Åsmund Ragnar Reikvam (born 1944 in Førde) is a Norwegian professor in medicine and former politician.

Education
He graduated as dr. med. in 1976 and became a specialist in Internal medicine and Heart disease in 1981. He worked at Ullevål university hospital and Sogn og Fjordane central hospital, the latter as head physician in 1983–1984 and 1989–1992. In 1999 he was appointed professor in pharmacotherapeutics at the University of Oslo.

Career
Before moving to Oslo he was a member of Førde municipality council for eight years, representing the Labour Party. His brother Rolf Reikvam is a national legislator.

Reikvam graduated from Medical School, University of Oslo, in 1970, and was a research fellow at the Institute of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, where he gained his PhD degree in 1976 with a thesis on "Activation and proliferation of macrophages."

Reikvam had his main clinical training at Ullevaal University Hospital, Oslo, and became specialist in cardiology and in internal medicine in 1981. After additional education at the University of Oslo in 1987 he received the Master of Health Administration degree. He has served as chair of the Department of Medicine and Cardiology, Central Hospital of Sogn and Fjordane, and was the medical director of the hospital. He has been director of research Forum, the research organisation of Ullevaal University Hospital,  chair of the Department of Pharmacotherapeutics, University of Oslo and since 1999 professor of pharmacotherapeutics, now at the Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo.

He has been a member of the steering committees of important clinical trials, including the International Studies of Infarct Survival, ISIS2, ISIS3, ISIS4, and the  EU funded trials of the European Secondary Prevention Study Group and, furthermore, a national co-ordinator of HOPE and GUARDIAN. He has extensive experience in clinical research. In recent years his main scientific interest has been pharmacotherapy and pharmacoepidemiology of cardiovascular diseases, particularly management of myocardial infarction. He is the author or co-author of 250 scientific papers and has published in reputable journals, including Nature, the Lancet, BMJ, Heart, Journal of Internal Medicine, European Heart Journal, European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, and British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology.

Reikvam has served on the scientific boards of main granting agencies, including the Research Council of Norway and the Foundation for Health and Rehabilitation, chairman for ten years, and at present a member of the board of the organisation. Until recently he has been chair of the Norwegian Society of Pharmacoepidemiology. He is a member of The Adverse Drug Committee of the Norwegian Medical Agency.  Reikvam is a Fellow of the European Society of Cardiology (FESC) and a member of the Working Group of Cardiovascular Pharmacology and Drug Therapy of the society. He has been a member of EMEA's (European Medicines Agency) pharmacovigilance working party and has had health care evaluation assignments for OECD.

Reikvam has had leading positions within the Norwegian Medical Association (NMA), including chair of a regional department and a member of the NMA's chief decision-making body, the Representative Body. He has been active in politics and has been a member of a town council (councilor) and has also served as alderman.

References

External links
Det medisinske fakultet Det medisinske fakultet

1944 births
Living people
Academic staff of the University of Oslo
Labour Party (Norway) politicians
Sogn og Fjordane politicians
20th-century Norwegian scientists
21st-century Norwegian scientists
20th-century Norwegian educators
21st-century Norwegian educators
People from Førde

Åsmund Reikvam


Gerald L. Miller (born September 9, 1942) is a retired brigadier general in the United States Marine Corps.

Early life and education
Miller was born on September 9, 1942, in Appleton, Wisconsin. He was raised on a dairy farm and graduated from Brillion High School in Brillion, Wisconsin, before graduating from Marquette University and Marquette University Law School. Later, he moved to Combined Locks, Wisconsin. Miller's two brothers and his son also served in the United States Marine Corps.

Career
Miller was commissioned through the NROTC program as an officer in the United States Marine Corps in 1964. The following year, he was deployed to serve as an infantry officer in the Vietnam War.

After returning to the United States and recovering from wounds received in combat, he served as a public affairs officer at the Marine Corps recruiting station in Chicago, Illinois. In 1967, he began flight training in Pensacola, Florida. The following year, he was stationed at Marine Corps Air Station El Toro. He then served a second tour of duty as an RF-4B pilot in the Vietnam War.

After completing law school in 1975, Miller served as a Marine Corps judge advocate at bases and station in the United States and overseas.  Before retiring in 1994, and as a brigadier general, he served as Staff Judge Advocate to the Commandant of the Marine Corps and as the Director of the Judge Advocate Division at Headquarters, U.S. Marine Corps.

Awards and decorations
Navy Distinguished Service Medal,
Defense Superior Service Medal,
Legion of Merit,
Distinguished Flying Cross,
Bronze Star with Combat "V",
Purple Heart,
Meritorious Service Medal,
Air Medal with numeral 16,
Navy Commendation Medal with two gold stars,
Navy Achievement Medal,
Combat Action Ribbon,
Presidential Unit Citation,
Meritorious Unit Commendation Ribbon with one bronze star,
National Defense Service Medal with one bronze star,
Vietnam Service Medal with silver star,
Sea Service Deployment Ribbon,
Republic of Vietnam Meritorious Unit Citation (Gallantry Cross),
Republic of Vietnam Meritorious Unit Citation (Civil Action), and
Republic of Vietnam Campaign Medal.

References

1942 births
Living people
People from Appleton, Wisconsin
Military personnel from Wisconsin
United States Marine Corps generals
Recipients of the Navy Distinguished Service Medal
Recipients of the Legion of Merit
Recipients of the Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)
United States Marine Corps personnel of the Vietnam War
Marquette University alumni
Recipients of the Defense Superior Service Medal
United States Marine Corps Judge Advocate Division

Gerald L. Miller


Michael Toner (born 1944) is a British journalist. He was political editor, diplomatic correspondent and leader writer at the Sunday Express, chief leader writer on the Daily Mail until 2006, a political author and novelist.

Life and career
Toner was born in Bedfordshire in 1944 and educated at Bedford Modern School and the University of Cambridge. He began his career in journalism at the Stoke Sentinel before moving to the Sunday Express where, in 1981, he interviewed Margaret Thatcher with fellow Express journalist Keith Renshaw. He became leader writer of the Sunday Express where he covered many of the controversial topics of the 1980s and 1990s including articles about the IRA, Britain Fumes at US Over I.R.A. Guns, the miners' strike, the Falklands War, child abuse and the war crime allegations involving Kurt Waldheim. David Alton described Toner's approach to Alton's anti-abortion bill as "thorough and fair".

Following his period at the Sunday Express, Toner became Chief Leader Writer at the Daily Mail, a position he held until 2006 when Tom Utley succeeded him to the role.

Toner's first published work, The Bluffer's Guide To The EU, has run to several editions encapsulating the changing nomenclature of that institution. He published his first novel, Seeing the Light, in 1997.

Works
 Seeing the Light.  Published by Simon & Schuster, London, 1997
 The Bluffer's Guide To The EU.  Michael Toner with Christopher White and Lee Rotherham.  Published by Oval, London, 1999
 Bluff Your Way in the City

References

External links

1944 births
Living people
British journalists
20th-century British novelists
21st-century British novelists
People educated at Bedford Modern School

Michael Toner (journalist)


Soběslav I (also "Sobeslaus"; c. 1075 – 14 February 1140) was Duke of Bohemia from 1125 until his death. He was a member of the Přemyslid dynasty, the youngest son of Vratislaus II (d. 1092), by his third wife Świętosława of Poland.

Life
Soběslav is first documented about 1107, when he and his elder brother Duke Bořivoj II were expelled by their Přemyslid relative Svatopluk of Olomouc and fled to the court of their maternal cousin Duke Bolesław III Wrymouth of Poland. After Svatopluk was assassinated during the Battle of Głogów in 1109, Bořivoj's attempts to regain the Bohemian throne failed. In the following fratricidal war that followed the battle, Bořivoj's younger brother Vladislaus I prevailed, backed by King Henry V of Germany. Later the brothers reconciled and Soběslav was vested with rule at Brno and Znojmo in Moravia from 1115 until 1123, when tensions between the brothers rose again and Soběslav was once more expelled.

Nevertheless, as the last surviving son of Vratislaus II, he succeeded to the ducal throne after Duke Vladislaus' death in 1125. From the beginning, his rule was contested by Otto II the Black, the younger brother of Svatopluk, who gained support not only from Vladislaus's widow Richeza of Berg, but also from King Lothair III of Germany. Soběslav therefore was an adversary of the German monarchy throughout his reign and began by using the divisiveness of the 1125 election of King Lothair against rival Duke Frederick II of Swabia to further Bohemian independence.

When Soběslav decided to remove Otto II from Olomouc, the despoiled prince recoursed to the German king. Lothair III declared that no one could succeed to the Bohemian throne without Imperial investiture and proceeded to invade on behalf of Otto II. This, however, was dangerous to the interests of the local nobility, and they rallied around Soběslav. On 18 February 1126, the German and Moravian troops under Lothair met the Bohemian forces at the Battle of Chlumec, a frontier fortress at the border with the March of Meissen. Soběslav routed and captured King Lothair, while Otto II was killed in battle. However, the relationship between the two countries returned to the former vassal-suzerain relationship, as King Lothair was released on condition of Soběslav's investiture with Bohemia.

Throughout his reign, Soběslav continued to possess the Olomouc duchy, but his rule in Bohemia was again undermined by his nephew Bretislaus, son of Soběslav's eldest brother Duke Bretislaus II (d. 1100). Young Bretislaus referred to the principle of agnatic seniority and had the support of the Moravian dukes Conrad II of Znojmo and Vratislaus II of Brno, as well as of the church party under Bishop Meinhard of Prague. In June 1130, the conspiracy was discovered and thwarted with much bloodshed. The dukes survived and continued to rule, but Bretislaus was blinded. Upon the accession of his brother-in-law King Bela II of Hungary in 1131, he became entangled in an armed conflict with Duke Bolesław III of Poland, who supported Bela's rival Boris Kalamanos.

Conrad III of Hohenstaufen, elected King of the Romans in 1138, tried to amend relations between the thrones of Bohemia and Germany. At the Reichstag of Bamberg in the same year, he gave Soběslav the hereditary dignity of the archcupbearer of the Holy Roman Empire and the promise to vest his eldest son Vladislaus with Bohemia upon his death. The duke's reign saw the foundation of many new German colonies in Czech lands in the course of the Ostsiedlung (German eastward expansion}.

Soběslav died on 14 February 1140 at Hostinné Castle. The succession intended for his son failed, as the Bohemian estates raised his nephew Vladislaus II, the son of his elder brother and predecessor Duke Vladislaus, to the ducal dignity with the approval of Conrad III.

Marriage and issue
About 1123 Soběslav married Adelaide, daughter of Prince Álmos of Hungary. The marriage produced at least five children:
 Vladislaus (d. 1165), Duke at Olomouc, married an unnamed daughter of Albert the Bear
 Maria (1124/25-1172)
 Soběslav II (~1128-1180), Duke of Bohemia
 Udalrich II (1134–1177), Duke at Olomouc
 Wenceslaus II (1137–1192), Duke of Bohemia

Ancestry

References

Sources

Petr Sommer; Třeštík, Dušan; Žemlička, Josef, et al.: Přemyslovci. Budování českého státu. Nakladatelství Lidové noviny, Praha 2009, , besonders S. 198–200.

