A flour tortilla (, ) or wheat tortilla is a type of soft, thin flatbread made from finely ground wheat flour. Made with flour- and water-based dough, it is pressed and cooked, similar to corn tortillas. The simplest recipes use only flour, water, fat, and salt, but commercially-made flour tortillas generally contain chemical leavening agents such as baking powder, and other ingredients.

History
Flour tortillas originated in Spain during the Muslim conquest of Spain which lasted for eight centuries and left a mark in the culture, language, and cuisine of the Iberian Peninsula. There are several accounts of flatbread that became popular in Iberia during that period, especially rghaif which were called tortillas in the Spanish language of the period. Several recipes of flatbreads can be found in the 13th Century Anonymous Andalusian Cookbook and others. The recipe is the same as modern-day tortillas. When Spaniards arrived in the Americas they simply brought the recipe with them, this is also the reason the most widespread term for corn tortillas comes from Spanish and not from indigenous languages.

The name itself comes from Latin. Tortilla is the diminutive of torta, a shortened form of torta panis (twisted bread), which has cognates in different romance languages such as tourte in French or torta in Italian. These words have different meanings but all of them refer to a cake-shaped bread or preparation.

Some people consider flour tortillas to be an adaptation of corn tortillas due to the lack of corn availability in Northern Mexico, however, this doesn't explain the fact that they're also consumed in El Salvador and that the preparation involves a completely different technique which was already widespread among Spaniards at the time of the Conquest.

It is said by some that flour tortillas originated in the northern Mexican states of Chihuahua, Durango, Sonora and Sinaloa, where the territory is more suited to growing wheat than corn. In recent times, they have become integral to Mexican American (most notably in the form of a burrito), Mexican—and Tex-Mex—cuisine. Mexican Americans talk about the flour tortilla having come from the wheat-filled plenty of the United States. Most often it is attributed to Alta California when California was still part of the Mexican Republic. Most specifically, it is credited to regions of Northern & Central California with the first mass-produced flour tortillas having come from flour tortilla factories in metropolitan Los Angeles. Some have even attributed the origin of flour tortillas to Jewish immigrants of the United States.

Etymology
Tortilla, from Spanish torta, cake, plus the diminutive -illa, literally means "little cake".

Tortilla in Iberian Spanish also means omelette. As such, this wheat flour flatbread tortilla is not to be confused with the Spanish omelette or any other egg based one.

Production

Wheat tortillas are a staple of the northern Mexican states (such as Sonora, Sinaloa and Chihuahua) and throughout the Southwestern United States.

Tortillas vary in size from about 6 to over 30 cm (2.4 to over 12 in), depending on the region of the country and the dish for which it is intended.

Industrially-produced tortillas typically contain numerous chemicals in order to ease the production process, control texture and flavor, and to extend shelf life. Work has been done at Washington State University to develop methods for producing tortillas on a mass scale while still using only whole-wheat flour, water, oil, and salt, with a fermented flour-and-water sourdough starter replacing chemical leaveners.

Tortillas today

Today, personal and industrial (Mexican-style) tortilla-making equipment has facilitated and expedited tortilla making. Manually operated wooden tortilla presses of the past led to today's industrial tortilla machinery, which can produce up to 60,000 tortillas per hour. Tortillas are now not only made from maize meal, but also from wheat flour; home-made and store-bought tortillas are made in many flavors and varieties.

Tortillas remain a staple food in Mexico and Central America, and have gained popularity and market share elsewhere. In the U.S., tortillas have grown from an "ethnic" to a mainstream food. They have surpassed bagels and muffins, and have now become the number two packaged bread product sold in the U.S (behind sliced bread). The Tortilla Industry Association (TIA) estimates that in the U.S. alone, the tortilla industry (tortillas and their products – tortilla chips, tostada shells and taco shells) has become a US$6 billion a year industry.

Nutritional information
Soft wheat tortillas use wheat instead of masa as the primary ingredient. The Mission Foods brand lists the following ingredients: enriched bleached wheat flour (wheat flour, niacin, reduced iron, thiamine mononitrate, riboflavin, folic acid), water, vegetable shortening (interesterified soybean oil, hydrogenated soybean oil and/or palm oil), contains 2% or less of: salt, sugar, leavening (sodium bicarbonate, sodium aluminum sulfate, corn starch, monocalcium phosphate and/or sodium acid pyrophosphate, calcium sulfate), distilled monoglycerides, enzymes, wheat starch, calcium carbonate, antioxidants (tocopherols, ascorbic acid, citric acid), cellulose gum, guar gum, dough conditioner (fumaric acid, sodium metabisulfite and/or mono- and diglycerides), calcium propionate and sorbic acid (to preserve freshness).

The recipe recommended by American chef and restaurateur Rick Bayless who specializes in traditional Mexican cuisine uses just four ingredients: flour, lard, salt, and water.

The nutritional info for the Mission brand 49 g wheat tortilla is:
 total fat: 3.5 g (saturated 3.5 g, monounsaturated 1 g) - 5% daily allowance
 sodium: 420 mg - 18% daily allowance
 total carbohydrate: 24 g - 8% daily allowance
 dietary fiber: 1 g - 4% daily allowance
 protein: 4 g
 calcium: 8% daily allowance
 iron: 8% daily allowance

Consumption
Wheat flour tortillas have been used on many American spaceflights since 1985 as an easy solution to the problems of handling food in microgravity and preventing bread crumbs from escaping into delicate instruments.

Mexico
The word "tortilla" in these countries is used to refer to the ubiquitous corn tortilla, made of maize. In Mexico burritos are made with wheat tortillas. Flour tortillas are also very popular in Tex-Mex food and plates like fajitas. Flour tortilla with beans and eggs was very popular in northern Mexico and in the Southwest. The origin of the flour tortilla was northern Mexico and this is why so many plates are made with it like quesadillas as well as burritos, chimichangas and fajitas served with flour tortilla and bean taco or chorizo taco. The flour tortilla is the sister to the corn tortilla which was created first. From Mexico City southward the corn tortilla is more popular but in northern Mexico, where it originated, the flour tortilla may be as popular, if not more popular, than the corn tortilla.

Flour tortillas are commonly filled with meat, chopped potatoes, refried beans, cheese, hot sauce and other ingredients to make dishes such as tacos, quesadillas and burritos (a dish originating in the Ciudad Juarez, Chihuahua, Mexico/El Paso, Texas area).

United States, U.S. territories and Northern Mexico
In Northern Mexico and much of the United States, "tortillas" mean wheat-flour tortillas. They are the foundation of Mexican border cooking. Their popularity was driven by the low cost of inferior grades of wheat flour provided to border markets and by their ability to keep and ship well.

