The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal, usually known as the Basel Convention, is an international treaty that was designed to reduce the movements of hazardous waste between nations, and specifically to prevent transfer of hazardous waste from developed to less developed countries. It does not, however, address the movement of radioactive waste. The convention is also intended to minimize the rate and toxicity of wastes generated, to ensure their environmentally sound management as closely as possible to the source of generation, and to assist developing countries in environmentally sound management of the hazardous and other wastes they generate.

The convention was opened for signature on 21 March 1989, and entered into force on 5 May 1992. As of June 2023, there are 191 parties to the convention. In addition, Haiti and the United States have signed the convention but not ratified it.

Following a petition urging action on the issue signed by more than a million people around the world, most of the world's countries, but not the United States, agreed in May 2019 to an amendment of the Basel Convention to include plastic waste as regulated material. Although the United States is not a party to the treaty, export shipments of plastic waste from the United States are now "criminal traffic as soon as the ships get on the high seas," according to the Basel Action Network (BAN), and carriers of such shipments may face liability, because the transportation of plastic waste is prohibited in just about every other country.

History
With the tightening of environmental laws (for example, RCRA) in developed nations in the 1970s, disposal costs for hazardous waste rose dramatically. At the same time, the globalization of shipping made cross-border movement of waste easier, and many less developed countries were desperate for foreign currency. Consequently, the trade in hazardous waste, particularly to poorer countries, grew rapidly. In 1990, OECD countries exported around 1.8 million tons of hazardous waste. Although most of this waste was shipped to other developed countries, a number of high-profile incidents of hazardous waste-dumping led to calls for regulation.

One of the incidents which led to the creation of the Basel Convention was the Khian Sea waste disposal incident, in which a ship carrying incinerator ash from the city of Philadelphia in the United States dumped half of its load on a beach in Haiti before being forced away. It sailed for many months, changing its name several times. Unable to unload the cargo in any port, the crew was believed to have dumped much of it at sea.

Another incident was a 1988 case in which five ships transported 8,000 barrels of hazardous waste from Italy to the small Nigerian town of Koko in exchange for $100 monthly rent which was paid to a Nigerian for the use of his farmland.

At its meeting that took place from 27 November to 1 December 2006, the parties of the Basel Agreement focused on issues of electronic waste and the dismantling of ships.

Increased trade in recyclable materials has led to an increase in a market for used products such as computers. This market is valued in billions of dollars. At issue is the distinction when used computers stop being a "commodity" and become a "waste".

As of June 2023, there are 191 parties to the treaty, which includes 188 UN member states, the Cook Islands, the European Union, and the State of Palestine. The five UN member states that are not party to the treaty are East Timor, Fiji, Haiti, South Sudan, and United States.

Definition of hazardous waste

Waste falls under the scope of the convention if it is within the category of wastes listed in Annex I of the convention and it exhibits one of the hazardous characteristics contained in Annex III.
In other words, it must both be listed and possess a characteristic such as being explosive, flammable, toxic, or corrosive. The other way that a waste may fall under the scope of the convention is if it is defined as or considered to be a hazardous waste under the laws of either the exporting country, the importing country, or any of the countries of transit.

The definition of the term disposal is made in Article 2 al 4 and just refers to annex IV, which gives a list of operations which are understood as disposal or recovery. Examples of disposal are broad, including recovery and recycling.

Alternatively, to fall under the scope of the convention, it is sufficient for waste to be included in Annex II, which lists other wastes, such as household wastes and residue that comes from incinerating household waste.

Radioactive waste that is covered under other international control systems and wastes from the normal operation of ships are not covered.

Annex IX attempts to define wastes which are not considered hazardous wastes and which would be excluded from the scope of the Basel Convention. If these wastes however are contaminated with hazardous materials to an extent causing them to exhibit an Annex III characteristic, they are not excluded.

Obligations
In addition to conditions on the import and export of the above wastes, there are stringent requirements for notice, consent and tracking for movement of wastes across national boundaries. The convention places a general prohibition on the exportation or importation of wastes between parties and non-parties. The exception to this rule is where the waste is subject to another treaty that does not take away from the Basel Convention. The United States is a notable non-party to the convention and has a number of such agreements for allowing the shipping of hazardous wastes to Basel Party countries.

The OECD Council also has its own control system that governs the transboundary movement of hazardous materials between OECD member countries. This allows, among other things, the OECD countries to continue trading in wastes with countries like the United States that have not ratified the Basel Convention.

Parties to the convention must honor import bans of other parties.

Article 4 of the Basel Convention calls for an overall reduction of waste generation. By encouraging countries to keep wastes within their boundaries and as close as possible to its source of generation, the internal pressures should provide incentives for waste reduction and pollution prevention. Parties are generally prohibited from exporting covered wastes to, or importing covered waste from, non-parties to the convention.

The convention states that illegal hazardous waste traffic is criminal but contains no enforcement provisions.

According to Article 12, parties are directed to adopt a protocol that establishes liability rules and procedures that are appropriate for damage that comes from the movement of hazardous waste across borders.

The current consensus is that as space is not classed as a "country" under the specific definition, export of e-waste to non-terrestrial locations would not be covered.

Basel Ban Amendment
After the initial adoption of the convention, some least developed countries and environmental organizations argued that it did not go far enough. Many nations and NGOs argued for a total ban on shipment of all hazardous waste to developing countries. In particular, the original convention did not prohibit waste exports to any location except Antarctica but merely required a notification and consent system known as "prior informed consent" or PIC. Further, many waste traders sought to exploit the good name of recycling and begin to justify all exports as moving to recycling destinations. Many believed a full ban was needed including exports for recycling. These concerns led to several regional waste trade bans, including the Bamako Convention.

Lobbying at 1995 Basel conference by developing countries, Greenpeace and several European countries such as Denmark, led to the adoption of an amendment to the convention in 1995 termed the Basel Ban Amendment to the Basel Convention. The amendment has been accepted by 86 countries and the European Union, but has not entered into force (as that requires ratification by three-fourths of the member states to the convention). On 6 September 2019, Croatia became the 97th country to ratify the amendment which will enter into force after 90 days on 5 December 2019. The amendment prohibits the export of hazardous waste from a list of developed (mostly OECD) countries to developing countries. The Basel Ban applies to export for any reason, including recycling. An area of special concern for advocates of the amendment was the sale of ships for salvage, shipbreaking. The Ban Amendment was strenuously opposed by a number of industry groups as well as nations including Australia and Canada. The number of ratification for the entry-into force of the Ban Amendment is under debate: Amendments to the convention enter into force after ratification of "three-fourths of the Parties who accepted them" [Art. 17.5]; so far, the parties of the Basel Convention could not yet agree whether this would be three-fourths of the parties that were party to the Basel Convention when the ban was adopted, or three-fourths of the current parties of the convention [see Report of COP 9 of the Basel Convention]. The status of the amendment ratifications can be found on the Basel Secretariat's web page. The European Union fully implemented the Basel Ban in its Waste Shipment Regulation (EWSR), making it legally binding in all EU member states. Norway and Switzerland have similarly fully implemented the Basel Ban in their legislation.

In the light of the blockage concerning the entry into force of the Ban Amendment, Switzerland and Indonesia have launched a "Country-led Initiative" (CLI) to discuss in an informal manner a way forward to ensure that the trans boundary movements of hazardous wastes, especially to developing countries and countries with economies in the transition, do not lead to an unsound management of hazardous wastes. This discussion aims at identifying and finding solutions to the reasons why hazardous wastes are still brought to countries that are not able to treat them in a safe manner. It is hoped that the CLI will contribute to the realization of the objectives of the Ban Amendment. The Basel Convention's website informs about the progress of this initiative.

Regulation of plastic waste
In the wake of popular outcry, in May 2019 most of the world's countries, but not the United States, agreed to amend the Basel Convention to include plastic waste as a regulated material. The world's oceans are estimated to contain 100 million metric tons of plastic, with up to 90% of this quantity originating in land-based sources. The United States, which produces an annual 42 million metric tons of plastic waste, more than any other country in the world, opposed the amendment, but since it is not a party to the treaty it did not have an opportunity to vote on it to try to block it. Information about, and visual images of, wildlife, such as seabirds, ingesting plastic, and scientific findings that nanoparticles do penetrate through the blood–brain barrier were reported to have fueled public sentiment for coordinated international legally binding action. Over a million people worldwide signed a petition demanding official action. Although the United States is not a party to the treaty, export shipments of plastic waste from the United States are now "criminal traffic as soon as the ships get on the high seas," according to the Basel Action Network (BAN), and carriers of such shipments may face liability, because the Basel Convention as amended in May 2019 prohibits the transportation of plastic waste to just about every other country.