Roman Catholic monarchs
1140 deaths
Dukes of Bohemia
Year of birth uncertain
1070s births
Czech military leaders
Sons of kings
Bohemian monarchs

Soběslav I, Duke of Bohemia


Frederick Howard Shaw (Federico H. Shaw in Spain) was born in the naval station of Ferrol in northwestern Spain on 20 October 1864. Despite the fact that he was a British subject by birth, most of his life and political career took place in Spain.

His most remarkable political achievements took place during the reign of King Alfonso XIII and Antonio Maura y Montaner's government, when he was given a prominent role in the creation of Spain's social security, the Institute of Provision. In fact, his role was to develop from scratch the entire administrative procedure to be followed by the then newly created institution.

He was also the first administrator of the "Caja General de Pensiones" (General Ministry of Pensions).

He died in Madrid on 11 August 1920.

External links
   Praise to Frederick H. Shaw by D. Álvaro López Nuñez  assistant director of the Spanish Institute of Provision - 1924
    Frederick H. Shaw in The Metal Industry Trade Union of Asturias, Spain official Magazine - 1924
   Frederick H. Shaw in the official web-site of the "Instituto de Actuarios Españoles"

1864 births
1924 deaths
People from Ferrol, Spain
Conservative Party (UK) politicians
People of the Victorian era
British economists
English people of Irish descent
British expatriates in Spain

Frederick H. Shaw


Hillsong United (stylized as Hillsong UNITED or UNITED) is a worship collective that originated as a part of Hillsong Church.  Formed in 1998 as part of Hillsong's youth ministry, the band consists of several rotating worship leaders from the church, including Joel Houston, Taya Smith-Gaukrodger, Matt Crocker, Jonathon Douglass, Brooke Fraser, Jad Gillies and Benjamin Hastings.  Due to several songs written by the youth ministry, Hillsong Worship leader Darlene Zschech recommended that they record an album, which resulted in their debut extended play, One, which was released alongside the Hillsong Worship album Touching Heaven Changing Earth.  Since then, the group has released fourteen live albums, as well as five studio albums (Sixteen albums in total).  The band composes songs and performs in church services as well as concerts in worldwide tours.

Hillsong United


Ingeborg Hermine Morath (; 27 May 1923 – 30 January 2002) was an Austrian photographer. In 1953, she joined the Magnum Photos Agency, founded by top photographers in Paris, and became a full photographer with the agency in 1955. Morath was the third wife of Pulitzer Prize-winning playwright Arthur Miller; their daughter is screenwriter/director Rebecca Miller.

Early years (1923–1945)
Morath was born in Graz, Austria, to Mathilde (Wiesler) and Edgar Morath, scientists whose work took them to different laboratories and universities in Europe during her childhood. Her parents had converted from Catholicism to Protestantism. First educated in French-speaking schools, Morath relocated in the 1930s with her family to Darmstadt, a German intellectual center, and then to Berlin, where Morath's father directed a laboratory specializing in wood chemistry. Morath was registered at the Luisenschule near Bahnhof Friedrichstraße.

Morath's first encounter with avant-garde art was the Entartete Kunst (Degenerate Art) exhibition organized by the Nazi Party in 1937, which sought to inflame public opinion against modern art. "I found a number of these paintings exciting and fell in love with Franz Marc's Blue Horse", Morath later wrote. "Only negative comments were allowed, and thus began a long period of keeping silent and concealing thoughts."

After finishing high school, Morath passed the Abitur and was obliged to complete six months of service for the Reichsarbeitsdienst (Reich Labour Service) before entering Berlin University. At university, Morath studied languages. She became fluent in French, English and Romanian in addition to her native German (to these she later added Spanish, Russian and Chinese). "I studied where I could find a quiet space, in the University and the Underground stations that served as air-raid shelters. I did not join the Studentenschaft (Student Body)."

Toward the end of World War II, Morath was drafted for factory service in Tempelhof, a neighbourhood of Berlin, alongside Ukrainian prisoners of war.

During an attack on the factory by Russian bombers, she fled on foot to Austria. In later years, Morath refused to photograph war, preferring to work on stories that showed its consequences.

Middle years (1945–1962)

After the war, Morath worked as a translator and journalist. In 1948, she was hired by Warren Trabant, first as Vienna Correspondent and later as the Austrian editor, for Heute, an illustrated magazine published by the Office of War Information in Munich. Morath encountered photographer Ernst Haas in post-war Vienna, and brought his work to Trabant's attention. Working together for Heute, Morath wrote articles to accompany Haas' pictures. In 1949, Morath and Haas were invited by Robert Capa to join the newly founded Magnum Photos in Paris, where she started as an editor. Working with contact sheets sent into the Magnum office by founding member Henri Cartier-Bresson fascinated Morath. "I think that in studying his way of photographing I learned how to photograph myself, before I ever took a camera into my hand."

Morath was briefly married to the British journalist Lionel Birch and relocated to London in 1951. That same year, she began to photograph during a visit to Venice. "It was instantly clear to me that from now on I would be a photographer", she wrote. "As I continued to photograph I became quite joyous. I knew that I could express the things I wanted to say by giving them form through my eyes." Morath applied for an apprenticeship with Simon Guttman, who was then an editor for Picture Post and running the picture-agency Report. When Guttman asked what Morath wanted to photograph, and why, she answered that "after the isolation of Nazism I felt I had found my language in photography." After Morath had spent several months working as Guttman's secretary, she had an opportunity to take photographs. She sold her first photographs - of opening nights, exhibitions, inaugurations, etc. - under the pseudonym "Egni Tharom", her name spelled backwards.

Morath divorced Birch and returned to Paris to pursue a career in photography. In 1953, after Morath presented her first large picture story, on the Worker Priests of Paris, to Capa, he invited her to join Magnum as a photographer. Her first assignments were stories that did not interest "the big boys." She went to London on an early assignment to photograph the residents of Soho and Mayfair. Morath's portrait of Mrs. Eveleigh Nash, from that assignment, is among her best-known works.  At Capa's suggestion, in 1953–54, Morath worked with Cartier-Bresson as a researcher and assistant.  In 1955 she was invited to become a full member of Magnum Photos. During the late 1950s, Morath traveled widely, covering stories in Europe, the Middle East, Africa, the United States, and South America, for such publications as Holiday, Paris Match, and Vogue. In 1955 she published Guerre à la Tristesse, photographs of Spain, with Robert Delpire, followed by De la Perse à l'Iran, photographs of Iran, in 1958. Morath published more than thirty monographs during her lifetime.

Like many Magnum members, Morath worked as a stills photographer on numerous motion picture sets. Having met director John Huston while she was living in London, Morath worked on several of his films. Huston's Moulin Rouge (1952) was one of Morath's earliest assignments, and her first time working in a film studio. When Morath confessed to Huston that she had only one roll of color film to work with and asked for his help, Huston bought three more rolls for her, and occasionally waved to her to indicate the right moments to step in with her camera. Huston later wrote of Morath that she "is a high priestess of photography. She has the rare ability to penetrate beyond surfaces and reveal what makes her subject tick."

In 1959, while photographing the making of The Unforgiven, starring Audrey Hepburn, Burt Lancaster, and Audie Murphy, Morath accompanied Huston and his friends duck hunting on a mountain lake outside Durango, Mexico. Photographing the excursion, Morath saw through her telephoto lens that Murphy's companion had capsized their boat  from shore. She could see that Murphy was stunned, and the men were struggling. A skilled swimmer, Morath swam out, stripped down and used her bra straps to haul the two men ashore .

Morath worked again with Huston in 1960 on the set of The Misfits, a film featuring Marilyn Monroe, Clark Gable and Montgomery Clift, with a screenplay by Arthur Miller. Magnum Photos had been given exclusive rights to photograph the making of the movie, and Morath and Cartier-Bresson were the first of nine photographers to work on location outside Reno, Nevada during the process. Morath met Miller while working on The Misfits.

Later years (1962–2002)

Morath married Arthur Miller on 17 February 1962 and relocated permanently to the United States. Miller and Morath's first child, Rebecca, was born in September 1962. The couple's second child, Daniel, was born in 1966 with Down syndrome and was institutionalized shortly after his birth. Rebecca Miller is a film director, actress, and writer who is married to the actor Daniel Day-Lewis.

After re-locating to the United States, during the 1960s and 1970s Morath worked closer to home, raising a family with Miller and working with him on several projects. Their first collaboration was the book In Russia (1969), which, together with Chinese Encounters (1979), described their travels and meetings in the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China. In the Country, published in 1977, was an intimate look at their immediate surroundings. For both Miller, who had lived much of his life in New York City, and Morath, who had come to the US from Europe, the Connecticut countryside offered a fresh encounter with America.

Reflecting on the importance of Morath's linguistic gifts, Miller wrote that "travel with her was a privilege because [alone] I would never been able to penetrate that way." In their travels Morath translated for Miller, while his literary work was the entrée for Morath to encounter an international artistic elite. The Austrian photographer Kurt Kaindl, her long-time colleague, noted that "their cooperation develop[ed] without outward pressure and is solely motivated by their common interest in the people and the respective cultural sphere, a situation that corresponds to Inge Morath's working style, since she generally feels inhibited by assignments."

Morath sought out, befriended, and photographed artists and writers. During the 1950s she  photographed artists for Robert Delpire's magazine L'Oeil, including Jean Arp and Alberto Giacometti.  She met the artist Saul Steinberg in 1958. When she went to his home to make a portrait, Steinberg came to the door wearing a mask which he had fashioned from a paper bag. Over a period of several years, they collaborated on a series of portraits, inviting individuals and groups of people to pose for Morath wearing Steinberg's masks. Another long-term project was Morath's documentation of many of the most important productions of Arthur Miller's plays.

Some of Morath's signal achievements are in portraiture, including posed images of celebrities as well as fleeting images of anonymous passersby. Her pictures of Boris Pasternak's home, Pushkin's library, Chekhov's house, Mao Zedong's bedroom, as well as artists' studios and cemetery memorials, are permeated with the spirit of invisible people still present. The writer Philip Roth, whom Morath photographed in 1965, described her as "the most engaging, sprightly, seemingly harmless voyeur I know. If you're one of her subjects, you hardly know your guard is down and your secret recorded until it's too late. She is a tender intruder with an invisible camera."

As the scope of her projects grew, Morath prepared extensively by studying the language, art, and literature of a country to encounter its culture fully. Although photography was the primary means through which Morath found expression, it was but one of her skills. In addition to the many languages in which she was fluent, Morath was also a prolific diary and letter-writer; her dual gift for words and pictures made her unusual among her colleagues. Morath wrote extensively, and often amusingly, about her photographic subjects. Although she rarely published these texts during her lifetime, posthumous publications have focused upon this aspect of her work.  They have brought together her photographs with journal writings, caption notes, and other archival materials relating to her various projects.