In Guam, it is called  and it is paired with .

Tortilla art is the use of tortillas as a substrate for painting. Tortillas are baked and then covered in acrylic before they are painted.

Central America

Tortillas in Central America sometimes differ somewhat from their Mexican counterparts, although are made similarly. In Guatemala and El Salvador, the tortillas are about 5 millimeters thick and about 10 centimeters in diameter, thicker than Mexican tortillas, but similar in size to Mexican gorditas. Like the Mexican tortillas, the maize is soaked in a mixture of water and lime (or lye), then rinsed and ground. In El Salvador, they sometimes use sorghum (called maicillo there) to make tortillas when there is not enough maize. Also in El Salvador, there is a particularly large and thick tortilla called a "chenga" on top of which food is placed, like an edible plate, to serve food to the labourers in coffee plantations and farms.

Honduras is well known for using wheat flour tortillas to make baleadas, which consist of a wheat flour tortilla, folded in half, with various items (beans, cream, scrambled eggs) put inside.

Maize and wheat tortillas can often be found in supermarkets in El Salvador and Costa Rica produced by Mexican companies.

Stuffed tortillas known as pupusas are also a famous dish of traditional Salvadoran cuisine.

United States
Tortillas are widely used in the United States, in recipes of Mexican origin and many others. As a testament to their popularity, the Tortilla Industry Association (TIA) estimated Americans consumed approximately 85 billion tortillas in 2000 (not including tortilla chips).  They are more popular than all other ethnic breads such as English muffins, pita bread, and bagels.

Tortilla chips –made from maize tortillas cut into wedges, then fried – first gained popularity in the 1940s in Los Angeles, California, and were mass-produced there. The ingredients in maize tortillas are maize, lime, and water. Fried chips add salt and vegetable oil.

Flour tortillas are commonly used in burritos.  They are also used to make fajitas, wraps, sandwiches, quesadillas, casseroles and stews, and there are numerous other uses.

Many people from both Northern Mexico and throughout the Southwestern United States eat tortillas as a staple food. Many restaurants use wheat flour tortillas in a variety of non-Mexican and Mexican recipes. Many grocery stores sell ready-made tortillas.

See also

 Arepa, a ground maize dough from Colombia and Venezuela
 Focaccia, a flat oven-baked bread from Italy
 Chapati, an unleavened flatbread from the Indian subcontinent
 Injera, a sourdough-risen flatbread from East Africa
 Khachapuri, a breaded cheese dish from Georgia
 Khubz, a round bread from the Middle East
 Matnakash, a leavened bread from Armenia
 Piadina, a thin, flatbread from Northern Italy
 Pită de Pecica, a round bread from Romania
 Rghaif, a pancake-like bread from Northwest Africa

References

External links

Mexican cuisine
Honduran cuisine
Salvadoran cuisine
Belizean cuisine
Appetizers
Flatbreads
Staple foods
Tortilla
Wheat dishes
American breads

Flour tortilla


South Berkeley is a neighborhood in the city of Berkeley, California. It extends roughly from Dwight Way to the city's border with Oakland, between Telegraph Avenue in the east and either Sacramento Street or San Pablo Avenue in the west. It lies at an elevation of 102 feet (31 m).

Demographics
This neighborhood is the center for Berkeley's African-American community, with a population of 9,341 that is roughly 52% African American. Traditionally, it was considered to be the most economically depressed portion of Berkeley; however, as rent has risen in the city over the past several years, South Berkeley has become more attractive to students and other young people, and rents in the area have become comparable to other, more affluent Berkeley neighborhoods. South Berkeley is crisscrossed by AC Transit bus lines.

History
South Berkeley is part of the old Rancho San Antonio, approximately 45,000 acres of land granted by Don Pablo Vicente de Sola, Governor of Alta California, in 1820, to Luis Maria Peralta in recognition of his forty years of military service and his work in establishing the missions of Santa Clara, Santa Cruz, and San Jose. In 1842, Peralta divided his land between his four sons. José Domingo Peralta received the title to the northernmost portion, including present-day Berkeley and Albany.

By 1872, the Berkeley L.T.I. Association had mapped out the gridded streets of what is now South Berkeley; however, there were no houses yet.

In 1873, a house was built for Mark Ashby, and 10 years later, to the south, a house for his brother William Ashby.  The house, in 1938, was advertised as a Friendly farm, where "FRIENDLY FARM - Applications now being accepted for spring semester, to start March 1st. Groups limited to 12 pre-school children Curriculum Includes painting, nature study, music, habit training. Nominal rates. 2915 Deakin. Berkeley." ( The name of the street having been changed from North street )

During World War II, Camp Ashby, a camp for African American soldiers, was established in the area.

South Berkeley has been the East Bay mecca for sports, from competitive softball leagues, little league baseball, to the Midnight & Twilight Basketball League at Grove Park.

Places
Services and businesses located in South Berkeley include the Ashby BART station, the Shotgun Players theatre, La Peña Cultural Center, and the Berkeley Tool Lending Library. The Berkeley Bowl supermarket, which has one of the most extensive selections of produce and specialty foods in the Bay Area, operates one of its two stores there. The Ashby BART station hosts a flea market each weekend in its parking lot. The area is also home to Wat Mongkolratanaram, a Thai Buddhist temple that serves a Sunday brunch.

A 100-foot-long mural of South Berkeley history on Ashby Avenue at Ellis Street was painted in 2018 under the direction of muralist Edythe Boone.

Historical Plaques
The Berkeley Historical Plaque Project has, so far, commemorated six locations in South Berkeley:

At 2960 Sacramento Street, a plaque and nearby sculpture commemorate Dr. William Byron Rumford's Pharmacy.

At 2643 Dana Street, a plaque memorializes the home and life of Anthony Boucher, Editor and Writer.

At 1500 Derby Street, a City of Berkeley Landmark plaque commemorates Longfellow School, an architecturally and culturally important public institution which currently houses the Longfellow Magnet Middle School.

At 2237 Carleton Street, a City of Berkeley Landmark plaque commemorates the Woodworth House, home and workspace for entomologist, naturalist, physicist, and inventor Charles W. Woodworth. Woodworth was a professor of entomology, and assisted in developing the University's College of Agriculture and the City of Berkeley's first public library.

At 3332 Adeline Street, a City of Berkeley Landmark plaque commemorates the Lorin Theater, South Berkeley's first neighborhood theater, that, at one point, could seat up to 1,500 people.

