Arnold Henry White (1 February 1848 – 5 February 1925) was an English journalist and antisemitic campaigner against immigration.

Early life
In 1879, he married Helen Constance (1849 – 1918), only daughter of Lowell Price of Farnham Royal, Buckinghamshire. She predeceased him and they had one son who was called Murray.

Politics
White investigated the East End of London and wrote an account in The Problems of a Great City (1886). White attacked the 'pauper foreigners' (predominantly Jewish), who blamed for uninhabitable dwellings, increased unemployment, and the spread of socialism (he later declared to Lord Salisbury that 'an undue proportion of the dangerous anarchists in this country are foreign Jews'. He stood unsuccessfully as a Liberal for Mile End in 1886. However White broke away from the Liberals when Gladstone refused to condemn the Irish Plan of Campaign and stood unsuccessfully as a Liberal Unionist for Tyneside in 1892 and 1895.

White then campaigned against Jewish immigration from Russia, and as an agent of Baron de Hirsch he went to Russia to try to persuade the Tsar's government to found a Jewish colony in Argentina. A eugenicist, White felt that Jewish immigration was reducing England to the world's 'rubbish heap'.

Geoffrey Alderman has argued that after visiting Russia in 1890, White transitioned towards a stance of virulent racial antisemitism, arguing that the problem of Jews in the UK was 'not…of numbers, nor of habits, nor of occupations…but the fact that, good, or bad or indifferent the orthodox immigrants belong to a race and cling to a community that prefers to remain aloof from the mainstream of our national life, by shunning intermarriage with Anglo-Saxons'.

In 1899 he published the book The Modern Jew (London, W. Heinemann).

In 1900 White visited the Mediterranean Fleet of the Royal Navy as the guest of Admiral Charles Beresford and in June 1901 he sent the Daily Mail a private letter from Beresford's which complained about naval deficiencies. White was also friends with Admiral Sir John Fisher, who shared an antagonism towards the new German High Fleet. White wrote an article which favoured a preventative attack on this fleet in its harbours which angered the Kaiser and Arthur Balfour. When some English journalists visited Germany in a goodwill mission in April 1907 the Kaiser insisted on White's exclusion.

In 1901 appeared Efficiency and Empire, which is White's best-known book.

In 1903 White was sent to Brixton Prison in contempt of court when he wrote in August 1903 an article for The Sun on the fraudster Whitaker Wright whilst the case was sub judice.

White stood unsuccessfully as an independent for Londonderry North in the 1906 general election.

Journalism
In 1907 he began his column in the weekly newspaper The Referee, writing under the name Vanoc. He also sat on the council for the Eugenics Education Society and supported compulsory military service, which led to the Duke of Bedford becoming his patron.

During the Great War, he wrote The Hidden Hand, which claimed to have uncovered a plot to Germanize Britain. He died in 1925 and requested in his will that on his grave there would be a plain wooden cross inscribed with his name, date of death and the words 'for England'.

Notes

1848 births
1925 deaths
English male journalists
Liberal Party (UK) politicians
Liberal Unionist Party parliamentary candidates
Antisemitism in England
Anti-immigration politics in the United Kingdom

Arnold White


Cider ( ) is an alcoholic beverage made from the fermented juice of apples. Cider is widely available in the United Kingdom (particularly in the West Country) and the Republic of Ireland. The UK has the world's highest per capita consumption, as well as the largest cider-producing companies. Ciders from the South West of England are generally higher in alcoholic content. Cider is also popular in many Commonwealth countries, such as India, South Africa, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. As well as the UK and its former colonies, cider is popular in Portugal (mainly in Minho and Madeira), France (particularly Normandy and Brittany), Friuli, and northern Spain (specifically  Asturias and Basque Country). Germany also has its own types of cider with Rhineland-Palatinate and Hesse producing a particularly tart version known as Apfelwein. In the U.S. and Canada, varieties of alcoholic cider are often called hard cider to distinguish it from non-alcoholic apple cider or "sweet cider", also made from apples. In Canada, cider cannot contain less than 2.5% or over 13% absolute alcohol by volume.

The juice of most varieties of apple, including crab apples, can be used to make cider, but cider apples are best. The addition of sugar or extra fruit before a second fermentation increases the ethanol content of the resulting beverage. Cider alcohol content varies from 1.2% to 8.5% ABV or more in traditional English ciders, and 3.5% to 12% in continental ciders. In UK law, it must contain at least 35% apple juice (fresh or from concentrate), although CAMRA (the Campaign for Real Ale) says that "real cider" must be at least 90% fresh apple juice. In the US, there is a 50% minimum. In France, cider must be made solely from apples.

In 2014, a study found that a  bottle of mass-market cider contained five teaspoons (20.5 g) of sugar, nearly the amount the WHO recommends as an adult's daily allowance of added sugar, and 5–10 times the amount of sugar in lager or ale.

Perry is a similar product to cider made by fermenting pear juice. When distilled, cider turns into fruit brandy.

Appearance and types

The flavour of cider varies. Ciders can be classified from dry to sweet. Their appearance ranges from cloudy with sediment to completely clear, and their colour ranges from almost colourless to amber to brown. The variations in clarity and colour are mostly due to filtering between pressing and fermentation. Some apple varieties will produce a clear cider without any need for filtration. Both sparkling and still ciders are made; the sparkling variety is the more common.

Modern, mass-produced ciders closely resemble sparkling wine in appearance. More traditional brands tend to be darker and cloudier. They are often stronger than the mass-produced varieties and taste more strongly of apples. Almost colourless, white cider has the same apple juice content as conventional cider but is harder to create because the cider maker has to blend various apples to create a clearer liquid. White ciders tend to be sweeter and more refreshing. They are typically 7–8 % ABV in strength. Black cider, by contrast, is dry amber premium cider which has an alcohol content of 7–8 % ABV.

Etymology
The word cider is first mentioned in Middle English in biblical use as sicer / ciser "strong drink", "strong liquor" in the 13th century and as sither(e) / cidre "liquor made from the juice of fruits" → "beverage made from apples" in the 14th century. It was probably first borrowed from Old French primitive form sizre "fermented beverage" (Eadwine Psalter, LXVIII, 14) and then from another younger French form cistre, later sidre, cidre "beverage made from fruits".

The specific meaning "fermented beverage from apples" appears in Old French for the first time by the Norman chronicler Wace in 1130 / 1140 (Wace, conception de Nostre Dame). The Old French word * () is from Gallo-Romance * found in Medieval Latin by the English author Alexander Neckam (Neckam, De nominibus utensilium). It is an altered form of Church Latin  "fermented drink", itself borrowed from Greek , ultimately from Hebrew , "intoxicating liquor".

The cognates in the different Romance languages : Spanish, Portuguese , Italian , etc., in the Germanic languages : German Zider, etc. are all from French and Breton , Welsh  (through an English form) probably too.

By the 19th century, cider referred to the expressed juice of apples, either before fermentation as sweet cider, or after fermentation, a hard cider.

Cider styles

Geography and origins

Cider is an ancient beverage. The first recorded reference to cider dates back to Julius Caesar's first attempt to invade Britain in 55 BCE where he found the native Celts fermenting crabapples. He would take the discovery back through continental Europe with his retreating troops. In the cider market, ciders can be broken down into two main styles, standard and specialty. The first group consists of modern ciders and heritage ciders. Modern ciders are produced from culinary apples such as Gala. Heritage ciders are produced from heritage, cider specific, crab or wild apples, like Golden Russet. Historically, cider was made from the only resources available to make it, so style was not a large factor when considering the production process. Apples were historically confined to the cooler climates of Western Europe and Britain where civilisation was slow to develop record keeping. Cider was first made from crab apples, ancestors of the bittersweet and bittersharp apples used by today's English cider makers.

English cider contained a drier, higher-alcohol-content version, using open fermentation vats and bittersweet crab apples. The French developed a sweet, low-alcohol "cidre" taking advantage of the sweeter apples and the keeving process. Cider styles evolved based on the methods used, the apples available and local tastes. Production techniques developed, as with most technology, by trial and error. In fact, the variables were nearly too widespread to track, including: spontaneous fermentation, the type of vessels used, environmental conditions, and the apple varieties. Refinements came much later when cider became a commercial product and the process was better understood. However, since there is growing popularity in ciders, the production of specialty styles has begun to increase.

Modern ciders

Modern ciders are made from culinary apples and are lower in tannins and higher in acidity than other cider styles. Common culinary apples used in modern ciders include McIntosh, Golden Delicious, Jonagold, Granny Smith, Gala, and Fuji. A sweet or low alcohol cider may tend to have a strong aromatic and flavour character of apple, while drier and higher alcohol ciders will tend to produce a wider range of fruity aromas and flavours. Modern ciders vary in color from pale to yellow and can range from brilliant to a hazy clarity. Clarity can be altered through various cider making practices, depending on the cider maker's intentions.

Heritage ciders

Heritage ciders are made from both culinary and cider apples, including bittersweet, bittersharp, heirlooms, wild apples, and crabapples. Common apples used in heritage cider production include Dabinett, Kingston Black, Roxbury Russet, and Wickson. Heritage ciders are higher in tannins than modern ciders. They range in colour from yellow to amber ranging from brilliant to hazy. Clarity of heritage ciders also depends on the cider making practices used and will differ by cider maker as well.

In Canada, some cideries market "Loyalist-style" ciders, which are notably dry and made with McIntosh apples, a Canadian heritage varietal.

Specialty style ciders

Specialty style ciders are open to a lot more manipulation than modern or heritage style ciders. There is no restriction to apple varieties used and the list of specialty styles continues to expand. Listed on the USACM Cider Style Guide, specialty styles include: fruit, hopped, spiced, wood-aged, sour, and iced ciders. Fruit ciders have other fruit or juices added before or after fermentation, such as cherries, blueberries and cranberries. Hopped cider is fermented with added hops, common hop varieties being Cascade, Citra, Galaxy, and Mosaic. Spiced ciders have various spices added to the cider before, during, or after fermentation. Spices like cinnamon and ginger are popular to use in production. Wood-aged ciders are ciders that are either fermented or aged in various types of wood barrels, to aid in extraction of woody, earthy flavours. Sour ciders are high acid ciders that are produced with non-standard, non-Saccharomyces yeast and bacteria, which enhance acetic and lactic acid production, in order to reach a sour profile. Ice ciders can be made by using pre-pressed frozen juice or frozen whole apples. Whole apples either come frozen from the orchard, dependent on harvest date, or are stored in a freezer prior to pressing. When the pre-pressed juice or whole apples freeze, sugars are concentrated and mostly separated from the water. Whole apples are then pressed in order to extract the concentrated juice. For the pre-pressed juice the concentrated solution is drawn off while thawing occurs. Although, according to the Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau (TTB) cider producers can only label a product 'Ice Cider' if it is produced from apples naturally frozen outdoors.