During the 1980s and 1990s, Morath continued to pursue both assignments and independent projects. The film Copyright by Inge Morath was made by German filmmaker Sabine Eckhard in 1992, and was one of several films selected for a presentation of Magnum Films at the Berlin International Film Festival in 2007. Eckhard filmed Morath at home and in her studio, and in New York and Paris with her colleagues, including Cartier-Bresson, Elliott Erwitt and others. In 2002, working with film director Regina Strassegger, Morath fulfilled a long-held wish to revisit the lands of her ancestors, along the borderlands of Styria and Slovenia. This mountainous region, once part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, had become the faultline between two conflicting ideologies after World War II and until 1991, when attempts at rapprochement led to conflict on both sides of the border. The book Last Journey (2002), and Strasseger's film Grenz Räume (Border Space, 2002), document Morath's visits to her homeland during the final years of her life.

Death
Morath Miller died of cancer on January 30, 2002, at the age of 78.

Honors and legacy
 1983 State of Michigan Senate Resolution NO 295; Tribute to Inge Morath.
 1984 Doctor Honoris Causa Fine Arts, University of Connecticut, Hartford, US.
 1992 Great Austrian State Prize for Photography.
 2002, members of Magnum Photos established the Inge Morath Award in honor of their colleague as an annual award.  It is administered by the Inge Morath Foundation, and is given to a woman photographer under the age of 30, to support her work towards the completion of a long-term project.
 2003, her family established the Inge Morath Foundation to preserve and share her legacy.
 Since 2012 Salzburg, Austria has an "Inge-Morath-Platz" in tribute to the photographer. It is also the location of the Fotohof, a photographic institution which has collaborated with her since the beginning of the 1980s

Solo exhibitions

 1964 Inge Morath: Photographs, Gallery 104, Art Institute of Chicago, Illinois, US.
 1979 Inge Morath: Photographs of China, Grand Rapids Art Museum, Michigan, US.
 1984 Salesman in Beijing, Hong Kong Theatre Festival.
 1988 Retrospective, Union of Photojournalists, Moscow, Russia; Sala del Canal Museum, Madrid, Spain; Rupertinum Museum, Salzburg, Austria.
 1989 Portraits, Burden Gallery, Aperture Foundation, New York, New York, US; Norwich Cathedral, Norwich, UK; American Cultural Center, Brussels, Belgium.
 1991 Portraits, Kolbe Museum Berlin, Germany; Rupertinum Museum Salzburg, Austria
 1992/94  Retrospective, Neue Galerie Linz, Austria ;America House, Frankfurt, Germany; Hardenberg Gallery, Velbert, Germany; Galerie Fotogramma, Milano, Italy; Royal Photographic Society, Bath, UK; Smith Gallery and Museum, Stirling, UK; America House, Berlin, Germany; Hradcin Gallery, Prague, Czech Republic.
 1994 Spain in the fifties, Spanish Institute, New York, US
 1995 Spain in the fifties, Museo de Arte Contemporaneo, Madrid, Spain; Museo de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain.
 1996 Inge Morath: Danube, Neues Schauspielhaus, Berlin, Germany; Leica Gallery, New York, US; Galeria Fotoforum, Bolzano, Italy.
 1996 Women to Women, Takashimaya Gallery, Tokyo, Japan
 1997 Photographs 1950s to 1990s, Tokyo Museum of Photography, Tokyo, Japan
 1997 Inge Morath: Danube, Keczkemet Museum, Esztergom Museum, Hungary
 1997 Retrospective Kunsthal, Rotterdam, Netherlands.
 1998 Celebrating 75 Years Leica Gallery, New York, US.
 1998 Retrospective, Edinburgh Festival, Edinburgh, UK; Museum of Photography in Charleroi, Belgium; Municipal Gallery, Pamplona, Spain.
 1998 Inge Morath: Danube, Festival of Central European Culture, London, UK; Museen d. Stadt Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany.
 1999 Spain in the Fifties, Museo del Cabilde, Montevideo, Uruguay.
 1999 Retrospective, Kunsthalle Wien, Austria; FNAC Etoile, Paris, France; FNAC, Barcelona, Spain.
 2002 Inge Morath: New York, Galerie Fotohof, Salzburg, Austria; Stadt Passau, Europäische; Wochen, Germany ESWE Forum, Wiesbaden; Esther Woerdehoff Galerie, Paris, France; Amerikahaus Tübingen, Germany.
 2002 Inge Morath: Danube, City Gallery of Russe, Russe, Bulgaria.
 2003 Exposition, Henri Cartier-Bresson Foundation, Paris, France.
 2004 Inge Morath: Chinese Encounters, Pingyao International Photography Festival, Pingyao, China.
 2004 Inge Morath: The Road to Reno, Chicago Cultural Center, Illinois, US.
 2008 Well Disposed and Trying to See: Inge Morath and Arthur Miller in China, University of Michigan Museum of Art, Ann Arbor, US.
 2023 Where I See Color. For Her 100th Birthday, Fotohof, Salzburg, Austria

Monographs
 1955 Guerre à la Tristesse. Delpire, France.
 1956 Fiesta in Pamplona. Universe Books, US.
 1956 Venice Observed. Reynal & Co., US.
 1958 De la Perse à l'Iran. Robert Delpire, France.
 1960 Bring Forth the Children: A Journey to the Forgotten People of Europe and the Middle East. McGraw-Hill, US.
 1967 Le Masque (Drawings by Saul Steinberg). Maeght Editeur, France.
 1969 In Russia. Viking Press, US.
 1972 In Russia Penguin.
 1973 East West Exercises. Simon Walker & Co., US.
 1975 Grosse Photographen unserer Zeit:  Inge Morath. C.J. Bucher Verlag, Switzerland.
 1977 In the Country. Viking Press, US.
 1979 Inge Morath: Photographs of China. Grand Rapids Art Museum, US.
 1979 Chinese Encounters. with Arthur Miller. Straus & Giroux, US.
 1981 Bilder aus Wien: Der Liebe Augustin. Reich Verlag, Switzerland.
 1984 Salesman in Beijing. with Arthur Miller. Viking Press, US.
 1986 Portraits. Aperture, US.
 1991 Russian Journal. Aperture Foundation, US.
 1992 Inge Morath: Photographs 1952 to 1992. Otto Müller/Verlag, Austria.
 1994 Inge Morath: Spain in the Fifties. Arte con Texto, Spain.
 1995 Donau. Verlag, Austria.
 1996 Woman to Woman. Magnum Photos, Japan.
 1999 Inge Morath: Portraits. Verlag, Austria.
 1999 Arthur Miller:  Photographed by Inge Morath. FNAC, Spain.
 1999 Inge Morath: Life as a Photographer. Kehayoff Books, Germany.
 2000 Saul Steinberg Masquerade. Viking Studio, US.
 2002 New York. Otto Müller/Verlag, Austria.
 2003 Inge Morath: Last Journey Prestel.
 2006 The Road to Reno. Steidl, Germany.
 2009 Inge Morath: Iran. Steidl, Germany.
 2009 Inge Morath: First Color. Steidl, Germany.
 2015 History Travels Badly. London: Fishbar.
 2016 Inge Morath: On Style. Abrams, US.
 2018 Inge Morath: Magnum Legacy. Prestel, US.

See also
 List of Austrian artists and architects
 List of Austrians
 List of street photographers

References

External links

 Inge Morath Photographs and Papers. General Collection, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University.

1923 births
2002 deaths
Austrian women photographers
Magnum photographers
Austrian photojournalists
Street photographers
Photography in China
Photography in Iran
Photography in Russia
Photography in Spain
Photography in the Soviet Union
20th-century Austrian women artists
20th-century photographers
20th-century women photographers
Reich Labour Service members
Women photojournalists
National Arts Club Medal of Honor Recipients

Inge Morath


All the President's Men is an Academy Award-winning political thriller movie directed by Alan J. Pakula. It was screen-written by William Goldman. released in 1976. It was based on the 1974 non-fiction book of the same name by Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein, the two journalists investigating the Watergate scandal for The Washington Post.

It stars Robert Redford, Dustin Hoffman, Jason Robards, Martin Balsam, Jack Warden, Ned Beatty, F. Murray Abraham, and Hal Holbrook as "Deep Throat". It won four Academy Awards and was nominated for Best Picture. It is part of the United States National Film Registry.

Other websites

1976 thriller movies
1976 crime drama movies
American thriller movies
Academy Award winning movies
American crime drama movies
Political movies
1970s English-language movies
Movies based on books
Movies set in Washington, D.C.
Movies based on real life events
Watergate scandal
United States National Film Registry movies
Warner Bros. movies
Movies directed by Alan J. Pakula
Movies about journalists
Movies about freedom of expression

All the President's Men (movie)


Bill Thomas (November 11, 1934 – June 3, 2009) was an American author and photojournalist, the son of William Roy Thomas and Margaret Elizabeth (Crabtree) Thomas born on the family farm near Glendale, Kentucky.

Biography
Thomas reported for the Park City Daily News, while attending Western Kentucky University.  Upon graduation, he accepted a commission in the US Army Reserve, and trained in 1958 at Ft. Holobird, Maryland.  Thomas was later employed by United Press International in Louisville, Kentucky, and then The Cincinnati Enquirer in 1962.  He was promoted to Travel Editor at the Enquirer.

Thomas left the Enquirer in 1966, to freelance for a number of newspapers and magazines.  His work focused in the areas of outdoors, travel, and human interest, and was published in Field & Stream, Woodall's Trailer Travel, Outdoor Life, The Saturday Evening Post, and many other periodicals.

In 1976, Thomas received the National Geographic Award for Photography.   Thomas published his first book in 1974.

Books
Tripping in America: Off the Beaten Track (1974)
Eastern Trips & Trails (1975)
Mid-America Trips and Trails (1975)
The Swamp (1976)
The Complete World of Kites (1977)
Lakeside Recreation Areas (1977)
American Rivers: A Natural History (1978)
The Island (1981)
The Brown County Book (1981)
Talking with the Animals: How to Communicate with Wildlife (1985)
How You Can Make $50,000 a Year as a Nature Photojournalist (1986)
Natural Chicago, with Phyllis Thomas (1986)
Natural New York, with Phyllis Thomas (1988)
Indiana Off the Beaten Path (1989)
Natural Los Angeles, with Phyllis Thomas (1989)
Natural Washington (1991)
Wild Woodlands: The Old-Growth Forests of America (1992)
Travel America's Past and Future: The Travel Guide to Americas Living Restorations and Futuristic Attractions (1993)
The River Purple (2002)

American male journalists
American travel writers
American photojournalists
1934 births
2009 deaths
Writers from Kentucky
People from Hardin County, Kentucky
The Cincinnati Enquirer people

Bill Thomas (author)


Matityahu son of Yochanan, also known by the Greek name Mattathias was a Jewish kohen who lived when Antiochus IV took over Judea. When the Greeks tried to assimilate the Jews they ordered him to offer a sacrifice to Zeus but Matityahu refused. Matityahu decided to lead a rebellion against Antiochus to defend Judaism but he died of old age so his sons and their followers, known as the Maccabees fought the war against the Greeks and beat them.