At 3290 Adeline Street, a City of Berkeley Landmark plaque commemorates the South Berkeley Bank. In the early 20th century, this was one of two banks anchoring the busy Lorin business district's streetcar intersection. Designed by John Galen Howard, the bank building shares an architect with multiple other buildings in Berkeley.

Parks and recreation

South Berkeley includes San Pablo Park (13 acres), Grove Park (3 acres), and several mini-parks. Grove Park is home to a nationally ranked men's basketball team, the Berkeley All-Stars, coached by Bay Area basketball legend Eugene Evans. Grove Park and San Pablo Park have been the training grounds for many well-known athletes, including Don Barksdale, Claudell Washington, Phil Chenier, Shooty Babitt, Je'Rod Cherry and Jason Kidd. The tennis court area at Grove Park is now called William C. Charles Courts, named after the late "Mr. Charles" (also known as "the waving man"). He would stand in front of his house on the corner of Grove and Oregon Streets every morning from about 7 am to 10 am waving to passersby while saying "Keep smiling" and "Have a beautiful day".  He did this every day for 30 years. South Berkeley residents respected and appreciated Mr. Charles, who died in 2002, and the Grove Street Park tennis courts were named in his honor.

Notable residents

William Bryon Rumford - (February 2, 1908 – June 12, 1986) - First Black person elected to a state public office in Northern California - William was the first African American elected to a state public office in Northern California. He became the first African American hired at Highland Hospital in Oakland, California, where he was assistant pharmacist. In 1942, while still working for the state, he purchased a pharmacy in Berkeley which he named Rumford's Pharmacy. In 1942, Berkeley Mayor Laurance L. Cross appointed Rumford to the Emergency Housing Committee, which sought to find housing for wartime laborers. In his capacity as committee member, he was able to push for more integrated housing. In his first year in the state assembly, Rumford succeeded in passing legislation barring discrimination in the state National Guard. One of Rumford's most important achievements was the passage of the 1959 Fair Employment Practices Act, which outlawed employment discrimination. In 1963, Rumford introduced assembly bill 1240, the Fair Housing Bill. It became known as the Rumford Fair Housing Bill, and its purpose was to outlaw discrimination in housing. The bill was at the top of Governor Brown's legislative agenda, and it had been endorsed by the NAACP and the California Democratic Party. Nonetheless, it faced strong opposition and was amended several times before being passed by a vote of 47 to 24. When it reached the state senate, members of the Congress of Racial Equality occupied the rotunda of the California State Capitol. Rumford asked them to leave, but they refused. The bill was held up for three months, and the committee didn't hold a hearing on it until the last day of the session. Despite the opposition of the California Real Estate Association, the Apartment House Owners Association, and the Chamber of Commerce, the bill passed the senate and was signed into law by Governor Brown.Rumford was honored at the 1972 World Symposium on Air Pollution Control, which recognized his contributions to the fight against air pollution.

In 1980, a segment of the Grove-Shafter Freeway was renamed the William Byron Rumford freeway in his honor. The postal station at the Oakland federal building is named for him, as is a senior housing community in Berkeley. His archives are housed at the African American Museum and Library, a research center operated by the Oakland Public Library.

Mable Howard - (February 3, 1905 - March 29, 1994) - Community activist -
In the 1960s, the city of Berkeley planned to build new BART tracks that would run above ground through South Berkeley, where much of the city's Black population is based. Howard, a local activist who moved from Galveston, Texas during World War II to work in the shipyards, feared BART would disrupt the neighborhood and tank property values.
So Howard spearheaded litigation to halt the construction of the tracks for nine months, until BART agreed to build the line underground. A subsidized housing complex for seniors was later named after Howard for her contributions to South Berkeley. Howard is also the mother of artist Mildred Howard.

Mildred Howard - (1945) - visual artist - Mildred is an African-American artist known primarily for her sculptural installation and mixed-media assemblages. Her work has been shown at galleries in Boston, Los Angeles and New York, internationally at venues in Berlin, Cairo, London, Paris, and Venice, and at institutions including the Oakland Museum of California, the de Young Museum, SFMOMA, the San Jose Museum of Art and the Museum of the African Diaspora. Howard was born in 1945 to Rolly and Mable Howard in San Francisco, California, and raised in South Berkeley, California. Howard has created numerous public installation works in the Bay Area and beyond. In 2017, a rent increase forced her to move out of the Berkeley, CA studio where she had lived and worked for 18 years.

References

See also
 Lorin District

Berkeley Heritage Association
Berkeley Historical Society

Neighborhoods in Berkeley, California
Streetcar suburbs

South Berkeley, Berkeley, California


Cher Ami (French for "dear friend", in the masculine) was a male homing pigeon who had been donated by the pigeon fanciers of Britain for use by the U.S. Army Signal Corps in France during World War I and had been trained by American pigeoners. He is famous for delivering a message from an encircled battalion despite serious injuries during the Meuse-Argonne offensive in October 1918.

World War I service
On October 3, 1918, Major Charles White Whittlesey and more than 550 men were trapped in a small depression on the side of the hill behind enemy lines without food or ammunition. They were also beginning to receive friendly fire from allied troops who did not know their location. Surrounded by the Germans, many were killed and wounded and only 194 men were still alive and not captured or wounded by the end of the engagement. Because his runners were consistently intercepted or killed by the Germans, Whittlesey began dispatching messages by pigeon. The pigeon carrying the first message, "Many wounded. We cannot evacuate." was shot down. A second bird was sent with the message, "Men are suffering. Can support be sent?" That pigeon also was shot down. The artillery batteries supporting Whittlesey's men attempted to provide a "barrage of protection" for Whittlesey's men on the northern slope of the Charlevaux Ravine, but believed Whittlesey was on the southern slope of the ravine, resulting in a barrage inadvertently targeting the battalion. "Cher Ami" was dispatched with a note, written on onion paper, in a canister on his right leg,

As Cher Ami tried to fly back home, the Germans saw him rising out of the brush and opened fire. After several seconds, he was shot down but managed to take flight again. He arrived back at his loft at division headquarters 25 miles (40 km) to the rear in just 25 minutes, helping to save the lives of the 194 survivors. He had been shot through the breast, blinded in one eye, and had a leg hanging only by a tendon.

Cher Ami became the hero of the 77th Infantry Division. Army medics worked to save his life. When he recovered enough to travel, the now one-legged bird was put on a boat to the United States, with General John J. Pershing seeing him off.

Awards
The pigeon was awarded the Croix de Guerre Medal with a palm Oak Leaf Cluster for his heroic service in delivering 12 important messages in Verdun. He died at Fort Monmouth, New Jersey, on June 13, 1919, from the wounds he received in battle and was later inducted into the Racing Pigeon Hall of Fame in 1931. He also received a gold medal from the Organized Bodies of American Racing Pigeon Fanciers in recognition of his service during World War I.