Two styles not mentioned in the USACM Cider Style Guide are Rosé and Sparkling Cider. Rosé cider can be produced from apple varieties that have reddish-pink pulp, like Pink Pearl and Amour Rouge. Rosé ciders can also be created through the addition of food-grade red dyes, previously used red grape skins, like Marquette with high anthocyanin concentration, red fruits, rose petals, or hibiscus. Lastly, sparkling ciders can be produced through methods of direct carbonation, addition of carbon dioxide (CO2) or by Méthode Champenoise to re-create the traditional Champagne style.

Specific cider styles

Production

Scratting and pressing

Apples grown for consumption are suitable for cider making, though some regional cider-makers prefer to use a mix of eating and cider apples (as in Kent, England), or exclusively cider apples (as in the West Country, England) and West of England. There are many hundreds of varieties of cultivars developed specifically for cider making.

Once the apples are gathered from trees in orchards they are scratted (ground down) into a pulp. Historically this was done using pressing stones with circular troughs, or by a cider mill. Cider mills were traditionally driven by the hand, water-mill, or horse-power. In modern times, they are likely to be powered by electricity. The pulp is then transferred to a cider press where the juice is extracted.

Traditionally, the method for squeezing the juice from the apple pulp involves placing sweet straw or haircloths between stacked layers of apple pulp. Today, apples can be quickly pressed on a mechanized belt press. The juice, after being strained in a coarse hair-sieve, is then put into either open vats or closed casks. The remaining solids (pomace) are given to farm animals as winter feed, composted, discarded or used to make liqueurs.

Fermentation

Fermentation of ciders occurs by a very similar mechanism to the fermentation of wine. The process of alcoholic fermentation is characterised by the conversion of simple sugars into ethanol by yeasts, especially Saccharomyces cerevisiae. This is because, as "Crabtree positive" yeasts, they produce ethanol even during aerobic fermentation; in contrast, Crabtree-negative yeasts produce only biomass and carbon dioxide. This adaptation allows them a competitive edge in the fermentation of ciders due to their high alcohol tolerance, and because of this tolerance, it is common for ciders to be fermented to dryness, although that is not always the case. Fermentations will carry on until the fermentation is stopped or the yeasts run out of nutrients and can no longer metabolise, resulting in a "stuck" fermentation.

Steps taken before fermentation might include fruit or juice blending, titratable acidity and pH measurements and sometimes adjustments, and sulfur dioxide and yeast additions. Fermentation is carried out at a temperature of . This temperature would be low for most kinds of fermentation, but is beneficial for cider, as it leads to slower fermentation with less loss of delicate aromas. Fermentation can occur due to natural yeasts that are present in the must; alternately, some cider makers add cultivated strains of cider yeast, such as Saccharomyces bayanus.

During the initial stages of fermentation, there are elevated levels of carbon dioxide as the yeasts multiply and begin to break down the sugar into ethanol. In addition to fermentative metabolism of yeast, certain organoleptic compounds are formed that have an effect on the quality of cider, such as other alcohols, esters and other volatile compounds. After fermentation, racking occurs into a clean vessel, trying to leave behind as much yeast as possible. Shortly before the fermentation consumes all the sugar, the liquor is "racked" (siphoned) into new vats. This leaves dead yeast cells and other undesirable material at the bottom of the old vat. At this point, it becomes important to exclude airborne acetic bacteria, so vats are filled completely to exclude air. The fermenting of the remaining available sugar generates a small amount of carbon dioxide that forms a protective layer, reducing air contact. This final fermentation creates a small amount of carbonation. Extra sugar may be added specifically for this purpose. Racking is sometimes repeated if the liquor remains too cloudy.

Apple-based juice may also be combined with fruit to make a fine cider; fruit purées or flavourings can be added, such as grape, cherry, raspberry, or cranberry.

The cider is ready to drink after a three-month fermentation period, although it is more often matured in the vats for up to three years.

Blending and bottling

For larger-scale cider production, ciders from vats produced from different varieties of apple may be blended to accord with market taste. If the cider is to be bottled, usually some extra sugar is added for sparkle. Higher quality ciders can be made using the champagne method, but this is expensive in time and money and requires special corks, bottles, and other equipment. Some home brewers use beer bottles, which work perfectly well, and are inexpensive. This allows the cider to become naturally carbonated.

Chemistry

Flavour compounds
Tannins are crucial flavour compounds in cider. Since perfecting the tannin content in the cider is needed for optimal success, the tannins or "polyphenols of apples are largely implicated in cider quality." They are important because they control the astringency and bitterness of the cider. Tannins are necessary components to focus on when producing cider because the length of the aftertaste of the cider (astringency) and bitterness are both strong chemicals that affect people's opinion on the cider. Tannins are polyphenol compounds that are naturally occurring in apples. Depending on the type of cider apple the producer is using, the tannin levels will be different. The more well-known ciders typically have lower tannin levels while traditional ciders have more. One example of a common tannin present in cider is Procyanidin B2.

The acids in cider play a vital role in both the cider making process and in the final flavour of a finished cider. They are present in both apples and cider, and add a sour taste and a pungent odor to these respective substances. Acids also serve as a preservative in the cider since microbes grow less in lower pH environments and contribute to the fermentation process. Most ciders have a pH of between 3.3 and 4.1. The primary acid found in apples is malic acid which accounts for around 90% of the acid content in apples. Malic acid contributes to the tart and sour flavours found in cider, and typically between 4.5 and 7.5 grams of malic acid per litre of cider is preferred. Malic acid is also used to determine apple ripeness for harvesting, as its concentration decreases as the fruit ripens. Lactic acid is also commonly found in cider, and it is mainly formed from malo-lactic fermentation, a process that converts malic acid into lactic acid. This process rounds out the flavour of the cider while reducing a lot of the acidity and producing carbon dioxide as well. Other acids such as citric acid can be used to add taste after fermentation, but these acids are not typically found in high concentration in apples naturally.

Most of the natural sugar in apples are used up in the fermentation process and are converted into alcohol, and carbon dioxide. If the fermentation goes all the way, the cider will have no perceivable residual sugar and be dry. This means that the cider will not taste sweet, and might show more bitterness, or acidity. Ciders are made in many parts of Europe and in the United States and each country has different representations of cider with different flavour compounds. Keeving is a traditional method of fermentation with low amounts of nitrogen in French and English ciders that is intended to slow down the rate of fermentation in hopes of retaining high esters as well as retaining some residual sugar in the bottled cider to increase effervescence in the aging process. Ciders can be back sweetened, after fermentation is complete to add a sweet taste and balance out acids, tannins, and bitterness. Natural sugar can be used but this can restart fermentation in a bottle if not filtered correctly. Artificial sweeteners can be used which are non-fermentable but some of these create an aftertaste, such as saccharin or sucralose, yet some of these are known for adding off flavour compounds.

Apples to cider
An important component in cider-making is the addition of sulphur dioxide to inhibit the growth of many spoilage bacteria or yeasts in the juice. This encourages the inoculated yeast to dominate the juice environment, converting sugars to alcohol. Once sulfur dioxide dissolves in the juice, it converts into a pH dependent mixture of bisulfite, sulfite ions, and molecular sulfur dioxide. The "unbound" sulfur dioxide provides the antimicrobial environment in the juice, while the bisulfite and sulfite ions contribute to flavour. The quantity of sulfur dioxide needed to inhibit microbial activity is directly related to the pH of the juice; lower pH means less should be added, while higher pH juice requires more. Many cider producers add sulfur dioxide immediately after pressing and juicing, but before fermentation. However, in some cases it can be added afterwards to act as an antioxidant or stabiliser. This prevents the finished cider from releasing hydrogen peroxide or aldehydes that produce "off" odors and flavours.

Nitrogen is also a very important nutrient supporting yeast growth and fermentation in cider. Yeast require different forms of nitrogen to take up and use themselves so nitrogenous compounds are often added to apple juice. The mixture of nitrogen-containing compounds that yeast can use are referred to as 'Yeast Assimilable Nitrogen', or YAN. Even though YAN can be added into juice before fermentation, there are other ways to affect the levels of nitrogen in the juice before pressing, like the maturity of the orchard or what type of fertiliser is used. Using a fertiliser with a good amount of nitrogen will help the roots of apple trees; nitrogen fixing bacteria on the roots will be able to provide the tree with more nitrogen that will be able to make its way into the fruit. A low crop load can also yield juices with more YAN than a high crop load because the nitrogen in more concentrated in the low number of apples instead of being distributed to many apples. While a sufficient amount of YAN is good for the yeast and ensures fermentation of the sugars in the juice to alcohol, some cider makers may choose to limit nitrogen because it is the limiting factor. When the yeast are starved for nitrogen, they stop fermenting and die off. This can be desirable if cider makers prefer their cider to have some more sugar than alcohol in their cider. However, limiting YAN should be done in moderation because too little nitrogen can lead to an increase in hydrogen sulfide (H2S) production which is responsible for a rotten egg-like smell.

Primary cider fermentation can be initiated by inoculating the cider must with selected yeast strains or by permitting indigenous yeast strains present on the fruit and in the cider production equipment to spontaneously commence fermentation without inoculation. Inoculation with different strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae and other yeast strains with strong fermentative metabolism traits, including Saccharomyces bayanus and Torulaspora delbrueckii strains, has been shown to produce few differences in cider phenolic compounds, save for concentrations of phloretin (see Phloretin) in samples that underwent malolactic fermentation. Spontaneous fermentation commenced by indigenous yeasts and finished by Saccharomyces cerevisiae can produce ciders with similar concentrations of important non-volatile acids, including lactic acid, succinic acid and acetic acid, while concentrations of volatile compounds such as methanol and 1-butanol, were present in different concentrations, dependent on apple cultivar. Extending the time during which the cider remains in contact with yeast lees increased concentrations of most of the minor volatile compounds present, especially fatty acids, ethyl esters and alcohols. Major volatile compound concentrations did not exhibit a similar pattern, with iso-butanol, amyl alcohols, and acetone decreasing 1-propanol decreasing.