Jewish people
Ancient Israeli people
160s BC deaths

Mattathias


Tiwanaku ( or ) is a Pre-Columbian archaeological site in western Bolivia, near Lake Titicaca, about 70 kilometers from La Paz, and it is one of the largest sites in South America. Surface remains currently cover around 4 square kilometers and include decorated ceramics, monumental structures, and megalithic blocks. The site's population probably peaked around AD 800 with 10,000 to 20,000 people.

The site was first recorded in written history in 1549 by Spanish conquistador Pedro Cieza de León while searching for the southern Inca capital of Qullasuyu.

Jesuit chronicler of Peru Bernabé Cobo reported that Tiwanaku's name once was taypiqala, which is Aymara meaning "stone in the center", alluding to the belief that it lay at the center of the world. The name by which Tiwanaku was known to its inhabitants may have been lost as they had no written language. Heggarty and Beresford-Jones suggest that the Puquina language is most likely to have been the language of Tiwanaku.

Site History
The dating of the site has been significantly refined over the last century. From 1910 to 1945, Arthur Posnansky maintained that the site was 11,000–17,000 years old based on comparisons to geological eras and archaeoastronomy. Beginning in the 1970s, Carlos Ponce Sanginés proposed the site was first occupied around 1580 BC, the site's oldest radiocarbon date. This date is still seen in some publications and museums in Bolivia. Since the 1980s, researchers have recognized this date as unreliable, leading to the consensus that the site is no older than 200 or 300 BC. More recently, a statistical assessment of reliable radiocarbon dates estimates that the site was founded around AD 110 (50–170, 68% probability), a date supported by the lack of ceramic styles from earlier periods.

Tiwanaku began its steady growth in the early centuries of the common era. From approximately 375 to 700 AD, the city grew to significance in the Andes. At its height, the city of Tiwanaku spanned an area of roughly 4 square kilometers (1.5 square miles) and had a population greater than 10,000 individuals. The growth of the city was due to its complex agropastoral economy, supported by trade.

The site appeared to have collapsed around 1000 AD, however the reasoning behind this is still open to debate. Recent studies by geologist Elliott Arnold of the University of Pittsburgh have shown evidence of a greater amount of aridity in the region around the time of collapse. A drought in the region would have affected local systems of agriculture and likely played a role in the collapse of Tiwanaku.

Relationships
The people of Tiwanaku held a tight relationship with the Wari culture. The Wari civilizations contained types of architecture similar to what's found in Tiwanaku. The relationship between the two civilizations is presumed to be trade based or military based. The Wari aren't the only other civilization that Tiwanaku could have had contact with. Inca cities also contained similar types of architecture Infrastructure seen in Tiwanaku. From this it can be expected that the Inca took some inspiration from the city of Tiwanaku and other early civilizations in the Andean basin.

Structures

The structures that have been excavated by researchers at Tiwanaku include the terraced platform mound Akapana, Akapana East, and Pumapunku stepped platforms, the Kalasasaya, the Kantatallita temple, the Kheri Kala, and Putuni enclosures, and the Semi-Subterranean Temple.

The Akapana is an approximately cross-shaped structure that is 257 m wide, 197 m broad at its maximum, and 16.5 m tall. At its center appears to have been a sunken court. This was nearly destroyed by a deep looters excavation that extends from the center of this structure to its eastern side. Material from the looter's excavation was dumped off the eastern side of the Akapana. A staircase with sculptures is present on its western side. Possible residential complexes might have occupied both the northeast and southeast corners of this structure.

Originally, the Akapana was thought to have been developed from a modified hill. Twenty-first-century studies have shown that it is an entirely manmade earthen mound, faced with a mixture of large and small stone blocks. The dirt comprising Akapana appears to have been excavated from the "moat" that surrounds the site. The largest stone block within the Akapana, made of andesite, is estimated to weigh 65.7 tons. Tenon stone blocks in the form of puma and human heads stud the upper terraces.

The Akapana East was built on the eastern side of early Tiwanaku. Later it was considered a boundary between the ceremonial center and the urban area. It was made of a thick, prepared floor of sand and clay, which supported a group of buildings. Yellow and red clay was used in different areas for what seems like aesthetic purposes. It was swept clean of all domestic refuse, signaling its great importance to the culture.

The Pumapunku is a man-made platform built on an east-west axis like the Akapana. It is a T-shaped, terraced earthen platform mound faced with megalithic blocks. It is 167.36 m wide along its north-south axis and 116.7 m broad along its east-west axis and is 5 m tall. Identical 20-meter-wide projections extend 27.6 meters north and south from the northeast and southeast corners of the Pumapunku. Walled and unwalled courts and an esplanade are associated with this structure.

A prominent feature of the Pumapunku is a large stone terrace; it is 6.75 by 38.72 meters in dimension and paved with large stone blocks. It is called the "Plataforma Lítica" and contains the largest stone block found in the Tiwanaku site. According to Ponce Sangines, the block is estimated to weigh 131 metric tonnes. The second-largest stone block found within the Pumapunku is estimated to be 85 metric tonnes.

Scattered around the site of the Puma Punku are various types of cut stones. Due to the complexity of the stonework many have theorized the existence of aliens, however many stones are left unfinished and show how they might have been cut.

The Kalasasaya is a large courtyard more than 300 feet long, outlined by a high gateway. It is located to the north of the Akapana and west of the Semi-Subterranean Temple. Within the courtyard is where explorers found the Gateway of the Sun. Since the late 20th century, researchers have theorized that this was not the gateway's original location.

Near the courtyard is the Semi-Subterranean Temple; a square sunken courtyard that is unique for its north-south rather than east-west axis. The walls are covered with tenon heads of many different styles, suggesting that the structure was reused for different purposes over time. It was built with walls of sandstone pillars and smaller blocks of Ashlar masonry. The largest stone block in the Kalasasaya is estimated to weigh 26.95 metric tons.

Within many of the site's structures are impressive gateways; the ones of monumental scale are placed on artificial mounds, platforms, or sunken courts. Many gateways show iconography of the Staff God. This iconography also is used on some oversized vessels, indicating an importance to the culture. This iconography is most present on the Gateway of the Sun.

The unique carvings on the top of the Gate of the sun depict animals and other beings. Some have claimed that the symbolism represents a calendar system unique to the people of Tiwanaku, although there is no definitive evidence that this theory is correct.

The Gateway of the Sun and others located at Pumapunku are not complete. They are missing part of a typical recessed frame known as a chambranle, which typically have sockets for clamps to support later additions. These architectural examples, as well as the recently discovered Akapana Gate, have unique detail and demonstrate high skill in stone-cutting. This reveals a knowledge of descriptive geometry. The regularity of elements suggests they are part of a system of proportions.

Many theories for the skill of Tiwanaku's architectural construction have been proposed. One is that they used a luk' a, which is a standard measurement of about sixty centimeters. Another argument is for the Pythagorean Ratio. This idea calls for right triangles at a ratio of five to four to three used in the gateways to measure all parts. Lastly, Protzen and Nair argue that Tiwanaku had a system set for individual elements dependent on context and composition. This is shown in the construction of similar gateways ranging from diminutive to monumental size, proving that scaling factors did not affect proportion. With each added element, the individual pieces were shifted to fit together.

As the population grew, occupational niches developed, and people began to specialize in certain skills. There was an increase in artisans, who worked in pottery, jewelry, and textiles. Like the later Inca, the Tiwanaku had few commercial or market institutions. Instead, the culture relied on elite redistribution. That is, the elites of the empire controlled essentially all economic output but were expected to provide each commoner with all the resources needed to perform his or her function. Selected occupations include agriculturists, herders, pastoralists, etc. Such separation of occupations was accompanied by hierarchical stratification within the empire.

Some authors believe that the elites of Tiwanaku lived inside four walls that were surrounded by a moat. This theory is called "Tiwanaku moat theory". This moat, some believe, was to create the image of a sacred island. Inside the walls were many images devoted to human origin, which only the elites would see. Commoners may have entered this structure only for ceremonial purposes since it was home to the holiest of shrines.

Cosmology

In many Andean cultures, mountains are venerated and may be considered sacred objects. The site of Tiwanaku is located in the valley between two sacred mountains, Pukara and Chuqi Q'awa. At such temples in ancient times, ceremonies were conducted to honor and pay gratitude to the gods and spirits. They were places of worship and rituals that helped unify Andean peoples through shared symbols and pilgrimage destinations.

Tiwanaku became a center of pre-Columbian religious ceremonies for both the general public and elites. For example, human sacrifice was used in several pre-Columbian civilizations to appease a god in exchange for good fortune. Excavations of the Akapana temple at Tiwanaku revealed the remains of sacrificial dedications of humans and camelids. Researchers speculate that the Akapana temple may also have been used as an astronomical observatory. It was constructed so that it was aligned with the peak of Quimsachata, providing a view of the rotation of the Milky Way from the southern pole. Other temples like Kalasasaya are positioned to provide optimal views of the sunrise on the Equinox, Summer Solstice, and Winter Solstice. Although the symbolic and functional value of these monuments can only be speculated upon, the Tiwanaku were able to study and interpret the positions of the sun, moon, Milky Way and other celestial bodies well enough to give them a significant role in their architecture.

Aymara legends place Tiwanaku at the center of the universe, probably because of the importance of its geographical location. The Tiwanaku were highly aware of their natural surroundings and would use them and their understanding of astronomy as reference points in their architectural plans. The most significant landmarks in Tiwanaku are the mountains and Lake Titicaca. Although the shores of Lake Titicaca are now located 20 kilometers west of Tiwanaku, the lake has decreased in size due to drought. In ancient times, it likely extended to Tiwanaku. The spiritual importance and location of the lake contributed to the religious significance of Tiwanaku. In the Tiwanaku worldview, Lake Titicaca is the spiritual birthplace of their cosmic beliefs. According to Incan mythology, Lake Titicaca is the birthplace of Viracocha, who was responsible for creating the sun, moon, people, and the cosmos. In the Kalasasaya temple at Tiwanaku, carved atop a monolith known as the Gate of the Sun, is a deity holding a lightning bolt and snuff. Many speculate that this is a representation of Viracocha because the figure is depicted wearing a sun crown. However, it is also possible that this figure represents a deity that the Aymara refer to as "Tunuupa" who, like Viracocha, is associated with legends of creation and destruction.

The Aymara, who are thought to be descendants of the Tiwanaku, have a complex belief system similar to the cosmology of several other Andean civilizations. They believe in the existence of three spaces: Arajpacha, the upper world; Akapacha, the middle or inner world; and Manqhaoacha, the lower world. Often associated with the cosmos and Milky Way, the upper world is considered to be where celestial beings live. The middle world is where all living things are, and the lower world is where life itself is inverted.

