton along South Alameda includes the Dominguez Rancho Adobe, the community known as Dominguez, Dominguez Elementary, Dominguez Park, and Rancho Dominguez Preparatory School.

Annexation issues
The city of Compton has tried multiple times to annex East Rancho Dominguez, sometimes known as East Compton, and it shares Compton's ZIP code of 90221. West Rancho Dominguez shares that same ZIP code but Compton has no interest in annexing that part of unincorporated Los Angeles County due to environmental waste issues with industries and businesses in that region.

The Community of Rancho Dominguez south of Compton is a warehousing and transportation industry area that collects significant tax revenue for the County of Los Angeles.

References

See also
Battle of Dominguez Rancho
Dominguez Hills (mountain range)

Unincorporated communities in Los Angeles County, California
Los Angeles Harbor Region
Unincorporated communities in California

Rancho Dominguez, California


Émile Egger (18 July 18131 September 1885) was a French scholar.

Life
Émile Egger was born in Paris.

From 1840 to 1855, Egger was assistant professor, and from 1855 until his death he was professor of Greek literature in the Faculté des Lettres at Paris University. In 1854 Egger was elected a member of the Académie des Inscriptions and in 1873 of the Conseil supérieur de l'instruction publique.

Egger was a voluminous writer, a sound and discerning scholar, and his influence was largely responsible for the revival of the study of classical philology in France. His most important works are as follows:
Essai sur l'histoire de la critique chez les Grecs (1849)
Notions élémentaires de grammaire compare (1852)
Apollonius Dyscole, essai sur l'histoire des théories grammaticales dans l'Antiquité (1854)
Mémoires de littérature ancienne (1862)
Mémoires d'histoire ancienne et de philologie (1863)
Les Papyrus grecs du Musée du Louvre et de la Bibliothèque Impériale (1865)
Études sur les traits publics chez les Grecs et les Romains (1866)
L'Hellénisme en France (1869)
La Littérature grecque (1890).

He was also the author of Observations et réflexions sur le développement de l'intelligence et du langage chez les enfants (1879).

Egger died in 1885, and was buried at the Cimetière Montparnasse in Paris (facing the western wall, on the far right on entering from the north).

Further reading

References

Attribution:

1813 births
Writers from Paris
1885 deaths
French philologists
French hellenists
Grammarians from France
Commanders of the Legion of Honour
Members of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres
Burials at Montparnasse Cemetery

Émile Egger


Neochori () is a village on the island of Chios, Greece. It is part of the municipality Agios Minas, and located approximately 9 kilometers from the capital of the island, Chios (town), also known locally as Chora. There are medieval manuscripts that refer to the village but no sign of the Middle Ages was preserved. The inhabitants are mainly farmers. The main church is devoted to Virgin Mary and it is an example of the local architecture of the 19th century.

The haven of Neochori is beach of Agia Fotia. Near the beach are hotels, rooms and studios to let, taverns, and cafes. The Monastery of Agios Minas overlooks the village from the hill nearby. This monastery was built during 1572 -1595 by the Reverend Father Neofitos Koumanos and his son, Father Menas, at the time of Patriarch Jeremiah II. Initially it housed monks, but in 1932 it was converted into a nunnery. During the Turkish occupation, it maintained a school and a noteworthy library. This monastery is famous in world history for the massacre of 1822 when crowds of Chians were killed by the Turks or burned inside the chapel and in the courtyard of the monastery. Today, there is still evidence of the victims with the bloodstained stone floors of the chapel. The bones of many of the victims are kept in the Mausoleum of the 40 Martyrs in the courtyard of the monastery. There were 35 nuns in the monastery who were kept busy with hagiography, crafts and the sewing of ecclesiastical garments. Today, only 11 nuns live in the Monastery.

Populated places in Chios

Neochori, Chios


Salting the Battlefield is a 2014 British political thriller television film, written and directed for the BBC by the British writer David Hare. It follows Page Eight, which aired on BBC Two in August 2011 and Turks & Caicos, which aired in 2014.

Plot
Following their flight from Turks and Caicos, Johnny Worricker (Bill Nighy) and Margot Tyrell (Helena Bonham Carter) hopscotch around Europe to evade capture by MI5. After spotting one of his former recruits, disguised as a passing jogger, Johnny relocates once again and instructs former colleague Rollo Maverley (Ewen Bremner) to leak news of Prime Minister Alec Beasley's (Ralph Fiennes) corrupt dealings with Stirling Rogers (Rupert Graves) and his Bridge Foundation. Margot secretly keeps in touch with Johnny's pregnant daughter Julianne (Felicity Jones). In London, Acting Director General Jill Tankard (Judy Davis) contacts Deputy Prime Minister Anthea Catcheside (Saskia Reeves) and offers her services in aiding Catcheside's embattled husband.

