A protist ( ) or protoctist is any eukaryotic organism that is not an animal, plant, or fungus. Protists do not form a natural group, or clade, but an artificial grouping of several independent clades that evolved from the last eukaryotic common ancestor.

Protists were historically regarded as a separate taxonomic kingdom known as Protista or Protoctista. With the advent of phylogenetic analysis and electron microscopy studies, the use of Protista as a formal taxon was gradually abandoned. In modern classifications, protists are spread across several eukaryotic clades called supergroups, such as Archaeplastida (which includes plants), SAR, Obazoa (which includes fungi and animals), Amoebozoa and Excavata.

Protists represent an extremely large genetic and ecological diversity in all environments, including extreme habitats. Their diversity, larger than for all other eukaryotes, has only been discovered in recent decades through the study of environmental DNA, and is still in the process of being fully described. They are present in all ecosystems as important components of the biogeochemical cycles and trophic webs. They exist abundantly and ubiquitously in a variety of forms that evolved multiple times independently, such as free-living algae, amoebae and slime moulds, or as important parasites. Together, they compose an amount of biomass that doubles that of animals. They exhibit varied types of nutrition (such as phototrophy, phagotrophy or osmotrophy), sometimes combining them (in mixotrophy). They present unique adaptations not present in multicellular animals, fungi or land plants. The study of protists is termed protistology.

Definition
There is not a single accepted definition of what protists are. As a paraphyletic assemblage of diverse biological groups, they have historically been regarded as a catch-all taxon that includes any eukaryotic organism (i.e., living beings whose cells possess a nucleus) that is not an animal, a land plant or a dikaryon fungus. Because of this definition by exclusion, protists encompass almost all of the broad spectrum of biological characteristics expected in eukaryotes.

They are generally unicellular, microscopic eukaryotes that can be purely phototrophic, which are generally called algae, or purely heterotrophic, which are traditionally called protozoa, but there is a wide range of mixotrophic protists where phagotrophy and phototrophy coexist. They have different life cycles, trophic levels, modes of locomotion, and cellular structures. Some protists can be pathogens.

Examples of basic protist forms that do not represent evolutionary cohesive lineages include:
 Algae, which are photosynthetic protists. Traditionally called "protophyta", they are found within most of the big evolutionary lineages or supergroups, intermingled with heterotrophic protists which are traditionally called "protozoa". There are many multicellular and colonial examples of algae, including kelp, red algae, some types of diatoms, and some lineages of green algae.
 Flagellates, which bear eukaryotic flagella. They are found in all lineages, reflecting that the common ancestor of all living eukaryotes was a flagellated heterotroph.
 Amoebae, which usually lack flagella but move through changes in the shape and motion of their protoplasm to produce pseudopodia. They have evolved independently several times, leading to major radiations of these lifeforms. Many lineages lack a solid shape ("naked amoebae"). Some of them have special forms, such as the "heliozoa", amoebae with microtubule-supported pseudopodia radiating from the cell, with at least three independent origins. Others, referred to as "testate amoebae", grow a shell around the cell made from organic or inorganic material.
 Slime molds, which are amoebae capable of producing stalked reproductive structures that bear spores, often through aggregative multicellularity (numerous amoebae aggregating together). This type of multicellularity has evolved at least seven times among protists.
 Fungus-like protists, which can produce hyphae-like structures and are often saprophytic. They have evolved multiple times, often very distantly from true fungi. For example, the oomycetes (water molds) or the myxomycetes.
 Parasitic protists, such as Plasmodium falciparum, the cause of malaria.

The names of some protists (called ambiregnal protists), because of their mixture of traits similar to both animals and plants or fungi (e.g. slime molds and flagellated algae like euglenids), have been published under either or both of the ICN and the ICZN codes.

Classification

Modern classification

The evolutionary relationships of protists have been explained through molecular phylogenetics, the sequencing of entire genomes and transcriptomes, and electron microscopy studies of the flagellar apparatus and cytoskeleton. New major lineages of protists and novel biodiversity continue to be discovered, resulting in dramatic changes to the eukaryotic tree of life. The newest classification systems of eukaryotes, revised in 2019, do not recognize the formal taxonomic ranks (phylum, class, order...) and instead only recognize the group that are clades of related organisms, making the classification more stable in the long term and easier to update. In this new cladistic scheme, the protists are divided into wide branches informally named supergroups:

Archaeplastida — consists of groups that have evolved from a photosynthetic common ancestor that obtained chloroplasts directly through a single event of endosymbiosis with a cyanobacterium:
Picozoa (1 species), non-photosynthetic predators.
Glaucophyta (26 species), unicellular algae found in freshwater and terrestrial environments.
Rhodophyta (5,000–6,000 species), mostly multicellular marine algae that lost chlorophyll and only harvest light energy through phycobiliproteins.
Rhodelphidia (2 species), predators with non-photosynthetic plastid.
Viridiplantae or Chloroplastida, containing both green algae and land plants which are not protists. The green algae comprise many lineages of varying diversity, such as Chlorophyta (7,000), Prasinodermophyta (10), Zygnematophyceae (4,000), Charophyceae (877), Klebsormidiophyceae (48) or Coleochaetophyceae (36).

Sar, SAR or Harosa – a clade of three highly diverse lineages exclusively containing protists.
Stramenopiles is a wide clade of photosynthetic and heterotrophic organisms that evolved from a common ancestor with hairs in one of their two flagella. The photosynthetic stramenopiles, called Ochrophyta, are a monophyletic group that acquired chloroplasts from secondary endosymbiosis with a red alga. Among these, the best known are: the unicellular or colonial Bacillariophyta (>60,000 species), known as diatoms; the filamentous or genuinely multicellular Phaeophyta (2,000 species), known as brown algae; and the Chrysomonadea (>1,200 species). The heterotrophic stramenopiles are more diverse in forms, ranging from fungi-like organisms such as the Hyphochytrea, Oomycota and Labyrinthulea, to various kinds of protozoa such as the flagellates Opalinata and Bicosoecida.
Alveolata contains three of the most well-known groups of protists: Apicomplexa, a parasitic group with species harmful to humans and animals; Dinoflagellata, an ecologically important group as a main component of the marine microplankton and a main cause of algal blooms; and Ciliophora (4,500 species), the extremely diverse and well-studied group of mostly free-living heterotrophs known as ciliates.
Rhizaria is a morphologically diverse lineage mostly comprised of heterotrophic amoebae, flagellates and amoeboflagellates, and some unusual algae (Chlorarachniophyta) and spore-forming parasites. The most familiar rhizarians are Foraminifera and Radiolaria, groups of large and abundant marine amoebae, many of them macroscopic. Much of the rhizarian diversity lies within the phylum Cercozoa, filled with free-living flagellates which usually have pseudopodia, as well as Phaeodaria, a group previously considered radiolarian. Other groups are comprised of various amoebae like Vampyrellida or are important parasites like Phytomyxea, Paramyxida or Haplosporida.

Haptista — includes the Haptophyta algae and the heterotrophic Centrohelida, which are "heliozoan"-type amoebae.

Cryptista — closely related to Archaeplastida, it includes the Cryptophyta algae, with a plastid of red algal origin, and two obscure relatives with two flagella, katablepharids and Palpitomonas.

Discoba — includes many lineages previously grouped under the paraphyletic "Excavata": the Jakobida, flagellates with bacterial-like mitochondrial genomes; Tsukubamonas, a free-living flagellate; and the Discicristata clade, which unites well-known phyla Heterolobosea and Euglenozoa. Heterolobosea includes amoebae, flagellates and amoeboflagellates with complex life cycles, and the unusual Acrasida, a group of slime molds. Euglenozoa encompasses a clade of algae with chloroplasts of green algal origin and many groups of anaerobic, parasitic or free-living heterotrophs.

Metamonada — a clade of completely anaerobic protozoa, primarily flagellates. Some are gut symbionts of animals, others are free-living, and others are well-known parasites (for example, Giardia lamblia).

Amorphea — unites two huge clades:
Amoebozoa (2,400 species) is a large group of heterotrophic protists, mostly amoebae. Many lineages are slime molds that produce spore-releasing fruiting bodies, such as Myxogastria, Dictyostelia and Protosporangiida, and are often studied by mycologists. Within the non-fruiting amoebae, the Tubulinea contain many naked amoebae (such as Amoeba itself) and a well-studied order of testate amoebae known as Arcellinida. Other non-fruiting amoebozoans are Variosea, Discosea and Archamoebae.
Obazoa includes the two kingdoms Metazoa (animals) and Fungi, and their closest protist relatives inside a clade known as Opisthokonta. The opisthokont protists are Nucleariida, Ichthyosporea, Pluriformea, Filasterea, Choanoflagellata and the elusive Tunicaraptor (1 species). They are flagellated or amoeboid heterotrophs of vital importance in the search for the genes that allow animal multicellularity. Sister groups to Opisthokonta are Apusomonadida (28 species) and Breviatea (4 species).

Many lineages do not belong to any of these supergroups, and are usually poorly known groups with limited data. Some, such as the CRuMs clade, Malawimonadida and Ancyromonadida, appear to be related to Amorphea. Others, like Hemimastigophora (10 species) and Provora (7 species), appear to be related to or within Diaphoretickes, a clade that unites SAR, Archaeplastida, Haptista and Cryptista.

Although the root of the tree is still unresolved, one possible topology of the eukaryotic tree of life is:

Historical classifications

Early concepts

From the start of the 18th century, the popular term "infusion animals" (later infusoria) referred to protists, bacteria and small invertebrate animals. In the mid-18th century, while Swedish scientist Carl von Linnaeus largely ignored the protists, his Danish contemporary Otto Friedrich Müller was the first to introduce protists to the binomial nomenclature system.

In the early 19th century, German naturalist Georg August Goldfuss introduced Protozoa (meaning 'early animals') as a class within Kingdom Animalia, to refer to four very different groups: infusoria (ciliates), corals, phytozoa (such as Cryptomonas) and jellyfish. Later, in 1845, Carl Theodor von Siebold was the first to establish Protozoa as a phylum of exclusively unicellular animals consisting of two classes: Infusoria (ciliates) and Rhizopoda (amoebae, foraminifera). Other scientists did not consider all of them part of the animal kingdom, and by the middle of the century they were regarded within the groupings of Protozoa (early animals), Protophyta (early plants), Phytozoa (animal-like plants) and Bacteria (mostly considered plants). Microscopic organisms were increasingly constrained in the plant/animal dichotomy. In 1858, the palaeontolgist Richard Owen was the first to define Protozoa as a separate kingdom of eukaryotic organisms, with "nucleated cells" and the "common organic characters" of plants and animals, although he also included sponges within protozoa.