The Basel Convention contains three main entries on plastic wastes in Annex II, VIII and IX of the Convention. The Plastic Waste Amendments of the convention are now binding on 186 States. In addition to ensuring the trade in plastic waste is more transparent and better regulated, under the Basel Convention governments must take steps not only to ensure the environmentally sound management of plastic waste, but also to tackle plastic waste at its source.

Basel watchdog
The Basel Action Network (BAN) is a charitable civil society non-governmental organization that works as a consumer watchdog for implementation of the Basel Convention. BAN's principal aims is fighting exportation of toxic waste, including plastic waste, from industrialized societies to developing countries. BAN is based in Seattle, Washington, United States, with a partner office in the Philippines. BAN works to curb trans-border trade in hazardous electronic waste, land dumping, incineration, and the use of prison labor.

See also
 Asbestos and the law
 Bamako Convention
 Electronic waste by country
 Rotterdam Convention
 Stockholm Convention

References

Further reading
 Toxic Exports, Jennifer Clapp, Cornell University Press, 2001.
 Challenging the Chip: Labor Rights and Environmental Justice in the Global Electronics Industry, Ted Smith, David A. Sonnenfeld, and David Naguib Pellow, eds., Temple University Press link, .
 "Toxic Trade: International Knowledge Networks & the Development of the Basel Convention," Jason Lloyd, International Public Policy Review, UCL.

External links

 Text of the Convention
 "A Simplified Guide to the Basel Convention"
 Text of the regulation no.1013/2006 of the European Union on shipments of waste
 Flow of Waste among Basel Parties
 Introductory note to the Basel Convention by Dr. Katharina Kummer Peiry, Executive Secretary of the Basel Convention, UNEP on the website of the UN Audiovisual Library of International Law
Basel Convention, Treaty available in ECOLEX-the gateway to environmental law (English)
Organisations
 Basel Action Network
 Africa Institute for the Environmentally Sound Management of Hazardous and other Wastes a.k.a. Basel Convention Regional Centre Pretoria
 Page on the Basel Convention at Greenpeace
 Basel Convention Coordinating Centre for Asia and the Pacific

Pollution
Environmental treaties
Waste treaties
Chemical safety
Treaties concluded in 1989
Treaties entered into force in 1992
1992 in the environment
Hazardous waste

Basel Convention


Alessia Orla (born 5 April 1992 in Venaria Reale, Provincia di Torino) is an Italian professional triathlete, national youth champion of the year 2006 and junior champion of the year 2009.

In Italy, Alessia Orla represents the clubs AS Torino Triathlon and RUN Torino.

In 2011, Orla also takes part in the prestigious French Club Championship Series Lyonnaise des Eaux representing Brive Limousin.
At the opening triathlon in Nice (24 April 2011), Orla placed 23rd and proved to be among the three , none of whom was French (Lucy Hall, Emma Davis, Alessia Orla). At the Triathlon de Dunkerque (22 May 2011), Orla placed 24th and was the best of her club.

Brive Limousin does not mention Alessia Orla among its D1 elite triathletes. Triathlon Club Nantais, however, does enumerate her among its elite triathletes together with two Italian guest stars, Charlotte Bonin and Annamaria Mazzetti.

She is part of ECS Triathlon club.

ITU Competitions
In 2009, Alessia Orla won the silver medal at the European Junior Team Championships in Tarzo Revine, in 2011 she won the gold medal at the Junior European Cup triathlon in Zwevegem.
Since 2011 Orla has attended elite ITU triathlons, placing 6th at the Winter Triathlon Cup in Valsesia.

The following list is based upon the official ITU rankings and the ITU Athletes's Profile Page.
Unless indicated otherwise, the following events are triathlons (Olympic Distance) and refer to the Elite category.

Notes

External links
 Orla's Triathlon Club AS Torino

Italian female triathletes
1992 births
Living people
Sportspeople from the Metropolitan City of Turin
Triathletes at the 2010 Summer Youth Olympics
European Games competitors for Italy
Triathletes at the 2015 European Games
21st-century Italian women

Alessia Orla


Don McCauley (born May 12, 1949) is a former American football player.  He was a running back for the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill from 1968 to 1970 and he attended Garden City High School in Garden City, New York.

McCauley was a two-time First-team All-Conference selection and two-time Conference Player of the Year. He garnered the 1971 ACC Athlete of the Year award. He broke many rushing records and in 2001 he was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame.

The versatile McCauley contributed to the team as a receiver, rusher, kick returner, and punter, leading the team in most categories. In 1970, he led the nation in rushing with 1,720 yards and all-purpose running with 2,021 yards. His 1,720 yards rushing broke the NCAA record and continues to withstand the test of time ranking as the second highest total in ACC history and the highest at North Carolina. A consensus All-America selection and team captain his senior year, McCauley led the conference in scoring with 21 touchdowns for 126 points and continues to hold numerous school records. His career statistics include 5,014 all-purpose yards, 3,172 rushing yards, 786 yards receiving, and 1,056 yards on kick returns. He also led the team in punting with 48 punts for 1,845 yards—a 38.4 yard average.

With the acquisition of the Miami Dolphins' first round draft pick, awarded to them as compensation for tampering in the hiring of then head coach of the Colts, Don Shula, Baltimore selected McCauley in the first round (22nd overall) in the 1971 NFL draft.

McCauley played 11 seasons in the National Football League (NFL) with the Baltimore Colts.

See also
 List of NCAA major college football yearly rushing leaders
 List of NCAA major college football yearly scoring leaders

References

1949 births
Living people
People from Garden City, New York
Sportspeople from Hempstead, New York
Players of American football from Nassau County, New York
Players of American football from Worcester, Massachusetts
American football running backs
Garden City High School (New York) alumni
North Carolina Tar Heels football players
All-American college football players
College Football Hall of Fame inductees
Baltimore Colts players

Don McCauley


Frances Bean Cobain (born August 18, 1992) is an American visual artist and model. She is the only child of Nirvana frontman Kurt Cobain and Hole frontwoman Courtney Love. She controls the publicity rights to her father's name and image.

Early life
Frances Bean Cobain was born on August 18, 1992, at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles, California. She was named after Frances McKee, the guitarist for the Scottish indie pop duo The Vaselines, not actress Frances Farmer, as has been commonly assumed. Former R.E.M. frontman Michael Stipe and actress Drew Barrymore are her godparents.

Cobain's sonogram photo – the origin of her middle name, as her father thought she looked like a kidney bean – was featured on the sleeve of Nirvana's 1992 single "Lithium".

Before Cobain's birth, rumors suggested that her mother used heroin during the pregnancy. This scandal intensified when Vanity Fair published Lynn Hirschberg's article "Strange Love", which alleged that Love admitted to using heroin even after learning of her pregnancy. Love and Kurt Cobain maintained that Vanity Fair took her words out of context. Eventually, child welfare services launched an investigation into their parenting abilities. The investigation was ultimately dismissed, but not without a significant amount of legal wrangling and Cobain being removed from her parents' custody for a short time, beginning when she was just two weeks old.

On April 1, 1994, Frances Cobain visited her father at the Exodus Recovery Center, a rehab center in Marina del Rey, California, where they played together. This was the last time she saw her father alive; one week later, he was found dead at his home in Seattle. Cobain was subsequently raised by her mother, aunts, and paternal grandmother. She spent her early years in Seattle and Los Angeles, and was placed in her grandmother's care for a time after her mother's drug-related arrest in October 2003. Hours after the arrest, Love overdosed on painkillers. Love regained custody of Cobain in 2005.

During her young adulthood, Cobain attended Bard College, where she studied art.

Career

Modeling
In August 2006, she was photographed for Elle UK magazine in her father's famous brown cardigan and pajama pants as part of an article featuring children of rock stars in their parents' clothing. She explained, "I wore his pajamas because he got married in them to my mom in 1992 in Hawaii so I thought they would be cute if I wore them today. He was too lazy to put on a tux so he got married in pajamas!" In February 2008, she appeared in a photo spread for Harper's Bazaar dressed as Evita. Cobain modeled for Hedi Slimane for a web photo series released August 2, 2011. In 2016, she modeled alongside Alice Glass in a spread for Schön! magazine shot by Floria Sigismondi. In 2017, she was announced as the face of Marc Jacobs's Spring/Summer campaign for that year, shot by David Sims.