Sparkling ciders can be produced using different methods, including the Champenoise method used to produce champagne. Use of different strains of indigenous Saccharomyces to perform secondary fermentation produced ciders with consistent alcohol and acidic characteristics, variable glycerol, acetaldehyde, ethyl acetate, methanol, propanol, i-butanol and 2-phenylethanol characteristics and acceptable sensory analysis results.

Yeast
The selection of yeast used for cider production is critical to the quality of the final product. As with other fermented beverages, like wine and beer, the strain of yeast used to carry out the alcoholic fermentation also converts precursor molecules into the odorants found in the final product. In general, two broad categories of yeast are used for cider making: commercially developed strains and wild, or autochthonous, strains. In either case, the species tend to be either Saccharomyces cerevisiae or Saccharomyces bayanus. Commercial strains are available for purchase from numerous distributors, and their characteristics are typically outlined in manuals from the companies. Selection for fermentation may be based on a yeast's ability to ferment at particular sugar concentrations, temperatures, or pH. Some producers may also select for yeasts that produce killer factors, allowing them to out-compete other yeast in the juice, or they may select yeast that contribute mouthfeel or specific aromas to the cider.

"Wild fermentations" occur when autochthonous yeast are allowed to carry out fermentation; indigenous yeasts can spontaneously initiate fermentation without any addition of other yeast strains by the cider maker. Autochthonous yeasts are wild yeast strains that are endemic to the specific location in which a cider is produced; this is the traditional method used for cider making, and many producers feel that the strains unique to their cidery contribute a sense of terroir to their product. Wild yeast populations can be incredibly diverse and commonly include species of Saccharomyces, Candida, Pichia, Hanseniaspora and Metschnikowia. Typically, the native yeast take up residence in the cidery, and can be important to the unique flavour of the product. Although it was once believed that the native yeast carrying out these spontaneous fermentations also came from the orchard itself, research has shown that the microbes cultured from apples in the orchard do not align with the microbes found during the various stages of fermentation, suggesting that the sole source of native yeast is the cidery. Indigenous yeast strain population dynamics are affected by climatic conditions, apple variety, geographic location, and cider making technologies used. These variables cause different regions to host unique endemic yeast populations. The particular composition of endemic yeast strains and the yeast's activity during fermentation are responsible for the unique characteristics of ciders produced in certain regions. Unique autochthonous yeast populations promote different compositions of volatile flavour compounds, which form distinct tastes, aromas, and mouthfeel in finished ciders. Using wild yeast populations for fermentation introduces variability to the cider making process that makes it more difficult to generate multiple batches of cider that retain consistent characteristics.

Aside from carrying out the primary fermentation of cider, yeast may also play other roles in cider production. The production of sparkling cider requires a second round of fermentation, and a second yeast selection. The yeast used for the secondary fermentation in sparkling cider production serve the same purpose as the yeast used in the champagne method of sparkling wine production: to generate carbonation and distinct aromas with a fermentation that occurs in the bottle. The yeast is selected based on critical properties, such as tolerance to high pressure, low temperature, and high ethanol concentration, as well as an ability to flocculate, which allows for riddling to remove the yeast when the fermentation has finished. Some researchers have also suggested that non-Saccharomyces yeasts could be used to release additional flavour or mouthfeel compounds, as they may contain enzymes, such as β-glucosidase, β-xylosidase, or polygalacturonase, which Saccharomyces yeast may not produce.

Not all yeast associated with cider production are necessary for fermentation; many are considered spoilage microbes and can be a significant source of off odors in the finished product. Brettanomyces species produce volatile phenols, especially 4-ethyl phenol, which impart a distinct aroma called "Bretty", typically described as "barnyard", "horsey", or "bandaid". While these aromas would be considered spoilage odors in wines, many cider producers and consumers do not consider them a fault. Yeast species like Hanseniaspora uvarum, Metschnikowia pulcherrima, Saccharomyces uvarum,
Zygosaccharomyces cidri, Candida pomicole, and Pichia membranifaciens have also been found to produce enzymes linked to generation of spoilage odors.

Festivals

The western British tradition of wassailing the apple trees and making an offering of cider and bread in Autumn to protect the fertility of the orchard appears to be a relatively ancient tradition, superficially dating back to the pre-Christian Early Medieval period. The autumn tradition of 'bobbing' for apples is due to the abundance of fruit at this time.

A modern cider festival is an organised event that promotes cider and (usually) perry. A variety of ciders and perries will be available for tasting and buying. Such festivals may be organised by pubs, cider producers, or cider-promoting private organisations.

Uses and variations

Calvados and applejack are strong liquors distilled from cider. They differ in their geographical origin and their method of distillation.

Calvados is made throughout Normandy, France, not just in the Calvados département. It is made from cider by double distillation. In the first pass, the result is a liquid containing 28–30% alcohol. After the second pass, the concentration of alcohol is about 40%.

Applejack is a strong alcoholic beverage made in North America by concentrating cider, either by the traditional method of freeze distillation or by true evaporative distillation. In traditional freeze distillation, a barrel of cider is left outside during the winter. When the temperature is low enough, the water in the cider starts to freeze. If the ice is removed, the (now more concentrated) alcoholic solution is left behind in the barrel. If the process is repeated often enough, and the temperature is low enough, the alcohol concentration is raised to 20–30% alcohol by volume. Home production of applejack is popular in Europe.

Ice cider (French: cidre de glace), originating in Quebec and inspired by ice wine, has become a Canadian speciality, now also being produced in England. For this product, the apples are frozen either before or after being harvested. Its alcohol concentration is 9–13 % ABV. Cidre de glace is considered a local speciality in Quebec and can fetch high prices on the international market. In Canada, ice cider is produced by natural, outdoor freezing. In Europe and the United States, a similar product may be achieved through artificial, interior freezing, though often not under the name 'ice cider.'

Pommeau, a popular apéritif in Normandy, is a drink produced by blending unfermented apple juice and apple brandy in the barrel (the high alcoholic content of the spirit prevents fermentation of the juice and the blend takes on the character of the aged barrel).

Cocktails may include cider. Besides kir and snakebite, an example is Black Velvet in a version of which cider may replace champagne.

Cider may also be used to make vinegar. Apple cider vinegar is noted for its high acidity and flavour.

Related drinks

Other fruits can be used to make cider-like drinks. The most popular is made from fermented pear juice, known as perry. It is called poiré in France and produced mostly in Lower Normandy there. A branded sweet perry known as Babycham, marketed principally as a women's drink and sold in miniature champagne-style bottles, was once popular in the UK but has become unfashionable. Another related drink is a form of mead, known as cyser. Cyser is a blend of honey and apple juice fermented together.

Although not widely made in modern times, various other pome fruits can produce palatable drinks. Apicius, in Book II of De re coquinaria, includes a recipe calling for quince cider.

National varieties

Europe

Before the development of rapid long-distance transportation, regions of cider consumption generally coincided with those of cider production. As such, cider was said to be more common than wine in 12th-century Galicia and certainly the idea of it was present in England by the Conquest of 1066, using crab apples: the word "Wassail" is derived from a Saxon phrase, "wæs hæil": it is what would have been said by Saxons as a toast at Yuletide. Southern Italy, by contrast, though indeed possessing apples, had no tradition for cider apples at all and like its other neighbours on the Mediterranean Sea preserved the Roman tradition of apples as an ingredient for desserts, as evidenced by the frescoes at Herculaneum and Pompeii, descriptions by Classical writers and playwrights, and Apicius, whose famous cookbook does not contain a single recipe for fermenting apples but rather includes them as part of main courses, especially accompanying pork.

Austria

In Austria, cider is made in the southwest of Lower Austria, the so-called "Mostviertel" and in Upper Austria as well as in parts of Styria. Almost every farmer there has some apple or pear trees. Many farmers also have a kind of inn called a "Mostheuriger", similar to a heuriger for new wine, where they serve cider and traditional fare. Non-sparkling cider is typically called "Most". Austria's most popular sparkling cider Goldkehlchen is produced in south Styria and marketed internationally since 2013 by the company founders Adam and Eva.

Belgium

Cidrerie Ruwet SA, established in 1898, is the only independent craft cider producer in Belgium. In addition to their own brand Ruwet, the company produces 'high-end' ciders for private labels.

Heineken owns the other Belgian cider maker Stassen SA, who in addition to their own local brands such as Strassen X Cider also produce Strongbow Jacques, a 5.5% ABV cider with cherry, raspberry, and blackcurrant flavours. Zonhoven-based Konings NV specialises in private label ciders for European retailers and offers a wide variety of flavours and packaging options to the beverage industry. Stella Artois Cidre is produced in Zonhoven and has been marketed since 2011.

Denmark

Despite a strong apple tradition, Denmark has little cider production. Six places that produce cider in Denmark are Pomona (since 2003), Fejø Cider (since 2003), Dancider (since 2004), Ørbæk Bryggeri (since 2006), Ciderprojektet (since 2008), and Svaneke Bryghus (since 2009). All are inspired mainly by English and French cider styles. The assortment of imported ciders has grown significantly since 2000, prior to that only ciders from Sweden, primarily non-alcoholic, were generally available. The leading cider on the Danish market is made by CULT A/S.
In 2008, Carlsberg launched an alcoholic cider in Denmark called Somersby cider which has an alcohol content of 4.7% and a sweet taste.

Finland

The best-known brands labelled as cider are Golden Cap, Fizz, and Upcider. They typically contain 4.5–4.7% volume of alcohol. Virtually all Finnish "cider" is produced from fermented apple (or pear) juice concentrate mixed with water and is not cider as per the traditional description of the drink. Flavoured ciders, available in a large selection, are very popular and widely available in stores, with a variety of flavours ranging from forest berry to rhubarb and vanilla.