Origin of Kingdom Protista or Protoctista

In 1860, British naturalist John Hogg proposed Protoctista (meaning 'first-created beings') as the name for a fourth kingdom of nature (the other kingdoms being Linnaeus' plant, animal and mineral) which comprised all the lower, primitive organisms, including protophyta, protozoa and sponges, at the merging bases of the plant and animal kingdoms.

In 1866 the 'father of protistology', German scientist Ernst Haeckel, addressed the problem of classifying all these organisms as a mixture of animal and vegetable characters, and proposed Protistenreich (Kingdom Protista) as the third kingdom of life, comprising primitive forms that were "neither animals nor plants". He grouped both bacteria and eukaryotes, both unicellular and multicellular organisms, as Protista. He retained the Infusoria in the animal kingdom, until German zoologist Otto Butschli demonstrated that they were unicellular. At first, he included sponges and fungi, but in later publications he explicitly restricted Protista to predominantly unicellular organisms or colonies incapable of forming tissues. He clearly separated Protista from true animals on the basis that the defining character of protists was the absence of sexual reproduction, while the defining character of animals was the blastula stage of animal development. He also returned the terms protozoa and protophyta as subkingdoms of Protista.

Butschli considered the kingdom to be too polyphyletic and rejected the inclusion of bacteria. He fragmented the kingdom into protozoa (only nucleated, unicellular animal-like organisms), while bacteria and the protophyta were a separate grouping. This strengthened the old dichotomy of protozoa/protophyta from German scientist Carl Theodor von Siebold, and the German naturalists asserted this view over the worldwide scientific community by the turn of the century. However, British biologist C. Clifford Dobell in 1911 brought attention to the fact that protists functioned very differently compared to the animal and vegetable cellular organization, and gave importance to Protista as a group with a different organization that he called "acellularity", shifting away from the dogma of German cell theory. He coined the term protistology and solidified it as a branch of study independent from zoology and botany.

In 1938, American biologist Herbert Copeland resurrected Hogg's label, arguing that Haeckel's term Protista included anucleated microbes such as bacteria, which the term Protoctista (meaning "first established beings") did not. Under his four-kingdom classification (Monera, Protoctista, Plantae, Animalia), the protists and bacteria were finally split apart, recognizing the difference between anucleate (prokaryotic) and nucleate (eukaryotic) organisms. To firmly separate protists from plants, he followed Haeckel's blastular definition of true animals, and proposed defining true plants as those with chlorophyll a and b, carotene, xanthophyll and production of starch. He also was the first to recognize that the unicellular/multicellular dichotomy was invalid. Still, he kept fungi within Protoctista, together with red algae, brown algae and protozoans. This classification was the basis for Whittaker's later definition of Fungi, Animalia, Plantae and Protista as the four kingdoms of life.

In the popular five-kingdom scheme published by American plant ecologist Robert Whittaker in 1969, Protista was defined as eukaryotic "organisms which are unicellular or unicellular-colonial and which form no tissues". Just as the prokaryotic/eukaryotic division was becoming mainstream, Whittaker, after a decade from Copeland's system, recognized the fundamental division of life between the prokaryotic Monera and the eukaryotic kingdoms: Animalia (ingestion), Plantae (photosynthesis), Fungi (absorption) and the remaining Protista.

In the five-kingdom system of American evolutionary biologist Lynn Margulis, the term "protist" was reserved for microscopic organisms, while the more inclusive kingdom Protoctista (or protoctists) included certain large multicellular eukaryotes, such as kelp, red algae, and slime molds. Some use the term protist interchangeably with Margulis' protoctist, to encompass both single-celled and multicellular eukaryotes, including those that form specialized tissues but do not fit into any of the other traditional kingdoms.

Molecular phylogenetics and modern definitions

The five-kingdom model remained the accepted classification until the development of molecular phylogenetics in the late 20th century, when it became apparent that protists are a paraphyletic group from which animals, fungi and plants evolved, and the three-domain system (Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya) became prevalent. Today, protists are not treated as a formal taxon, but the term is commonly used for convenience in two ways:
 Phylogenetic definition: protists are a paraphyletic group. A protist is any eukaryote that is not an animal, land plant or fungus, thus excluding many unicellular groups like the fungal Microsporidia, Chytridiomycetes and yeasts, and the non-unicellular Myxozoan animals included in Protista in the past.
 Functional definition: protists are essentially those eukaryotes that are never multicellular, that either exist as independent cells, or if they occur in colonies, do not show differentiation into tissues. While in popular usage, this definition excludes the variety of non-colonial multicellularity types that protists exhibit, such as aggregative (e.g. choanoflagellates) or complex multicellularity (e.g. brown algae).

Two-kingdom system of protists

There is, however, one classification of protists based on traditional ranks that lasted until the 21st century. The British protozoologist Thomas Cavalier-Smith, since 1998, developed a six-kingdom model: Bacteria, Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, Protozoa and Chromista. In his context, paraphyletic groups take preference over clades: both protist kingdoms Protozoa and Chromista contain paraphyletic phyla such as Apusozoa, Eolouka or Opisthosporidia. Additionally, red and green algae are considered true plants, while the fungal groups Microsporidia, Rozellida and Aphelida are considered protozoans under the phylum Opisthosporidia. This scheme endured until 2021, the year of his last publication.

Diversity

Species diversity

According to molecular data, protists dominate eukaryotic diversity, accounting for a vast majority of environmental DNA sequences or operational taxonomic units (OTUs). However, their species diversity is severely underestimated by traditional methods that differentiate species based on morphological characteristics. The number of described protistan species is very low (ranging from 26,000 to 74,400 as of 2012) in comparison to the diversity of plants, animals and fungi, which are historically and biologically well-known and studied. The predicted number of species also varies greatly, ranging from 1.4×10 to 1.6×10, and in several groups the number of predicted species is arbitrarily doubled. Most of these predictions are highly subjective.

Molecular techniques such as DNA barcoding are being used to compensate for the lack of morphological diagnoses, but this has revealed an unknown vast diversity of protists that is difficult to accurately process because of the exceedingly large genetic divergence between the different protistan groups. Several different molecular markers need to be used to survey the vast protistan diversity, because there is no universal marker that can be applied to all lineages.

Biomass
Protists make up a large portion of the biomass in both marine and terrestrial ecosystems. It has been estimated that protists account for 4 gigatons (Gt) of biomass in the entire planet Earth. This amount is smaller than 1% of all biomass, but is still double the amount estimated for all animals (2 Gt). Together, protists, animals, archaea (7 Gt) and fungi (12 Gt) account for less than 10% of the total biomass of the planet, because plants (450 Gt) and bacteria (70 Gt) are the remaining 80% and 15% respectively.

Ecology
Protists are highly abundant and diverse in all types of ecosystems, especially free-living (i.e. non-parasitic) groups. An unexpectedly enormous, taxonomically undescribed diversity of eukaryotic microbes is detected everywhere in the form of environmental DNA or RNA. The richest protist communities appear in soil, followed by ocean and freshwater habitats.

Phagotrophic protists (consumers) are the most diverse functional group in all ecosystems, with three main taxonomical groups of phagotrophs: Rhizaria (mainly Cercozoa in freshwater and soil habitats, and Radiolaria in oceans), ciliates (most abundant in freshwater and second most abundant in soil) and non-photosynthetic stramenopiles (third most represented overall, higher in soil than in oceans). Phototrophic protists (producers) appear in lower proportions, probably constrained by intense predation. They exist in similar abundance in both oceans and soil. They are mostly dinophytes in oceans, chrysophytes in freshwater, and Archaeplastida in soil.

Marine

Marine protists are highly diverse, have a fundamental impact on biogeochemical cycles (particularly, the carbon cycle) and are at the base of the marine trophic networks as part of the plankton.

Phototrophic marine protists located in the photic zone as phytoplankton are vital primary producers in the oceanic systems. They fix as much carbon as all terrestrial plants together. The smallest fractions, the picoplankton (<2 μm) and nanoplankton (2–20 μm), are dominated by several different algae (prymnesiophytes, pelagophytes, prasinophytes); fractions larger than 5 μm are instead dominated by diatoms and dinoflagellates. The heterotrophic fraction of marine picoplankton encompasses primarily early-branching stramenopiles (e.g. bicosoecids and labyrinthulomycetes), as well as alveolates, ciliates and radiolarians; protists of lower frequency include cercozoans and cryptophytes.

Mixotrophic marine protists, while not very researched, are present abundantly and ubiquitously in the global oceans, on a wide range of marine habitats. In metabarcoding analyses, they constitute more than 12% of the environmental sequences. They are an important and underestimated source of carbon in eutrophic and oligotrophic habitats. Their abundance varies seasonally. Planktonic protists are classified into various functional groups or 'mixotypes' that present different biogeographies:

 Constitutive mixotrophs, also called 'phytoplankton that eat', have the innate ability to photosynthesize. They have diverse feeding behaviors: some require phototrophy, others phagotrophy, and others are obligate mixotrophs. They are responsible for harmful algal blooms. They dominate the eukaryotic microbial biomass in the photic zone, in eutrophic and oligotrophic waters across all climate zones, even in non-bloom conditions. They account for significant, often dominant predation of bacteria.

 Non-constitutive mixotrophs acquire the ability to photosynthesize by stealing chloroplasts from their prey. They can be divided into two: generalists, which can use chloroplasts stolen from a variety of prey (e.g. oligotrich ciliates), or specialists, which have developed the need to only acquire chloroplasts from a few specific prey. The specialists are further divided into two: plastidic, those which contain differentiated plastids (e.g. Mesodinium, Dinophysis), and endosymbiotic, those which contain endosymbionts (e.g. mixotrophic Rhizaria such as Foraminifera and Radiolaria, dinoflagellates like Noctiluca).  Both plastidic and generalist non-constitutive mixotrophs have similar biogeographies and low abundance, mostly found in eutrophic coastal waters. Generalist ciliates can account for up to 50% of ciliate communities in the photic zone. The endosymbiotic mixotrophs are the most abundant non-constitutive type.

Freshwater
Freshwater planktonic protist communities are characterized by a higher "beta diversity" (i.e. highly heterogeneous between samples) than soil and marine plankton. The high diversity can be a result of the hydrological dynamic of recruiting organisms from different habitats through extreme floods. The main freshwater producers (chrysophytes, cryptophytes and dinophytes) behave alternatively as consumers (mixotrophs). At the same time, strict consumers (non-photosynthetic) are less abundant in freshwater, implying that the consumer role is partly taken by these mixotrophs.