Archaeology

As the site has suffered from looting and amateur excavations since shortly after Tiwanaku's fall, archeologists must attempt to interpret it with the understanding that materials have been jumbled and destroyed. This destruction continued during the Spanish conquest and colonial period, and during 19th century and the early 20th century. Other damage was committed by people quarrying stone for building and railroad construction, and target practice by military personnel.

No standing buildings have survived at the modern site. Only public, non-domestic foundations remain, with poorly reconstructed walls. The ashlar blocks used in many of these structures were mass-produced in similar styles so that they could possibly be used for multiple purposes. Throughout the period of the site, certain buildings changed purposes, causing a mix of artifacts found today.

Detailed study of Tiwanaku began on a small scale in the mid-nineteenth century. In the 1860s, Ephraim George Squier visited the ruins and later published maps and sketches completed during his visit. German geologist Alphons Stübel spent nine days in Tiwanaku in 1876, creating a map of the site based on careful measurements. He also made sketches and created paper impressions of carvings and other architectural features. A book containing major photographic documentation was published in 1892 by engineer Georg von Grumbkow, With commentary by archaeologist Max Uhle, this was the first in-depth scientific account of the ruins.

Von Grumbkow had first visited Tiwanaku between the end of 1876 and the beginning of 1877, when he accompanied as a photographer the expedition of French adventurer Théodore Ber, financed by American businessman Henry Meiggs, against Ber's promise of donating the artifacts he will find, on behalf of Meiggs, to Washington's Smithsonian Institution and the American Museum of Natural History in New York. Ber's expedition was cut short by the violent hostility of the local population, instigated by the Catholic parish priest, but von Grumbkow's early pictures survive.

Pictures of archaeological excavations in 1903

Contemporary excavation and restoration

In the 1960s, the Bolivian government initiated an effort to restore the site and reconstruct part of it. The walls of the Kalasasaya are almost all reconstructed. The original stones making up the Kalasasaya would have resembled a more "Stonehenge"-like style, spaced evenly apart and standing straight up. The reconstruction was not sufficiently based on research; for instance, a new wall was built around Kalasasaya. The reconstruction does not have as high quality of stonework as was present in Tiwanaku. As noted, the Gateway of the Sun, now in the Kalasasaya, is believed to have been moved from its original location.

Modern, academically sound archaeological excavations were performed from 1978 through the 1990s by University of Chicago anthropologist Alan Kolata and his Bolivian counterpart, Oswaldo Rivera. Among their contributions are the rediscovery of the suka kollus, accurate dating of the civilization's growth and influence, and evidence for a drought-based collapse of the Tiwanaku civilization.

Archaeologists such as Paul Goldstein have argued that the Tiwanaku empire ranged outside of the altiplano area and into the Moquegua Valley in Peru. Excavations at Omo settlements show signs of similar architecture characteristic of Tiwanaku, such as a temple and terraced mound. Evidence of similar types of cranial vault modification in burials between the Omo site and the main site of Tiwanaku is also being used for this argument.

Today Tiwanaku has been designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, administered by the Bolivian government.

Recently, the Department of Archaeology of Bolivia (DINAR, directed by Javier Escalante) has been conducting excavations on the terraced platform mound Akapana. The Proyecto Arqueologico Pumapunku-Akapana (Pumapunku-Akapana Archaeological Project, PAPA) run by the University of Pennsylvania, has been excavating in the area surrounding the terraced platform mound for the past few years, and also conducting Ground Penetrating Radar surveys of the area.

In former years, an archaeological field school offered through Harvard's Summer School Program, conducted in the residential area outside the monumental core, has provoked controversy amongst local archaeologists. The program was directed by Gary Urton, of Harvard, who was an expert on quipus, and Alexei Vranich of the University of Pennsylvania. The controversy was over allowing a team of untrained students to work on the site, even under professional supervision. It was so important that only certified professional archaeologists with documented funding were allowed access. The controversy was charged with nationalistic and political undertones. The Harvard field school lasted for three years, beginning in 2004 and ending in 2007. The project was not renewed in subsequent years, nor was permission sought to do so.

In 2009 state-sponsored restoration work on Akapana was halted due to a complaint from UNESCO. The restoration had consisted of facing the pyramid with adobe, although researchers had not established this as appropriate.

In 2013, marine archaeologists exploring Lake Titicaca's Khoa reef discovered an ancient ceremonial site and lifted artifacts such as a lapis lazuli and ceramic figurines, incense burners and a ceremonial medallion from the lake floor. The artifacts are representative of the lavishness of the ceremonies and the Tiwanaku culture.

When a topographical map of the site was created in 2016 by the use of a drone, a "set of hitherto unknown structures" was revealed. These structures spanned over 411 hectares, and included a stone temple and about one hundred circular or rectangular structures of vast dimensions, which were possibly domestic units.

Aerial surveillance

Between 2005 and 2007 various types of aerial surveillance methods were used by UNESCO to create an aerial picture of the site. Lidar, aerial photography, drones, and terrestrial laser scanning were all used in this process. Data concluded from this research includes topographical maps that show the principal structures at the site along with mapping of multiple structures in the Mollo Kuntu area. Over 300 million data points were placed from these methods and have helped redefine main structures that have not fully been excavated such as the Puma Punku.

Important authors

Alan Kolata of the University of Chicago conducted research at Tiwanaku in the late 1900s from which he made descriptions of the City and its structure and culture in his book The Tiwanaku. He later published Valley of The Spirits which described more aspects of Tiwanaku culture such as astrology and mythology.

John Wayne Janusek of Vanderbilt University spent time in the late 1900s as well at the site of Tiwanaku recording findings of the excavations going on. In 2008 he published Ancient Tiwanaku which described his findings on the architecture, agriculture and other aspects of Tiwanaku life.

Jean-Pierre Protzen was an architecture professor of the University of California at Berkeley and spent much of his life studying the architecture of Tiwanaku. In 2013, he published The Stones of Tiahuanaco which gives great descriptions of the architecture and stonework seen at Tiwanaku. His work has played a huge role in creating potential reconstructions of what many of the structures look like, especially the puma punku.

See also
 Arthur Posnansky
 Kalasasaya
 Kimsa Chata
 Las Ánimas complex
 List of megalithic sites
 List of World Heritage Sites in South America
 Qhunqhu Wankani
 Tiwanaku Empire
 Wari culture

References

Bibliography
 Bermann, Marc Lukurmata Princeton University Press (1994) .
 Bruhns, Karen Olsen, Ancient South America, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, c. 1994.
 Arthur Posnansky; Tihuanacu cuna del hombre americano (edición bilingüe inglés-castellano); Nueva York, 1945.
 Goldstein, Paul, "Tiwanaku Temples and State Expansion: A Tiwanaku Sunken-Court Temple in Moduegua, Peru", Latin American Antiquity, Vol. 4, No. 1 (March 1993), pp. 22–47, Society for American Archaeology.
 Hoshower, Lisa M., Jane E. Buikstra, Paul S. Goldstein, and Ann D. Webster, "Artificial Cranial Deformation at the Omo M10 Site: A Tiwanaku Complex from the Moquegua Valley, Peru", Latin American Antiquity, Vol. 6, No. 2 (June, 1995) pp. 145–64, Society for American Archaeology.
 Janusek, John Wayne Ancient Tiwanaku Cambridge University Press (2008) .
 Kolata, Alan L., "The Agricultural Foundations of the Tiwanaku State: A View from the Heartland", American Antiquity, Vol. 51, No. 4 (October 1986), pp. 748–762, Society for American Archaeology.
 .
 Protzen, Jean-Pierre and Stella E. Nair, "On Reconstructing Tiwanaku Architecture", The Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, Vol. 59, No. 3 (September 2000), pp. 358–71, Society of Architectural Historians.
 Reinhard, Johan, "Chavin and Tiahuanaco: A New Look at Two Andean Ceremonial Centers." National Geographic Research 1(3): 395–422, 1985.
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External links

1st-millennium BC establishments
Archaeological sites in Bolivia
World Heritage Sites in Bolivia
Former populated places in Bolivia
Buildings and structures in La Paz Department (Bolivia)
Tourist attractions in La Paz Department (Bolivia)
Prehistory of Bolivia
Archaeoastronomy
Tiwanaku culture

Tiwanaku


The Treaty of Fort Wise of  1861 was a treaty signed between the United States and six chiefs of the Southern Cheyenne and four of the Southern Arapaho Indian tribes. Many Cheyenne people hated this treaty because only a minority of Cheyenne chiefs had signed. They were also angry because those chiefs signed asking the rest of the tribe what they wanted. Different responses to the treaty were a reason why there was conflict between whites and Indians. This led to the Colorado War of 1864, including the Sand Creek Massacre.

Treaty of Fort Laramie (1851)
The 1851 Treaty of Fort Laramie between the United States and various tribes including the Cheyenne and Arapaho says that the Cheyenne and Arapaho were supposed to have a very big amount of territory in the area between the North Platte River and Arkansas River and eastward from the Rocky Mountains to western Kansas. This area included present-day southeastern Wyoming, southwestern Nebraska, most of eastern Colorado, and the westernmost parts of Kansas.  However, in November 1858, people found gold in the Rocky Mountains in Colorado (then part of the western Kansas Territory). This created a gold rush. A lot of white people went across Cheyenne and Arapaho lands. Colorado territory officials asked federal authorities to change the size of Indians lands in the treaty. In Fall 1860, A.B. Greenwood, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, came to Bent's New Fort along the Arkansas River to make a new treaty.

Treaty of Fort Wise (1861)
On February 18, 1861, six chiefs of the Southern Cheyenne and four of the Arapaho signed the Treaty of Fort Wise with the United States. This was at Bent's New Fort at Big Timbers. This was near what is now Lamar, Colorado. Lamar had been recently leased by the U.S. Government, and the name changed to Fort Wise. The Native Americans gave most of the lands given to them by the Fort Laramie treaty to the United States.

References

1861 in the United States

Fort Wise Treaty


Jollof (), or jollof rice, is a rice dish from West Africa. The dish is typically made with long-grain rice, tomatoes, chilies, onions, spices, and sometimes other vegetables and/or meat in a single pot, although its ingredients and preparation methods vary across different regions. The dish's origins trace to the Senegambian region.

Regional variations are a source of competition between the countries of West Africa, and in particular Nigeria and Ghana, over whose version is the best; in the 2010s this developed into a friendly rivalry known as the "Jollof Wars".

In French-speaking West Africa, a variation of the dish is known as riz au gras.

History and origin
The origins of the dish are not clear. West African food historian Fran Osseo-Asare notes a similar dish in the Senegambian region that was ruled by the Wolof or Jolof Empire in the 14th century, spanning parts of today's Senegal, The Gambia and Mauritania, where rice was grown, and which is known as  thieboudienne or thiebou djeun, which contains rice, fish, shellfish and vegetables. If made with meat, it is called cheeb u yapp.