Artwork
In July 2010, Cobain debuted a collection of artwork titled Scumfuck under the pseudonym "Fiddle Tim" at the La Luz de Jesus Gallery in Los Angeles. On August 4, 2012, she participated in the group show 'MiXTAPE' under her real name. Artists were asked to pick a song and create art inspired by that song. Cobain chose the song "Black" by The Jesus and Mary Chain. The eclectic mix of songs chosen was featured for digital download on iTunes. Opening on June 7, 2017, through June 30, Cobain and artist Lindsey Way held a joint art exhibition titled "Ghosts For Sale" at Gallery 30 South in Pasadena.

Other ventures
According to Rolling Stone magazine, the title and cover photograph for the 2005 Nirvana rarities album Sliver: The Best of the Box were chosen by 13-year old Cobain. Cobain worked as an intern for Rolling Stone magazine from June to August 2008. She was featured in the magazine years later, photographed by David LaChapelle. In 2009, it was reported that Cobain had turned down the role of Alice in Tim Burton's film Alice in Wonderland.

Cobain appeared as a guest vocalist on the song "My Space" from the album Evelyn Evelyn by Evelyn Evelyn, which was released on March 30, 2010. Amanda Palmer from Evelyn clarified that Cobain was one of some 20 artists who sang the same line and whose voices were mixed together in the recording. Cobain was also an executive producer on the HBO movie about her father's life, Kurt Cobain: Montage of Heck. In 2019, she appeared as a special guest judge in one episode of RuPaul's Drag Race All Stars season 4.

 Personal life
In September 2005, 13-year-old Cobain gave her first interview to Teen Vogue'', in which she discussed her personal style and mentioned her parents.

On December 11, 2009, a California Superior Court in Los Angeles appointed Wendy O'Connor, her paternal grandmother, and Kimberly Cobain, her father's sister, as Cobain's temporary co-guardians. On December 16, 2009, a judge issued a related temporary restraining order prohibiting Love from having any direct or indirect contact with her daughter. The papers were filed under the heading "motion to seal all documents... relating to a minor and allegations of domestic violence". Among those documents are Cobain's medical records, according to the filing.

On August 18, 2010, Cobain inherited 37% of her late father's estate. She controls the publicity rights to her father's name and image, instead of her mother. During Cobain's divorce proceedings from Isaiah Silva, it was revealed she earned, from July 2016 until June 2017, $95,496 per month from the royalties related to her father's estate in addition to $6,784 per month in dividends ($102,280 total per month, $1.2 million per year). Her net worth was estimated at $11.3 million. Her father's estate was valued in 2014 as being worth $450 million.

Cobain has said she is not a fan of grunge bands, instead preferring the music of artists such as Oasis, The Brian Jonestown Massacre, and Mercury Rev, but she has said she likes the Nirvana songs "Territorial Pissings" and "Dumb".

Cobain, along with Wendy O'Connor and Kim Cobain (Kurt's mother and sister, respectively), attended the opening of "Growing Up Kurt Cobain" at the Museum of Style Icons in Newbridge, County Kildare, Ireland on July 17, 2018. At the exhibition, Cobain said she often uses the phrase, 'peace, love, empathy', which her father used in his suicide note, because she wants to "reclaim the peace, love, empathy thing as something that's meant for health and for compassion and for true peace, love, and empathy."

Marriages
Cobain and musician Isaiah Silva from The Eeries married on June 29, 2014, though the wedding date was widely misreported as around September 2015. By March 23, 2016, Cobain had filed for divorce. On November 30, 2017, the divorce was finalized.

In 2021, Cobain began a relationship with professional skateboarder and musician Riley Hawk, son of skateboarding icon Tony Hawk. The couple married on October 7, 2023 in Los Angeles, in a ceremony officiated by former R.E.M. frontman Michael Stipe, Cobain's godfather.

References

External links

Frances Bean Cobain biography

1992 births
American people of Cuban descent
American people of Dutch descent
American people of English descent
American people of French descent
American people of German descent
American people of Irish descent
American people of Scottish descent
American people of Welsh descent
American women artists
Artists from Los Angeles
Artists from Seattle
Bard College alumni
Courtney Love
Female models from California
Living people
Waldorf school alumni

Frances Bean Cobain


Franz Adolf Louis John (born 28 September 1872 in Pritzwalk, died 17 November 1952 in Berlin) was a German football player. He was one of the initiators of the founding of FC Bayern Munich and its first president from 1900 to 1903.

He was born on 28 September 1872 in Pritzwalk (Brandenburg), the son of Friedrich Wilhelm and Ida John. After moving with his parents to Pankow at the fringe of Berlin, he later joined the football club VfB Pankow. There he met Gustav Manning, who afterwards became secretary of the German Football Association. Manning later helped John to integrate the Munich football clubs into the DFB. After his apprenticeship as a photographer in Jena John moved to Munich where he became a member of MTV 1879 Munich.

When on 27 February 1900 the steering committee of MTV prohibited the football division of its club to join the association of southgerman football clubs (SFV), eleven football players left the club under the lead of Franz John. In the restaurant Gisela they founded the Munich Football Club Bayern and elected Franz John for president. John also founded the council of Bavarian referees.

Under his lead the club joined the SFV still in its first year and quickly became a force in the Munich football scene. In 1903 John left FC Bayern and was succeeded as president by the Dutch Willem Hesselink. John also left Munich in 1904, moving back to Pankow, where he opened a photo laboratory and later became president of his home club VfB Pankow. Despite having few contacts to Munich John was in the 1920s elected as honorary president of the FC Bayern Munich and in 1936 he received the needle of honour in gold from the club.

John died on 17 November 1952 in Pankow aged 80; he had no descendants. Journalist Joachim Rechenberg later traced his lost grave to Fürstenwalde. When in 2000 the FC Bayern celebrated its 100th anniversary, the club recreated the grave and donated a new tombstone to commemorate the merits of Franz John.

References

External links
 Prignitzlexikon - Offizielle Biografie von Franz John

1872 births
1952 deaths
People from Pankow
People from the Province of Brandenburg
FC Bayern Munich board members
Photographers from Berlin

Franz John


The California sound is a popular music aesthetic that originates with American pop and rock recording artists from Southern California in the early 1960s. At first, it was conflated with the California myth, an idyllic setting inspired by the state's beach culture that commonly appeared in the lyrics of commercial pop songs. Later, the sound was expanded outside its initial geography and subject matter and was developed to be more sophisticated, often featuring studio experimentation.

The sound was originally identified for harnessing a wide-eyed, sunny optimism attributed to Southern California teenage life in the 1960s. Its imagery is primarily represented by Brian Wilson and the Beach Boys, who are credited for the sound's instigation via their debut single "Surfin'" in 1961. Along with Jan and Dean, the Beach Boys encapsulated surfing, hot rod culture, and youthful innocence within music which transformed a local lifestyle into American mythology. Other proponents included songwriters and/or record producers Gary Usher, Curt Boettcher, Bruce Johnston, Terry Melcher, and Roger Christian.

The California sound gradually evolved to reflect a more musically ambitious and mature worldview, becoming less to do with surfing and cars and more about social consciousness and political awareness. Between 1964 and 1969, it fueled innovation and transition, inspiring artists to tackle largely unmentioned themes such as sexual freedom, black pride, drugs, oppositional politics, other countercultural motifs, and war. It helped launch the 1960s folk-rock scene, represented by groups such as the Byrds, the Mamas and the Papas, Buffalo Springfield, and Crosby, Stills, & Nash, who became associated with the Los Angeles neighborhood of Laurel Canyon. The California sound eventually saw its commercial peak in the 1970s hits of the Eagles. A derivative form of the California sound was later classified as sunshine pop.

Origins

The genesis of the California sound is said to be the Beach Boys' debut single "Surfin'" in 1961. While the band's leader Brian Wilson then collaborated with Jan Berry for several hit singles written and produced for other artists, they recorded what would later be regarded as the California sound. University of Southern California history professor Kevin Starr has stated that the band was historically important for embodying the era of the Silent Generation, which he described as unpolitical. He explained that the group "could not help but mythologize a landscape and way of life that was already so surreal, so proto-mythic, in its setting. Cars and the beach, surfing, the California Girl, all this fused in the alembic of youth: Here was a way of life, an iconography, already half-released into the chords and multiple tracks of a new sound." The California sound was thus a musical translation of the California myth. In the book Pioneers of Rock and Roll: 100 Artists Who Changed the Face of Rock, Harry Sumrall summarized:

The Beach Boys' surf music was not entirely of their own invention, being preceded by artists such as Dick Dale. However, previous surf musicians did not project a worldview as the Beach Boys did. Wilson once said of its myth: "It's not just the surfing; it's the outdoors and cars and sunshine; it's the society of California; it's the way of California." Al Jardine of the Beach Boys argued that "It's not entirely a myth. There are still some elements that are certainly true, especially for a first-time observer. But to be able to come here and to drive that coast on Route 1 ... you experience the water and the animals and the sea life, the whole thing. It's really magical. It really is." Capitol Records staff producer Nick Venet, who worked with the group early on, believed that most of the group's lyrical inspiration was drawn from Hollywood films.