Soil
Soil protist communities are ecologically the richest. This may be due to the complex and highly dynamic distribution of water in the sediment, which creates extremely heterogenous environmental conditions. The constantly changing environment promotes the activity of only one part of the community at a time, while the rest remains inactive; this phenomenon promotes high microbial diversity in prokaryotes as well as protists. Only a small fraction of the detected diversity of soil-dwelling protists has been described (8.1% as of 2017). Soil protists are also morphologically and functionally diverse, with four major categories:

Photoautotrophic soil protists, or algae, are as abundant as their marine counterparts. Given the importance of marine algae, soil algae may provide a larger contribution to the global carbon cycle than previously thought, but the magnitude of their carbon fixation has yet to be quantified. Most soil algae belong to the supergroups Stramenopiles (diatoms, Xanthophyceae and Eustigmatophyceae) and Archaeplastida (Chlorophyceae and Trebouxiophyceae). There is also the presence of environmental DNA from dinoflagellates and haptophytes in soil, but no living forms have been seen.

Fungus-like protists are present abundantly in soil. Most environmental sequences belong to the Oomycetes (Stramenopiles), an osmotrophic and saprotrophic group that contains free-living and parasitic species of other protists, fungi, plants and animals. Another important group in soil are slime molds (found in Amoebozoa, Opisthokonta, Rhizaria and Heterolobosea), which reproduce by forming fruiting bodies known as sporocarps (originated from a single cell) and sorocarps (from aggregations of cells).

Phagotrophic protists are abundant and essential in soil ecosystems. As bacterial grazers, they have a significant role in the foodweb: they excrete nitrogen in the form of NH, making it available to plants and other microbes. Many soil protists are also mycophagous, and facultative (i.e. non-obligate) mycophagy is a widespread evolutionary feeding mode among soil protozoa. Amoeboflagellates like the glissomonads and cercomonads (in Rhizaria) are among the most abundant soil protists: they possess both flagella and pseudopodia, a morphological variability well suited for foraging between soil particles. Testate amoebae (e.g. arcellinids and euglyphids) have shells that protect against desiccation and predation, and their contribution to the silica cycle through the biomineralization of shells is as important as that of forest trees.

Parasitic soil protists (in Apicomplexa) are diverse, ubiquitous and have an important role as parasites of soil-dwelling invertebrate animals. In Neotropical forests, environmental DNA from the apicomplexan gregarines dominates protist diversity.

Parasitic

Parasitic protists represent around 15–20% of all environmental DNA in marine and soil systems, but only around 5% in freshwater systems, where chytrid fungi likely fill that ecological niche. In oceanic systems, parasitoids (i.e. those which kill their hosts, e.g. Syndiniales) are more abundant. In soil ecosystems, true parasites (i.e. those which do not kill their hosts) are primarily animal-hosted Apicomplexa (Alveolata) and plant-hosted oomycetes (Stramenopiles) and plasmodiophorids (Rhizaria). In freshwater ecosystems, parasitoids are mainly Perkinsea and Syndiniales (Alveolata), as well as the fungal Chytridiomycota. True parasites in freshwater are mostly oomycetes, Apicomplexa and Ichthyosporea.

Some protists are significant parasites of animals (e.g.; five species of the parasitic genus Plasmodium cause malaria in humans and many others cause similar diseases in other vertebrates), plants (the oomycete Phytophthora infestans causes late blight in potatoes) or even of other protists.

Around 100 protist species can infect humans. Two papers from 2013 have proposed the use of viruses to treat infections caused by protozoa.

Researchers from the Agricultural Research Service are taking advantage of protists as pathogens to control red imported fire ant (Solenopsis invicta) populations in Argentina. Spore-producing protists such as Kneallhazia solenopsae (recognized as a sister clade or the closest relative to the fungus kingdom now) can reduce red fire ant populations by 53–100%. Researchers have also been able to infect phorid fly parasitoids of the ant with the protist without harming the flies. This turns the flies into a vector that can spread the pathogenic protist between red fire ant colonies.

Biology

Physiological adaptations

While, in general, protists are typical eukaryotic cells and follow the same principles of physiology and biochemistry described for those cells within the "higher" eukaryotes (animals, fungi or plants), they have evolved a variety of unique physiological adaptations that do not appear in those eukaryotes.

 Osmoregulation. Freshwater protists without cell walls are able to regulate their osmosis through contractile vacuoles, specialized organelles that periodically excrete fluid high in potassium and sodium through a cycle of diastole and systole. The cycle stops when the cells are placed in a medium with different salinity, until the cell adapts.

 Energetic adaptations. The last eukaryotic common ancestor was aerobic, bearing mitochondria for oxidative metabolism. Many lineages of free-living and parasitic protists have independently evolved and adapted to inhabit anaerobic or microaerophilic habitats, by modifying the early mitochondria into hydrogenosomes, organelles that generate ATP anaerobically through fermentation of pyruvate. In a parallel manner, in the microaerophilic trypanosomatid protists, the fermentative glycosome evolved from the peroxisome.

 Sensory adaptations. Many flagellates and probably all motile algae exhibit a positive phototaxis (i.e. they swim or glide toward a source of light). For this purpose, they exhibit three kinds of photoreceptors or "eyespots": (1) receptors with light antennae, found in many green algae, dinoflagellates and cryptophytes; (2) receptors with opaque screens; and (3) complex ocelloids with intracellular lenses, found in one group of predatory dinoflagellates, the Warnowiaceae. Additionally, some ciliates orient themselves in relation to the Earth's gravitational field while moving (geotaxis), and others swim in relation to the concentration of dissolved oxygen in the water.

 Endosymbiosis. Protists have an accentuated tendency to include endosymbionts in their cells, and these have produced new physiological opportunities. Some associations are more permanent, such as Paramecium bursaria and its endosymbiont Chlorella; others more transient. Many protists contain captured chloroplasts, chloroplast-mitochondrial complexes, and even eyespots from algae. The xenosomes are bacterial endosymbionts found in ciliates, sometimes with a methanogenic role inside anaerobic ciliates.

Sexual reproduction

Protists generally reproduce asexually under favorable environmental conditions, but tend to reproduce sexually under stressful conditions, such as starvation or heat shock. Oxidative stress, which leads to DNA damage, also appears to be an important factor in the induction of sex in protists.

Eukaryotes emerged in evolution more than 1.5 billion years ago. The earliest eukaryotes were protists. Although sexual reproduction is widespread among multicellular eukaryotes, it seemed unlikely until recently, that sex could be a primordial and fundamental characteristic of eukaryotes. The main reason for this view was that sex appeared to be lacking in certain pathogenic protists whose ancestors branched off early from the eukaryotic family tree. However, several of these "early-branching" protists that were thought to predate the emergence of meiosis and sex (such as Giardia lamblia and Trichomonas vaginalis) are now known to descend from ancestors capable of meiosis and meiotic recombination, because they have a set core of meiotic genes that are present in sexual eukaryotes. Most of these meiotic genes were likely present in the common ancestor of all eukaryotes, which was likely capable of facultative (non-obligate) sexual reproduction.

This view was further supported by a 2011 study on amoebae. Amoebae have been regarded as asexual organisms, but the study describes evidence that most amoeboid lineages are ancestrally sexual, and that the majority of asexual groups likely arose recently and independently. Even in the early 20th century, some researchers interpreted phenomena related to chromidia (chromatin granules free in the cytoplasm) in amoebae as sexual reproduction.

Sex in pathogenic protists
Some commonly found protist pathogens such as Toxoplasma gondii are capable of infecting and undergoing asexual reproduction in a wide variety of animals – which act as secondary or intermediate host – but can undergo sexual reproduction only in the primary or definitive host (for example: felids such as domestic cats in this case).

Some species, for example Plasmodium falciparum, have extremely complex life cycles that involve multiple forms of the organism, some of which reproduce sexually and others asexually. However, it is unclear how frequently sexual reproduction causes genetic exchange between different strains of Plasmodium in nature and most populations of parasitic protists may be clonal lines that rarely exchange genes with other members of their species.

The pathogenic parasitic protists of the genus Leishmania have been shown to be capable of a sexual cycle in the invertebrate vector, likened to the meiosis undertaken in the trypanosomes.

Fossil record

Mesoproterozoic

By definition, all eukaryotes before the existence of plants, animals and fungi are considered protists. For that reason, this section contains information about the deep ancestry of all eukaryotes.

All living eukaryotes, including protists, evolved from the last eukaryotic common ancestor (LECA). Descendants of this ancestor are known as "crown-group" or "modern" eukaryotes. Molecular clocks suggest that LECA originated between 1200 and more than 1800 million years ago (Ma). Based on all molecular predictions, modern eukaryotes reached morphological and ecological diversity before 1000 Ma in the form of multicellular algae capable of sexual reproduction, and unicellular protists capable of phagocytosis and locomotion. However, the fossil record of modern eukaryotes is very scarce around this period, which contradicts the predicted diversity.

Instead, the fossil record of this period contains "stem-group eukaryotes". These fossils cannot be assigned to any known crown group, so they probably belong to extinct lineages that originated before LECA. They appear continuously throughout the Mesoproterozoic fossil record (1650–1000 Ma). They present defining eukaryote characteristics such as complex cell wall ornamentation and cell membrane protrusions, which require a flexible endomembrane system. However, they had a major distinction from crown eukaryores: the composition of their cell membrane. Unlike crown eukaryotes, which produce "crown sterols" for their cell membranes (e.g. cholesterol and ergosterol), stem eukaryotes produced "protosterols", which appear earlier in the biosynthetic pathway.

Crown sterols, while metabolically more expensive, may have granted several evolutionary advantages for LECA's descendants. Specific unsaturation patterns in crown sterols protect against osmotic shock during desiccation and rehydration cycles. Crown sterols can also receive ethyl groups, thus enhancing cohesion between lipids and adapting cells against extreme cold and heat. Moreover, the additional steps in the biosynthetic pathway allow cells to regulate the proportion of different sterols in their membranes, in turn allowing for a wider habitable temperature range and unique mechanisms such as asymmetric cell division or membrane repair under exposure to UV light. A more speculative role of these sterols is their protection against the Proterozoic changing oxygen levels. It is theorized that all of these sterol-based mechanisms allowed LECA's descendants to live as extremophiles of their time, diversifying into ecological niches that experienced cycles of desiccation and rehydration, daily extremes of high and low temperatures, and elevated UV radiation (such as mudflats, rivers, agitated shorelines and subaerial soil).

In contrast, the named mechanisms were absent in stem-group eukaryotes, as they were only capable of producing protosterols. Instead, these protosterol-based life forms occupied open marine waters. They were facultative anaerobes that thrived in Mesoproterozoic waters, which at the time were low on oxygen. Eventually, during the Tonian period (Neoproterozoic era), oxygen levels increased and the crown eukaryotes were able to expand to open marine environments thanks to their preference for more oxygenated habitats. Stem eukaryotes may have been driven to extinction as a result of this competition. Additionally, their protosterol membranes may have posed a disadvantage during the cold of the Cryogenian "Snowball Earth" glaciations and the extreme global heat that came afterwards.