In November 2019, he became one of the first recipients of the Animals in War & Peace Medal of Bravery, bestowed on him posthumously at a ceremony on Capitol Hill in Washington, D.C.

Legacy
To American school children of the 1920s and 1930s, Cher Ami was as well known as any human World War I hero. Cher Ami's body was later mounted by taxidermist Nelson R. Wood at the National Museum of Natural History. When the Smithsonian requested information about Cher Ami, the Signal Corps reported they could not find any war record of Cher Ami being the pigeon "which carried the message from The Lost Battalion." Listing the known details of the bird, the Army, without explanation, described Cher Ami as "he" and the Smithsonian's label reflected the bird's sex as a cock bird. In 2021, the National Museum of American History, together with the National Museum of Natural History and the Smithsonian's National Zoo, had DNA samples from Cher Ami analyzed which concluded the bird is a cock bird. Since 1921, Cher Ami has been on display at the Smithsonian Institution. He is on display with Sergeant Stubby, the (presumed) Boston Terrier mascot of the US Army's 102nd Infantry, in the National Museum of American History's "Price of Freedom" exhibit.

In popular culture

Books, essays, and short stories

"Notre Cher Ami: The Enduring Myth and Memory of a Humble Pigeon," an academic article by Frank A. Blazich, Jr. in The Journal of Military History
Cher Ami and Major Whittlesey, a novel by Kathleen Rooney
Cher Ami: The Story of a Carrier Pigeon, a children's book by Marion Cothren, published in 1934
"Cher Ami", a poem by Harry Webb Farrington
Dear Miss Kopp by Amy Stewart, the sixth book in the Kopp Sisters series, features a fictionalized account of Cher Ami's exploits
Finding the Lost Battalion - Beyond the Rumors, Myths and Legends of America's Famous WWI Epic by Robert J. Laplander
"Cher Ami" a short story by Heather Rounds
"Viva Cuba Pigeon" a short story by Susannah Rodríguez Drissi
The Ruby Notebook by Laura Resau
"War Pigs", an essay in the collection Animals Strike Curious Poses by Elena Passarello

Film and TV
The Lost Battalion (1919 film), a 1919 silent film, includes the living Cher Ami hopping on one leg. This film also includes many of the soldiers playing themselves, including Lt. Col. Charles Whittlesey. The entire film is available on YouTube.
Cher Ami, a 2008 Spanish film directed by Miquel Pujol and produced by Accio Studios, also known as Flying Heroes or The Aviators.
Flying Home, 2014 a romantic drama film, starring Jamie Dornan features the story of Cher Ami's heroic feat.
Cher Ami is mentioned in season 3, episode 11 of White Collar, first aired 2011.
The Lost Battalion, a 2001 war film about the Meuse-Argonne Offensive of 1918, depicting Cher Ami being sent off with the important message.

See also
 List of individual birds

Notes

References

External links

Collection of the Smithsonian Institution
Recipients of the Croix de Guerre 1914–1918 (France)
Individual domesticated pigeons
Military animals of World War I
World War I military equipment of the United States
1918 animal births
1919 animal deaths
Individual animals in the United Kingdom
Individual taxidermy exhibits

Cher Ami


Survival skills are techniques used to sustain life in any type of natural environment or built environment. These techniques are meant to provide basic necessities for human life, including water, food, and shelter. Survival skills also support proper knowledge and interactions with animals and plants to promote the sustaining of life over time.

Survival skills are basic ideas and abilities that ancient people invented and passed down for thousands of years. Today, survival skills are often associated with surviving in a disaster situation.

Outdoor activities such as hiking, backpacking, horseback riding, fishing, and hunting all require basic wilderness survival skills, especially to handle emergencies. Individuals who practice survival skills as a type of outdoor recreation or hobby may describe themselves as survivalists. Survival skills are often used by people living off-grid lifestyles such as homesteaders. Bushcraft and primitive living are most often self-implemented but require many of the same skills. There are also many instances of survival skills being used to avoid  attention from legitimate authorities or self-serving busybodies such as fugitives (from oppression or justice), irregular migrants, draft dodgers and draft evaders, poachers, escaped prisoners, serial killers, organized criminals and terrorists, by hiding in wilderness areas. Additionally, both park rangers and conservation officers are taught survival skills to help them find missing persons, and in case they become stranded while investigating wilderness crimes. The United States Armed Forces has a training program called SERE, in which military personnel, Department of Defense civilians, intelligence personnel, and private military contractors are taught survival skills and techniques for evading capture and escaping from captivity if they need to survive and hideout in wilderness areas while avoiding capture by enemy combatants.

First aid

First aid (wilderness first aid in particular) can help a person survive and function with injuries and illnesses that would otherwise kill or compromise them. Common and dangerous injuries include:
 Bites from snakes, spiders, and other wild animals
 Bone fractures
 Burns
 Drowsiness
 Headache
 Heart attack
 Hemorrhage
 Hypothermia and hyperthermia
 Infection from food, animal contact, or drinking non-potable water
 Poisoning from poisonous plants or fungi
 Sprains, particularly of the ankle
 Vomiting
 Wounds, which may become infected

The person may need to apply the contents of a first aid kit or, if possessing the required knowledge, naturally occurring medicinal plants, immobilize injured limbs, or even transport incapacitated comrades.

Shelter

Many people who are forced into survival situations often have an elevated risk of danger because of direct exposure to the elements. Many people in survival situations die of hypothermia or hyperthermia, or animal attacks. An effective shelter can range from a natural shelter, such as a cave, overhanging rock outcrop, or a fallen-down tree, to an intermediate form of man-made shelter such as a debris hut, tree pit shelter, or snow cave, to a completely man-made structure such as a tarp, tent, or a longhouse. It is noted that some common properties between these structures are:

Location (away from hazards, such as cliffs; and nearby materials, like food sources)
Insulation (from the ground, rain, wind, air, or sun)
Heat Source (either body heat or fire-heated)
Personal or Group Shelter (having multiple individuals)

Fire
Fire is a tool that helps meet many survival needs. A campfire can be used to boil water, rendering it safe to drink, and to cook food. Fire also creates a sense of safety and protection, which can provide an overlooked psychological boost. When temperatures are low, fire can postpone or prevent the risk of hypothermia. In a wilderness survival situation, fire can provide a sense of home in addition to being an essential energy source. Fire may deter wild animals from interfering with an individual, though some wild animals may also be attracted to the light and heat of a fire.