France

France was one of the countries that inherited a knowledge of apple cultivation from both the Celtic Gauls and the later Romans, who ruled the country for approximately 500 years: both had knowledge of grafting and keeping apples. The earliest mentions of cider in this country go back to the Greek geographer Strabo: he speaks of the profusion of apple trees in Gaul and describes a cider-like drink.

In the 9th century, Charlemagne, in the Capitulars, ordered skilled brewers (the Sicetores) to always be present on his estates to make him ale, "pommé" (pomacium), perry and all the liquors liable to be used as drinks, and also ordered an expansion of planting apple trees in what is now Northern France.

French cidre () is an alcoholic drink produced predominantly in Normandy and Brittany. It varies in strength from below 4% alcohol to considerably more. Cidre Doux is a sweet cider, usually up to 3% in strength. 'Demi-Sec' is 3–5% and Cidre Brut is a strong dry cider of 4.5% alcohol and above. Most French ciders are sparkling. Higher quality cider is sold in champagne-style bottles (cidre bouché). Many ciders are sold in corked bottles, but some screw-top bottles exist.
In crêperies (crêpe restaurants) in Brittany, cider is generally served in traditional ceramic bowls (or wide cups) rather than glasses. A kir Breton (or kir normand) is a cocktail apéritif made with cider and cassis, rather than white wine and cassis for the traditional kir. The Domfrontais, in the Orne (Basse-Normandie), is famous for its pear cider (poiré). The calvados du Domfrontais is made of cider and poiré.

Some cider is also made in southwestern France, in the French part of the Basque Country. It is a traditional drink there and is making a recovery. Ciders produced here are generally of the style seen in the Spanish part of the Basque Country. A recently popular variety is the Akived, a piquant drink served cold.

Calvados, from Normandy, and Lambig from Brittany are a spirits made of cider through a process called double distillation. In the first pass, the result is a liquid containing 28%–30% alcohol. In a second pass, the amount of alcohol is augmented to about 40%.

Germany
German cider, usually called Apfelwein (apple wine), and regionally known as Ebbelwoi, Apfelmost (apple must), Viez (from Latin vice, the second or substitute wine), or Saurer Most (sour must), has an alcohol content of 5.5–7% and a tart, sour taste.

German cider is mainly produced and consumed in Hessen, particularly in the Frankfurt, Wetterau, and Odenwald areas, in Moselfranken, Merzig (Saarland) and the Trier area, as well as the lower Saar area and the region bordering on Luxembourg and in the area along the Neckar River in Swabia. In these regions, several large producers, as well as numerous small, private producers, often use traditional recipes. An official Viez route or cider route connects Saarburg with the border to Luxembourg.

Ireland

Cider is a popular drink in Ireland. A single cider, Bulmers, dominates sales in Ireland: owned by C&C and produced in Clonmel, County Tipperary, Bulmers has a connected history to the British Bulmers cider brand up until 1949. Outside the Republic of Ireland, C&C brand their cider as Magners. It is very popular in Ireland to drink cider over ice and encouraged in their advertising. Cidona, a non-alcoholic version of Bulmers, is a popular soft drink in Ireland and used to be a C&C-owned brand. However, in recent years, other ciders have begun to take a large share in the market, for example, Heineken's 'Orchard Thieves'.

There has been a renaissance in the smaller artisanal cider producers since 2010. These now number more than a dozen across the island of Ireland and offer the consumer a broad range of differing, typically non-mainstream flavour profiles.

Italy

Cider was once widely produced in northern Italy's apple growing regions, with a marked decline during fascist rule, due to the introduction of a law banning the industrial production of alcoholic beverages derived from fruits of less than 7% ABV, which was aimed at protecting wine producers.
Present laws and regulations are favourable to cider makers, but production has only survived in a few alpine locations, mostly in the regions of Trentino, and in Piedmont, where it is known as vin ëd pom (apple wine) or pomada, because it traditionally was left to ferment in a vat along with grape pomace, giving it a distinctive reddish colour.

Netherlands
In the Netherlands, cider is not as commonly available as in its surrounding countries. In 2007, Heineken started testing a cider-based drink branded Jillz in a number of bars throughout the country. The beverage, an alcopop made by blending sparkling water, fruit flavouring, malt, and cider, is marketed towards female drinkers as an alternative to beer. At the same time, Heineken also introduced Strongbow Gold as a secondary brand to provide the choice of a real cider, which was targeted to a male audience. Both beverages contain 5% alcohol by volume, which is similar to a typical draught beer in the Netherlands. Other brands are available in supermarkets, most noticeably Magners and Savanna Dry, and in liquor stores, generally, a broader range may be obtained.

Norway
In Norway, cider (sider) is a naturally fermented apple juice. Pear juice is sometimes mixed with the apple to get a better fermenting process started.

Three brands of sparkling cider with an ABV of approximately 10% are available to the Norwegian public through distribution by the monopoly outlet Vinmonopolet, Hardanger Sider Sprudlande from Hardanger, Krunesider from Bergen sourcing apples from Hardanger, and Liersider from Lier. In line with the law of 1975 prohibiting all advertising of alcoholic beverages of ABV above 2.5%, the products receive little exposure despite a few favourable press reviews.

Ciders of low alcohol levels are widely available, mostly brands imported from Sweden; carbonated soft drinks with no alcoholic content may also be marketed as "cider".

Portugal
Cider was once very popular in northern Portugal where its production was larger than wine production until the 11th century, but nowadays, its popularity has decreased and it is mostly consumed in the coasts of Minho, Âncora e Lima, where it is used as a refreshment for thirst. In some festivities, it is still used rather than wine. There is also a traditional production of the drink in Madeira.

Poland

Poland is the largest producer of apples in Europe. Cider is known in Poland as Cydr or Jabłecznik. In 2013, Poles drank 2 million litres of cider, which adds up to 1% of the country's annual alcohol sales. Sales more than doubled from the previous year. In the summer of 2014, Minister of Economy Janusz Piechociński supported in vain the creation of a draft law to legalise television cider publicity.

The category is just gaining popularity among consumers. Areas strong in cider production are focused around the centre of the country in the Masovian and Łódź voivodeships.
Large quantities of Polish apple concentrate are exported to UK, Scandinavia, and Ireland for cider production.

Spain

The making and drinking of cider is traditional in several areas of northern Spain, mainly Galicia, the Principality of Asturias, Cantabria, and the Basque Country.

The largest producer of cider in Spain is the Atlantic region of Asturias, where cider is considered not only a beverage but an intrinsic part of its culture and folklore. Asturias amounts more than 80% of the whole production of Spain. The consumption of cider in Asturias is of 54 litres per person/year, probably the highest in any European region.
One of the most popular ciders in Spain is called "El Gaitero" (the bagpipe player) which can be found everywhere in Spain and which is produced in this region. However, it must not be confused with the traditional Asturian cider as it is a sparkling cider more in the way of French ciders. It is a factory produced cider, sweet and very foamy, much like lambrusco, different from the more artisan and traditional cider productions. Recently, new apple tree plantations have been started in grounds belonging to the old coal mines, once important in Asturias.

The first testimony about cider in Asturias was made by Greek geographer Strabo in 60 BC.

The traditional Asturian sidra is a still cider of 4–8% strength, although there are other varieties. Traditionally, it is served in sidrerías and chigres, pubs specialising in cider where it is also possible to have other drinks as well as traditional food. One of the most outstanding characteristics is that it is poured in very small quantities from a height into a wide glass, with the arm holding the bottle extended upwards and the one holding the glass extended downwards. This technique is called escanciar un culín (also echar un culín) and is done to get air bubbles into the drink (espalmar), thus giving it a sparkling taste like Champagne that lasts a very short time.
Cider is also poured from barrels in the traditional Espichas.

Cider has also been popular in the Basque Country for centuries. Whilst Txakoli and Rioja wines became more popular in Biscay, Álava, and Navarre during the 19th century, there is still a strong Basque cider culture in Gipuzkoa. From the 1980s, government and gastronomic associations have worked to revive this culture in all Basque regions. Known as sagardoa (IPA: /s̺a'gardoa/), it is drunk either bottled or in a cider house (called a sagardotegi), where it is poured from barrels. Most of "sagardotegis" are in the north of Gipuzkoa (Astigarraga, Hernani, Urnieta, and Usurbil), but they can be found everywhere in Gipuzkoa, the northwest of Navarre and the northern Basque country.

Cider tasting events are popular in the Basque province of Gipuzkoa, where stalls are set up on the street selling the drink from several producers at cheap prices and served until stock runs out.

Sweden

Due to Swedish law, stores in Sweden cannot sell cider with less than 15 percentage juice by volume under the name Cider. "Cider" with none or less than 15% juice is instead usually sold as "Apple/Pear beverage of cider character" (Swedish: "Äpple-/Pärondryck med Ciderkaraktär"). Brands of cider in Sweden include Rekorderlig, Kivik, Herrljunga and Kopparberg.

Switzerland
In Switzerland cider is called Suure Most or Saft in the German-speaking part, Cidre in the Romandy, and sidro in the Italian-speaking regions. The drink was made popular in the 19th century when apple production increased due to progress in pomology. At the turn of the century, cider consumption was at 28.1 litres per person. In the 1920s, advantages in the pasteurisation of apple juice and the emerging temperance movement led to a strong decrease of cider production.

Today, typical Swiss cider consists of fermented apple juice mixed with 30% fresh juice which is added for sweetness. This drink is then pasteurised and force-carbonated. Imported cider is not common as according to Swiss laws cider must contain more than 70% of juice.

United Kingdom

There are two broad main traditions in cider production in the UK: the West Country tradition and the eastern Kent and East Anglia tradition. The former are made using a much higher percentage of true cider apples and so are richer in tannins and sharper in flavour. Kent and East Anglia ciders tend to use a higher percentage of or are exclusively made from, culinary and dessert fruit; they tend to be clearer, more vinous and lighter in body and flavour.

At one end of the scale are the traditional, small farm-produced varieties. These are non-carbonated and usually cloudy orange in appearance. Britain's West Country contains many of these farms which have an abundance of ancient varieties of specialist cider-apples. Production is often on such a small scale, the product being sold only at the site of manufacture or in local pubs and shops. At the other end of the scale are the factories mass-producing brands such as Strongbow and Blackthorn.