Neoproterozoic
Modern eukaryotes began to appear abundantly in the Tonian period (1000–720 Ma), fueled by the proliferation of red algae. The oldest fossils assigned to modern eukaryotes belong to two photosynthetic protists: the multicellular red alga Bangiomorpha (from 1050 Ma), and the chlorophyte green alga Proterocladus (from 1000 Ma). Abundant fossils of heterotrophic protists appear later, around 900 Ma, with the emergence of fungi. For example, the oldest fossils of Amoebozoa are vase-shaped microfossils resembling modern testate amoebae, found in 800 million-year-old rocks. Radiolarian shells are found abundantly in the fossil record after the Cambrian period (~500 Ma), but more recent paleontological studies are beginning to interpret some Precambrian fossils as the earliest evidence of radiolarians.

See also
 Evolution of sexual reproduction
 Marine protists
 Protist locomotion
 Protistology

Footnotes

References

Bibliography

General
 Hausmann, K., N. Hulsmann, R. Radek. Protistology. Schweizerbart'sche Verlagsbuchshandlung, Stuttgart, 2003.
 Margulis, L., J.O. Corliss, M. Melkonian, D.J. Chapman. Handbook of Protoctista. Jones and Bartlett Publishers, Boston, 1990.
 Margulis, L., K.V. Schwartz. Five Kingdoms: An Illustrated Guide to the Phyla of Life on Earth, 3rd ed. New York: W.H. Freeman, 1998.
 Margulis, L., L. Olendzenski, H.I. McKhann. Illustrated Glossary of the Protoctista, 1993.
 Margulis, L., M.J. Chapman. Kingdoms and Domains: An Illustrated Guide to the Phyla of Life on Earth. Amsterdam: Academic Press/Elsevier, 2009.
 Schaechter, M. Eukaryotic microbes. Amsterdam, Academic Press, 2012.

Physiology, ecology and paleontology
 Fontaneto, D. Biogeography of Microscopic Organisms. Is Everything Small Everywhere? Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2011.
 Moore, R. C., and other editors. Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology. Protista, part B (vol. 1, Charophyta, vol. 2, Chrysomonadida, Coccolithophorida, Charophyta, Diatomacea & Pyrrhophyta), part C (Sarcodina, Chiefly "Thecamoebians" and Foraminiferida) and part D (Chiefly Radiolaria and Tintinnina). Boulder, Colorado: Geological Society of America; & Lawrence, Kansas: University of Kansas Press.

External links

 UniEuk Taxonomy App
 Tree of Life: Eukaryotes
 Tsukii, Y. (1996). Protist Information Server (database of protist images). Laboratory of Biology, Hosei University.Protist Information Server. Updated: March 22, 2016.

Obsolete eukaryote taxa
Paraphyletic groups

Protist


The Cherry Street Historic District is a historic district in Florence, Alabama.  Florence was founded in 1818 and quickly prospered as a cotton shipping port on the Tennessee River, but did not see its greatest growth until the latter part of the 19th century.  Spurred by industrial development from several mills and iron furnaces as well as the Florence Wagon Works, the demand for middle-class, suburban homes increased.  Five houses in the district date from the late 1800s, but the majority were constructed from the late 1910s through the mid 1930s, when the city saw further growth fueled by the construction of Wilson Dam and a large potassium nitrate production plant.  The earliest houses in the district are predominantly Queen Anne style, with late 1800s houses being mostly two stories and early 1900s houses mostly one story.  During the second wave of construction between 1920 and 1938, most houses built were bungalows.  Five apartment buildings were also built to house the influx of workers coming to the area, centered on North Cherry Street and East Tuscaloosa Street, which became known as "Angel Corner" after its developer, J. M. Angel.  The district was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1997.

References

National Register of Historic Places in Lauderdale County, Alabama
Historic districts in Florence, Alabama
Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Alabama

Cherry Street Historic District (Florence, Alabama)


Thomas Andrew Barnett (11 November 1908 – 9 July 1986), was an English professional association footballer, who played as an inside forward. During his career he was contracted to Manchester United, but never played for them. He is best remembered for his time at Watford, where he played 395 Football League games, scoring 144 goals; only Luther Blissett has scored more. At the time, he set the record for the most peacetime Watford appearances, which stood until Duncan Welbourne overtook him 35 years later. Following his retirement from football, Barnett worked as a masseur for Wembley Lions ice hockey team, and continued to support Watford as a season-ticket holder. He stood  tall. He died in Watford, aged 77.

References

1908 births
1986 deaths
Footballers from Salford
Manchester United F.C. players
Watford F.C. players
English Football League players
English men's footballers
Men's association football inside forwards

Tommy Barnett (footballer)


John Underhill (c.1545–1592) was an English academic, involved in controversy, and later Bishop of Oxford.

Life
Underhill  was born about 1545 at the Cross Inn, Cornmarket, Oxford. He entered Winchester College in 1556, and was elected a Fellow of New College, Oxford, on 27 October 1561, being admitted B.A. on 11 December 1564 and M.A. on 27 July 1563. He obtained the degrees of B.D. and D.D. on 7 July 1581. In 1570, he was appointed praelector of moral philosophy, and in 1575 filled the office of proctor.

In 1576, Underhill offered opposition to Robert Horne, Bishop of Winchester, in his visitation of the college. Horne, who used his power as Visitor very freely, removed him from his fellowship. Underhill, however, had recourse to the Chancellor of Oxford, then Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester. On Leicester's advice he threatened Horne with a lawsuit, and procured his reinstatement. In the following year, on 22 June, after further controversy, he was elected Rector of Lincoln College.

About 1581, he became chaplain in ordinary to the Queen, and on 7 September was instituted rector of Thornton-le-Moors, Cheshire. In 1583, he disputed with Giordano Bruno, who was visiting Oxford. Bruno's work La Cenere de le Ceneri (The Ash Wednesday Supper) may refer to Underhill in the character Nundinio. His meeting with Bruno is fictionalised in the novel Heresy by S. J. Parris.

About 1586, he was appointed one of the vicars of Bampton, Oxfordshire, and on 15 March 1587 was instituted Rector of Witney, also in Oxfordshire. On 8 December 1589, he was elected Bishop of Oxford on the recommendation of Francis Walsingham, succeeding Hugh Curwen after a long vacancy. He died in London on 12 May 1592, and was buried in Christ Church Cathedral. After his death the see remained vacant for eleven years.

He was a friend and patron of the poet Thomas Churchyard.

References

Sources

1545 births
1592 deaths
People educated at Winchester College
English chaplains
Fellows of New College, Oxford
Rectors of Lincoln College, Oxford
Bishops of Oxford
16th-century Church of England bishops

John Underhill (bishop)


John Bennett Herrington (born September 14, 1958, in Chickasaw Nation) is a retired United States Naval Aviator, engineer and former NASA astronaut. In 2002, Herrington became the first enrolled member of a Native American tribe to fly in space.

Early life
Herrington was born in Wetumka, Oklahoma, into the Chickasaw Nation. He grew up in Colorado Springs, Colorado, Riverton, Wyoming, and Plano, Texas, where he graduated from Plano Senior High School. He earned a bachelor's degree in applied mathematics from the University of Colorado Colorado Springs before receiving his commission in the United States Navy in 1984.
To honor his Chickasaw heritage, Herrington, an enrolled member of the Chickasaw Nation, carried its flag on his thirteen-day trip to space. The flag had been presented to him by Chickasaw Nation Governor Bill Anoatubby.

United States Navy career
Herrington received his commission in the U.S. Navy from the Aviation Officer Candidate School at Naval Air Station Pensacola, Florida in March 1984. In March 1985 he was designated a Naval Aviator and proceeded to Patrol Squadron Thirty-One (VP-31) at Moffett Field, California for training in the P-3C Orion. His first operational assignment was with Patrol Squadron Forty-Eight (VP-48) where he made three operational deployments, two to the Northern Pacific-based from Naval Air Facility Adak, Alaska and one to the Western Pacific-based from the Naval Air Station Cubi Point, Philippines. While assigned to VP-48, Herrington was designated a Patrol Plane Commander, Mission Commander, and Patrol Plane Instructor Pilot.

Following completion of his first operational tour, Herrington returned to VP-31 as a Fleet Replacement Squadron Instructor Pilot. While assigned to VP-31, he was selected to attend the United States Naval Test Pilot School at Naval Air Station Patuxent River, Maryland in January 1990. After graduation in December 1990, he reported to the Force Warfare Aircraft Test Directorate as a project test pilot for the Joint Primary Aircraft Training System. Herrington conducted additional flight test assignments flying numerous variants of the P-3 Orion as well as the T-34C and the de Havilland Canada Dash 7. Following his selection as an Aeronautical Engineering Duty Officer (AEDO), Herrington reported to the U.S. Naval Postgraduate School, where he attained a Master of Science degree in aeronautical engineering in June 1995. Herrington was assigned as a special projects officer to the Bureau of Naval Personnel Sea Duty Component when selected for the astronaut program.

During his military service, he was awarded the Navy Commendation Medal, Navy Meritorious Unit Commendation, Coast Guard Meritorious Unit Commendation, Coast Guard Special Operations Service Ribbon, National Defense Service Medal, Sea Service Ribbons (3), and various other service awards.

NASA career
Selected by NASA in April 1996, Herrington reported to the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center in August 1996. He completed two years of training and evaluation, and qualified for flight assignment as a mission specialist. Herrington was assigned to the Flight Support Branch of the Astronaut Office where he served as a member of the Astronaut Support Personnel team responsible for Shuttle launch preparations and post-landing operations.

Spaceflight

Herrington was selected as a mission specialist for STS-113, the sixteenth Space Shuttle mission to the International Space Station. Endeavour was launched from Kennedy Space Center on November 23, 2002, to deliver the P1 Truss segment, which provides structural support for the Space Station radiators. Endeavour also delivered a new Expedition 6 crew to the Station, returning to Earth on December 7, 2002, with the Expedition 5 crew ending their 6-month stay in space. The total mission duration was 13 days, 18 hours and 47 minutes.

During the mission Herrington performed three spacewalks, totaling 19 hours and 55 minutes.  These spacewalks are commemorated on the reverse of the 2019 Sacagawea dollar coin.

Underwater laboratory
In July 2004, Herrington served as the commander of the NEEMO 6 mission aboard the Aquarius underwater laboratory, living and working underwater for ten days.

Herrington retired from the Navy and NASA in July 2005.