There are numerous methods for starting a fire in a survival situation. Fires are either started with the case of the solar spark lighter, or through a spark, as in the case of a flint striker. Fires will often be extinguished if either there is excessive wind, or if the fuel or environment is too wet. Lighting a fire without a lighter or matches, e.g. by using natural flint and metal with tinder, is a frequent subject of both books on survival and in survival courses, because it allows an individual to start a fire with few materials in the event of a disaster. There is an emphasis placed on practicing fire-making skills before venturing into the wilderness. Producing fire under adverse conditions has been made much easier by the introduction of tools such as the magnesium striker, solar spark lighter, and the fire piston.

Water

A human being can survive an average of three to five days without water. Since the human body is composed of an average of 60% water, it should be no surprise that water is higher on the list than food. The need for water dictates that unnecessary water loss by perspiration should be avoided in survival situations. Perspiration and the need for water increase with exercise. Although human water intake varies greatly depending on factors like age and gender, the average human should drink about 13 cups or 3 liters per day. Many people in survival situations perish due to dehydration, and/or the debilitating effects of water-borne pathogens from untreated water.

A typical person will lose a minimum of two to four liters of water per day under ordinary conditions, and more in hot, dry, or cold weather. Four to six liters of water or other liquids are generally required each day in the wilderness to avoid dehydration and to keep the body functioning properly. The U.S. Army survival manual does not recommend drinking water only when thirsty, as this leads to inadequate hydration. Instead, water should be consumed at regular intervals. Other groups recommend rationing water through "water discipline."

A lack of water causes dehydration, which may result in lethargy, headaches, dizziness, confusion, and eventually death. Even mild dehydration reduces endurance and impairs concentration, which is dangerous in a survival situation where clear thinking is essential. Dark yellow or brown urine is a diagnostic indicator of dehydration. To avoid dehydration, a high priority is typically assigned to locating a supply of drinking water and making provisions to render that water as safe as possible.

Recent thinking is that boiling or commercial filters are significantly safer than the use of chemicals, with the exception of chlorine dioxide.

Food
Culinary root tubers, fruit, edible mushrooms, edible nuts, edible beans, edible cereals or edible leaves, edible cacti, ants and algae can be gathered and, if needed, prepared (mostly by boiling). With the exception of leaves, these foods are relatively high in calories, providing some energy to the body. Plants are some of the easiest food sources to find in the jungle, forest, or desert because they are stationary and can thus be obtained without exerting much effort. Animal trapping, hunting, and fishing allow a survivalist to acquire high-calorie meat but require certain skills and equipment (such as bows, snares, and nets).

Focusing on survival until rescued, the Boy Scouts of America especially discourages foraging for wild foods on the grounds, as the knowledge and skills needed to make a safe decision are unlikely to be possessed by those finding themselves in a wilderness survival situation.

Navigation

When going on a hike or trip in an unfamiliar location, search and rescue advises to notify a trusted contact of your destination, your planned return time, and then notify them when returning. In the event you do not return in the specified time frame, (e.g. 12 hours of the scheduled return time), your contact can contact the police for search and rescue.

Survival situations can often be resolved by finding a way to safety, or a more suitable location to wait for rescue. Types of navigation include:
 Celestial navigation, using the sun and the night sky to locate the cardinal directions and to maintain course of travel
 Using a map, compass or GPS receiver
 Dead reckoning
 Natural navigation, using the condition of surrounding natural objects (i.e. moss on a tree, snow on a hill, direction of running water, etc.)

Mental preparedness
Mental clarity and preparedness are critical to survival. The will to live in a life-and-death situation often separates those that live and those that do not. Even well-trained survival experts may be mentally affected in disaster situations. It is critical to be calm and focused during a disaster.

To the extent that stress results from testing human limits, the benefits of learning to function under stress and determining those limits may outweigh the downside of stress. There are certain strategies and mental tools that can help people cope better in a survival situation, including focusing on manageable tasks, having a Plan B available, and recognizing denial.

Urban survival

Earthquake
Governments such as the United States and New Zealand advise that in an earthquake, one should "Drop, Cover, and Hold."

New Zealand Civil Defense explains it this way:
DROP down on your hands and knees. This protects you from falling but lets you move if you need to.
COVER your head and neck (or your entire body if possible) under a sturdy table or desk (if it is within a few steps of you). If there is no shelter nearby, cover your head and neck with your arms and hands.
HOLD on to your shelter (or your position to protect your head and neck) until the shaking stops. If the shaking shifts your shelter around, move with it.

The United States Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) adds that in the event of a building collapse, it is advised that you:
 Seek protection under a structure like a table
 Cover your mouth with your shirt to filter out dust
 Don't move until you are confident that something won't topple on you
 Use your phone light to signal for help, or call

Important survival items

Survivalists often carry a "survival kit." The contents of these kits vary considerably, but generally consist of items that are necessary or useful in potential survival situations, depending on the anticipated needs and location. For wilderness survival, these kits often contain items like a knife, water vessel, fire-starting equipment, first aid equipment, tools to obtain food (such as snare wire, fish hooks, or firearms), a light source, navigational aids, and signaling or communications devices. Multi-purpose tools are often chosen because they serve multiple purposes, allowing the user to reduce weight and save space.

Preconstructed survival kits may be purchased from various retailers, or individual components may be bought and assembled into a kit.

Controversial survival skills
Some survival books promote the "Universal Edibility Test." Allegedly, it is possible to distinguish edible foods from toxic ones by exposing your skin and mouth to progressively greater amounts of the food in question, with waiting periods and checks for symptoms between these exposures. However, many experts reject this method, stating that even a small amount of some "potential foods" can cause physical discomfort, illness, or even death.

Many mainstream survival experts have recommended the act of drinking urine in times of dehydration and malnutrition. However, the U.S. Army Survival Field Manual (FM 21–76) instructs that this technique is a myth and should never be used. There are several reasons to avoid drinking urine, including the high salt content of urine, potential contaminants, and the risk of bacterial exposure, despite urine often being touted as "sterile."

Many classic western movies, classic survival books, and even some school textbooks suggest that using your mouth to suck the venom out of a venomous snake bite is an appropriate treatment. However, venom that has entered the bloodstream cannot be sucked out, and it may be dangerous for a rescuer to attempt to do so. Similarly, some survivalists promote the belief that when bitten by a venomous snake, drinking your urine provides natural anti-venom. Effective snakebite treatment involves pressure bandages and prompt medical treatment, and may require antivenom.