Food and agriculture historian James C. McCann speculated that it was unlikely that the dish could have naturally spread from Senegal to its current range since a similar cultural diffusion is not seen in "linguistic, historical or political patterns". Instead he proposed that the dish spread with the Mali empire, especially the Djula tradespeople who dispersed widely to the regional commercial and urban centers, taking with them economic arts of "blacksmithing, small-scale marketing, and rice agronomy" as well as the religion of Islam.

Marc Dufumier, an emeritus professor of agronomy, proposes a more recent origin for the dish, which may only have appeared as a consequence of the colonial promotion of intensive peanut cropping in central Senegal for the French oil industry, and where commensurate reduction in the planted area of traditional millet and sorghum staples was compensated for by imports of broken rice from Southeast Asia, which gave local cooks no choice but to use the then-unfamiliar product.

The use of New World tomatoes, tomato paste, capsicum peppers (bell, chili, paprika), Indian curry powder, Mediterranean thyme, and Asian rice varieties, may limit the origin of the current dish to no earlier than the 19th century, there being no evidence of the ingredients being locally cultivated or imported before this period. In Senegal, oral histories credit Penda Mbaye, a cook at the residence of one of the colonial rulers in Saint-Louis, Senegal, as having created the dish when she ran out of barley and substituted rice.

Geographical range and variants
Jollof rice is one of the most common dishes in West Africa. There are several regional variations in name and ingredients; for example, in Mali it is called zaamè in Bamanankan. The dish's most common name of Jollof derives from the name of the Wolof people, though in Senegal and Gambia the dish is referred to in Wolof as ceebu jën or benachin. In French-speaking areas, it is called riz au gras. Despite the variations, the dish is "mutually intelligible" across the regions and has become the best known African dish outside the continent. It is found throughout the world wherever communities of West African immigrants have developed.

Ingredients and preparation

Jollof rice traditionally consists of rice, cooking oil, tomatoes, onion, chilies, and often some combination of other ingredients such as tomato paste, bell pepper, garlic, ginger, thyme, curry powder, grains of selim, and bouillon cubes or stock; recipes vary from country to country and cook to cook. Chicken, turkey, beef, lamb or fish are often cooked with or served with the dish. In some countries, other vegetables such as cabbage or carrots are included.

Some recipes call for long grain rice, some for short grain, some for broken rice, others for parboiled rice. Typically the tomatoes, paste, onions, and chilis are sauteed in oil and simmered into a sauce which the rice is then cooked in.

Jollof wars

West African countries typically have at least one variant form of the dish, with Ghana, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Liberia and Cameroon particularly competitive as to which country makes the best jollof. In the mid-2010s this expanded into the "Jollof Wars".

The gastronationalistic rivalry is especially prominent between Nigeria and Ghana. In 2016 Sister Deborah released "Ghana Jollof", which denigrated the Nigerian version and Nigerians for being proud of their version. Soon after, a physical fight over insufficient jollof supplies at a Ghanaian political rally sparked delighted mockings of Ghanaians by Nigerians.

Of particular sensitivity in jollof-making communities is the inclusion of non-traditional ingredients, which are defined country to country and are seen as making the jollof inauthentic. In 2014 a recipe released by Jamie Oliver that included cherry tomatoes, coriander, lemon, and parsley, none of which are used in any traditional recipe, caused outraged reactions to the point Oliver's team had to issue a statement.

Regional variations

Ghana
Ghanaian jollof rice is made of vegetable oil, onion, ginger, pressed garlic cloves, chillies, tomato paste, beef or goat meat or chicken (some times alternated with mixed vegetables), local or refined rice, typically jasmine rice and black pepper. Ghanaian jollof typically does not include any green leafy vegetables.

The method of cooking Ghanaian jollof begins with first preparing the beef or chicken by seasoning and steaming it with a pureé of ginger, onions and garlic and frying it until it is well-cooked. The rest of the ingredients are then fried all together, starting from onions, pepper, tomato paste, tomatoes and spices in that order. After all the ingredients have been fried, rice is then added and cooked until the meal is prepared. Ghanaian jollof is typically served with plantains and side dishes of beef, chicken, well-seasoned fried fish, or mixed vegetables.

Jollof in Ghana is also served alongside shito, a popular type of pepper which originates from Ghana, and salad during parties and other ceremonies.

Liberia
Liberian jollof seldom includes seafood.

Nigeria

Although considerable variation exists, the basic profile for Nigerian jollof rice includes long-grain rice (including golden sella basmati rice), tomatoes and/or tomato paste, onions, pepper (chilli, scotch bonnet and bell pepper), vegetable oil, meat broth/stock and a various mixture of additional ingredients, including thyme, bay leaves, curry powder, white pepper, (small amounts of) nutmeg and stock cubes. Converted rice, which may respectively exist in the form of standard long-grain parboiled rice (often labelled as easy-cook rice in the  U.K.) or Golden Sella basmati rice (similarly-parboiled and which has come to be especially commonly-used in the  U.K., gradually increasing in popularity since 2006) is most-appropriate for Nigerian one-pot rice-cooking, as it resists becoming mushy.

The important quality of rice used to cook Nigerian one-pot rice recipes, including jollof rice, is that it is  parboiled. The decision whether to use any of the numerous brands of conventional long-grain parboiled/easy-cook rice (e.g., Tolly Boy, Veetee, Village Pride, Tropical Sun, Mama Pride, Uncle Ben's, Royal Stallion, Carolina Gold) or Golden Sella basmati-parboiled rice (further sub-branded, e.g., Asli, Tilda) is merely a matter of availability, convenience and/or personal preference and the sub-status of one or the other grain-group being conventional long-grain or basmati long-grain completely irrelevant. What matters is that it is  parboiled (i.e., partially boiled at the husk when processing). Sella basmati rice, however, is considered more aesthetically pleasing to some.

Most of the ingredients are cooked in one pot, of which a rich meat stock or broth  and a fried tomato and pepper puree characteristically forms the base. Rice is then added and left to cook in the liquid.

The dish is then served with the protein of choice (which in theory may be any meat but often beef, turkey, chicken or croaker-fish; much less commonly lamb, pork, etc.) and very often with fried plantains,  moi-moi, steamed vegetables, coleslaw, salad, etc.

Sierra Leone
The dish is known in Sierra Leone, where it may not call for red palm oil but, instead, tomato paste, similar to the rest of 'jollof-cooking' West Africa.

Riz au gras
In French-speaking West Africa, including Beninese, Burkinabé, Guinean, Guinea-Bissauan, Ivorian, Nigerien, and Togolese cuisines, there is a variant called riz gras or riz au gras, which translates to "fat rice", a reference to the short-grain rice usually used in the dish. Riz gras typically includes additional vegetables such as eggplant, carrots, and/or cabbage.

Cultural importance and worldwide popularity
Jollof is culturally important in much of West Africa to the point there is a common saying, "A party without Jollof is just a meeting". In Nigeria the term, "See Jollof" means "see how much fun is being had" according to Nigerian food historia Ozoz Sokoh.

Since the 2010s there has been increasing interest in West African foods in the western world. Jollof food festivals have been held in Washington, DC, and Toronto. "World Jollof Day" has been celebrated since 2015 on 22 August, gaining traction on social media. On 3 November 2022, the dish was honoured with a Google Doodle.

Related dishes
Some areas also have versions of two related dishes:
 Party jollof or party rice is generally cooked outdoors over a wood fire, which gives it a smoky flavor and a crusty "bottom pot" similar to tahdig or socarrat.
 Native rice, which uses red palm oil and smoked, dried fish and is seasoned with uziza seeds and/or  scent leaf, (respectively known as nchuanwu, arimu and ahuji in  Igbo; ntong in Efik-Ibibio; effirin in Yoruba, añyeba in  Igala, aramogbo in  Edo; etc.), occasionally sprinkled with cut olili (local mint). Concoction rice is a term that may refer to either this or an 'economically-friendly' version of either this or conventional jollof rice but in the latter, too, red palm oil (or  groundnut oil) is more frequently used to cook it than vegetable oils.

See also

Arroz rojo
 Charleston red rice
 Concoction rice
 Jambalaya
 List of African dishes
 Spanish rice

References

External links

 Senegalese cuisine
Gambian cuisine
Yoruba cuisine
Nigerian cuisine
Ghanaian cuisine

Rice dishes
Beninese cuisine
Togolese cuisine
West African cuisine

Jollof rice


The Battle of Kirbekan was a battle in the Mahdist War. It was fought February 10, 1885, when the British Nile Column, about 1,000 strong, under General Earle, stormed the heights of Kirbekan, which were held by a strong Mahdist force, and totally routed them, with heavy loss.

Background
The British lost 60, among whom was General William Earle, killed. It was the first appearance of the Egyptian Army Camel Corps under Bimbashi Marriott in action. A brass plaque on the North wall of Lichfield Cathedral commemorates the death of Lieutenant colonel Philip Eyre of the First South Staffordshire Regiment in the battle.

Forces
The British forces involved in the battle were:

 Squadron from 19th Hussars
 1st Battalion, South Staffordshire Regiment
 1st Battalion, The Black Watch (Royal Highlanders)
 D Company, 1st Battalion, Gordon Highlanders
 45 Boatmen from Canada

References

1885 in Sudan
Conflicts in 1885
Battles of the Mahdist War
February 1885 events

Battle of Kirbekan


Stephen Ward Doubleday (January 6, 1845 – September 27, 1926) was an American banker.

Biography

Early life and education
Stephen Ward Doubleday was born January 6, 1845 to Mary Augusta Ward and Colonel Thomas D. Doubleday. He was a nephew of General Abner Doubleday and grandson of Jacksonian Congressman and newspaper publisher Ulysses F. Doubleday. Stephen was named after Stephen Ward, patriot of the Revolutionary War, who attended the provincial congress, was a presidential elector, a Westchester county judge, and was elected to congress.

Doubleday enlisted in the Civil War at 17, was mustered in as a second lieutenant and served with the 4th New York Heavy Artillery.

Career
An investment banker, Doubleday was a senior partner of Miller & Doubleday, where he began working in 1888; later he was a partner of Noble, Mestre & Doubleday. He served as Governor of the New York Stock Exchange in 1898–1899.

He traveled and lived abroad from 1900 to 1912 in Monaco and Berlin and was an avid golfer. He won golf tournaments in Berlin, Germany (1911) and Cannes, France (organized by the Czar's brother Grand Duke Michael)(1901). Doubleday was a member of the Apawamis Golf Club, the New York Stock Exchange, and the Union League Club of New York.

Marriage and children
Doubleday married Angelica Barraclough Cushman, daughter of Don Alonzo Cushman, in 1875. The couple had three children and the family lived in Manhattan and Rye, New York. He was widowed by Angelica's death on March 6, 1915. His daughter Angelica Cushman Doubleday Tropp and her husband Simeon became the principal financial backers of Wilhelm Reich during his years in America.