Johnny and Margot separate on their way back into Britain to confound their pursuers. While Johnny disappears and travels via the English Channel, an errant MI5 agent runs into Margot on a train and alerts his superiors. Rollo aids Margot's escape and delivers her to Reverend Bernard Towers (Malcolm Sinclair), a friend of Johnny's from Cambridge. Johnny contacts Belinda Kay (Olivia Williams), editor-in-chief of The Independent and details the workings of the financial deals surrounding Beasley, Rogers and The Bridge. Kay's publication of the information causes Rogers to resign from the foundation and admit to his misdeeds, despite Beasley's assurances.

Julianne contacts Margot after learning that her boyfriend (Shazad Latif) was an MI5 plant who has bugged her flat. Johnny arranges a meeting with Beasley at 10 Downing Street, demanding he call off the surveillance against his daughter. Beasley reveals that he intends to leave office and assume the title of Consul General to Iran, with American funding and UN cover. Johnny is then summoned to a meeting with Tankard, who reveals that she engineered Beasley's downfall after seeing the extent of the Page Eight, the intelligence that started the scandal. Through her burying of Bill Catcheside's legal troubles, Tankard has Anthea, Beasley's planned successor, in her pocket. Tankard asks Johnny to return to MI5, an offer he reluctantly accepts in return for Julianne and Margot's safety and Maverley's reinstatement into MI5.

Back in Margot's apartment, Johnny sees Margot leaving for Hong Kong to work in a start-up. Margot mentions that Julianne is in labour, accompanied by her mother. The film closes with scenes of Margot leaving, Johnny walking across London to the MI5 headquarters, and Julianne giving birth to her child.

Cast
 Bill Nighy as Johnny Worricker, former MI5 analyst
 Helena Bonham Carter as Margot Tyrrell
 Rupert Graves as Stirling Rogers
 Ralph Fiennes as Alec Beasley MP, Prime Minister
 Ewen Bremner as Rollo Maverley
 James McArdle as Ted Finch
 Judy Davis as Jill Tankard, Acting Director General of MI5
 Felicity Jones as Julianne Worricker
 Valeria Vereau as Elisabeth
 Saskia Reeves as Anthea Catcheside MP, Deputy Prime Minister
 Olivia Williams as Belinda Kay, editor-in-chief of The Independent
 Leanne Best as Amber Page, an MI5 officer pursuing Johnny and Margot
 Pip Carter as Freddy Lagarde
 Daniel Ryan as Bill Catcheside
 Kate Burdette as Allegra Betts
 Shazad Latif as Jez Nichols
 Malcolm Sinclair as Reverend Bernard Towers

References

External links

 Salting the Battlefield media pack

British spy films
Films directed by David Hare
British political films
2014 in British television
Heyday Films films
2014 television films
2014 films
British crime films
Spy television films
Crime television films
British thriller television films
Action television films
MI5 in fiction
2010s English-language films
2010s British films

Salting the Battlefield


Lieutenant-General Emanuel Scrope Howe (c. 1663 – 26 September 1709), of The Great Lodge, Alice Holt Forest, Hampshire, was an English diplomat, army officer, and Member of Parliament.

Life
He was the fourth son of John Grubham Howe (1625–1679) of Langar Hall in Nottinghamshire, the younger son of Sir John Howe, 1st Baronet. His older brother, Scrope Howe, 1st Viscount Howe, was a prominent Whig politician, raised to the peerage in 1701. Emanuel Howe was appointed a Groom of the Bedchamber in 1689 as reward for his support for William III, and held the office throughout the king's reign. Howe was also given a commission in the 1st Foot Guards, and served in Flanders where he was wounded at the 1695 Siege of Namur. He purchased a colonelcy in 1695, and was Colonel of the 15th Regiment of Foot until his death. He was promoted to Brigadier-General in 1704, Major-General in 1707 and Lieutenant-General in the year of his death, 1709. He was First Commissioner of Prizes from 1703 to 1705, and envoy-extraordinary to the Elector of Hanover between 1705 and 1709, successfully overcoming the strained relations between the English and Hanoverian reigning families to keep Hanover in the Grand Alliance.

He entered Parliament in 1701 as member for Morpeth, elected as a placeman on the Earl of Carlisle's interest to support the Court Whigs, and in 1705 also represented Wigan. He is recorded as taking part in only one debate.

Ranger of the Royal Forest of Alice Holt

He married Ruperta Hughes, the natural daughter of Prince Rupert of the Rhine, in 1695. They were jointly appointed "Rangers of Alice Holt Forest" from 1699 onwards, a grace-and-favour sinecure. They had three sons and two daughters. After Howe's death, Ruperta continued as "Ranger of the Holt" until 1740.

Scrope-Howe was not pleased when, having spent £1,200 on repairs to the Great Lodge as requested by King William, the King repeatedly refused to repay him.