Mass-produced cider, such as that produced by Bulmers, is likely to be pasteurised and force-carbonated. The colour is likely to be golden yellow with a clear appearance from the filtration. White ciders are almost colourless in appearance and only need contain 25% apple.

Americas
In the US, "cider" often refers to sweetened, unfiltered apple juice, traditionally made with a distinct sweet-tart taste, and in these regions, the fermented (alcoholic) beverage is known as "hard cider". In Canada, "cider" usually refers to the alcoholic drink, while the non-alcoholic juice may sometimes be called "apple cider".

Argentina
In Argentina, cider, or sidra is by far the most popular alcoholic carbonated drink during the Christmas and New Year holidays. It has traditionally been considered the choice of the middle and lower classes (along with ananá fizz and pineapple juice), whereas the higher classes would rather go for champagne or local sparkling wines for their Christmas or New Year toast. Popular commercial brands of cider are Real, La Victoria, "Rama Caida", Tunuyan. It was traditionally marketed in 0.72-litre glass bottles, similar to Champagne bottles, and PET bottles for the lower-end brands.

However, cider had a strong growth and is becoming a year-round beverage. Most brands now offer half-litre cans, and new flavors such as berries, peer, and some flavored with plants such as elderberry and cardamom.

Brazil
Just like the Argentinian marked, cider, or sidra is a very popular alcoholic beverage during the festive seasons of Christmas and New Year's in Brazil. Just like in that country, it has also been the traditional choice of the middle and lower classes for traditional sparkling for said season. Cereser, one of the most traditional cider brands in Brazil, claims on its website that "in tune with the Brazilian market" it has diversified its product range along the years from the traditional apple flavour, to other more uncommon ones elsewhere in the world, with fruity flavours ranging from peach to grapes, and including even alcohol-free ciders on its product range.

Canada
Cider is produced commercially in every Canadian province except Manitoba, Newfoundland and Labrador and Saskatchewan, usually with a 5–7% alcohol content although the term is also used for some non-fermented apple juices. According to the Canadian Food and Drug Regulations, alcoholic cider is an alcoholic fermentation of apple juice that does not contain more than 13% absolute alcohol by volume (ABV) or less than 2.5% ABV.

Quebec cider is considered a traditional alcoholic beverage. It is generally sold in 750 ml bottles, has an alcohol content generally between 7% and 13% (with aperitifs ciders having alcohol content up to 20%), and can be served as a substitute for wine. As in the rest of the world, sparkling cider is getting more and more popular in Quebec and thanks to the law cider sold in the province can only be made from 100% pure apple juice. Cider making was, however, forbidden from the early years of British rule as it was in direct conflict with established British brewers' interests (most notably John Molson). In recent years, a new type called ice cider has been sold. This type of cider is made from apples with a particularly high level of sugar caused by natural frost.

The regulations regarding cider in Canada are fairly strict in terms of sourcing and alcohol content. For it to be legally sold as cider, it must be the product of the alcoholic fermentation of apple juice and it must contain no less than 2.5 and no more than 13.0 percent alcohol by volume. However, the list of ingredients that may be added during manufacture is quite flexible and allows for 17 different categories of foods, chemicals and gases.

Chile
Cider has been made in Chile since colonial times. Southern Chile accounts for nearly all cider production in the country. Chileans make a distinction between "sidra" ("cider"), in fact, sparkling cider, and "chicha de manzana" ("apple chicha"), a homemade cider that is considered of less quality.

Mexico
Two types of cider (sidra) are sold in Mexico. One type is a popular apple-flavoured, carbonated soft drink, sold under a number of soft drink brands, such as Sidral Mundet and Manzana Lift (both Coca-Cola FEMSA brands), Manzanita Sol (owned by PepsiCo), and Sidral Aga from Group AGA. The other type, alcoholic sidra, is a sparkling cider typically sold in Champagne-style bottles with an alcohol content comparable to beer. Sidra was, due to the expense of imported champagne, sometimes used as a substitute for New Year's Eve toasts in Mexico, as it is also a sweet, fruity drink. However, now the practice is to drink cider on Christmas Eve, celebrated with the family, and champagne on New Year's celebrated with friends. Cider beverages form a very small share of the Mexican alcoholic beverage market, with the figures for 2009 volume sales amounting to only 3.8 million litres.

United States

In the United States, the definition of "cider" is usually broader than in Europe and specifically Ireland and the UK. There are two types, one as traditional alcoholic hard cider and the other sweet or soft cider, often simply called apple cider. In the 2010s, hard cider experienced a resurgence in consumption in the United States. This has largely reversed in recent years, in part due to the rise of hard seltzer.

Uruguay
Cider fizz or fizz is a cider variety made by mixing and fermenting various fruit juices other than apple with cider, as ananá fizz (pineapple juice), frutilla fizz (strawberry juice) or durazno fizz (peach juice).

East Asia
Usually, "cider" in East Asia refers to a soft drink similar to Sprite or lemonade.

China
A popular drink in China is called "Apple cider vinegar" (). Shanxi Province is noted for the "vinegar" produced there.

Japan
In Japan, the terms  or "apple sparkling wine" usually refer to the alcoholic beverage to distinguish it from the sparkling unalcoholic soda drink, cider, although both terms are now interchangeably used. While Japan is not historically a cider-making country, there is currently a renaissance of new, younger cider makers in the prefectures of Aomori and Nagano, such as Aomori's A-Factory.

In 2019, the number of international ciders imported to Japan increased, signifying a start to its popularity among Japanese consumers.

South Asia

India
Recent economic growth has led to development of new categories of alcohol in India. Cider is one such category. New product launches are seen in almost all metropolitan cities. The nuanced taste and rich legacy of cider from the British era helps the prospects of the drink in the bored scenario of pale lagers.

Also a filtered non-alcoholic carbonated apple juice called "Appy Fizz" was introduced by Parle in India in 2005 and it became an instant hit. Recently, they have decided to push the brand beyond the ₹1,000 crore mark ($97.5 million).

Pakistan
Non-alcoholic, apple-flavoured carbonated drinks are popular in the country, with local brands such as Mehran Bottler's Apple Sidra and Murree Brewery's Big Apple in the market.

Africa

Kenya
East African Breweries launched Tusker Premium Cider in 2017.

South Africa
There are two major brands of cider produced in South Africa, Hunters and Savanna Dry. They are produced and distributed through Distell Group Limited. Hunters Gold was first introduced in South Africa in 1988 as an alternative to beer. The Hunters range includes Hunters Dry, Hunters Gold, Hunters Export and Hunters Edge launched in April 2017. Savanna Dry was introduced in 1996 and also comes in a Light Premium variety as well as in a Savanna Dark variant.

The Elgin Valley east of Cape Town grows around 60% of all the apples in South Africa. As a result, the region also has a vibrant craft cider scene, with brands like Sxollie, Everson's, Cluver & Jack, Windermere and Terra Madre all produced in the area.

Sxollie Cider is increasingly being exported around the world, especially to the UK. Almost 90% of all the Sxollie produced is exported. Sxollie is pronounced like "skollie". Sxollie's Pink Lady Cider won Supreme Champion at the International Cider Challenge in 2019.

Windermere Cider began brewing in 1994 and is regarded as the oldest craft cider brewery in South Africa.

Loxtonia Cider, produced in the Ceres area, was crowned the overall champion at the 11th International Cider Challenge in London in 2021. Loxtonia's Alexandra Blush Méthode Traditionelle was named Supreme Champion for 2021 and won the Rosé Trophy as the best cider made in the rosé style.

Oceania

Australia

In the Australia New Zealand the Food Standards Code defines cider as "fruit wine prepared from the juice or must of apples and no more than 25% of the juice or must of pears".
Cider has been made in Australia since its early settlement. Primarily this production has been for limited local usage, with national commercial distribution and sales dominated by three brands: Mercury Cider, Strongbow and Willie Smith's.

With the growth in interest in cider, the number of local producers has increased. Some cider producers are attempting to use more traditional methods and traditional cider apple varieties such as Henry's of Harcourt and Crucible in S.W. Victoria. In Western Australia, the number of cider producers has also grown in the southwest region, particularly in areas where wine is also produced.

New Zealand
In New Zealand, cider is categorised as a fruit wine and the rules which define what can be called a cider are very lax—the standards do not even specify a minimum for the amount of apple juice required to call a drink "cider". At the same time Ready to Drink beverages are not permitted for sale in supermarkets and grocery outlets. These two factors have resulted in the production of a wide range of low juice content, sweet, often flavoured drinks under the "cider" banner being used to circumvent this restriction. Most of these ciders are produced and marketed by the three large brewers (Lion Nathan, DB and Independent).

Most New Zealand ciders are made from concentrate or from reject apples from the country's significant export apple industry. These ciders are made year round with little consideration given to maturation.

A few producers have demonstrated that NZ apple production can translate into the manufacture of  ciders. Peckham's Cider is the principal producer in this class. They make whole juice ciders from apples grown specifically for cidermaking, principally from their own orchard of 30 heritage cider varieties. They have won Champion Cider in the NZ Cider Awards in 2015, 2016 and 2017.

All mass-produced ciders in New Zealand are loosely regulated with their minimum content of fruit juice and alcohol content (mostly 4 to 5%).

See also

 Fassbrause
 Hard soda
 List of cider brands
 List of cideries in the United States
 List of beverages

References

Further reading
 Farmhouse Cider & Scrumpy, Bob Bunker 1999
 Household Cyclopedia, 1881
 The History and Virtues of Cyder, R. K. French (Robert Hale 1982 - reprinted 2010)

External links

Apple drinks
Christmas food
Fermented drinks
World cuisine
Alcoholic drinks

Cider


Alexandre Pierre Moline de Saint-Yon (29 June 1786, Lyon – 17 November 1870, Bordeaux) was a French general, writer, and politician.

Biography
He was the son of Honore de Saint-Yon and Gabrielle Antoinette Rivoire Alexandre Moline, He graduated from the military school at Fontainebleau in 1805, with the rank of second lieutenant.  Promoted Lieutenant in 1807, Captain in 1809, he made the Prussian campaign before being sent to Spain under the command of Marshal Soult. Created a Knight of the Empire on 11 June 1810, he was wounded in Saint-Jean-de-Luz (1813) and was promoted to squadron leader and returned to France with Soult.  Aide of Napoleon's campaign in France, he was present at Ligny and Waterloo (1815).