AllMusic's review of the group's "All Summer Long" calls it a "potent example" of the California myth's "idyllic dream world of sun, surf, and fun" while containing qualities of sunshine pop. Author Luis Sanchez believes that the entirety of the album All Summer Long (1964) was "the nearest the Beach Boys ever got to a perfect version of the California myth." David Howard wrote that "Don't Worry Baby" was a "subtle harbinger for the growing dichotomy within the California sound. While 'I Get Around' symbolized the sunshine ideal in all its carefree splendor, 'Don't Worry Baby' suggested something entirely more pensive and even slightly dark underneath its pristine facade."

Cultural expansion
The Beach Boys continued expanding their version of the California myth until it could no longer be confined to pop music terrain, transcending the limits of genre, commercial expectations, and geography. Aiding this was Wilson's successes with collaborator Gary Usher. The duo helped create a major new market revolving around the California sound, allowing musicians Bruce Johnston and Terry Melcher to turn their attention to the Rip Chords, a group who then had hits with the hot-rod themed "Hey Little Cobra" and pseudo-surf "Summer Means Fun". Historian Matthew Allan Ides wrote:

Historian Kirse Granat May describes the cultural reverberation of both surfing culture and the California sound:

Touching specifically on the difference between the Beach Boys' album Surfin' U.S.A. (1963) and others' exploitation of California themes, Luis Sanchez writes: "You could call The Beach Boys' version of Southern California cutesy or callow or whatever, but what matters is that it captured a lack of self-consciousness—a genuineness—that set them apart from their peers. And it was this quality that came to define Brian's oeuvre as he moved beyond and into bigger pop productions that would culminate in Smile."

Development and decline

The California sound soon developed to incorporate the 1960s folk-rock innovations of the Byrds and the Mamas and the Papas. Melcher soon worked with the Byrds, producing their 1965 folk rock single "Mr. Tambourine Man". Its recording was based on Brian Wilson's production approach to "Don't Worry Baby". Melcher's "commercially golden formula" with the Byrds was immediately co-opted by many Los Angeles-based recording artists such as the Turtles, the Leaves, Sonny & Cher, and Barry McGuire. The Buffalo Springfield also helped to pioneer the California sound, begetting Crosby, Stills, & Nash and influencing the Eagles. The lyricism behind the California sound gradually became less to do with surfing and cars and more about social consciousness and political awareness. In Bill Flanagan's view, after the Beach Boys epitomized the California sound, Crosby, Stills, & Nash "ratified it". Arnold Shaw summarized in The Rock Revolution (1969):

The result of Wilson's increasingly artistic interpretations of pop music form helped transform the California sound into a more musically ambitious and mature worldview. In September 1965, Wilson was quoted saying: "I HATE so-called 'surfin' music.' It's a name that people slap on any sound from California. Our music is rightfully 'the Beach Boy sound'—if one has to label it." By 1966, Wilson had already begun moving away from the supposed lightweight themes that had established his group's image, expressing a willingness to "get out of the Eisenhower mindset" as told by collaborator Van Dyke Parks. Meanwhile, Gary Usher was enlisted by the Byrds to helm their transitional 1967 release Younger Than Yesterday which incorporated folk rock, jazz-influenced pop, novelty space rock, and colorful psychedelia. According to the Irish Mirror, singer-songwriter David Crosby, a founding member of both the Byrds and later Crosby, Stills, & Nash, helped shape the California sound which became popular in the 1970s.

In Howard's description, "One can view the evolution of the California Sunshine Sound as a mirror of the evolution of the 1960s. Commencing with its post-Eisenhower narrative and insulated complacency, the early California sound was predicated on Wilson, Usher, and Melcher's simple fun-in-the-sun ideals." It ran into decline by the end of the 1960s due to the West Coast's cultural shifts occurring in tandem with the psychological descent of Wilson and Melcher's associations with the Manson murders, with Howard calling it the "sunset of the original California Sunshine Sound ... [the] sweetness advocated by the California myth had led to chilling darkness and unsightly rot".

1970s and revivals

According to Flanagan, by the 1970s, the "spirit" of the California sound was kept fresh by singer–songwriters such as Lowell George, Jackson Browne, Tom Waits and Rickie Lee Jones while avoiding what Flanagan called the sound's "clichés". The Providence Journal credited the Eagles, formed in Los Angeles in the early 1970s, with "embodying the melodic California sound" that decade. Robbie Woliver of The New York Times stated that Eagles co-founder Don Henley "defined the California sound of the 1970s." According to Uncut, their country-rock debut album Eagles (1972) helped define the Southern California sound of the early 1970s.

In November 2009, Pitchfork ran an editorial feature which mentioned the Beach Boys as a "looming figure" throughout that summer's indie music scene termed the "Summer of Chillwave" elaborating that it is "not to say that any of this music sounds like the Beach Boys, or even tries to. ... The Beach Boys exist in this music in an abstracted form-- an idea, rather than a sound, as it's often been ... Summertime now is about disorientation: 'Should Have Taken Acid With You'; 'The Sun Was High (And So Am I)'; You take the fantasy of [their] music-- the cars, the sand, the surf-- add a dollop of melancholy and a smudge of druggy haze, and you have some good music for being alone in a room with only a computer to keep you company." The magazine Paste credited a 2010s revival of surf rock and the California sound to the success of bands like Best Coast, Dum Dum Girls and Wavves.

Genres

Surf music

The California sound is sometimes referred to interchangeably with surf music.

Folk rock

California folk rockers included the Byrds, Barry McGuire, and the Mamas & the Papas.

Sunshine pop

Efforts by Curt Boettcher in 1966 created an offshoot of the California sound directed toward sunshine pop.

Other California sounds

Some areas within the state of California are connected to their own distinguished "sounds" including the San Francisco sound (San Francisco, 1960s) and the Bakersfield sound (Bakersfield, 1950s). Ides noted: "The Los Angeles sound as popularized in the mainstream obscured or disregarded the contributions made by the working-class, the nonwhite and women."

In a Flavorwire article which asks "What is the quintessential California sound?", the journal lists 30 of what it considers "the most Californian albums ever made", elaborating that "the sound itself is important, but it's the lifestyles behind these scenes that come to define the music." In alphabetical order, the artists mentioned are: Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young, Dead Kennedys, Fleetwood Mac, Germs, Green Day, Guns N' Roses, Jefferson Airplane, Joni Mitchell, Kendrick Lamar, Love, Mötley Crüe, N.W.A, No Doubt, Queens of the Stone Age, Red Hot Chili Peppers, Sly & the Family Stone, Snoop Dogg, the Beach Boys, the Doors, the Go-Go's, the Grateful Dead, the Offspring, Tupac Shakur, and X.

Notes

References

Sources

Further reading

American styles of music
Music of California
Pop music genres
American rock music genres
1960s in American music
1960s in California
Music scenes
The Beach Boys
Brian Wilson
1961 introductions
1960s in music
20th-century music genres
History of Southern California

California sound


Dahej is a cargo port situated on the South-west coast of Gujarat, India in Bharuch district. There is 17.5 million tonnes per year capacity LNG terminal operated by Petronet in Dahej.

Port Information

General
The Port of Dahej is located in the Gulf of Cambay, at the junction of Guljaria and Ban Creek. It is a natural deep water port accommodating vessels of draft up to 25m.  It is about 45 kilometers from Bharuch, which is now being connected to the Port of Dahej by a broad gauge rail siding with an initial capacity of 25-30 rakes a day. The nearest airports are at Ahmedabad, Surat and Baroda.

A deep draft multi cargo berthing facility is being proposed with a 3.5 km waterfront, to develop the port according to the directions of the Gujarat Maritime Board.  In addition to this there are four other port facilities at Dahej, owned by Petronet LNG Limited (including a bulk terminal sub-concessioned to Adani), GCPTCL,ONGC OPAL, Birla Copper, Torrent Pharmaceuticals and Reliance Industries.