See also
 Alone (TV show)
 Bicycle touring
 Bushcraft
 Distress signal
 Hazards of outdoor recreation
 Indigenous peoples
 Mini survival kit
 Survivalism
 Ten Essentials
 Woodcraft

References

Further reading
 Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills; 8th Ed; Mountaineers Books; 596 pages; 1960 to 2010; .
 The Knowledge: How to Rebuild Our World from Scratch; Penguin Books; 352 pages; 2014; .

External links

Media

Foraging

Survival skills


Lost or LOST may refer to getting lost, or to:

Geography
Lost, Aberdeenshire, a hamlet in Scotland
Lake Okeechobee Scenic Trail, or LOST, a hiking and cycling trail in Florida, US

Arts, entertainment, and media

Films

Lost (1950 film), a Mexican film directed by Fernando A. Rivero
Lost (1956 film), a British thriller starring David Farrar
Lost (1983 film), an American film directed by Al Adamson
Lost! (film), a 1986 Canadian film directed by Peter Rowe
Lost (2004 film), an American thriller starring Dean Cain
The Lost (2006 film), an American psychological horror starring Marc Senter
Lost (2023 film), an Indian Hindi-language thriller film

Television
Lost (2001 TV series), a short-lived American and UK reality television series
Lost (2004 TV series), an American drama series about people who become stranded on a mysterious island
Lost (South Korean TV series), a 2021 South Korean television series
"Lost" (Stargate Universe), an episode of science fiction television series Stargate Universe
"Lost", an episode of Unleashed!
"Lost", an  episode of the Canadian documentary TV series Mayday
"Lost", an episode of Disney's So Weird
"The Lost" (Class), an episode of the first series of the Doctor Who spin-off series Class

Literature
Lost (Maguire novel), a 2001 horror/mystery novel by Gregory Maguire
Lost (Robotham novel), a 2005 Michael Robotham novel
Lost, a novel by Alice Lichtenstein
Lost: A Memoir, a 2009 memoir by Canadian author Cathy Ostlere
The Lost: A Search for Six of Six Million, a 2006 memoir by Daniel Mendelsohn
The Lost (Durst novel), a 2014 fantasy novel by American author Sarah Beth Durst

Music

Groups and labels
Lost (band), an Italian pop rock band
The Lost (band), a Boston garage rock band

Albums
Lost (8Ball album), 1998
Lost (Carpark North album), 2010
Lost (Cool Calm Pete album), 2005
Lost (Died Pretty album), 1988
Lost (Elegy album), 1995
Lost (RTZ album), 1998

Songs
"Lost" (The Badloves song), 1993
"Lost" (Cold Chisel song), 2015
"Lost" (Faith Hill song), 2007
"Lost" (Frank Ocean song), 2012
"Lost" (Gorilla Zoe song), 2008
"Lost" (Hunter Brothers song), 2018
"Lost" (Lasgo song), 2009
"Lost" (Linkin Park song), 2023
"Lost" (Menudo song), 2008
"Lost" (Maroon 5 song), 2021
"Lost" (Michael Bublé song), 2007
"Lost" (NF song), 2021
"Lost" (Roger Sanchez song), 2006
"Lost" (Skin song), 2003
"Lost" (Vassy and Afrojack song), 2017
"Lost!", by Coldplay
"Lost", by Amanda Palmer & the Grand Theft Orchestra from Theatre Is Evil
"Lost", by Annie Lennox from Songs of Mass Destruction, 2007
"Lost", by Anouk from Hotel New York
"Lost", by Avenged Sevenfold from Avenged Sevenfold
"Lost", by the Box Tops from Cry Like a Baby
"Lost", by BTS from Wings, 2016
"Lost", by Chance the Rapper featuring No name from Acid Rap
"Lost", by The Church from Starfish
"Lost", by Clockwork Radio from State of Mind EP
"Lost", by the Cure from The Cure, 2004
"Lost", by Dead by April from Incomparable
"Lost", by Delain from April Rain
"Lost", by Dusty Springfield from A Brand New Me
"Lost", by Edge of Sanity from The Spectral Sorrows
"Lost", by Katy Perry from One of the Boys, 2008
"Lost", by Killswitch Engage from Killswitch Engage (2009 album), 2009
"Lost", by Korn from Life Is Peachy
"Lost", by Kreator from Cause for Conflict
"Lost", by Kris Allen from Horizons, 2014
"Lost", by the Meat Puppets from Meat Puppets II
"Lost", by Nevermore from The Politics of Ecstasy
"Lost", by Neurosis from Enemy of the Sun
"Lost", by Nik Kershaw from You've Got to Laugh
"Lost", by Orbital from Blue Album
"Lost", a 2019 song by Onlychild
"Lost", by Red from End of Silence
"Lost", by Robbie Williams from XXV, 2022
"Lost", by Stabbing Westward from Ungod
"Lost", by Tristania from World of Glass
"Lost", by Uriah Heep from Into the Wild
"Lost", by Van der Graaf Generator from H to He, Who Am the Only One
"Lost", by Will Haven from Voir Dire

Video games
Lost: Via Domus, a 2008 video game by Ubisoft based on the Lost TV series
The Lost (video game), a 2002 vaporware game by Irrational Games

Other uses
Local option sales tax
Mustard gas, originally known as Lost
Lost Generation, the social generational cohort that was in early adulthood during World War I
Abbreviation of lost work, any work which is known to have been created but has not survived to the present day

See also
 Loss (disambiguation)
 Lost Cause (disambiguation)
 Lost River (disambiguation)
 Lost Soul (disambiguation)
 Lost Souls (disambiguation)

Lost


The Mann House is a historic home located at 205 Hanover Street in Concord, Michigan. It is a Michigan State Historic Site and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. It has been operated as a museum since 1970.

History
Daniel Sears Mann married Ellen E. Keeler in 1873. The couple lived on a farm outside of Concord. They had three children, one of whom died young. By the 1880s, the Manns felt that a house in town would be advantageous, so that their daughters, Jessie Ellen and Mary Ida, could attend school in Concord. They purchased property, and constructed this house 1883 through 1884. As the girls grew older, the house became a social center of the town.

Jessie Ellen Mann received a degree from the University of Michigan in 1906, and afterward taught mathematics, primarily in the Battle Creek schools. She remained living in the house. Around the turn of the century, Mary Ida went to the Philippine Islands as a teacher, and there married. She moved to various locations in the United States with her husband, but often visited Concord. When he died in 1942, Mary Ida moved back to her childhood home.