Death and funeral
Stephen Ward Doubleday died following a stroke on September 27, 1926. His funeral was held September 29, 1926 at the Church of the Transfiguration.

References

1845 births
1926 deaths
People from Staten Island
American bankers
Union Army officers
People of New York (state) in the American Civil War

Stephen Ward Doubleday


The Jewish cemeteries of Kaunas are the four Jewish cemeteries of the Lithuanian Jews living in Kaunas, known to them as Kovne, Lithuania. Jewish people started settling in Kaunas in the second half of the 17th century. They were not allowed to live in the city, so most of them stayed in the Vilijampolė settlement on the opposite than Kaunas Castle right bank of the Neris River, near its confluence with the Nemunas River. Since the second half of the 19th century, Kaunas became a major center of Jewish cultural and economic activity in Lithuania.

The oldest Jewish cemetery in Vilijampolė was destroyed by the Soviet authorities after World War II.

The second and the largest Jewish cemetery is situated in the residential Žaliakalnis elderate, near the Ąžuolynas park. Among others, the Rabbi of Kovno and the head of Kovno Kollel Yitzchak Elchanan Spektor was buried in the Žaliakalnis Jewish cemetery. The cemetery is currently in a neglected state.

The third cemetery is located in the Panemunė elderate on the left bank of the Nemunas River. Only 3 gravestones are visible in this cemetery.

The fourth and still active Jewish cemetery is located in Aleksotas elderate near the Nemunas River.

See also
 List of cemeteries in Lithuania

References

External links
 Jewish Virtual Library. Kaunas
 Kauno žydų istorija ir paveldas

Jewish cemeteries in Lithuania
Cemeteries in Kaunas
Jews and Judaism in Kaunas

Jewish cemeteries of Kaunas


The Samsung T10 is a flash memory based Yepp portable media player (model name YP-T10) produced and developed by Samsung Electronics. As the newest player of the T series, the T10 abandons using the controls of the T9, but adapts the K3's.

The Samsung T10 is bluetooth compatible allowing it to connect to a bluetooth headset. With Firmware Version 2.00, it can also send and receive songs, videos, pictures etc. to and from other bluetooth devices. This includes mobile phones, allowing the user to speak directly into the T10 using it as a kind of remote handset. With version 3.06 (current version), Samsung added 10 new themes (non-Best Buy only), enhanced Bluetooth support, and the ability to play games.
The mascot is a dancing dog named Sammy.

Supported file formats
The T10 supports MP3, WMA, AAC, and Ogg Vorbis audio formats. The text viewer only supports plain text files. The photo viewer supports only JPEG photos. The video viewer supports WMV and MPEG4/SVI (.svi is the same as a DivX/Xvid encoded video in an avi).

Regional differences

The Korean version of the YP-T10 supports synchronized lyrics embedded in songs and video bookmarking. In most regions, MTP is used as the file transfer protocol. However, switching to UMS from MTP and vice versa is possible, but most likely voids the player's warranty in all regions. Moreover, European versions offer RDS. There is also a special Best Buy version that contains custom firmware with direct Rhapsody link-up.

Promotion

Samsung released 5 games with Sammy, promoting the T10 under the banner "Sammy's Gamebox". The games are music-themed.

Style

The T10 is 7.9 mm thick and the screen is 2 inches across. It can come with storage capacities of 2GB, 4GB and 8GB. On load-up the default style is Sammy. It comes with two other styles, Pendant and one where the user chooses a custom wallpaper.

References

Portable media players
Audiovisual introductions in 2007
Computer-related introductions in 2007

Samsung T10


Mechi ( ) was one of the fourteen zones of Nepal until the restructuring of zones to provinces, comprising four districts; namely Ilam, Jhapa, Panchthar and Taplejung. Its headquarters are at Ilam. It comes under the Eastern Development Region of Nepal. The Indian state of Bihar is to the south, West Bengal and Sikkim in the east and Tibet to the north. The largest town is Damak in the Terai. The majority of the population in Mechi are Limbu, Chettri, Bharmin, Maithil and Meche.

Administrative subdivisions
Mechi was divided into four districts; since 2015 these districts have been redesignated as part of Province No. 1.

Among the four districts, Jhapa is in the Terai and it is more developed than the other three districts. Ilam and Panchthar are in the hilly region. Ilam is also in a developing stage, with many tourists visiting annually. Kanyam is popular for its tea garden. At Antu the rising sun can be viewed. Taplejung is the least developed of the four districts. Taplejung is in the mountainous zone.

There are two airports within Mechi: one in Bhadrapur and one in Taplejung.

Agriculture and industry
Mechi is famous for microcredit development. The Small Farmer Development Programme (SFDP) was the first rural and micro-financing program in Mechi. The Agricultural Development Bank started this SFDP in 1988. It started in a few VDCs and spread. After lifting many people out of poverty, the SFDP was handed over to the local people and the new institution was named Small Farmer Cooperative Ltd (SFCL). There are 13 SFCLs in Mechi, each of which covers a single VDC.

It is one of the major districts for the production of tea and rice. Budhabare is on the northern side of the Mahendra Highway and is one of the most fertile lands of Nepal. Mechi as a district is popular for the bittle nuts (Supari). Several large tea estate are in Mechi. Giri Bandhu Tea Estate, Burne Tea State, Tokla Tea Estate, Himalaya Tea State, Damak, Sattighatta Tea Estate are the major ones.

Mechi has different sorts of communication medium.

See also
 Development Regions of Nepal (Former)
 List of zones of Nepal (Former)
 List of districts of Nepal

Zones of Nepal
Koshi Province
2015 disestablishments in Nepal

Mechi Zone


Waymo LLC, formerly known as the Google Self-Driving Car Project, is an American autonomous driving technology company. It is headquartered in Mountain View, California. It is a subsidiary of Alphabet Inc.

Waymo operates commercial robotaxi services in Phoenix, Arizona & San Francisco, CA with new services testing in Los Angeles, Austin and Bellevue, Washington, US. In October 2020, it became the first robotaxi service to offer service to the public without safety drivers in the vehicle.

Waymo also develops driving technology for other vehicles, including delivery vans and Class 8 tractor-trailers.

Waymo is run by co-CEOs Tekedra Mawakana and Dmitri Dolgov. The company raised $5.5 billion in multiple outside funding rounds. Waymo has partnerships with multiple vehicle manufacturers, including Stellantis, Mercedes-Benz Group AG, Lyft, AutoNation, Avis, Intel, Jaguar Land Rover, and Volvo.

History

Ground work
Google's development of self-driving technology began on January 17, 2009, at Google X lab, run by co-founder Sergey Brin. The project was launched at Google by Sebastian Thrun, the former director of the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (SAIL) and Anthony Levandowski, founder of 510 Systems and Anthony's Robots.

The initial software code and AI design of the effort started before the team worked at Google, when Thrun and 15 engineers, including Dmitri Dolgov, Mike Montemerlo, Hendrik Dahlkamp, Sven Strohband, and David Stavens, built Stanley and Junior, Stanford's entries in the 2005 and 2007 DARPA Challenges.  Later, aspects of this technology were used in a digital mapping project for SAIL called VueTool. In 2007, Google acqui-hired the entire VueTool team to help advance Google's Street View technology.

As part of Street View development, 100 Toyota Priuses were outfitted with Topcon digital mapping hardware developed by 510 Systems.

In 2008, the Street View team launched project Ground Truth, to create accurate road maps by extracting data from satellites and street views.

Pribot
In February 2008, a Discovery Channel producer for the documentary series Prototype This! called Levandowski. The producer requested to borrow Levandowski's Ghost Rider, the autonomous two-wheeled motocycle Levandowski's Berkeley team had built for the 2004 DARPA Grand Challenge that he had later donated to the Smithsonian. Since the motorcycle was not available, Levandowski offered to retrofit a Toyota Prius as a self-driving pizza delivery car for the show.

As a Google employee, Levandowski asked Larry Page and Thrun whether Google was interested in participating in the show. Both declined, citing liability issues. However, they authorized Levandowski to move forward with the project, as long as it was not associated with Google. Within weeks Levandowski founded Anthony's Robots to do so. He retrofitted the car with light detection and ranging technology (LiDAR), sensors, and cameras.  The Stanford team (Stanley (vehicle)) provided its code base to the project. The ensuing episode depicting Pribot delivering pizza across the San Francisco Bay Bridge under police escort aired in December 2008.

The project success led Google to greenlight Google's self-driving car program in January 2009. In 2011, Google acquired 510 Systems, co-founded alongside Pierre-Yves Droz and Andrew Schultz, and Anthony's Robots for an estimated $20 million.. Levandowski's vehicle and hardware, and Stanford's AI technology and software, became the nucleus of the project.

Project Chauffeur
After almost two years of road testing with seven vehicles, the New York Times revealed its existence on October 9, 2010. Google announced its initiative later the same day.

Starting in 2010, lawmakers in various states expressed concerns over how to regulate autonomous vehicles. A related Nevada law went into effect on March 1, 2012. Google had been lobbying for such laws. A modified Prius was licensed by the Nevada Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV) in May 2012. The car was "driven" by Chris Urmson with Anthony Levandowski in the passenger seat. This was the first US license for a self-driven car.

In January 2014 Google was granted a patent for an advertising fee funded transportation service that included autonomous vehicles as a transport method. In late May, Google revealed an autonomous prototype, which had no steering wheel, gas pedal, or brake pedal. In December, they unveiled its Firefly prototype that they planned to test on San Francisco Bay Area roads beginning in early 2015. In 2015 Levandowski left the project. In August 2015, Google hired former Hyundai Motor executive, John Krafcik, as CEO.  In fall 2015, Google provided "the world's first fully driverless ride on public roads" to a legally blind friend of principal engineer Nathaniel Fairfield. The ride was taken by Steve Mahan, former CEO of the Santa Clara Valley Blind Center, in Austin, Texas. It was the first entirely autonomous trip on a public road. It was not accompanied by a test driver or police escort. The car had no steering wheel or floor pedals. By the end of 2015, Project Chauffeur had covered more than a million miles.

Google spent $1.1 billion on the project between 2009 and 2015. For comparison, the acquisition of Cruise Automation by General Motors in March 2016 was reported at just over $500 million, and Uber's acquisition of Otto in August 2016 was for $680 million.

Waymo
In May 2016, Google and Stellantis announced an order of 100 Chrysler Pacifica hybrid minivans to test the self-driving technology.In December 2016, the project was renamed Waymo and spun out of Google as part of Alphabet. The name was derived from "a new way forward in mobility". In May 2016, the company opened a 53,000 ft2 technology center in Novi, Michigan.