Rocketplane
In September 2005, Herrington resigned from NASA to become Vice President/Director of flight Operations for Rocketplane Limited, Inc., where he replaced Mitchell Burnside Clapp. He was also to serve as the pilot of the XP Spaceplane.  Herrington also provides part-time support for the Center for Space Studies at the University of Colorado at Colorado Springs.

In December 2007, Herrington resigned from Rocketplane, and stated that he plans to continue doing public speaking engagements as well as work with the Chickasaw Nation.

Cross-country bike ride
In 2008, Herrington embarked on a cross-country bicycle ride through the United States from Cape Flattery, Washington to Cape Canaveral, Florida. The ride took three months, from August 13 to November 15, 2008.

Honors and education
Herrington was inducted into the Chickasaw Hall of Fame in 2002. He earned his PhD in education from the University of Idaho in 2014  In 2017, Herrington was inducted into the International Air & Space Hall of Fame at the San Diego Air & Space Museum. In 2018, he became one of the inductees in the first induction ceremony held by the National Native American Hall of Fame.

In media
In 2016 Herrington authored a children's book called Mission to Space published by White Dog Press, a secondary imprint of Chickasaw Press. In the book, Herrington shares his passion for space travel and provides a glimpse into his astronaut training and mission to the International Space Station. The book includes an English to Chickasaw vocabulary list with space-related terms.

Speaking
Herrington currently travels the nation speaking to students, educators, nonprofits and corporations on an array of topics originating from his unique background in STEM and aviation. He is managed by Key Speakers Bureau.

Notes

References

External links
 Rocketrek
 Herrington's Homepage
 John Herrington Profile and Videos - Chickasaw.TV
 NASA Biography
Spacefacts biography of John Herrington
 University of Colorado Alumni News
 Speaking Manager

1958 births
Living people
20th-century Native Americans
Aquanauts
Chickasaw people
Native American United States military personnel
Naval Postgraduate School alumni
People from Colorado Springs, Colorado
People from Plano, Texas
People from Riverton, Wyoming
People from Wetumka, Oklahoma
Space Shuttle program astronauts
United States Naval Aviators
United States Naval Test Pilot School alumni
United States Navy astronauts
United States Navy officers
University of Colorado Colorado Springs alumni
Spacewalkers
Military personnel from Texas
Military personnel from Colorado
21st-century Native American writers

John Herrington


James Fremont Stillwell, Jr. (May 15, 1935 – July 14, 2014) was one of the original owners of the Seattle Mariners baseball team. The original ownership group, which included entertainer Danny Kaye, took control of the team on February 6, 1976. It held control until January 14, 1981, when George Argyros became principal owner of the club.

Stillwell was born in Seattle, Washington and attended Roosevelt High School before going to the University of Washington. He inherited his father's construction company, Stillwell Construction, and eventually became the President of the Associated General Contractors of Washington. He died in Seattle.

References

1935 births
2014 deaths
Seattle Mariners owners

James Stillwell


John B. Stephenson (September 26, 1937 – December 6, 1994) was a sociologist and scholar of Appalachia, a  founder of the Appalachian Studies Conference, and president of Berea College from 1984 to 1994.

Early life and education

John B. Stephenson was born in Staunton, Virginia, on September 26, 1937.

He earned a B.A. degree in sociology from the College of William and Mary in Virginia in 1959, and M.A. (1961) and Ph.D. (1966) degrees in sociology from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.  His dissertation, a community study of Celo, North Carolina, became his first book, Shiloh: A Mountain Community (1968).

Teaching career

He began his teaching career at Lees-McRae College in Banner Elk, North Carolina, from 1961 to 1964, where he met and married a colleague, Jane Ellen Baucom, in 1962. After returning to Chapel Hill to complete his doctoral studies, he joined department of sociology at the University of Kentucky in Lexington in the fall of 1966.  Connecting with the emerging field of Appalachian studies, he co-edited Appalachia in the Sixties (1972) with sociology graduate student David Walls.  He served as dean of undergraduate studies from 1978 to 1981, as special assistant to the chancellor in 1983-84, and was the first director of the Appalachian Center, which he was instrumental in helping organize, from 1979 to 1984.  During this time he became an incorporator and first chair of the Appalachian Studies Conference (now known as the Appalachian Studies Association).

President of Berea College

In 1984 he was appointed the seventh president of Berea College in Berea, Kentucky, the first president of the liberal arts college to come from a public university. During his tenure as president, Berea College reemphasized its historic commitment to African American and Appalachian students.  The college also took initiatives to support women, including Jane Stephenson's New Opportunity School for Women.  Faculty and staff salaries were increased significantly.

John Stephenson established ties with a diverse group of notable people whom he brought to speak at Berea College, from Roots author Alex Haley, and Archbishop Desmond Tutu of South Africa, to the Dalai Lama.  Stephenson established the Tibetan scholarship program, which supports students at Berea College from the Tibetan exile community in India.  He was also a successful fundraiser; during his tenure as president, the Berea College endowment increased from $120 to $360 million.  Stephenson retired in July 1994, several years after he was diagnosed with leukemia.  He died suddenly after a viral infection in December 1994.

He was selected as an American Council on Education Fellow in 1973-74, and as a Fulbright Senior Research Scholar in 1981, which he used for research in Scotland which was presented in his book, Ford: A Village in the West Highlands of Scotland (1984).  He served on boards of the Kentucky Literacy Foundation, the national Elderhostel program, the Frontier Nursing Service, and the Appalachian Regional Hospitals.

Books by John B. Stephenson

Shiloh: A Mountain Community.  Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1968.
Editor, with David S. Walls, Appalachia in the Sixties: Decade of Reawakening.  Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1972.
Ford: A Village in the West Highlands of Scotland.  Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1984.
A Scottish Diary.  Photographs by J. David Stephenson.  San Francisco: Custom and Limited Editions, 1990.

Notes

References

Thomas R. Ford and J. Randolph Osborne, eds.  John B. Stephenson: Appalachian Humanist. Ashland, Kentucky: The Jesse Stuart Foundation, 2001.

1937 births
1994 deaths
American sociologists
University of Kentucky faculty
Heads of universities and colleges in the United States
Appalachian studies
College of William & Mary alumni
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill alumni
People from Staunton, Virginia
Lees–McRae College faculty

John B. Stephenson


Church End is a hamlet located in Bedfordshire, England.

The settlement forms part of the wider Totternhoe village (where the 2011 Census  population was included) and civil parish, with Church End being the closest part of the parish to the larger town of Dunstable. Totternhoe Lower School is located in Church End, as is "The Old Farm Inn" public house.

Hamlets in Bedfordshire
Central Bedfordshire District

Church End, Totternhoe


Cosworth is a high performance engineering company. It was founded in London in 1958. It builds engines and electronics for automobile racing, mainstream automotive and defence industries. Cosworth is based in Northampton, England. It has North American facilities in Torrance, California; Indianapolis, Indiana; and Mooresville, North Carolina. It also has a facility in Pune, India.

Cosworth has had a long and well respected career in Formula One, beginning in 1963. Cosworth stepped away from Formula One for three years when no team decided to use their engines for . Cosworth returned to F1 in , suppling engines to Williams, HRT, Lotus, and Virgin. The first Formula One engines shipped in January. Cosworth's 176 wins make it the second most successful engine manufacturers in F1, after Ferrari.

Corporate history
The company was founded as a British racing internal combustion engine maker in 1958 by Mike Costin and Keith Duckworth (1933-2005) The name Cosworth came by combining their last names. (COStin and duckWORTH). Even thought it was an independent company, it was supported by the Ford Motor Company for many years. Most of the Cosworth engines were named Ford engines.

The company went through a several ownership changes. The business was growing. Keith Duckworth did not want to run the day-to-day business.

Cosworth was sold to United Engineering Industries (UEI) in 1980. Duckworth remained as president for life, and technical involvement with Cosworth. He became a UEI board director. UEI was a group of small to medium-sized technology companies.

UEI was taken over by Carlton Communications in 1988. Carlton wanted some of the audio-visual companies that were part of UEI. Cosworth was a poor fit, so Carlton sold the Cosworth part off.

In 1990, Cosworth was sold to Vickers, a British engineering company.

In 1998, Cosworth was sold to Audi, which is a part of Volkswagen. Hours later, Audi sold the Cosworth Racing division to Ford.

In September, 2004 Ford announced that it was selling Cosworth, along with Cosworth Racing Ltd and its Jaguar Formula One team. On 15 November 2004, the sale of Cosworth was completed to Champ Car World Series owners Gerald Forsythe and Kevin Kalkhoven They are the current owners of the Cosworth Group.

The road car engine division of Cosworth was renamed Cosworth Technology. It was sold to MAHLE in 2005. Cosworth Technology was then renamed as MAHLE Powertrain on 1 July 2005.

Engines

Association with Ford
Cosworth has had a long relationship with the Ford Motor Company. This started when Cosworth started building racing engines in 1959. These engines were modified versions of the  Inline-four Ford Kent engine for Formula Junior. Cosworth built a  engine for the Lotus 7.  and  engines were built use in Formula B, sports car racing, and the Lotus Cortina. The final version of the Cosworth-Kent, in 1965, was the MAE. It was used in Formula 3 when  engines were allowed. This was the dominate engine.

The FVA series
The Cortina engine was also the basis for the FVA, a Formula Two engine introduced in 1966. This engine featured dual overhead camshafts with 16 valves. It produced at least  at 9000 rpm. This engine dominated the category until 1971. It was also used in sports car racing as the FVC. The FVA was part of the same Ford contract that gave rise to the DFV.

A larger engine was built for endurance racing in the mid 1970s. The FVC displaced .  The FVC produced only .

The DFV (Double Four Valve)

In 1966, Colin Chapman of Lotus Cars was the founder and principal of Team Lotus. He got Ford to finance Keith Duckworth's design for a new lightweight 3.0 litre Formula One engine. Cosworth received the order along with £100,000 from Ford. The contract told Duckworth to build a four-cylinder Ford-based F2 engine to prove it would work (see the FVA above). After that, a pure Cosworth V8 would be built. The DFV design used a similar cylinder head to the one on the FVA engine with custom cylinder block and crankcase. This created the legendary DFV - literally meaning "Double Four Valve". This engine, and its version were used for a quarter of a century. It was the most successful engine in the history of Formula One / Grand Prix motor racing.  With 167 winning races it put Cosworth Engineering on the map. Although designed for Formula One, the engine has been modified for use in many other areas.

The DFV won on its first outing, at the 1967 Dutch Grand Prix. Jim Clark drove a Lotus 49 with the DFV engine. Starting in 1968, any F1 team could purchase the engine. During the 1970s, it was common for almost the entire field to use one of the DFV engines. Ferrari never used a Cosworth engine. Most teams just built a car around a Cosworth DFV and a Hewland gearbox. It won a record 155 World Championship races. The last was the Detroit Grand Prix in 1983 in a Tyrrell driven by Michele Alboreto.