He attempted some ambitious re-introductions in the Forest, including wild boar and, moving beyond simple re-introductions, even buffalo, but these succumbed to the poaching which was endemic in Alice Holt and neighbouring Woolmer Forest at the time. Ruperta planted an oak tree near the Lodge in memory of her late father, Prince Rupert, which was replaced in the 1960s by a memorial stone. The present Lodge building dates from the 1810s but stands on the site of the Great Lodge occupied by Emanuel and Ruperta.

Notes

References

 David W Hayton, Stuart Handley and Eveline Cruickshanks, The History of Parliament: the House of Commons 1690–1715 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002)
 Robert Walcott, English Politics in the Early Eighteenth Century (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1956)

External links

 History of Parliament online http://www.historyofparliamentonline.org/volume/1690-1715/member/howe-emanuel-scrope-1663-1709

1660s births
1709 deaths
East Yorkshire Regiment officers
Members of the Parliament of Great Britain for English constituencies
British Army lieutenant generals
British military personnel of the Nine Years' War
English MPs 1701–1702
English MPs 1702–1705
English MPs 1705–1707
British MPs 1707–1708

Emanuel Scrope Howe


Marie-Auguste Massacrié-Durand (18 July 1830 – 31 May 1909) was a French music publisher, organist, and composer.

Biography
Durand was born in Paris and studied at the Paris Conservatoire with François Benoist. He started as an organist in 1849 in Saint-Ambroise, then at St. Genevieve, St. Roch and St. Vincent de Paul (1862–74). He also worked as an music educator. Composer Gustave Gagnon studied harmony with him.

A. Durand & fils
Together with Louis Schoenewerk and other sponsors, Durand founded the company Durand-Schoenewerk & Cie. in December 1869 and acquired the important catalogue of the Paris music publisher Gustave Flaxland (1821–1895), which had grown from approximately 1,200 titles in 1847 to 1,400 titles in 1869. This included the French rights to the early Wagner operas. Following a dispute, the company dissolved on 18 March 1885 and was sold at auction in May 1896. Auguste Durand and Louis Schoenewerk bought the firm in its entirety, and they reconstituted the company with Durand's son Jacques (1865–1928).

In November 1891, Jacques replaced Schoenewerk and the name changed to A. Durand & fils. Jacques assumed control of the company in 1909 when his father died, and brought in his cousin Gaston Choisnel (d. 1921) as a partner.

Durand became an expert in the publication of works by French composers including Victorin de Joncières, Edouard Lalo, Jules Massenet, Claude Debussy, Camille Saint-Saëns, Maurice Ravel, Albert Roussel and Paul Dukas. The company also published the French editions of Tannhäuser, The Flying Dutchman and Lohengrin by Richard Wagner and many editions of old masters including, in particular, a complete critical edition of Rameau edited under the initial direction of Saint-Saëns.

Between 1910 and 1913, Auguste and, after his death, his son Jacques organised concerts to raise awareness of new music. In 1914, Jacques published under the title Édition classique Durand & fils important nineteenth-century works for piano including the music of Chopin edited by Debussy, of Mendelssohn by Ravel and of Schumann by Gabriel Fauré.

In 1947, the company was reorganised as a Société à responsabilité limitée. In 1982, the house of Durand created a new catalogue of contemporary music. In 1987, the company acquired the publishers Max Eschig and Amphion. In the early 1990s, it acquired the classical music catalogue of Rideau Rouge. In 2000, the company was bought by BMG and merged with Salabert to be known as Durand-Salabert-Eschig, and since 2007 the company is a part of Universal Music Publishing Group.

Works
 First Waltz in E-flat Major, Opus 83, No.1
 Cours professionnel à l'usage des employés de commerce de musique (two volumes, 1923),
 Quelques souvenirs d'un éditeur de musique (two volumes, 1924–5),
 Lettres de Claude Debussy à son éditeur (Paris, 1927).

Bibliography
 1869–1969: Livre du Centenaire des Éditions Durand & Cie. (Paris, 1969).
 Anik Devriès & François Lesure: Dictionnaire des éditeurs de musique français, vol. 2: De 1820 à 1914 (Geneva: Minkoff, 1988), p. 151–3.
 Marc Honegger (ed.): Dictionnaire de la musique publié (Paris: Bordas, 1993), .
 Théodore Baker & Nicolas Sloninsky (eds.): Dictionnaire bibliographique des musiciens (Paris: Robert Laffont, 1995), .
 Joël-Marie Fauquet (ed.): Dictionnaire de la musique en France au XIXe siècle (Paris: Fayard, 2003), .

References

External links
 historique des éditions DURAND
 Works by Auguste Durand, International Music Score Library Project
 Publisher: Durand, International Music Score Library Project

1830 births
1909 deaths
French composers
French music publishers (people)
Music publishing companies of France
Musicians from Paris

Auguste Durand