Chart
Indian Naval Hydrograph - 2082
Dahej Harbour & Admiralty Chart :- 51

Communication
VHF Channel 16, 11, 12, 14 for working & marine band
Call sign:- DHIL JETTY OR CONTROLL
FREE PRATIQUE	:- normally issued by customs boarding officer
BSNL is providing the landline and broadband services in the area, recently WiMAX service has also been launched in the PCPIR region.

Meteorological data

Highest Astronomical Tide (HAT):- 10.800 m
Highest High Water Spring (HHWS):- +10.200 m
Mean High Water Spring  (MHWS):- 8.800 m
Mean High Water Neap (MHWN):-  7.10 m
Mean Sea Level (MSL):-  +5.100 m
Mean Low Water Spring (MLWS):- +0.900 m
Mean Low Water Neap (MLWN):- +1.800 m
Lowest Low Water Spring (LLWS):- +0.700 m
Lowest Astronomical Tide (LAT):- -1.000 m

Anchorage
Vessels calling at the port can anchor at a distance of 5.5 km from the Gujarat Maritime Board Old Port and about 6.5 km from Jageshwar IPCL Jetty. The draft available is up to 25m. During high tide, the water levels rise by up to 10 - 11m.

Pilotage
Pilots are not required; however, the services of a local guide are provided on request.

Restrictions
As the port is a direct berthing port, there is a restriction with respect to LOA, beam or draft based on the size of berth. While capacity is being augmented, the current berthing restrictions for LOA/beam/draft are 270m/38m/17m respectively.

Port estate
Dahej Port has captive jetties and a private port used by DHIL, Petronet LNG, GCPTCL, IPCL.

Cargo handling
The Petronet LNG jetty is a dedicated deep water facility for import of LNG. One berth is already operating and another is under construction. Another bulk handling facility is available to the north of this facility for unloading various bulk cargoes at the rate of 30,000 tons per day. Two such berths are available for berthing. A dedicated liquid handling facility owned by GCPTCL (Gujarat Chemical Port Terminal Company Limited), which handles liquid cargoes with unloading / loading rates up to 25000 tonnes per day. A captive facility for handling Copper Ore and Sulphuric Acid is being owned and operated by Birla Copper for handling its own cargoes. The immediate hinterland is currently undergoing phase development with the Dahej, a Special Economic Zone being developed over an area of 30,000 hectares. While the current four-lane connecting highway is being expanded to a six-lane highway, the rail corridor is also being developed to a broad gauge line with individual sidings being offered to the major prospect users in the area.

Commodities
Import: Coal, Chemicals, LNG, Rock Phosphate, Urea(proposed), Container(proposed)
Export: POL, Chemicals
Other facilities: crew change, store supplies, repairs, fresh water, bunkers

References

Geography of Gujarat
Dahej
Bharuch district
Adani Group

Dahej Port


John Arnold Walther Julius Leerdam (born 23 July 1961) is a Dutch politician of the Labour Party (PvdA). He served as a Member of the House of Representatives from 30 January 2003 until 17 June 2010 and again from 28 February 2012 until 5 April 2012.

Biography

Early life
Born on Curacao, John Arnold Walther Julius Leerdam, the son of a Surinamese father and a mother from the island of Saint Kitts. In 1982 he moved to study in the Netherlands, where he trained as a theater director and drama teacher at the Amsterdam Theatre School. From 1986 to 1987 and from 1991 to 1996 Leerdam stayed in New York City, where he followed courses in film directing and production; at the Columbia University and got a Master of Fine Arts. He took an additional course in international and public affairs, and received management training communication skills. He got further actor training at the American Musical and Dramatic Academy, and director training at the Tisch School of the Arts. His specialization is in 'Black theater' and 'Musical theater'. Later, he was involved in various theater companies.

From 1996 Leerdam was employed at the Cosmic Theater in Amsterdam, where in 1999 he became director and artistic director. He continued this until he joined the Dutch general election of 2003 was chosen on behalf of the Labour Party.

Politics
In the House of Representatives he was involved with the Antillean affairs and cultural policy. He argued in a note in 2005 for an active cultural policy. Leerdam was Vice Chairman of the Parliamentary Standing Committee for Dutch Antillean and Aruban Affairs. In the Dutch general election of 2006 he was reelected. In the Dutch general election of 2010 he was on place 33 on the list of candidates, which was not enough to be elected.

On 29 February 2012 he was nevertheless installed as a member of House of Representatives, in connection with the temporary absence of Sharon Dijksma because of maternity leave. On 3 April 2012 reporter Lex Uiting asked for the morning show of radio DJ Giel Beelen; Leerdam what he thought of the early release of terrorist suspect Joel Jablabla. Leerdam acted as if he had studied extensively in the case and that he knew more about the alleged perils around the nonexistent Jablabla and further says that "our deputy leader Jeroen Dijsselbloem already talked about." On 4 April Leerdam resigned as a Member of the House of Representatives because he thought that his credibility was damaged after his remarks in the interview.

Personal
In 2005 Leerdam directed on the occasion of 30 years of independence of Suriname's play The Tears of Den Uyl, which is about the fictional encounter between the Dutch journalist Han de Graaf and Jozef Slagveer, a Surinamese journalist, in 1982, one of the victims of the December murders. Joop den Uyl was Prime Minister during the decolonization of Suriname and was also a strong supporter. Leerdam made in the piece a warning not to make the same mistake with the West Indies.

Leerdam was invested as a Knight of the Order of Orange-Nassau and received on 8 September 2006 the Lifetime Service Award from the Council for Opportunity in Education, an award for his commitment to creating opportunities for migrants.

References
  Parlement.com biography

1961 births
Living people
Members of the House of Representatives (Netherlands)
Labour Party (Netherlands) politicians
Dutch film directors
Dutch documentary filmmakers
Dutch academics
Dutch educators
Dutch male writers
Dutch people of the Moravian Church
Columbia University School of the Arts alumni
Columbia University faculty
Tisch School of the Arts alumni
Knights of the Order of Orange-Nassau
Dutch expatriates in the United States
Dutch people of Surinamese descent
Dutch people of Saint Kitts and Nevis descent
People from Willemstad
Writers from Amsterdam
21st-century Dutch politicians

John Leerdam


Harpies and Quines was a feminist magazine founded by seven women living and working in Scotland including the journalist and broadcaster Lesley Riddoch and published in Scotland between 1992 and 1994.  The founder women were two community workers, two journalists, an illustrator, a film editor and a graphic artist, a film and television art director. It was launched on a wave of enthusiasm, goodwill, donations and unpaid efforts of a great number of women.

It was unsuccessfully sued by Harpers and Queen, who objected to the magazine's name. Harpers and Queen managed to give the small independent magazine the kind of front-page UK-wide publicity it could not have afforded to pay for. Several sets of circumstances led to the directors of Harpies and Quines declaring voluntary insolvency in 1994 after publishing 16 (18?) issues.

For the 25th anniversary of the last issue, Harpies and Quines published a one off special edition.

References

Defunct magazines published in Scotland
Feminism in Scotland
Feminist magazines
Magazines established in 1992
Magazines disestablished in 1994
Magazines published in Scotland
Political magazines published in Scotland
Defunct political magazines published in the United Kingdom
Mass media in Glasgow

Harpies and Quines


The Way of the Five Pecks of Rice () or the Way of the Celestial Master, commonly abbreviated to simply The Celestial Masters, was  a Chinese Taoist movement founded by the first Celestial Master Zhang Daoling in 142 CE. At its height, the movement controlled a theocratic state in the Hanzhong valley, north of Sichuan. In 215 CE, the state was incorporated by Cao Cao into what would later be the Kingdom of Wei, and the followers of the Celestial Master were dispersed all over China.

The Celestial Masters believed that qi pervaded everything, and in order to achieve immortality, the correct balance of qi had to be present within the body. Having a poor quantity of qi in the body, would result in illness, and eventually death. Meditation could be used to restore qi to the body, but sex was to be avoided, as it could result in the loss of qi. If there was the correct balance of qi within the body upon death, an adherent could 'feign death' and be reborn. If not, an adherent would be transported to an earthly prison where he would face eternal torment.