In 2017, Waymo sued Uber for allegedly stealing trade secrets. Waymo began testing minivans without a safety driver on public roads in Chandler, Arizona, in October. In 2017, Waymo unveiled new sensors and chips that are less expensive to manufacture, cameras that improve visibility, and wipers to clear the lidar system. At the beginning of the self-driving car program, they used a $75,000 lidar system from Velodyne. In 2017, the cost decreased approximately 90 percent, as Waymo converted to in-house built lidar. Waymo has applied its technology to various cars including the Prius, Audi TT, Fiat Chrysler Pacifica, and Lexus RX450h. Waymo partners with Lyft on pilot projects and product development.  Waymo ordered an additional 500 Pacifica hybrids in 2017.

In March 2018, Jaguar Land Rover announced that Waymo had ordered up to 20,000 of its I-Pace electric SUVs at an estimated cost of more than $1 billion. In late May 2018, Alphabet announced plans to add up to 62,000 Pacifica Hybrid minivans to the fleet. Also in May 2018, Waymo established Huimo Business Consulting subsidiary in Shanghai.

In April 2019, Waymo announced plans for vehicle assembly in Detroit at the former American Axle & Manufacturing plant, bringing between 100 and 400 jobs to the area. Waymo used vehicle assembler Magna to turn Jaguar I-PACE electric SUVs and Chrysler Pacifica Hybrid minivans into Waymo Level 4 autonomous vehicles. Waymo subsequently reverted to retrofitting existing models rather than a custom design.

In March 2020, Waymo Via was launched after the company's announcement that it had raised $2.25 billion from investors. In May 2020, Waymo raised an additional $750 million. In July 2020, the company announced an exclusive partnership with auto manufacturer Volvo to integrate Waymo technology.

In April 2021, Krafcik was replaced by two co-CEOs: Waymo's COO Tekedra Mawakana and CTO Dmitri Dolgov. Waymo raised $2.5 billion in another funding round in June 2021, with total funding of $5.5 billion. Waymo launched a consumer testing program in San Francisco in August 2021. Geely Holding said its premium electric mobility brand, Zeekr, will make electric vehicles to be deployed as fully autonomous ride-hailing vehicles across the United States.

In May 2022, Waymo launched its Waymo One Trusted Tester program for residents in Phoenix, Arizona. In May 2022, Waymo announced that it would expand the program to more areas of Phoenix. In June 2022, Waymo announced a partnership with Uber, under which the former will integrate its autonomous technology into Uber's freight truck service. Plans to expand the program to Bellevue, Washington and Los Angeles were announced in late 2022. On December 13, 2022 Waymo applied for the final permit necessary to operate fully autonomous taxis, without a backup driver present, within the state of California.

In January 2023, The Information reported that Waymo staff were among those affected by Google's layoffs of around 12,000 workers. TechCrunch reported that Waymo was set to kill its trucking program.

Technology

Google and Waymo technology is improving so quickly that much of this is already out of date.  Google has invested heavily in matrix multiplication and video processing hardware such as the TPU to augment Nvidia's GPUs and Intel CPUs.  Much of this is shrouded in trade secrets, but transformer (machine learning) technology for inferencing is probably involved.

Waymo manufactures a suite of self-driving hardware developed in-house. This includes sensors and hardware-enhanced vision system, radar, and lidar.

Sensors give 360-degree views while lidar detects objects up to 300 meters distant. Short-range lidar images objects near the vehicle, while radar is used to see around other vehicles and track objects in motion.

Riders push buttons to control functions such as "help", "lock", "pull over", and "start ride".

Waymo's deep-learning architecture VectorNet predicts vehicle trajectories in complex traffic scenarios. It uses a graph neural network to model the interactions between vehicles and demonstrated state-of-the-art performance on several benchmark datasets for trajectory prediction.

Waymo Carcraft is a virtual world where Waymo can simulate driving conditions. The simulator was named after the video game World of Warcraft. With Carcraft, 25,000 virtual self-driving cars navigate through models of Austin, Texas, Mountain View, California, Phoenix, and other cities.

Waymo uses Intel technologies, such as processors.

Road testing

Chronology

In 2009, Google began testing its self-driving cars in the San Francisco Bay Area.

By December 2013, Nevada, Florida, California, and Michigan had passed laws permitting autonomous cars. A law proposed in Texas allowed testing.

In June 2015, Waymo announced that their vehicles had driven over  and that in the process they had encountered 200,000 stop signs, 600,000 traffic lights, and 180 million other vehicles. Prototype vehicles were driving in Mountain View. Speeds were limited to  and had safety drivers aboard. Google took its first driverless ride on public roads in October 2015, when Mahan took a 10-minute ride around Austin in a Google "pod car" with no steering wheel or pedals. Google expanded its road-testing to Texas, where regulations did not prohibit cars without pedals and a steering wheel.

In 2016, road testing expanded to Phoenix and Kirkland, Washington, which has a wet climate. , Google had test driven its fleet of vehicles, in autonomous mode, a total of . In August 2016 alone, their cars traveled a "total of 170,000 miles; of those, 126,000 miles were autonomous (i.e., the car was fully in control)".

In 2017, Waymo reported a total of 636,868 miles covered by the fleet in autonomous mode, and the associated 124 disengagements, for the period from December 1, 2015, through November 30, 2016. In November Waymo altered its Arizona testing by removing safety drivers. The cars were geofenced within a 100 square mile region surrounding Chandler, Arizona.

In 2017 Waymo began testing its level 4 cars in Arizona to take advantage of good weather, simple roads, and reasonable laws. In 2017, Waymo began testing in Michigan. Also, in 2017, Waymo unveiled its Castle test facility in Central Valley, California. Castle, a former airbase, has served as the project's training course since 2012.

In March 2018, Waymo announced its plans for experiments with the company's self-driving trucks delivering for Google data centers in Atlanta, Georgia. In October 2018, the California Department of Motor Vehicles issued a permit for Waymo to operate cars without safety drivers. Waymo was the first company to receive a permit that allowed day and night testing on public roads and highways. Waymo announced that its service would include Mountain View, Sunnyvale, Los Altos, and Palo Alto. In July 2019, Waymo received permission to transport passengers.

In December 2018, Waymo launched Waymo One, transporting passengers. The service used safety drivers to monitor some rides, with others provided in select areas without them. In November 2019, Waymo One became the first autonomous service worldwide to operate without safety drivers.

By January 2020, Waymo had completed 20 million miles of driving on public roads.

In August 2021, commercial Waymo One test service started in the city, beginning with a "trusted tester" rollout.

In March 2022, Waymo said that they would begin offering rides in San Francisco without a driver for Waymo staff.

Crashes
By July 2015, Google's 23 self-driving cars have been involved in 14 minor collisions on public roads.Google maintained that, in all but one case, the vehicle was not at fault because the cars were either driven manually or the driver of another vehicle was at fault.

Waymo regularly publishes safety reports. Waymo is required by the California DMV to report the number of incidents where the safety driver took control for safety reasons. Some incidents were not reported when simulations indicated that the car would have stopped safely on its own.

A Waymo robotaxi killed a dog in San Francisco while in "autonomous mode" in May 2023.

Limitations
Waymo operates in some of its testing markets, such as Chandler, Arizona, at level 4 autonomy with no one sitting behind the steering wheel, sharing roadways with other drivers and pedestrians. Waymo's earlier testing focused on areas without harsh weather, extreme density, or complicated road systems, but it has moved on to test under new conditions. As a result, beginning in 2017, Waymo began testing in areas with harsher conditions, such as its winter testing in Michigan.

In 2014, a critic wrote in the MIT Technology Review that unmapped stop lights would cause problems with Waymo's technology and the self-driving technology could not detect potholes. Additionally, the lidar technology cannot spot some potholes or discern when humans, such as a police officers, signal the car to stop, the critic wrote. Waymo has worked to improve how its technology responds in construction zones.

California regulators do not require Waymo to disclose every incident involving erratic behavior in its fleet. In the first five months of 2023, San Francisco officials said they had logged more than 240 incidents in which a Cruise or Waymo vehicle might have created a safety hazard.

Services
Waymo highlighted four specific business uses for its autonomous tech in 2017: Robotaxis, trucking and logistics, urban public transportation, and passenger cars.

Robotaxis

Waymo offers robotaxi services in Phoenix, Arizona and San Francisco, with plans to expand to Los Angeles, California.

Trucking and delivery
Waymo Via, launched in 2020 to work with OEMs to get its technology into vehicles. The company is testing Class 8 tractor-trailers in Atlanta,  and southwest shipping routes across Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and California. The company operates a trucking hub in Dallas, Texas. It is partnering with Daimler to integrate autonomous technology into a fleet of Freightliner Cascadia trucks.

Waymo operates 48 Class 8 autonomous trucks with safety drivers. In 2023 Waymo issued a joint application along with Aurora Innovation to the Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration for a five-year exemption from rules that require drivers to place reflective triangles or a flare around a stopped tractor-trailer truck, to avoid needing human drivers, in favor of warning beacons mounted on the truck cab.

Waymo tested its technology in commercial delivery vehicles with United Parcel Service. In July 2020 Waymo and Stellantis expanded their partnership, including the development of Ram ProMaster delivery vehicles.

Legal matters

Waymo LLC v. Uber Technologies, Inc. et al.
In February 2017, Waymo sued Uber and its subsidiary self-driving trucking company, Otto, alleging trade secret theft and patent infringement. The company claimed that three ex-Google employees, including Anthony Levandowski, had stolen trade secrets, including thousands of files, from Google before joining Uber. The alleged infringement was related to Waymo's proprietary lidar technology, Google accused Uber of colluding with Levandowski. Levandowski allegedly downloaded 9 gigabytes of data that included over a hundred trade secrets; eight of which were at stake during the trial.

An ensuing settlement gave Waymo 0.34% of Uber stock, the equivalent of $245 million. Uber agreed not to infringe Waymo's intellectual property. Part of the agreement included a guarantee that "Waymo confidential information is not being incorporated in Uber Advanced Technologies Group hardware and software." In statements released after the settlement, Uber maintained that it received no trade secrets. In May, according to an Uber spokesman, Uber had fired Levandowski, which resulted in the loss of roughly $250 million of his equity in Uber, which almost exactly equaled the settlement. Uber announced that it was halting production of self-driving trucks through Otto in July 2018, and the subsidiary company was shuttered.

California disclosure dispute
In January 2022, Waymo sued the California Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV) to prevent data on driverless crashes from the public. Waymo maintained that such information constituted a trade secret. According to The Los Angeles Times, the "topics Waymo wants to keep hidden include how it plans to handle driverless car emergencies, what it would do if a robot taxi started driving itself where it wasn't supposed to go, and what constraints there are on the car's ability to traverse San Francisco's tunnels, tight curves and steep hills."

In February 2022, Waymo was successful in preventing the release of robotaxi safety records. A Waymo spokesperson affirmed that the company would be transparent about its safety record.

References

Further reading

External links

 Scalability in Perception for Autonomous Driving: Waymo Open Dataset
 Waymo Self Driving Car Videos - citizen journalist recording Waymo autonomous trips in Phoenix area

Alphabet Inc.
Self-driving car companies
Electric vehicles
Google

Waymo