Put on half pay by the Second Restoration, he devoted himself to literature.

The July Monarchy reactivated him. He became lieutenant-colonel (1830), Colonel (1831), Field Marshal (1835), Lieutenant-General (1844), Director of Personnel and Operations at the Department of War, Grand Officer of the Legion of Honor (7 November 1845), peer of France (10 November 1845) and on the same day, Minister of War.

He retired as Major General on 8 June 1848 and never reappeared on the political scene.

Works
 Ipsiboë, opera in 4 acts, music by Rodolphe Kreutzer, premiere at the Académie royale de musique 31 March 1824
 Mathilde ou les Croisades, opera
 Les Époux indiscrets, comic opera premiere at the Théâtre Feydeau, 1829
 François Ier à Chambord, opera in 2 actes, with G. du Fougeroux), music de Genestet, premiere at the Académie royale de musique 15 March 1830
 Les Amours de Charles II, comedy in 5 acts
 Fragment de l'histoire militaire de la France: guerres de religion, de 1585 à 1590, Paris, Anselin, 1834, in-8
 Notice historique sur le prince Eugène, duc de Leuchtenberg, Paris, Crapelet, 1838, in-8
 Les Deux Mina, chronique espagnole du dix-neuvième siècle, Paris, Berquet et Pétion, 1840, 3 vol. in-8
 Histoire des comtes de Toulouse, Paris, A. Bertrand, 1859–1861, 4 vol. in-8

Sources
 « Alexandre Moline de Saint-Yon », in Adolphe Robert, Edgar Bourloton et Gaston Cougny, Dictionnaire des parlementaires français (1789-1891), XIXe siècle
 « Alexandre Moline de Saint-Yon », in Charles Mullié, Biographie des célébrités militaires des armées de terre et de mer de 1789 à 1850, 1852

References

1769 births
1851 deaths
Military personnel from Lyon
Politicians from Lyon
French Ministers of War
Members of the Chamber of Peers of the July Monarchy
French generals
French military personnel of the Napoleonic Wars
Grand Officers of the Legion of Honour
Writers from Lyon

Alexandre Pierre Chevalier Moline de Saint-Yon


Zachary Trussell (born March 5, 1966), known professionally as Zachary "Zak" Stevens, is an American singer, best known as the second lead vocalist of the heavy metal band Savatage. He currently performs with the heavy metal band Circle II Circle. Stevens also has a degree in psychology but is not, as is often reported, a licensed, practicing psychologist.

Career
Stevens first achieved fame singing for a band called Wicked Witch. However, after Savatage co-founder Jon Oliva stepped down from the fore of the band at the conclusion of their tour in support of Streets: A Rock Opera in 1992 to concentrate on other projects, namely his other band Doctor Butcher and a Broadway-bound musical entitled Romanov, Savatage required a replacement. Oliva hand-picked his replacement, who was discovered and introduced to the band by Criss Oliva's best friend and guitar technician  Savatage's lead guitarist, and their long-time producer Paul O'Neill heard demos of Stevens and wanted him to sing for the band. After an initial audition, Stevens was considered to be the right man for the job and joined Savatage in 1993. He first appeared on the album Edge of Thorns. Stevens's vocals were considered to be a departure from that of Jon Oliva, and some Savatage fans prefer to distinguish between the Jon Oliva lead albums and those with Stevens on lead vocals. The album Dead Winter Dead contains lead vocals from both Oliva and Stevens and contains the song "Christmas Eve (Sarajevo 12/24)", which gave rise to and became a hit for the Trans-Siberian Orchestra. In 1996, Stevens appeared along with other Savatage members in the Trans-Siberian Orchestra project. His last album recorded with Savatage was The Wake of Magellan (1997), which some fans consider to be Savatage's best work in the post-1993 Savatage canon.

In 2000, Stevens quit Savatage, citing that he wanted to spend more time with his young family. During the winter of 2001, Zak started his comeback. His Savatage connections remained evident, as Jon Oliva produced the first Circle II Circle album, Watching in Silence,  and guitarist Chris Caffery recorded guitar on some songs.  Oliva and Caffery also co-wrote several of the songs on Watching in Silence.  In 2003, Stevens's band left Circle II Circle to join Jon Oliva's band Pain. Stevens then hired an all-new band. Circle II Circle has released three additional full-length albums since, 2005's The Middle of Nowhere, Burden of Truth in 2006, and Delusions of Grandeur in 2008. In April 2014 "Ancient Rites of the Moon", the first album of the Stardust Reverie Project (Graham Bonnet, Lynn Meredith, Bill Hudson and Melissa Ferlaak), was released. "Mighty Roar" becomes one of Stevens' most impressive songs to date.

During several gigs with Circle II Circle, not only were certain Savatage songs played but also entire albums featuring Stevens, among them The Wake of Magellan and Edge of Thorns. On July 30, 2015, Savatage reunited to perform at the first ever two-stage show at Wacken Open Air festival, and Stevens would perform with Savatage as well as Trans-Siberian Orchestra. After this, he was invited to sing with TSO on stage for their Winter 2015 tour. In November 2015, Zak appeared as the host on the second Stardust Reverie project album Proclamation of Shadows.

Discography

Savatage
 Edge of Thorns (1993)
 Handful of Rain (1994)
 Dead Winter Dead (1995)
 Japan Live '94 (1995)
 The Wake of Magellan (1997)
 Curtain Call (2024)

Trans-Siberian Orchestra albums
 Christmas Eve and Other Stories (1996)
 The Christmas Attic (1998)
 Beethoven's Last Night (2000)
 The Lost Christmas Eve (2004)
 Night Castle (2009)

Circle II Circle albums
 Watching in Silence (2003)
 The Middle of Nowhere (2005)
 Burden of Truth (2006)
 Delusions of Grandeur (2008)
 Consequence of Power (2010)
 Seasons Will Fall (2013)
 Reign of Darkness (2015)

Machines of Grace albums
 Machines of Grace (2009)

Empires of Eden
 Reborn in Fire (2010)

Stardust Reverie Project
 Ancient Rites of the Moon (2014)
 Proclamation of Shadows (2015)

Avalon
 "Neon Sirens" on Angels of the Apocalypse (2014)
 "Return to Eden", "Miles Away" and "Wasted Dreams" on Return to Eden (2019)

Sebastien
 "The Ocean" on Dark Chambers of Déjà Vu (2015)

EXXILES
"Oblivion" (2015, guest vocals)

Todd Grubbs
 "The Man in the Hat" and "Stay Alive" on As the Worm Turns (2015)

Art X
The Redemption of Cain (2016, guest vocals)

Archon Angel
 Fallen (2020)
 II (2023)

Tragedian
 Guest vocals on "Forces of the Light" on Seven Dimensions (2021)

Stranger Vision
 Guest vocals on "Before the Law" on Poetica (2021)

References

External links

1966 births
Living people
American baritones
American heavy metal singers
Savatage members

Zachary Stevens


John Reid Walker JP TD (4 June 1855 – 6 March 1934) was a British polo player and racehorse breeder.

He was the son of Andrew Barclay Walker and brother of William Walker, 1st Baron Wavertree and was educated at Rugby School.

He was an accomplished polo player and became a breeder of polo ponies and racehorses. He established the Ruckley Stud farm at his home, Ruckley Grange, near Shifnal, Shropshire. There he bred Invershin and Inkerman, both bay colts by the sire Invincible and both high class stayers. Invershin won back-to-back Gold Cups at Ascot in 1928 and 1929, and other good races including successive victories in the Caledonian Hunt and a Derby Cup. Inkerman's two most notable wins were in the 1923 Jockey Club Stakes at Newmarket and the 1924 Chester Vase.

He was a Justice of the Peace for Staffordshire and was appointed High Sheriff of Shropshire for 1917–18. He attained the rank of Colonel in the South Lancashire Regiment.

He married Katherine Howard, daughter of John Cartland. They had two sons and two daughters.

References

1855 births
1934 deaths
People educated at Rugby School
British polo players
High Sheriffs of Shropshire
British racehorse owners and breeders

John Reid Walker


The Debtors' Prison is a historic debtors' prison in Accomac, Virginia.  Constructed in 1783 as a house for the Accomack County jailer, it is the oldest public structure in the county.  It was converted to use as a debtors' prison in 1824, which purpose it served until 1849.  The prison was added to the Virginia Landmarks Register and the National Register of Historic Places in 1976; along with structures in Worsham and Tappahannock, both in Virginia as well, it is one of only three debtors' prisons in the country on the National Register.

History
The structure that stands today in central Accomac, not far from the Accomack County Courthouse, is the last survivor of a complex which initially included both a jail and a jailyard.  In 1775 the Accomack County court ordered a committee to "plan and lay off a
Draught for a new prison for this County."  Construction was completed on the building itself in 1782, in which year an inspection committee approved of it, but recommended "that a suitable wall made of Brick around
the Gaol at a convenient distance is absolutely necessary and that there ought to be a small house built at the public expense in one corner and adjoining the said wall for the residence of the jailor, without which we are of opinion that the prisoners cannot be kept in perfect security."  The county accepted these additions to the complex in 1784.  In 1969 archaeological work was undertaken by the Virginia Historic Landmarks Commission in the vicinity of the debtors' prison.  This revealed that the complex as completed in 1784 was seventy feet square and contained within a brick wall.  The jail was in the northeast corner of the square; the surviving jailor's house formed part of the yard's south wall, and was located at the west corner.  The contractor for the initial construction project was listed as one Selby Simpson.