The Hanzhong state was divided into 24 regions which were led by an official. Each district had a civil register which recorded people's names and ranks. Three times a year, the registers were updated at the same time as an important feast. While a child's rank rose automatically, adults had to raise their own rank through religious achievement or marriage. Higher ranked people had more divine generals at their command, which could be used to fight demons that caused bad luck or disease. The state had a system of law that encouraged confession and benevolence rather than strict punishment. Criminals were asked to confess their crimes and meditate, and were given public work to do as a sentence. Few texts written by the Hanzhong Celestial Masters survive, with the most important being the Xiang'er commentary to the Dao De Jing. While the Hanzhong state lasted for only twenty-five years, their beliefs influenced all subsequent Daoist movements.

History
In 142 CE Zhang Daoling announced that Laozi had appeared to him and commanded him to rid the world of decadence and establish a new state consisting only of the 'chosen people.' Zhang became the first Celestial Master, and began to spread his newly founded movement throughout the province of Sichuan. The movement was initially called the Way of the Five Pecks of Rice, because each person wishing to join was required to donate five pecks of rice (actually five dǒu, equal to 13.6 US gallons or 5.9 pecks). The movement spread rapidly, particularly under his son Zhang Heng (張衡) and grandson Zhang Lu. The Zhangs were able to convert many groups to their cause, such as the Bandun Man (belonging to the Ba people), which strengthened their movement. In 184, Zhang Xiu (張脩, not related to Zhang Lu) rebelled against the Han Dynasty. In 191, Zhang Lu and Zhang Xiu were sent to conquer the Hanzhong valley, just north of Sichuan, which was under Su Gu's (蘇固) control. During the subsequent battle, Zhang Xiu was killed, and Zhang Lu founded the theocratic state of Zhanghan, enjoying full independence.

In 215,the warlord Cao Cao attacked the Hanzhong state, and forced Zhang Lu to flee to Eastern Sichuan, where he later surrendered. Zhang was given a title and land, as were several other family members and generals. His followers were forced to resettle in other parts of China, with one group being sent to the Chang'an area, and another being sent to Luoyang. Zhang and his family relocated to Cao Cao's administrative headquarters in Ye, located in today's Hebei and Henan provinces. He then used his own popularity as a religious leader to lend legitimacy to the Wei, proclaiming that the Wei court had inherited divine authority from the Daoist church, as well as from Confucian laws. Shortly after the surrender, Zhang Lu died and was succeeded by his son, Fu. After this point there are few historical sources until 255 CE, when a text indicates that the Celestial Master community was fragmenting as a result of the political turmoil within the Wei Kingdom

The collapse of the Kingdom of Wei in 260 CE, along with the fall of Northern China to the Huns in 317, further scattered adherents to the Celestial Master. The Celestial Masters later reemerged in the 4th and 5th centuries as two distinct offshoots, the Northern and Southern Celestial Masters.

Texts
The only significant Celestial Master text that survives from the Hanzhong period is the Xiang'er commentary to the Dao De Jing. This text gives insight into the Celestial Masters' physiological beliefs, meditation practices and rituals. In addition, the commentary reinterprets the Dao De Jing to have all of humanity as its intended audience, instead of only a sage. The Taiping Jing, a text attributed to the Yellow Turbans, was not a Celestial Master text, but reflects at least in part some Celestial Master thought and practice. A later text written in 255 CE, known as the Commands and Admonitions for the Families of the Great Dao was composed to a divided Celestial Master community after the dispersal of the Hanzhong population. While written in the persona of Zhang Lu, it is probable that this text was not written by him, as he had probably died by 255 CE.

Beliefs and practices
The Celestial Masters believed that there was an upcoming apocalypse that would nearly destroy humanity. Only 18,000 adherents of the Celestial Master who had the right balance of qi would survive the disaster. These were the seed people that would repopulate the earth after the destruction.

Qi
The foundation of Celestial Master belief is that there is an energy source known as qi, that is born from the Dao and is the source of life. The human body contains spirits that need to be nourished by the proper balance of qi. There are three types of qi: yin qi, yang qi and blended qi, which is a mix of yin and yang qi. The goal of a Daoist is to achieve transcendence to a higher plane. In order to do this, they must preserve and harmonize their internal spirits. Only through meditation that guides qi correctly throughout the body, can the spirits be harmonized correctly. While it is known that the Celestial Masters meditated in order to obtain qi, there is no surviving evidence that describes their meditation practices.

Immortality
One common goal of early Daoism was to extend life by achieving immortality. The Celestial Masters believed that in order to achieve immortality, one was not supposed to extend life in the current world, but rather 'feign death' in this world, and be reborn on the other side. In order to feign death, an adept had to have perfectly harmonized internal spirits. When someone with refined internal spirits died in this world, their spirit would venture to the Palace of Grand Darkness where their form would be refined and then reborn in a perfected state on the other side. There are no surviving texts that describe what kind of place the 'other side' was. Those that failed to harmonize their internal spirits prior to death would be reborn in the underground earth-prisons, where they would be subject to eternal torment and toil.

Illness
In the Hanzhong community, everyone was regarded as ill in some way. This was because sin caused qi to leave the body, and qi was necessary for life. In order to cure any illness, repentance was a crucial factor in ensuring that the loss of qi could be staunched. Repentance could be accomplished by spending time in a 'Chamber of Silence,' and reflecting on one's sins, or by beating one's breasts and kowtowing to heaven. Illness could be cured in other ways as well, such as using medicinal herbs and by listening to ritual music. Eating very little was also of extreme importance, and an ideal diet would consist of no food at all, but only of non-corporeal things such as air, which the person could absorb through meditation.

Sexuality
Practising correct sexual practices was one method of perfecting the body's internal spirits. The Celestial Masters believed that semen is the embodiment of qi. If someone ejaculated too often, their life would be shortened. In fact, the Xiang'er indicates that people should not even have sex for the purposes of reproduction. The Celestial Masters frowned upon the practice of heqi ( 'The Union of the Breaths') or Huanjing bunao ("returning the semen/essence to replenish the brain"), and advocated non-ejaculation simply as a way to avoid losing qi. In addition, the Celestial Masters thought that the method of stealing a woman's qi to replenish the man's own qi was completely wrong, and should not be practised. Despite their opposition to 'heqi' and reproductive sex, there is the possibility that the Celestial Masters supported sex for purposes other than reproduction, and a Celestial Master text from around the 5th century describes an elaborate sexual ritual. See Kalinowski (1985) for a full description of the ritual.

Organization
The region governed by the Celestial Masters was divided into 24 regions for both administrative and religious reasons. Each of these 24 regions were connected with one of the Five Phases, one of the 24 periods of the year and with one of the 28 constellations of the zodiac. Depending on their birth signs, each adherent belonged to one of these districts. Each of the 24 regions was administered by 24 officials, who had under their command 240 armies of spirits, composed of 2400 generals, 2400 officers and 240000 soldiers. This system of administration reflected the utopian system of governance described in the Zhouli.

Administration and religion were closely linked in the system of the Celestial Masters. Adherents were grouped by families, and each was attached to a district. Families and districts, and the gods all held copies of civil registers. The registers were detailed records of the people, and recorded each person's rank, identity and location. Any changes to those registered had to be accompanied by a monetary contribution known as a 'wage of faith.' Requests to the gods followed a bureaucratic model, and were drawn up according to specific administrative codes. The effectiveness of these requests depended upon the accuracy of the registers kept by the gods.

New members of the sect were divided into groups led by instructors. Neophytes were instructed by a catechism similar to that found in the Xiang'er that was likely a type of proto-meditation that later became widespread in movements such as the Shangqing School of Daoism. These instructors handled religious and administrative duties, receiving taxes, and set up road-side inns for travellers.

The rank of each person was determined by how many divine generals they had at their disposal, and by the number of divine scriptures they had obtained. These divine generals were used to fight wandering demons that could bring misfortune or illness on someone. A person received their first general at the age of six years, and in subsequent ceremonies would be given more and generals and achieve a higher ranking until a full complement was achieved at the age of nineteen. Marriage would unite two sets of generals, thus giving a couple use of 150 divine generals. After marriage, further increases in ranking could only be achieved by religious achievement.

On certain dates of the year, such as the equinoxes, group ceremonies took place at which masters disseminated their teachings. During these ceremonies, communal feasts often took place, where food was eaten and offered to the gods. The feasts also took place when a birth or death occurred, or in order to bring happiness and prevent evil. The participants in such a feast were organized based on their religious standing, with merit and seniority being the determining factors.  During the three important dates known as Sanyuan, the most important feasts were held. During these thrice-annual feasts, a census would be taken recording births, deaths and peoples' movements. At this time, adherents were also expected to donate the five pecks of rice that gives the movement its name.