The DFV with 410 horsepower did not produce as much power as some of its rival 12-cylinder engines. It was lighter, resulting in a better power to weight ratio. It was also a structural part of the car.

The DFY, introduced in 1982 was upgrade of the DFV for Formula One with 520 horsepower. While it produced more power, it no match for the turbocharged cars of the day. It was the advent of turbocharged engines which ended the use of the DFY. In 1986 Cosworth returned to the lower levels of racing. They modified the DFV for the newly created Formula 3000. The DFV remained in F3000 until 1992.

In Formula One, a new DFV-based design was introduced for the new rules in . 3.5 litre normally-aspirated (non-turbocharded) engines were allowed. In 1988 Cosworth built the DFR, which was used in F1 by the smaller teams until 1991. It scored its last points in 1990.

The DFV is still being used in Classic F1 racing. The FIA given them World Championship status in 2004.

DFV variants
One of the most successful and longest-lived projects of Cosworth has been its CART / Champ Car engine program. In 1975, Cosworth developed the DFX engine. A turbocharged 2.65 litre engine, the DFX became the standard engine to run in IndyCar racing. It ending the reign of the Offenhauser, and maintaining that position until the late 1980s.

While designed as an F1 engine, the DFV was also used as in endurance racing. Its design led to vibrations putting stress on devices surrounding the engine. It was hard on the exhaust system. The first sports car to use a DFV failed to finish a single race because of repeated breakdowns. The DFV did win the 24 hours of Le Mans twice in its original 3.0 litre form. A special endurance version, the DFL, was then developed. The 3.3 litre was reliable. The 4.0 litre was largely remembered as a failure.

The GA V6
A variant of the Ford Essex engine was developed for the Ford Capris. The Capris were raced in Group 2 in the early 1970s. This engine had a displacement of 3.4 L. The GA was also used in the last few years of Formula 5000 in Europe.

The FBA and FBC V6

The FBA and FBC engines were found in the Ford Granada and Ford Scorpio Ultima. The FBA came first in 1991, and was also known as the 'BOA'. It was based on the Ford Cologne V6. It was a twin overhead camshaft with 24 valves, and produced 192 horsepower. In 1995, it was updated to produce 201 horsepower. This engine was known as the 'BOB'.

A racing version was also available for a short time. The FBE had individual throttle butterflies for each cylinder. The FBB and FBD engines were developed but never released.

The BDA series
Cosworth increased its work with Ford in 1969. Cosworth developed a double overhead camshaft (DOHC) 16-valve inline four cylinder engine for road use in the European Ford Escort. Working from the Kent block, Cosworth created a 1.6 Litre engine for homologation (standarding) purposes. The camshafts were driven by a toothed timing belt. The name BDA, came from "Belt Drive, A type". Running in Group 2 and Group 4 on either rallying or touring car racing, this engine could be enlarged to 2.0 litres.  The standard 1.6 L engine could be used in cars competing overall wins, not just first in class.

In 1970, the BDC version received fuel injection. In 1972, the 1.8 L BDA series was being used in Formula 2. In 1973, it went to 1.98 L as the BDG engine. The BDG also had an aluminum engine block.

Other versions of the engine were made for Formula Atlantic in 1970, and SCCA club racing and sports car racing. A 1.7 L BDR version was built in the 1980s. A 1.8 L BDT was built for the Escort RS1700T and the Ford RS2000.

A 2.14 L version was developed by Brian Hart just as Group B was canceled by the FIA. The Hart 420R owes much to the BDA series. It is basically an aluminum block version with similar cylinder heads.

In 1970, Ford asked Weslake and Co to build the BDA Engine for them, and by the end of 1970 the production line had been installed at Rye and production was under way.

The YB series

The YB series of 2.0 L engines are based on the older Pinto engine block. They were introduced in the road-going Ford Sierra RS Cosworth in 1986 with 201 horsepower. Racing versions could develop about 400 horsepower. A limited edition version was introduced in 1987. The RS500 could produce 550 horsepower in full racing setup.

The YB series engine was replace in 1997, with the Zetec engine design.

Other Formula One engines
Cosworth tested turbocharged BD version. They finally built an all-new turbocharged 1.5 L V6 engine. This engine was badged (named) the Ford TEC. Inside Cosworth, it was known as the GB-series. This engine had a long development history. It only raced only for a short time. In was used by the Haas Lola team in  and the Benetton Formula team in .

The final replacement for the DFV/DFZ/DFR series was  the 3.5 L HB V8 engine. It was used by the Benetton team midway through 1989. It won the Japanese Grand Prix that year. This engine had a narrower v-angle than the DFV.

As the works (factory supported) team, Benetton was the only team to use this model through the rest of  and . In , customer units became available. The customer engines did not have all the updates the works engines did. In 1991, these engines were supplied to the new Jordan Grand Prix team. In 1992, they went to Team Lotus. 1993 saw McLaren added to the customer engine deal. McLaren won five Grands Prix with Ayrton Senna that year.  A new Cosworth unit, badged as a Ford Zetec-R was built in 1994. That year, Michael Schumacher won the Drivers World Championship with Benetton. This was the last Ford powered F1 title.

A Jaguar-badged version of the HB was used for a short time in sports car racing with the Jaguar XJR-14. Cosworth also developed a 72° V10 engine for the Sauber Formula One team. It was baged as a Ford engine.

Cosworth has made several 3.0 L V10 engines for other Formula One teams.  The Stewart Grand Prix team basically became the Ford works team. They used Cosworth CR-1 engines from their first season in 1997. Stewart became Jaguar Racing which became Red Bull Racing. They used Cosworth V10 engines until 2006. Minardi also used re-badged Cosworth engines until 2005.

Williams began using the new CA2006 Cosworth V8 engines for the 2006 season. In the same year, Scuderia Toro Rosso used detuned V10 engines based on the 2005 units.

In 2007, Williams and Scuderia Torro Rosso both switched to other engines. This left Cosworth out of Formula one for three years. Honda left F1 in December 2008. This led to Cosworth being selected to provide a standard engine to any interested team. Teams could purchase entire engines, or build their own from the Cosworth designs.

In 2010 Cosworth returned as the engine supplier for Williams. They also supplied three new teams; Hispania Racing, Lotus Racing and Virgin Racing. The CA2010 is the same 2.4 litre V8 base of the CA2006 used by Williams. It has been re-tuned from 20,000 rpm to the current 18,000 rpm limit required on all engines. The first engines were shipped to teams in mid-January, 2 weeks prior to first track testing for the year.

Other IndyCar and Champ Car engines

Cosworth needed to replace the DFS engines used in IndyCar and Champ Car racing. Cosworth designed the X-series, beginning in 1992 with the XB.  The XF was built for the 2000 season to replace the XD. It was picked as the spec engine for the Champ Car World Series in 2003. The most recent version is the 2.65 litre XFE, used through 2007. The Champ Car World Series set a rev limit of 12,000 rpm. The 2004 model of the XFE was rated at 750 horsepower for normal running. It could produce 800 horsepower during the "Push-to-Pass" mode.

In mid 2003, Cosworth provided the 3.5L V8 XG badged as a Chevrolet Gen 4 engine to IRL IndyCar Series teams. The XG finished 2nd in its first race at Michigan on 27 July 2003. Sam Hornish, Jr. went on to win 3 races that season with the new XG. The XG was reduced in size to 3L for 2004 season. It won one race in 2005 during Chevrolet's final season in IRL.

In 2007, the Ford name was removed from the XFE engine. The Champ Car World Series merged into the Indy Racing League IndyCar Series prior to the 2008 season. Cosworth does not currently provide engines to any American open wheel racing series.

Formula Atlantic engines
These are 300 horsepower 2.3 L inline-four engines based on the Mazda MZR engine. A detuned (reduced power) 250 horsepower version is sold to the consumer market. This version is intended for club racers. Both engines are built by Cosworth in Torrance, California.

Road engines
Cosworth is best known in Europe for its relationship with Ford. Cosworth is in the vehicle name on the high performance Ford Sierra RS Cosworth and Ford Escort RS Cosworth.

In the United States, Cosworth has also appeared in the name of a road car, the Chevrolet Vega. Only 3,508 1975 and 1976 Cosworth Vegas were built. The engine featured the Vega sleeveless, aluminum-alloy block fitted with forged components. The twin-cam, 16 valve, aluminum cylinder head design was assisted by Cosworth. The engine featured electronic ignition, electronic fuel injection, and stainless steel headers. The final US version produced 110 bhp. Cosworth's EA racing version was not successful due to engine block structural failures. Projected sales of the Cosworth Vega had been 5,000. The 1500 unused hand-built Cosworth Vega engines were simply scrapped for lack of demand.

Cosworth became involved with Mercedes-Benz in the mid-1980s. Mercedes-Benz wanted to create a Group B rally car. They turned to Cosworth to development the engine.

Mercedes wanted a 320 bhp engine based on the 136 bhp Mercedes M102 2.3 litre 4-cylinder engine. The task was given to Mike Hall, who design the famed DFV and BDA engines. Designed around the existing M102 engine, its valves set a 45° angle, rather than the 40° of the BDA. The valves were the biggest that could be fitted into the combustion chamber. Flat top pistons gave a 10.5:1 compression ratio. The new Cosworth WAA engine also was Cosworth's first one-piece head. The camshaft carrier was cast with the head itself.

Cosworth F1 car

Cosworth tried to design a full Formula One Grand Prix car in 1969. The car was designed by Robin Herd. It used a new design of a 4WD transmission designed by Keith Duckworth. This transmission was different from the Ferguson transmission used by all other 4WD F1 cars of the 1960s. It was powered by a version of the DFV engine built out of magnesium. The plan was to drive the car at the  British Grand Prix. Cosworth withdrew the car without any explanation. Herd left Cosworth to form March Engineering. The F1 car project was canceled. The external design of the car was Herd's use of Mallite sheeting. Mallite is a product made from layers of wood and aluminum. The Mallite was for the main structural monocoque (car body) sections. This is a procedure he developed on the first McLaren single-seat race cars, including the McLaren M2B of 1966.