In 1947, a modern kitchen was installed in the rear of the home. The sisters continued to live in the house until their deaths, Mary Ida died in 1959; Jessie Ellen lived in the house until she died in 1969. Their wills  bequeathed the house to the people of Michigan. The Michigan Historical Center has operated it as a museum since 1970. The house was named a Michigan State Historic Site on June 18, 1970, and was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on October 15, 1970. The house is representative of 1880s middle-class household architecture.

Design
The mostly rectangular frame house was designed in the Late Victorian style. The walls are covered in clapboard siding. Above the entrance, at one corner, stands a pyramidal tower. The roof is a cross-gable with a small amount of Eastlake Style trim on the vergeboards, front door, porch and gablets. A carriage house is located behind the house.  There are three entrances to the house with porches.

On the interior, the original floor had an entrance hall, parlor, sitting room, dining room, bedroom, kitchen, pantry, and wood-shed on the first floor, and five bedrooms on the second floor. The 1947 renovation added a kitchen in the first floor, and the woodshed was turned into a laundry room. The interior houses most of the original furnishings and household implements. The ceilings are plaster and there is a marbleized slate fireplace inside.

Gallery

See also

National Register of Historic Places listings in Jackson County, Michigan
List of Michigan State Historic Sites in Jackson County, Michigan

References

External links

 Mann House - official site at State of Michigan

Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in Michigan
Michigan State Historic Sites
Museums in Jackson County, Michigan
Victorian architecture in Michigan
Historic house museums in Michigan
Houses in Jackson County, Michigan
National Register of Historic Places in Jackson County, Michigan
Residential buildings completed in 1884

Mann House (Concord, Michigan)


Andrew Newton Jarman (born 14 January 1966) is a former professional Australian rules footballer who played for the Adelaide Football Club in the Australian Football League (AFL), and the North Adelaide Football Club and Norwood Football Club in the South Australian National Football League (SANFL). He is the older brother of Adelaide legend Darren Jarman and has won the Magarey Medal twice.

Career

SANFL
Jarman made his debut with  in 1983 at 17 years of age, and quickly established himself as an elite player with superb skills especially when disposing by handball. He won the first of his two club best and fairest awards in 1985. He capped a superb 1987 season with his first Magarey Medal, and played a key role in North Adelaide's premiership victory against . The Tigers were aiming for a third consecutive premiership, and had defeated North in two previous Grand Finals.

After winning his second club best and fairest in 1989, Jarman left the Roosters and joined . He would spend 1990 with the Redlegs before the formation of the Adelaide Crows in late 1990 saw him one of the first players signed. He would not play another SANFL game until 1994 when he made his return from injury with the Redlegs.

After being one of a number of older players de-listed by the Crows and their new coach Malcolm Blight before the 1997 AFL season, Jarman returned to the SANFL in 1997 for Norwood. "Jars" enjoyed a carbon-copy of his watershed 1987 season, winning both the Magarey Medal (shared with Sturt's Brodie Atkinson, another former North Adelaide player) and his second Premiership win as Norwood defeated Port Adelaide in the Grand Final.

In 2001 Jarman was named in the centre position of the North Adelaide Football Club Team of the Century and awarded Life Membership in 2006.

In 2007 Jarman was inducted into the South Australian Football Hall of Fame.

AFL
Inevitably, the Jarman brothers attracted the interest of clubs in the Victorian Football League (VFL). Jarman's patience was rewarded when  entered the League, now known as the AFL, and he became one of the first players signed by coach Graham Cornes. Ironically, the Round 1 debut for both himself and the fledgling club pitted him against his brother Darren Jarman who was making his AFL debut with . The Crows went on to win the game by 86 points 24.11 (155) to 9.15 (69). Jarman was listed among the best afield; he gathered 29 disposals (15 kicks and 14 handpasses), took four marks and kicked a goal. For his efforts, he earned three Brownlow Medal votes.

The 1996 AFL season, the centenary year of the League, would turn out to be Jarman's last. The season started out spectacularly enough, especially as younger brother Darren had moved back to Adelaide from Hawthorn. In Round 2 against  at Whitten Oval, the Jarman brothers put on a memorable performance; they kicked 14 of the team's 21 goals – Darren kicked eight, Andrew six. Strangely, neither of them earned a single Brownlow vote. But Adelaide's form dropped sharply in the middle of the season, and after losing to  in Adelaide in Round 13, Jarman was dropped. When the late withdrawal of Matt Collins opened up a place in the side, he declined to join the team in Melbourne and instead played for Norwood.

Jarman was fined and suspended. The club's decision not to sack him outright took into account his five-and-a-half years of service, 100-plus games and the recent awarding of life membership.
After six successful seasons with the Crows, Jarman was one of the high-profile senior players delisted at the end of the 1996 season following the arrival of coach Malcolm Blight. Jarman was awarded Life Membership of the club shortly afterward. Despite speculation that Jarman would be named on Port Adelaide's inaugural AFL list for season 1997 this did not eventuate.

Jarman was named in the centre position of the Adelaide Crows Team of the Decade in 2000.

State of Origin
Andrew Jarman had a prolific State of Origin career for South Australia, winning the Fos Williams Medal on 5 occasions, (1986, 1987, 1989, 1990 and 1994), and playing in 2 State of Origin Carnival Championships.

Jarman was rewarded for his efforts in State games for South Australia with his selection in the All-Australian team in 1986 and 1987.

Jarman was a big supporter of State of Origin, and spoke passionately about South Australia's rivalry with Victoria, quoted as saying "it was the Mother of all battles".

Coaching career
In 2004, Jarman returned to his first club  as senior coach. They had finished at the bottom of the ladder in 2003, but in his first year in charge, Jarman coached the Roosters to their first finals campaign in seven years. Under Jarman's coaching the Roosters showed continual improvement, finishing 5th in 2004, 4th in 2005, 3rd in 2006, 2nd in 2007 then 7th in 2008. On 10 September 2008 Andrew Jarman was sacked as coach of North Adelaide following the club's fall from 2nd to 7th in one season.
In October 2008, Jarman was appointed senior coach of  in the Western Australian Football League (WAFL), replacing Simon Eastaugh. It was hoped that Jarman would be able to repeat his efforts in lifting a struggling team into finals contention. Despite a respectable finish, Perth failed to make the finals in their first season with Jarman as senior coach. After a last place finish in 2010 and on the verge of being dismissed, Jarman returned to South Australia where he now works on radio.
Jarman was appointed coach of the Ironbank in the HFL on October the 17th 2013.
Jarman is now the A grade coach of Port Noarlunga Football Club

Criticism of SANFL
In September 2012, Jarman called for a wide-ranging review of the SANFL in the face of falling crowd numbers, the SANFL on the verge of selling its two AFL licenses and searching for a new football general manager.