Law
In the Hanzhong state, sin and criminal behavior were not differentiated. In order to eliminate sin, an adherent first had to acknowledge his crime, and then would have to go to a 'quiet room' to meditate. There, he would have to write three confessions which would be offered to the Lord of Heaven, the Lord of Earth and the Lord of Water. For public crimes, an accused would be pardoned three times for his actions and then be sentenced. A sentence depended on the type of crime, but always involved community service. For a minor crime, the sentence was usually to repair a road. A repeat offender might be asked to donate building materials to improve local buildings. Other laws banned alcohol and prohibited the killing of animals during the spring and summer.

Legacy
The belief and practices of the Hanzhong Celestial Masters had a profound legacy upon future Daoist belief. The movement marked a significant change from earlier, philosophical Daoist movements. No longer was Daoism a philosophical pastime for the literate and wealthy; it was now promoted to all classes of society, including the illiterate and the non-Chinese. In addition, the Celestial Masters were the first Daoist group to form an organized priesthood that helped spread their beliefs. Being the first organized religious Daoists, the first Celestial Masters are the ancestors of all subsequent Daoist movements such as the Shangqing and Lingbao movements, as well as the medieval Zhengyi Daoists, who claimed affinity to the first Celestial Masters.

See also
Xiang'er
Zhang Daoling
Zhang Lu
 Zhengyi Dao

References

Footnotes

Bibliography
Bokenkamp, Stephen. Early Daoist Scriptures. Berkeley: University of California, 1997.
Hendrischke, Barbara. "Early Daoist Movements" in Daoism Handbook, ed. Livia Kohn, 134-164. Leiden: Brill, 2000.
Kalinowski, Marc. "La transmission du dispositif des neufs palais sous les six-dynasties." In Michel Strickmann ed., Tantric and Taoist Studies (Brussels : Institut belges hautes etudes chinoises, 1985), 773-811.
Kleeman, Terry. Great Perfection: Religion and Ethnicity in a Chinese Millennial Kingdom. Honolulu: University of Hawaii, 1998.
Kohn, Livia. "The Northern Celestial Masters." in Livia Kohn ed., Daoism Handbook (Leiden: Brill, 2000), 283-308.
Nickerson, Peter. "The Southern Celestial Masters." in Livia Kohn ed., Daoism Handbook (Leiden: Brill, 2000), 256-282.
Penny, Benjamin. "Immortality and Transcendence" in Livia Kohn ed., Daoism Handbook (Leiden: Brill, 2000), 109-133.
Robinet, Isabelle. Daoism: Growth of a Religion. Stanford: Stanford University, 1997.
Tsuchiya Maasaki. "Confessions of Sins and Awareness of Self in the Taipingjing." In Livia Kohn and Harold Roth eds., Daoist Identity: History, Lineage and Ritual (Honolulu: University of Hawai'i: 2002), 20-52.

142 establishments
Rebellions in the Han dynasty
Taoist schools
Way of the Celestial Masters
2nd-century Taoism

Way of the Five Pecks of Rice


In astronautics, the Hohmann transfer orbit () is an orbital maneuver used to transfer a spacecraft between two orbits of different altitudes around a central body. Examples would be used for travel between low Earth orbit and the Moon, or another solar planet or asteroid. In the idealized case, the initial and target orbits are both circular and coplanar. The maneuver is accomplished by placing the craft into an elliptical transfer orbit that is tangential to both the initial and target orbits. The maneuver uses two impulsive engine burns: the first establishes the transfer orbit, and the second adjusts the orbit to match the target.

The Hohmann maneuver often uses the lowest possible amount of impulse (which consumes a proportional amount of delta-v, and hence propellant) to accomplish the transfer, but requires a relatively longer travel time than higher-impulse transfers. In some cases where one orbit is much larger than the other, a bi-elliptic transfer can use even less impulse, at the cost of even greater travel time.

The maneuver was named after Walter Hohmann, the German scientist who published a description of it in his 1925 book Die Erreichbarkeit der Himmelskörper (The Attainability of Celestial Bodies). Hohmann was influenced in part by the German science fiction author Kurd Lasswitz and his 1897 book Two Planets.

When used for traveling between celestial bodies, a Hohmann transfer orbit requires that the starting and destination points be at particular locations in their orbits relative to each other.  Space missions using a Hohmann transfer must wait for this required alignment to occur, which opens a launch window.  For a mission between Earth and Mars, for example, these launch windows occur every 26 months.  A Hohmann transfer orbit also determines a fixed time required to travel between the starting and destination points; for an Earth-Mars journey this travel time is about 9 months. When transfer is performed between orbits close to celestial bodies with significant gravitation, much less delta-v is usually required, as the Oberth effect may be employed for the burns.

They are also often used for these situations, but low-energy transfers which take into account the thrust limitations of real engines, and take advantage of the gravity wells of both planets can be more fuel efficient.

Example
The diagram shows a Hohmann transfer orbit to bring a spacecraft from a lower circular orbit into a higher one. It is an elliptic orbit that is tangential both to the lower circular orbit the spacecraft is to leave (cyan, labeled 1 on diagram) and the higher circular orbit that it is to reach (red, labeled 3 on diagram). The transfer orbit (yellow, labeled 2 on diagram) is initiated by firing the spacecraft's engine to add energy and raise the apogee. When the spacecraft reaches apogee, a second engine firing adds energy to raise the perigee, putting the spacecraft in the larger circular orbit.

Due to the reversibility of orbits, a similar Hohmann transfer orbit can be used to bring a spacecraft from a higher orbit into a lower one; in this case, the spacecraft's engine is fired in the opposite direction to its current path, slowing the spacecraft and lowering its perigee to that of the elliptical transfer orbit. The engine is then fired again at the lower distance to slow the spacecraft into the lower circular orbit.
The Hohmann transfer orbit is based on two instantaneous velocity changes. Extra fuel is required to compensate for the fact that the bursts take time; this is minimized by using high-thrust engines to minimize the duration of the bursts.  For transfers in Earth orbit, the two burns are labelled the perigee burn and the apogee burn (or apogee kick); more generally, they are labelled periapsis and apoapsis burns.  Alternately, the second burn to circularize the orbit may be referred to as a circularization burn.

Type I and Type II

An ideal Hohmann transfer orbit transfers between two circular orbits in the same plane and traverses exactly 180° around the primary.  In the real world, the destination orbit may not be circular, and may not be coplanar with the initial orbit.  Real world transfer orbits may traverse slightly more, or slightly less, than 180° around the primary.  An orbit which traverses less than 180° around the primary is called a "Type I" Hohmann transfer, while an orbit which traverses more than 180° is called a "Type II" Hohmann transfer.

Transfer orbits can go more than 360° around the primary. These multiple-revolution transfers are sometimes referred to as Type III and Type IV, where a Type III is a Type I plus 360°, and a Type IV is a Type II plus 360°.

Uses
A Hohmann transfer orbit can be used to transfer an object's orbit towards another object, as long as they share a common, more massive body which they orbit around. In the context of Earth and the Solar System, this includes any object which orbits the Sun. An example of where a Hohmann transfer orbit could be used is to bring an asteroid, orbiting the Sun, into contact with the Earth.

Calculation
For a small body orbiting another much larger body, such as a satellite orbiting Earth, the total energy of the smaller body is the sum of its kinetic energy and potential energy, and this total energy also equals half the potential at the average distance  (the semi-major axis):

Solving this equation for velocity results in the vis-viva equation,

where:
  is the speed of an orbiting body,
  is the standard gravitational parameter of the primary body, assuming  is not significantly bigger than  (which makes ), (for Earth, this is μ~3.986E14 m3 s−2)
  is the distance of the orbiting body from the primary focus,
  is the semi-major axis of the body's orbit.

Therefore, the delta-v (Δv) required for the Hohmann transfer can be computed as follows, under the assumption of instantaneous impulses:

to enter the elliptical orbit at  from the  circular orbit, where  is the aphelion of the resulting elliptical orbit, and

to leave the elliptical orbit at  to the  circular orbit,
where  and  are respectively the radii of the departure and arrival circular orbits;
the smaller (greater) of  and  corresponds to the periapsis distance (apoapsis distance) of the Hohmann elliptical transfer orbit. Typically,  is given in units of m3/s2, as such be sure to use meters, not kilometers, for  and . The total  is then:

Whether moving into a higher or lower orbit, by Kepler's third law, the time taken to transfer between the orbits is

(one half of the orbital period for the whole ellipse), where  is length of semi-major axis of the Hohmann transfer orbit.