Summary of F1 engine use

References

 List of F1 engines by year

Literature
 Bernd Tuchen, Ford in der Formel 1 1965 bis 1994.  Die Geschichte des legendären Ford Cosworth DFV Motors.  Seine Entstehung, seine Rennställe, seine Siege und Weltmeister (Büchenbach 2006/Verlag Dr. Faustus) (www.Verlag-Dr-Faustus.de)
 Graham Robson, Cosworth: The Search For Power, 4th ed, Haynes, 1999,

Other websites
 Cosworth
 Cosworth Performance Parts
 List of Cosworth engine types

Ford
Formula One engine manufacturers
Formula One constructors
Formula One current
1958 establishments in the United Kingdom

Cosworth


Airburst is a video game developed by Strange Flavour and published by Freeverse for Mac OS. On October 25, 2007, it was announced for Xbox Live Arcade game for the Xbox 360. The Xbox 360 release was canceled but the game was available for testing on Partnernet, the private Xbox 360 developer site. Partnernet was shut down around 2017 after the release of the Xbox 1.

Gameplay

The game has been described as "an inverted version of Pong", in which players divert a "deadly chainsaw-bladed burster ball" with a paddle towards other players' platforms, which are made of balloons. Each player is armed with a bat which can be used to deflect the ball away from their balloons and towards their opponents. There are also a host of power-ups that affect gameplay.
The XBLA version uses ReplicaNet for online play.

AirBurst Extreme
An enhanced version was released in 2004 for Mac OS X as Airburst Extreme. There are four playable characters, and six additional characters (four new protagonists and two new antagonists) in Airburst Extreme.

In other media
On July 27, 2014, an animated short named AirBurst: The Soda of Doom screened at the San Diego Children's Film Festival at San Diego Comic-Con and featured characters from the games AirBurst and AirBurst: Extreme.

See also
Breakout clone
Warlords

References

Reviews
ATPM.com (Original)
Inside Mac Games (Extreme)

External links
Official site
Official Strange Flavour site
Strange Flavour
Freeverse
XBLA press release

2001 video games
Cancelled Xbox 360 games
Classic Mac OS games
MacOS games
Action games
Multiplayer and single-player video games
Video games developed in the United Kingdom
Freeverse Inc. games
Strange Flavour games

Airburst (video game)


The  Catechism of the Catholic Church, or CCC, is an official explanation of the teachings of the Roman Catholic Church. It was first published in French in 1992 by the authority of Pope John Paul II. The volume, which is a book of over 900 pages, has been translated into many other languages, including English. In 1997, a Latin text was made. The Latin text is now the official text of reference the contents of the first French text were amended at a few points.

The Compendium of the Catechism of the Catholic Church was published in 2005, and the first edition in English in 2006. It is a more concise and dialogic (written like a conversation) version of the CCC. The text is available in twelve languages on the Vatican website, which gives the text of the Catechism itself in eight languages.

References

Roman Catholicism

Catechism of the Catholic Church


Chikungunya (pronounced "chicken-GUN-yer") is an infection caused by the chikungunya virus.  It can cause joint pains that can last for weeks, months, or sometimes even years.  About 1 in every 1000 people who gets chikungunya dies.  People who are elderly or have other medical problems are most likely to die or get very sick from chikungunya.

Chikungunya is spread to humans by two species of mosquito: Aedes albopictus and Aedes aegypti.  These mosquitoes carry the infection to humans after biting monkeys, birds, cattle, or rodents who have chikungunya.  Since 2004, there have been outbreaks (where many people get chikungunya) in Asia, Europe, and The Americas.

There is no known treatment or cure for chikungunya.

Signs and symptoms
It can take one to twelve days for a person to get sick after they get the chikungunya virus.  (This period of time is called the virus's incubation period.)  Usually, people get sick in three to seven days.  Most people who get the virus (72% to 97%) get symptoms.

Chikungunya has an acute phase, which lasts a short time, and a chronic phase, which can last weeks, months, or years.

Acute phase
The acute phase usually begins with a sudden high fever that can last up to ten days.  The fever is usually above 39 °C (102 °F), and can sometimes get as high as 40 °C (104 °F).  About half of people with chikungunya get a rash, usually about two to five days after symptoms start.  Some people also have gastrointestinal symptoms, like abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, or diarrhea.  In rare cases, people may get conjunctivitis or other problems with their eyes.

The body starts to fight the virus after about a week by sending out immunoglobulin M (IgM), which attacks the virus.  After this, most of the symptoms usually start to get better.  However, people often keep having some symptoms for about another week, like headache, insomnia (trouble sleeping), and exhaustion.  After these symptoms end, the acute phase of chikungunya is usually over.

Chronic phase
In chikungunya's chronic phase, almost everyone with the virus (87% - 98%) gets very bad joint pain or stiffness.  This usually lasts for weeks or months.  However, it can last for years.  The joint pain can be so bad that a person cannot move the joints that hurt.  The pain almost always happens in more than one joint.  Usually, people have pain in the joints in their arms and legs, on both sides.  These may include the joints in the wrists, ankles, hands, feet, shoulders, elbows, and knees.  The virus can also cause pain in the muscles or ligaments.

Sometimes, it can be difficult to tell the difference between chikungunya and dengue fever.  Both infections cause some of the same symptoms, like fever and very bad pain.  However, chikungunya usually does not cause bleeding.  If a person diagnosed with chikungunya has bleeding problems, they may:
 Have dengue fever instead of chikungunya
 Have both chikungunya and dengue fever (both are spread by mosquitoes, and are common in some of the same places)
 Have both chikungunya and liver problems

Prevention

The best way for people to protect themselves from chikungunya is to protect themselves from mosquitoes in places where the disease is common.  For example, people may use bug spray and mosquito nets, and wear long sleeves and long pants when they are outside.  In places where chikungunya is common, governments can also do things to control the number of mosquitoes.  For example, they can spray pesticides.

There is no vaccine for chikungunya.  Scientists are doing experiments to try to make a vaccine.  However, scientists say that even if they created a vaccine, people would still have to control mosquitoes to prevent chikungunya.

Treatment
There is no known treatment for chikungunya.  No known anti-viral medicines (medicines which kill viruses) kill the chikungunya virus.

Medical professionals can only give "supportive care."  This means they can only treat chikungunya's symptoms.  For example, they may treat fever and joint pain with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) like naproxen; painkillers like paracetamol (acetaminophen); and fluids.  Aspirin is not given because it can make bleeding more likely to happen.

Chronic joint pain
Scientists have not found any medication that helps everyone with chikungunya who has bad joint pain.  There is some evidence that certain medicines may help people who have bad joint pain for more than two weeks.  These medicines include:
 Ribavirin, an anti-viral medicine
 Chloroquine, a medicine usually given to prevent malaria
 Methotrexate, a medicine used for rheumatoid arthritis, which also causes very bad joint pain

These medicines do not help the symptoms of chikungunya during the acute phase.

Prognosis
About 1 in 1000 people who get chikungunya die from the disease.  People older than 65, newborn babies, and people with other medical problems are most likely to have the most dangerous problems.  Chikungunya is especially dangerous for newborns because they can get the virus from their mothers during childbirth, and because newborns' immune systems have to grow before they work as well as adults'.  This makes it much more difficult for newborns to fight off the virus.

Elderly people, and people who already have arthritis, are more likely to have chronic joint pain.

Epidemiology

In the past, chikungunya existed mostly in developing countries.  However, more recently, there have been epidemics (where a very large number of people get the virus) in the Indian Ocean, the Pacific Islands, and the Americas.

When chikungunya was first discovered in 1952, it was uncommon and happened only in West Africa.  People usually got the disease during rainy seasons, because mosquitoes are more common during these times.  Beginning in the 1960s, there were sometimes outbreaks in Asia and Africa.  However, until 2005, chikungunya had been uncommon throughout the world.

Since 2005, chikungunya has become much more common.  It has caused large outbreaks in Africa, Asia, and the Americas.  For example, in India, chikungunya re-appeared after 32 years where no Indian person had gotten the virus.  Outbreaks have also happened in Europe, the Caribbean, and South America, where chikungunya had never spread before.  A few people have also gotten chikungunya in the United States and Australia, where the virus had never lived before.

In 2005, there was a very large outbreak on Réunion, an island in the Indian Ocean.  Out of about 770,000 people who lived on the island, about 266,000 (over 1 in every 3 people) got chikungunya.  In 2006, about 1.25 million people in India got the virus.

Chikungunya was recently spread to the Americas.  From 2013-2014 in the Americas, 1,118,763 people have been thought to have the virus.  Of these cases, 24,682 were proven to be chikungunya.

Some scientists think that chikungunya has become much more common because of a change in the virus's genetic code.  This change may have made it easier for the virus to make copies of itself in mosquito cells.  It may have also allowed the virus to be spread more easily by the Asian tiger mosquito (Aedes albopictus).  This is important because the Asian tiger mosquito lives in many more places than Aedes aegypti, the other species of mosquito that spreads chikungunya to humans.  Aedes aegypti lives only in tropical places.  However, the Asian tiger mosquito spreads easily, and lives in Europe, the Americas, the Caribbean, Africa, and the Middle East.

History
Chikungunya was first described by Marion Robinson and W.H.R. Lumsden in 1955, after an outbreak in 1952 along the border between Mozambique and Tanganyika (now part of Tanzania).  A group called the Makonde lived in this area.  The word "chikungunya" probably comes from the Makonde language.  It means "that which bends up" or "to walk bent over."  This describes how people with very bad joint pain from the virus would bend into unusual positions.

The first recorded outbreak of chikungunya may have been in 1779.  Scientific evidence agrees that the virus evolved around the year 1700.

Chikungunya was once researched as a possible biological weapon.

References

Diseases caused by viruses
Diseases spread by insects

Chikungunya


The Bank of Melbourne is a financial institution based in Melbourne, Australia, established in 1989 and taken over by the Westpac Banking Corporation (Westpac) in 1997. In 2004, Westpac rebranded the Bank of Melbourne branches as Westpac branches. In 2011, Westpac resurrected the brand after rebranding its purchase of Bank of St George in Melbourne specifically and possibly in response to its initial closing of the brand.

History
The Bank of Melbourne was established in July 1989, following the granting of a banking licence to the RESI Statewide Building Society, with a listing on the Australian Securities Exchange following on 13 July 1989. The first chairman of the bank was Christopher Stewart, who chose Australian actor Jack Thompson to head the bank's TV advertising campaign, which ran for a decade.

The bank focused operations on retail banking, with a branch network and operations focused on the state of Victoria. As a former building society, the bank was also heavily involved in lending in the residential property market. In 1996 the bank acquired the Victorian business of Challenge Bank from Westpac for A$659.7 million, making the Bank of Melbourne the fourth largest regional bank, and the eighth largest of all listed banks in Australia. By this time the Bank of Melbourne also held 9.6% of the Victorian lending market, 11.6% of the Victorian deposit market, and operated a network of 125 branches, predominantly in Melbourne.

On 3 April 1997, Westpac made a $1.43 billion bid to acquire the Bank of Melbourne. At the time, Westpac had a branch network almost twice as large in Victoria as the Bank of Melbourne (212 branches), but a smaller share of the local lending and deposit markets (8.6% and 9.1% respectively).