By the first decades of the nineteenth century the jailer's house was already sorely in need of repair, and consequently the county began to study the possibility of finding an alternative use for the property.  At around the same time a state law had been passed requiring provision of separate facilities for debtors and felons.  Thus, in 1824 a committee that was set up by the county court reminded that body that the law did not actually require the county to provide quarters for a jailer; furthermore, such an arrangement was highly unusual, if not unheard-of, in any other county in Virginia.  Consequently, it was recommended that the house be reappropriated and reconfigured to serve as a debtors' prison, especially as it was thought that the proximity of the jailor's house to the jail posed a security risk.  The committee held that little work needed to be done to convert the jail to its new purpose, saying "that iron bars to the windows of inch iron and oak Batton doors to be hung outside, is all that is necessary to be done to the said house, to answer the purposes intended, because it is believed that debtors have no inducement to brake [sic] prison, the Law authorizes them with little trouble to discharge themselves whenever they wish so to do."  The conversion was finished quickly, and the house served in its new capacity until 1849, when imprisonment for debt was discontinued in Virginia.  The old jail and wall were demolished by the county in 1909; the debtors' prison was turned over to the Drummondtown Branch of Preservation Virginia (formerly known as the Association for the Preservation of Virginia Antiquities).  That organization undertook a partial renovation of the property in 1911, revisiting it for a fuller restoration in 1953.  From 1911 until 1927 the building was used as a library; today it is a museum of local history, and is furnished to represent a typical middle class home of the eighteenth century.  The Accomac debtors' prison was surveyed by the Historic American Buildings Survey between 1958 and 1961, when it was found to be in good condition; the formal report was placed on file in 1961. The building is open by appointment.

Design
Physically, the debtors' prison is a small building, measuring 18' by 30'; it is one story in height, three bays in length, and constructed of Flemish bond brick with glazed headers.  Originally, the house formed the southwest corner of a 70-foot-square jailyard, and a small portion of the yard's original brick wall can still be seen projecting from the northeast corner of the building.  A scar left by another portion of the same wall still exists on the northwest corner of the façade.  Both ends, and the south façade of the house, are fitted with a two-course stepped water table; none is employed on the front wall, which at one time faced onto the jailyard.  At the east end of the house is an exterior end chimney, while the west end has an interior one.  Today the window openings, which do not have shutters, are equipped with modern nine-over-nine sash, but they retain certain trappings of the building's conversion in 1824, including the iron lattice covering; also dating to the same time are the structure's heavy batten doors.  Two windows, one at the east end and one on the south façade, were bricked up in the twentieth century.  The same century saw the addition of a box cornice and slate roof to the house.  Only one outbuilding, a small wooden shed, was documented on the property by HABS.

The interior plan of the house is typical of a small hall-and-parlor dwelling of its era, containing two rooms on the main level and a further two in the attic.  The east room is the larger of the two on the main floor; in its southeast corner is an enclosed staircase which rises to the garrett.  The fireplace is treated with plain boards, which have been lapped in a way that is meant to recall a crossett surround; similar treatment of the chimneybreast can be found in the west room, which is otherwise unembellished.  A framed partition separates the two rooms, and is covered on both sides with horizontal beaded sheathing.  The whole interior is fitted with diagonal board doors.  The HABS investigation found that some refitting and redesigning of the interior rooms had taken place, but that finding out what changes were involved would have required significant removal of interior fittings; in addition, there was much evidence of repair, but little of outright alteration.

Significance
The Accomac debtors' prison is significant for a number of reasons; chief among them is that it is the oldest municipal building still standing in Accomack County.  In addition, it is a rare survivor of its type, and well illustrates the typical eighteenth-century penal building once common in Virginia.

Bibliography
Heite, Edward E., "Excavation of the Accomack Jailyard Wall," Quarterly Bulletin of the Archaeological Society of Virginia, 26 (1972).
Whitelaw, Ralph T., "Accomack County Debtors' Prison," 1946, ms. in possession of Drummondtown Branch of the Association for the Preservation of Virginia Antiquities

Notes and references

External links
 Accomac Debtors Prison - Preservation Virginia
 Debtor's Prison, State Route 764, Accomac, Accomack County, VA at the Historic American Buildings Survey (HABS)

Historic American Buildings Survey in Virginia
National Register of Historic Places in Accomack County, Virginia
Government buildings completed in 1783
Defunct prisons in Virginia
Debtors' prisons
Georgian architecture in Virginia
Buildings and structures in Accomack County, Virginia
Hall and parlor houses
Prisons on the National Register of Historic Places
Government buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in Virginia
Museums in Accomack County, Virginia
Prison museums in the United States
1783 establishments in Virginia

Debtors' Prison (Accomac, Virginia)


David Lawrence Jr. (born March 5, 1942 in New York City, New York) is an American nationally known newspaper editor and publisher who retired at the age of 56 and subsequently became a leading national advocate for children, especially in the area of early childhood investment. He is the former publisher of the Miami Herald and the Detroit Free Press.  He currently serves as chair of the Children's Movement of Florida.

Early life and education
Born in New York City on March 5, 1942, Lawrence is one of nine children.  After living on a farm for most of his childhood, Lawrence's parents moved the family to Florida in 1956.  Lawrence is a graduate of Manatee High School in Bradenton, Florida, and the University of Florida in Gainesville, where he was named "Outstanding Journalism Graduate."  Lawrence married his wife Roberta on December 21, 1963.  They have five children and seven grandchildren.

Professional career
Lawrence worked for seven newspapers over his 35-year career.  Before coming to the Miami Herald in 1989, he was publisher and executive editor of the Detroit Free Press. Previously, he was editor of The Charlotte Observer, and earlier held reporting and editing positions at four newspapers. During Lawrence's tenure as publisher of the Herald, the paper won five Pulitzer Prizes.

In August 2018, Lawrence published his autobiography, "A Dedicated Life: Journalism, Justice and a Chance for Every Child."

Early childhood advocacy
Lawrence retired in 1999 as publisher of the Miami Herald to work in the area of early childhood development and readiness. He is chair of the Children's Movement of Florida. He served from 2007–2016 on the Governor's Children and Youth Cabinet. In 2002, he led the campaign for The Children's Trust, a dedicated source of early intervention and prevention funding for children in Miami-Dade County – with an 85 percent reaffirmation from the voters in 2008. He is the "founding chair" of The Children's Trust.  Governor Jeb Bush named Lawrence to the Florida Partnership for School Readiness, and he chaired that oversight board twice.

In 2002, Lawrence was a key figure in Florida's passage of a statewide constitutional amendment to provide pre-K for all 4-year-olds. He is a board member and former chair of the Early Learning Coalition of Miami-Dade and Monroe. The David Lawrence Jr. K-8 Public School opened in 2006 across from the north campus of Florida International University. A fully endowed chair in early childhood studies is established in his name at the University of Florida College of Education. Gov. Rick Scott appointed him in 2015 to the board of trustees of Florida A&M University. He is also a trustee of Barry University.

Lawrence serves as chair of the Children's Movement of Florida, a citizen-led, non-partisan movement to educate political, business and civic leaders – and all parents of the state – about the urgent need to make the well-being and education of all children Florida's highest priority.

Awards and recognition
Lawrence has 13 honorary doctorates, including one from his alma mater, the University of Florida. His national honors include the Ida B. Wells Award "for exemplary leadership in providing minorities employment opportunities" and the National Association of Minority Media Executives award for "lifetime achievement in diversity." He has been honored with the American Public Health Association Award of Excellence, the Lewis Hine Award for Children and Youth, the "Children's Champion" award from the National Black Child Development Institute, the Fred Rogers Leadership Award from the Grantmakers for Children, Youth and Families, the Terri Lynne Lokoff Child Care Advocate Award and the CNC (Cuban American National Council) Lifetime Achievement Award. His writing awards include the First Amendment Award from the Scripps Howard Foundation and the Inter American Press Association Commentary Award. He chaired the national Task Force on Minorities in the Newspaper Business, was the 1991-92 president of the American Society of Newspaper Editors and the 1995–1996 president of the Inter American Press Association.

Lawrence was inducted into the Florida Newspaper Hall of Fame in 2010.

References

External links

1942 births
American newspaper editors
Detroit Free Press people
Living people
Writers from New York City
Presidents of the American Society of News Editors

David Lawrence Jr.


Saint Junian () was a 6th-century Christian hermit and abbot.  He was the founder of Mairé, or Mariacum, Abbey at Mairé-Levescault in Poitou, France and is the patron saint of Poitou ploughmen.

He was born at the beginning of the 6th century, in 500 or 501, in the area of "Briosso" (now called Briançais or Brioux) near or on an estate named "Champagné" which still exists (Champagné-le-Sec), and close to the village of Mairé in the commune of Perigné, Deux-Sèvres.

He was educated by his parents who were Gallo-Roman nobility. Although his name is undoubtedly of pagan origin, coming from the Roman gods Juno/Jupiter, he was dedicated to the service of God from his earliest childhood and was instructed in all the sacred and human sciences which were taught at that time.

Nothing else is known about his early life but as a young man, he lived a life of austerity as a hermit in a place called Bois Trappeau in the commune of Ardilleux in Deux-Sèvres.

Junian acquired disciples and in 559, King Clotaire I made him a gift of land on which to found a monastery dedicated to the rule of Saint Benoît - the religious community at Mairé-l'Evescault, south of Deux-Sèvres. This isolated place evoked memories of his childhood home and Junien named it "Mariacus" - subsequently "Mairé". The "L'Evescault" was added after a great religious festival in Poitiers to which Junien was invited by Queen Radagonde who raised him to the same rank as the other bishops or "Les Evêques" who were present. Hence the name Mairé-L'Evescault.

He remained a friend of Queen Radegund who herself founded the abbey of Sainte-Croix de Poitiers.  Junian and Radegonde died on the same day, 13 August 587.

Junian's monastery at Mairé was partially destroyed during the wars of Pepin the Short and Charlemagne but survived for another thousand years. It was finally demolished during the French Revolution, the stone being re-used for local construction and the lands reverting to their farming origins.

References

External links
St. Junian

Hermits
587 deaths
6th-century Frankish saints
Year of birth unknown
Frankish abbots

Junian of Mairé


Henryton is an unincorporated community in Carroll County, Maryland, United States. It is located along the Patapsco River.

Transportation
The Owings Mills station of the Baltimore Metro SubwayLink in nearby Owings Mills, Baltimore County, is a 20-minute drive by car from Carrolltowne and provides subway access to downtown Baltimore.

There is no bus link between Henryton/Eldersburg and nearby Randallstown in Baltimore County, in part due to longstanding opposition to inter-county public transit from Carroll County officials and residents.