In application to traveling from one celestial body to another it is crucial to start maneuver at the time when the two bodies are properly aligned. Considering the target angular velocity being

angular alignment α (in radians) at the time of start between the source object and the target object shall be

Example

Consider a geostationary transfer orbit, beginning at r1 = 6,678 km (altitude 300 km) and ending in a geostationary orbit with r2 = 42,164 km (altitude 35,786 km).

In the smaller circular orbit the speed is 7.73 km/s; in the larger one, 3.07 km/s. In the elliptical orbit in between the speed varies from 10.15 km/s at the perigee to 1.61 km/s at the apogee.

Therefore the Δv for the first burn is 10.15 − 7.73 = 2.42 km/s, for the second burn 3.07 − 1.61 = 1.46 km/s, and for both together 3.88 km/s.

This is greater than the Δv required for an escape orbit: 10.93 − 7.73 = 3.20 km/s. Applying a Δv at the Low Earth orbit (LEO) of only 0.78 km/s more (3.20−2.42) would give the rocket the escape velocity, which is less than the Δv of 1.46 km/s required to circularize the geosynchronous orbit.  This illustrates the Oberth effect that at large speeds the same Δv provides more specific orbital energy, and energy increase is maximized if one spends the Δv as quickly as possible, rather than spending some, being decelerated by gravity, and then spending some more to overcome the deceleration (of course, the objective of a Hohmann transfer orbit is different).

Worst case, maximum delta-v
As the example above demonstrates, the Δv required to perform a Hohmann transfer between two circular orbits is not the greatest when the destination radius is infinite.  (Escape speed is  times orbital speed, so the Δv required to escape is  − 1 (41.4%) of the orbital speed.) The Δv required is greatest (53.0% of smaller orbital speed) when the radius of the larger orbit is 15.5817... times that of the smaller orbit. This number is the positive root of , which is .  For higher orbit ratios the  required for the second burn decreases faster than the first increases.

Application to interplanetary travel

When used to move a spacecraft from orbiting one planet to orbiting another, the situation becomes somewhat more complex, but much less delta-v is required, due to the Oberth effect, than the sum of the delta-v required to escape the first planet plus the delta-v required for a Hohmann transfer to the second planet.

For example, consider a spacecraft travelling from Earth to Mars. At the beginning of its journey, the spacecraft will already have a certain velocity and kinetic energy associated with its orbit around Earth. During the burn the rocket engine applies its delta-v, but the kinetic energy increases as a square law, until it is sufficient to escape the planet's gravitational potential, and then burns more so as to gain enough energy to get into the Hohmann transfer orbit (around the Sun). Because the rocket engine is able to make use of the initial kinetic energy of the propellant, far less delta-v is required over and above that needed to reach escape velocity, and the optimum situation is when the transfer burn is made at minimum altitude (low periapsis) above the planet. The delta-v needed is only 3.6 km/s, only about 0.4 km/s more than needed to escape Earth, even though this results in the spacecraft going 2.9 km/s faster than the Earth as it heads off for Mars (see table below).

At the other end, the spacecraft will need a certain velocity to orbit Mars, which will actually be less than the velocity needed to continue orbiting the Sun in the transfer orbit, let alone attempting to orbit the Sun in a Mars-like orbit. Therefore, the spacecraft will have to decelerate in order for the gravity of Mars to capture it. This capture burn should optimally be done at low altitude to also make best use of the Oberth effect. Therefore, relatively small amounts of thrust at either end of the trip are needed to arrange the transfer compared to the free space situation.

However, with any Hohmann transfer, the alignment of the two planets in their orbits is crucial – the destination planet and the spacecraft must arrive at the same point in their respective orbits around the Sun at the same time.  This requirement for alignment gives rise to the concept of launch windows.

The term lunar transfer orbit (LTO) is used for the Moon.

It is possible to apply the formula given above to calculate the Δv in km/s needed to enter a Hohmann transfer orbit to arrive at various destinations from Earth (assuming circular orbits for the planets). In this table, the column labeled "Δv to enter Hohmann orbit from Earth's orbit" gives the change from Earth's velocity to the velocity needed to get on a Hohmann ellipse whose other end will be at the desired distance from the Sun. The column labeled "v exiting LEO" gives the velocity needed (in a non-rotating frame of reference centered on the earth) when 300 km above the Earth's surface. This is obtained by adding to the specific kinetic energy the square of the speed (7.73 km/s) of this low Earth orbit (that is, the depth of Earth's gravity well at this LEO). The column "Δv from LEO" is simply the previous speed minus 7.73 km/s.

Note that in most cases, Δv from LEO is less than the Δv to enter Hohmann orbit from Earth's orbit.

To get to the Sun, it is actually not necessary to use a Δv of 24 km/s. One can use 8.8 km/s to go very far away from the Sun, then use a negligible Δv to bring the angular momentum to zero, and then fall into the Sun. This can be considered a sequence of two Hohmann transfers, one up and one down. Also, the table does not give the values that would apply when using the Moon for a gravity assist. There are also possibilities of using one planet, like Venus which is the easiest to get to, to assist getting to other planets or the Sun.

Comparison to other transfers

Bi-elliptic transfer

The bi-elliptic transfer consists of two half-elliptic orbits. From the initial orbit, a first burn expends delta-v to boost the spacecraft into the first transfer orbit with an apoapsis at some point  away from the central body. At this point a second burn sends the spacecraft into the second elliptical orbit with periapsis at the radius of the final desired orbit, where a third burn is performed, injecting the spacecraft into the desired orbit.

While they require one more engine burn than a Hohmann transfer and generally require a greater travel time, some bi-elliptic transfers require a lower amount of total delta-v than a Hohmann transfer when the ratio of final to initial semi-major axis is 11.94 or greater, depending on the intermediate semi-major axis chosen.

The idea of the bi-elliptical transfer trajectory was first published by Ary Sternfeld in 1934.

Low-thrust transfer

Low-thrust engines can perform an approximation of a Hohmann transfer orbit, by creating a gradual enlargement of the initial circular orbit through carefully timed engine firings. This requires a change in velocity (delta-v) that is greater than the two-impulse transfer orbit and takes longer to complete.

Engines such as ion thrusters are more difficult to analyze with the delta-v model. These engines offer a very low thrust and at the same time, much higher delta-v budget, much higher specific impulse, lower mass of fuel and engine. A 2-burn Hohmann transfer maneuver would be impractical with such a low thrust; the maneuver mainly optimizes the use of fuel, but in this situation there is relatively plenty of it.

If only low-thrust maneuvers are planned on a mission, then continuously firing a low-thrust, but very high-efficiency engine might generate a higher delta-v and at the same time use less propellant than a conventional chemical rocket engine.

Going from one circular orbit to another by gradually changing the radius simply requires the same delta-v as the difference between the two speeds. Such maneuver requires more delta-v than a 2-burn Hohmann transfer maneuver, but does so with continuous low thrust rather than the short applications of high thrust.

The amount of propellant mass used measures the efficiency of the maneuver plus the hardware employed for it. The total delta-v used measures the efficiency of the maneuver only. For electric propulsion systems, which tend to be low-thrust, the high efficiency of the propulsive system usually compensates for the higher delta-V compared to the more efficient Hohmann maneuver.

Transfer orbits using electrical propulsion or low-thrust engines optimize the transfer time to reach the final orbit and not the delta-v as in the Hohmann transfer orbit. For geostationary orbit, the initial orbit is set to be supersynchronous and by thrusting continuously in the direction of the velocity at apogee, the transfer orbit transforms to a circular geosynchronous one. This method however takes much longer to achieve due to the low thrust injected into the orbit.

Interplanetary Transport Network

In 1997, a set of orbits known as the Interplanetary Transport Network (ITN) was published, providing even lower propulsive delta-v (though much slower and longer) paths between different orbits than Hohmann transfer orbits.  The Interplanetary Transport Network is different in nature than Hohmann transfers because Hohmann transfers assume only one large body whereas the Interplanetary Transport Network does not.  The Interplanetary Transport Network is able to achieve the use of less propulsive delta-v by employing gravity assist from the planets.

See also

Bi-elliptic transfer
Delta-v budget
Geostationary transfer orbit
Halo orbit
Lissajous orbit
List of orbits
Orbital mechanics

Citations

General and cited sources

Further reading

Astrodynamics
Spacecraft propulsion
Orbital maneuvers

Hohmann transfer orbit