The proposal required the approval of the Australian Competition & Consumer Commission, the Reserve Bank of Australia and the Treasurer of Australia; these being given by July 1997. On 29 September 1997 a vote was held for ordinary Bank of Melbourne shareholders to approve the proposal, with holders of over 96% of the shares approving the takeover. Westpac retained the rights to the Bank of Melbourne name and logos, and operated in Victoria under the Bank of Melbourne brand until January 2004, when Westpac moved all operations to a single national brand name.

In 2009, speculation suggested Westpac was to relaunch the brand for a new internet-based deposit business, but with no resulting action.

In July 2011, the relaunched Bank of Melbourne commenced operations as a subsidiary of Westpac.

See also
 Bank of Melbourne (2011)

References

Westpac
Australian companies established in 1989
Banks established in 1989
Former building societies of Australia
History of Victoria (state)

Bank of Melbourne (1989)


Jennifer Simard (born August 8, 1970) is an American actress known primarily for her work in theater.

Early life and education
Simard is from Litchfield, New Hampshire. She studied at the Boston Conservatory of Music and Hunter College.

Career

Theatre
After studying at Hunter College and the Boston Conservatory of Music, Simard moved to New York, where she appeared in Forbidden Broadway '93.

She made her Broadway debut in The 25th Annual Putnam County Spelling Bee and later performed in the Broadway productions of Shrek The Musical and Sister Act.

She received Drama Desk Award nominations for Outstanding Featured Actress in a Musical for her roles in I Love You, You're Perfect, Now Change, The Thing About Men, and Forbidden Broadway: Special Victims Unit (2005).

She originated the role of Sister Mary Downy in the 2016 Broadway musical Disaster!, for which her performance earned her a Tony Award nomination and a Drama League Award nomination in 2016. She was also nominated for a Drama Desk Award for the role, which she performed off-Broadway in 2014. The Variety reviewer wrote: "...this is a good cast that knows the comic ropes—and then some, in the special case of Jennifer Simard, who shows great comic chops as a nun with a secret gambling fixation."

She appeared on Broadway as Ernestina in the 2017 revival of Hello, Dolly!, starring Bette Midler and David Hyde Pierce.

Simard played Miss Hannigan in the St. Louis Muny production of Annie from July 18–25, 2018. A St. Louis reviewer wrote that Simard "…is nothing less than incredible in the role. She is hilarious as the head of the orphanage, causing the crowd to burst into laughter for much of her time on-stage. Her rendition of "Little Girls" is not to be missed. With impeccable comedic timing, a wonderful voice, and all-around talent, [she] gives a performance that makes it impossible to look away."

In August 2018, it was announced that Simard would join the Tony-nominated musical Mean Girls as Mrs. Heron, Ms. Norbury, and Mrs. George that September, replacing Kerry Butler. Her last performance was on December 8, 2019.

In October 2019, it was announced that Simard would join the gender-swapped revival of Company as Sarah. From February 26 to March 6, 2022, she took over the role of Joanne due to the indisposition of Patti LuPone.

In 2023, she originated the role of Stepmother in Once Upon a One More Time.

Television and film
Simard has been seen on television in Younger, The Good Wife, Law & Order: Special Victims Unit, Law & Order, and The King of Queens, and also appeared in the 2000 comedy film The Flintstones in Viva Rock Vegas.

Personal life
On October 3, 2004, Simard married Brad Robertson, whom she met when he was the light board operator for the off-Broadway production of I Love You, You're Perfect, Now Change.

Theater credits

Filmography

Film

Television

Awards and nominations

References

External links
 Official website

Living people
American musical theatre actresses
American stage actresses
People from Litchfield, New Hampshire
1970 births
20th-century American actresses
21st-century American actresses

Jennifer Simard


Ange-Jacques Gabriel (; 23 October 1698 – 4 January 1782) was the principal architect of King Louis XV of France.  His major works included the Place de la Concorde, the École Militaire, and the Petit Trianon and opera theater at the Palace of Versailles.  His style was a careful balance between French Baroque architecture and French neoclassicism.

Biography

Early life and career
Ange-Jacques Gabriel was born on 23 October 1698, to a famous Parisian family of architects, and was connected by marriage with another celebrated architect of the time, François Mansart. His grandfather was an architect, and his father, Jacques Gabriel (1667-1742) received the title of Controller of the Buildings of the King at the age of twenty-one.  His father's major projects included the Hotel de Ville of Rennes and the Place Royale (now Place de la Bourse) in Bordeaux. The young Ange-Jacques became a member of the Académie royale d'architecture in 1728, and assisted his father on the Place de la Bourse.  He became the principal assistant to his father as Premier Architecte at the Versailles from 1735 and, after his father's death, succeeded him as chief architect of the King.

In his new position, he served under the supervision of two successive Directors of the Buildings of the King, Tournehem and Abel-François Poisson, the Marquis de Marigny, the brother of the King's mistress and cultural advisor, Madame de Pompadour.

Place Louis XV (now Place de la Concorde)

The Place Louis XV, today's Place de la Concorde was conceived in 1748 and completed in 1772, and was Gabriel's first major project. He was asked to find a compromise between several competing plans for the development of the marshy land between the gates of the  Tuileries Palace gardens and the new Champs-Elysees, land donated by the King.  Gabriel's design, combining elements of the earlier schemes, left the view toward the Seine open, and preserved unobstructed the long axis between the Tuileries and the Champs-Elysees. On the north side of the Place, he built two symmetrical palaces, leaving a gap between them, creating a new north–south axis, the Rue Rye Royale, connecting the Place to the Madeleine church, then under construction. The facades of the palaces, with rows of Corinthian columns, were modeled after the colonnades of the Louvre.
The centerpiece of the square was an equestrian statue of Louis XV.  The project was finalized in 1754 and was completed in 1763. The statue of Louis XV was removed during the French Revolution, and the obelisk, statues and fountains were added in the 19th century.

Ecole Militaire

Louis XV decided in 1751 to create the Ecole Militaire, the first French military academy, to train five hundred young men from poor noble families "gentlemen" in the art of warfare.  The site chosen was next to the plain of Grenelle, on the left bank to the west of the city center.  Gabriel's plan called for a "chateau" with two wings flanking a central pavilion with a dome, similar to that of the Louvre.  The building featured a facade with a colonnade of the Doric order, and to the rear had a large courtyard  with a facade of superimposed orders of columns, opening onto Place Fontenoy,  A chapel was artfully integrated into the architecture of the main building.  The interior featured a lavishly-decorated salon, now the Salle des Marechals, connected to the grand floor by a majestic ramp, and the Chapel of Louis IX, or Saint Louis, the patron saint of the Army.   Two additional wings along Avenue de la Motte-Piquet were added in the 19th century.

The Petit Trianon

At the request of Madame Pompadour, Gabriel had made plans for a smaller pavilion at Versailles away from the main palace and the Trianon.   With the end of the expensive Seven Years' War Louis XV approved the plans, and between 1763 and 1768 the small chateau was constructed.  The building was cubic, and each facade was different; each was  decorated with pilasters, columns and pediments in perfect proportion and harmony. The facades of the Petit Trianon represented in its most pure form the emerging style of Neoclassicism in France.

Royal Opera of Versailles

Much of his attention was devoted to modifications of the Palace of Versailles desired by Louis XV.  The palace lacked a proper opera theater;  a theater had been commanded under Louis XIV in 1682  for the end of the North Wing but the project had been put on hold due to its cost of the King's wars and the complexity of meeting the needs of the Court.    Gabriel made a new proposal for the same sit in 1748, but it was also put on hold due to the cost.  occupied himself with numerous modifications to the exterior of the Palace, notably the completion and extension of the North Wing, following closely the original designs of Mansard  This was completed in 1764.

The Opera project was revived in 1765 and was accelerated in 1770 for the celebrations of the marriage of the Dauphin, the future Louis XVI, to the Archiduchesse of Austria, Marie-Antoinette.   To finish the project quickly and at lower cost, the theater was made entirely of wood, painted to resemble marble, but also giving it exceptionally good acoustics.  The theater was in blue and gold, made in shape of truncated ellipse or oval, surrounded by tiers of boxes, decorated with carved and gilded wood, illuminated by three thousand candles whose light was reflected in mirrors. By this time Louis XV had a new mistress, Madame Du Barry, and the royal box, the size of three ordinary boxes, had a grill to protect their privacy.  Sculptures by Augustin Pajou and a painted ceiling by Louis Jean-Jacques Durameau completed the interior.  Gabriel and his chief architectural engineer, Blaise Arnaud, studied installing a mechanism to hoist the floor of the theater up to the level of the stage, to create an enormous ballroom, but this was never completed.

Death
His final projects were the completion of the facades of the buildings he designed for the Place de la Concorde; the former Hôtel de Coislin, and the Hotel Crillon, finished in 1770. and the building of what today is the Hotel de la Marine, the headquarters of the French Navy until 2016,  which was finished in 1774.
He died in Paris in 1782.

Style
His sober rationality in planning and detail promoted the transition from Rococo to Neoclasscism.  He was not especially known for boldness or originality; borrowing extensively from the French classicism and early classical models, particularly from the Louvre.   He was known for his craftsmanship, his ability to balance the animation of the Baroque style with the more restrained neoclassicism,  the proportions and  balance and careful detail of his buildings, and his ability to create dramatic and harmonious ensembles of monumental buildings, as he did in the Place de la Concorde.

Major works

 Place de la Bourse, Bordeaux, 1730–1775, begun by his father, after 1740 completed by Gabriel
 Extension and transformations at the Château de Choisy, 1740–1777
Château de Compiègne, 1750 onwards
 The Pavillon du Butard, 1750 at La Celle-Saint-Cloud.
 Place de la Bourse, Bordeaux, 1755 (as Place Royale)
 Extension of the Château de Menars (Loir-et-Cher), 1760–1764, for Madame de Pompadour
Petit Trianon, at Versailles, 1762 to 1768
 L'École Militaire on the  Champ de Mars, Paris
 L'Opéra at the Château de Versailles, 1769–70
Place de la Concorde (as Place Louis XV), 1772
 Hôtel de la Marine, Place de la Concorde, 1775
 Hôtel de Crillon, Place de la Concorde

See also
Neoclassicism in France
Louis Quinze

Notes

Bibliography

 .

 . Also at Oxford Art Online (subscription required).

External links

Ange-Jacques Gabriel at Great Buildings Online

1698 births
1782 deaths
18th-century French architects
Architects from Paris
Members of the Académie royale d'architecture
Architects from Versailles
French Baroque architects
French neoclassical architects

Ange-Jacques Gabriel