References

Unincorporated communities in Carroll County, Maryland
Unincorporated communities in Maryland

Henryton, Maryland


Frank P. Tomasulo is an American film critic, theoretician, and historian. He received a B.A. in philosophy from Brooklyn College, his M.A. in cinema studies at New York University, and his Ph.D. in film and television from UCLA. He served as editor of the Journal of Film and Video from 1991 to 1996 and Cinema Journal from 1997 to 2002.

He has published widely on Hollywood and international cinema, American television, and screen acting. He has been a longtime advocate for the modernist cinema and an outspoken critic of the early movies of American director Steven Spielberg. His anthology on film performance, More than a Method, was co-edited with Diane Carson and Cynthia Baron. (Nominated for the 2005 Theatre Library Association Book Award) Tomasulo's book-length monograph, Michelangelo Antonioni: Ambiguity in the Modernist Cinema, was published in 2019.

Tomasulo has taught a wide variety of film history, theory, production, and screenwriting classes at UCLA, Ithaca College, Cornell University, the University of California–Santa Cruz, Georgia State University, Southern Methodist University, and Florida State University, as well as being an academic administrator. He currently teaches independent film and other cinema courses at The City College of New York, City University of New York and Hunter College;  television history and criticism at Sarah Lawrence College; and cinema history and genre film classes at Pace University. In addition, Tomasulo teaches on-line graduate seminars on Silent Cinema, American Film History, Italian Cinema, and other topics for National University.

In 2009, Tomasulo became the first recipient of the University Film and Video Association  (UFVA) Teaching Award. He has also won a number of other pedagogical awards at Georgia State University, Ithaca College, and elsewhere. His scholarly writing has been recognized with awards from the Society for Cinema and Media Studies (SCMS), the University Film and Video Association, and Ithaca College, among other institutions and organizations.

References

Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
American film critics
Brooklyn College alumni
Lafayette High School (New York City) alumni
Tisch School of the Arts alumni
UCLA Film School alumni

Frank P. Tomasulo


Placido Zurla, O.S.B. Cam., (April 2, 1769 – 29 October 1834) was an Italian Camaldolese monk and prelate, who was Cardinal Vicar of Rome and a writer on medieval geography.

Biography
Zurla was born at Legnago, Veneto, of noble parents and christened Giacinto (Hyacinth). At the age of eighteen Zurla entered the Camaldolese Monastery of St. Michael, situated on the island of Murano in the Venetian Lagoon. When he entered the novitiate of the monastery, he took the name Placid. There he found a lifelong friend in Mauro Cappellari (afterwards Pope Gregory XVI), then a young monk of his own age.

He became Lector in philosophy and theology, and in 1802 published a theological textbook. As librarian, his attention was attracted by the map of the world executed between 1457 and 1459 in that same monastery by the famous Camaldolese cartographer Fra Mauro. In 1806 Zurla published an account of it entitled Il Mappamondo di Fra Mauro. This led to further studies on early travelers, of which the most important result was the work, "Di Marco Polo e degli altri viaggiatori veneziano" (2 volumes, Venice, 1818–19).

In 1809 Zurla was elected a Definitor of his Congregation and given the title of Abbot. The next year the monastery was suppressed by order of Napoleon I, but the monks kept up their college dressed as secular priests. Of this institution Zurla acted as Rector and Cappellari as Lector of philosophy until its complete dissolution in 1814. From that year he taught theology at the Patriarchal Seminary of Venice till 1821, when he moved to Rome and resumed the white habit of St. Romuald at the Monastery of St. Gregory the Great. By that time, Cappellari was prior of that community.

Pope Pius VII named Zurla as a consultor to various congregations and Prefect of Studies at the Pontifical Urban College. in 1821 he received the cardinal's hat, and in the following year the titular see of Archbishop of Edessa. He served as Cardinal Vicar to Pope Leo XII and his two successors, and took an active interest in the organization of the Roman seminary, the reform of criminal tribunals, the delimitation of Roman parishes, and the affairs of the many Sacred Congregations of which he was a member. Cardinal Zurla was greatly loved by his friends, but his zeal for the reform of abuses made him some enemies in Rome.

He died at Palermo in 1834.

Works by Placido Zurla
 Il mappamondo di fra Mauro, 1806

Sources

 The Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church

1769 births
1843 deaths
People from Legnago
19th-century Italian cardinals
Camaldolese Order
Cardinal Vicars
Italian Benedictines
Benedictine abbots
Benedictine bishops
Benedictine cardinals
Italian abbots
19th-century Italian Roman Catholic titular archbishops
Italian geographers
Benedictine scholars
Benedictine theologians
Bishops of Edessa
Camaldolese bishops
Cardinals created by Pope Pius VII

Placido Zurla


Lisette Lapointe (born September 13, 1943 in Montreal, Quebec) is a Quebec politician, journalist and teacher, who sat in the Quebec National Assembly first as a Parti Québécois MNA and then as an Independent. She is now mayor of Saint-Adolphe D'Howard. She is the widow of Jacques Parizeau, former Premier of Quebec, Canada. She was first elected to  the National Assembly of Quebec as a candidate for the Parti Québécois in the provincial riding of Crémazie in the 2007 general election.

Prior to her entry into politics, following in the footsteps of her husband, Lapointe worked as a teacher at the secondary level. She was also the director of a health and safety organization in the automobile industry, a journalist at a Mascouche newspaper and was the political aide for the Minister of Social Development and the former MNA of L'Assomption.

After the 2007 elections, she was named on April 25, 2007 the PQ's critic in employment and social solidarity.

On June 6, 2011, Lapointe and caucus mates Louise Beaudoin and Pierre Curzi resigned from the Parti Québécois to sit as independents over the PQ's acceptance of a bill changing the law to permit an agreement between the City of Québec and Quebecor Inc. concerning the construction of an arena in Quebec City. In November 2011, several media outlets reported that she joined the new sovereigntist party Option nationale, led by fellow former PQ caucus member Jean-Martin Aussant. However, while she has bought a membership card from the party, she also retained her membership in the Parti Québécois, and continued to sit as an independent.

On March 4, 2012 she announced that she would not run for re-election and left the National Assembly at the September 2012 provincial election.

References

External links

1943 births
Canadian newspaper journalists
Canadian women journalists
Journalists from Montreal
French Quebecers
Independent MNAs in Quebec
Living people
Parti Québécois MNAs
Politicians from Montreal
Writers from Montreal
Women MNAs in Quebec
21st-century Canadian politicians
21st-century Canadian women politicians
Canadian women non-fiction writers

Lisette Lapointe


Though reggae music first developed in Jamaica, it has strong rhythmic and thematic associations with Africa and has been called "the quintessential African/third world/black musical form". There are many African reggae musicians with a wide fan base both on the continent and abroad. Well-known African reggae artists are Alpha Blondy, Pax Nindi aka Harare Dread, Majek Fashek, Tiken Jah Fakoly, Colbert Mukwevho,Thomani Tshikororo , Ismael Isaac, Radical Dread, Jambo, Soul Raiders, Lucky Dube, and Serges Kassy.

History
The popularity of Reggae in Africa started with the spread of music by Jamaican artists like Bob Marley and Jimmy Cliff in the late 1960s and 1970s. While their music was popular around the world, it was particularly well-received in Africa. One of the first hit songs by an African artist with distinct reggae qualities was "Fire In Soweto" by Sonny Okosun in 1978.

More groups followed suit, and reggae was one of the most popular genres of music in the late 1970s in Africa. In Freetown, Sierra Leone, John Nunley said that reggae was all over the urban soundscape.

In 1980, world-famous Jamaican reggae musician Bob Marley performed in Harare, Zimbabwe, and that concert is often credited as marking the beginning of reggae in Africa.

Reggae in Ivory Coast
Reggae is perhaps most popular in the Ivory Coast. Former member of The Wailers Tyrone Downie said in an interview: "The first time I went to Abidjan, I was astonished by the fact that all cafés played reggae, all bands played reggae, you could hear reggae everywhere, in taxis, at people's houses, at dances, in the ghetto, EVERYWHERE!". Ivorian Reggae Artist Kajim said "Ivory Coast is one of the first countries in Africa known for its reggae...In other parts of the world, when the military take power, you hear other sorts of music on the radio. But here when the military took power they played reggae, because in our country reggae is known as the music of change, the music of combat! Here our music is a weapon, and it is not the same thing in other countries."

Alpha Blondy

In the early 1980s Ivorian Artist Alpha Blondy emerged as a major African reggae recording artist with the album Jah Glory. The top single from that album was the song "Brigadier Sabari", recounting an incident where the singer was nearly beaten to death by police in Abidjan. It was the first time a West African artist had openly criticized police brutality in popular music. Alpha Blondy has continued to release popular albums through the 2020s that received widespread international popularity and he has been called "The Bob Marley of Africa".

Tiken Jah Fakoly
Born to a family of traditional African oral historians known as griots, Tiken Jah Fakoly began recording reggae music in 1987 with the band "Djelys", another word for native griots and minstrels. Fakoly's lyrics are often political, like his song Françafrique, which blames France and America of being the origin of poverty and conflicts in most African Countries.

Reggae in South Africa
During the 1970s and 1980s, Jamaican and other reggae artists released songs with politically pointed lyrics about the political situation in South Africa like Peter Tosh's "Apartheid", Bunny Wailer's "Botha The Mosquito". Jimmy Cliff played at Orlando Stadium in Soweto in 1980, and many South Africans were inspired by Bob Marley's performance in Zimbabwe, and Peter Tosh's 1983 visit to Swaziland. Major South African artists included Carlos Djedje, Colbert Mukwevho, Lucky Dube, Jambo, Thomani Tshikororo, and the band O'Yaba.

Reggae in Nigeria
Reggae music was popularized in Nigeria by Majek Fashek in the mid-1980s. Radio Nigeria stations began to play a large number of reggae artists.

Nigerian reggae artists such as Daniel Wilson, Jerri Jheto, Daddy Showkey, Ras Kimono, Victor Essiet (from "The Mandators"), Evi Edna Ogholi, and Peterside Ottong became well-known, and subgenres like dancehall, ragga, and galala began to grow in popularity.

References

20th-century music genres
Reggae genres
Reggae

African reggae