He also called for a return to an attacking style of football, citing the negative, defensive style of play in the low scoring semi-final between  and  as damaging to the brand of South Australian football:

From an outsider looking in, I thought it hurt the integrity of our competition because it's about entertainment. I understand the mandate for clubs is to win and win at all costs, but these coaches have a moral responsibility to play attacking, entertaining, tough, one-on-one contested footy with good skill. They have a responsibility to the competition. I know I've had my day and my philosophies are different to theirs. But 10,000 people turned up (to the above-mentioned semi-final) and that type of footy would get 5000 the next week because half of them won't turn up.

The grand final between Norwood and West Adelaide had a crowd of 29,661.

Personal life
Jarman met his wife Marion Wood for the first time in 1986. She had gone to school with Jarman's cousin and accepted an invitation to meet him. Not being a football fan, it was not until some weeks later when she saw his picture in a football magazine, that she realized who he was. They married in 1989, and have one son, Stefan, and two daughters, Charlie and Riley.

References

Bibliography

External links

SA Football Hall of Fame profile

Adelaide Football Club players
North Adelaide Football Club players
Norwood Football Club players
All-Australians (1953–1988)
Magarey Medal winners
South Australian State of Origin players
Perth Football Club coaches
North Adelaide Football Club coaches
Australian rules footballers from Adelaide
South Australian Football Hall of Fame inductees
1966 births
Living people
Australia international rules football team players

Andrew Jarman


Mecosta County ( ) is a county located in the U.S. state of Michigan. As of the 2020 Census, the population was 39,714. The county seat is Big Rapids.

The county is named after Chief Mecosta, the leader of the Potawatomi Native American tribe who once traveled the local waterways in search of fish and game. Chief Mecosta was one of the signers the Treaty of Washington in 1836. The easily navigated waterways soon led to a boom in lumber industry growth. Workers settled the area in 1851, and the county was officially settled and the government officially organized in 1859. Mecosta County is home to over 100 lakes, rivers, and streams with the Muskegon River winding its way through the county seat and largest city Big Rapids (originally named Leonard).

Mecosta County was set off on April 1, 1840, but remained attached for administrative purposes to Kent County until 1857, when it was attached to Newaygo County. The county government was organized on February 11, 1859.

Mecosta County comprises the Big Rapids, MI, Micropolitan Statistical Area and is included in the Grand Rapids-Wyoming-Muskegon, MI, Combined Statistical Area.

History
The surveyor general approved the United States survey of Mecosta County on February 22, 1839, and the state legislature established the county boundaries on April 1, 1840.

In 1852, John Davis purchased  in Mecosta Township and John Parish purchased  in Big Rapids. They were the first two permanent county residents. On July 20, 1852, the first family to reside in the county, William and Margaret Brockway and their two children, moved into a logging shanty on Mitchell Creek. On February 12, 1853, Alice Victoria Brockway was born to the couple. Alice was the first white child born in the county. In the spring of 1853, the Brockways moved to a  farm in Aetna Township.

In March 1854, Zerah and George French and nine members of their family moved to a shanty close to Mitchell Creek and the Muskegon River. Zerah and George French are considered the co-founders of Big Rapids. In the spring of 1855, James and Laura Montague and their children became the third family to settle in the county. Their  farm in Green Township was located where 19 Mile Road intersects the west bank of the Muskegon River.

The organization of Leonard (Big Rapids) Township and Green Township was authorized in February 1858. On April 5, 1858, the first township elections were held and Jesse Shaw was elected supervisor of Leonard Township and Jesse A. Barker was elected supervisor of Green Township. On February 11, 1859, the State Legislature authorized the organization of Mecosta County and established the Village of Leonard as the county seat. The first county elections were held on April 4 and these county officials were elected: Orrin Stevens, Clerk and Register of Deeds; Alfred L. Clark, Sheriff; Charles Shafer, Treasurer; Jesse A. Barker, Judge of Probate; and Augustine N. Williams, Surveyor. Mr. William T. Howell of Newaygo was appointed Prosecuting Attorney. On May 2, Luther Cobb and Jesse A. Barker convened the first meeting of the board of supervisors and Jesse A. Barker was chosen chairman. The population of Mecosta County was 671 inhabitants in 1860.

The first issue of the Big Rapids Pioneer, a five-column folio, was printed on April 17, 1862. Charlie Gay was the proprietor, owner, and co-editor with Ceylon C. Fuller. The paper was under the same management for nearly 22 years, and 140 years later, the paper is still being published.

The plat for the Village of Big Rapids was recorded on November 3, 1859, and the plat for French's addition (Glen Elm) was recorded on May 9, 1860. The state legislature authorized the incorporation of the City of Big Rapids in April 1869. The first city elections were held on April 19, 1869, when these officials were elected: George F. Stearns, Mayor; Charlie Gay, Recorder; W. Irving Latimer, Treasurer; and William Van Loo, Supervisor. Mecosta County had 5,642 residents in 1870.

The Grand Rapids and Indiana was the first railroad to enter Mecosta County. In June 1869, the GR&I railroad crossed the Little Muskegon River and the Village of Morley was created. Construction of the next section of track to the Village of Paris started in late July 1869 and the Village of Stanwood came into existence. The GR&I reached the city limits of Big Rapids on June 20, 1870, and the Village of Paris on July 1, 1870. Construction of the GR&I continued for several years until the line reached Petoskey in December 1873.

Early county prisoners were housed in the county sheriff's private house, a local hotel, the Kent County jail, or the Newaygo County jail. In 1862, county residents decided not to erect a county jail. The first county jail was erected in the summer of 1868, situated where the Old Historic Jail built in 1893 is presently located on Stewart Street. Construction for the present county jail was completed in 1965. This jail was renovated in 1986. The Mecosta County Board of Commissioners approved another jail renovation and expansion in 2000 with scheduled completion in 2001.

The 1880 census reported Mecosta County to have a population of 13,973. In the early 1880s, rented county offices were located in two downtown buildings near the corner of Elm and Michigan. In 1883, the Board of Supervisors submitted to the voters the proposition to authorize a two-year tax for the purpose of erecting a county courthouse. County voters passed the courthouse tax issue in April 1884. Construction on the first courthouse began in 1885 and was completed in 1886. A ground-breaking ceremony for the present Mecosta County Building (second courthouse) occurred on April 8, 1969. Construction of the Mecosta County Building was completed in late August 1970 and a dedication ceremony was held on November 7, 1970.

In the early 1900s, water power harnessed by hydroelectric dams became the energy base for the manufacturing of furniture and other wood products. The extraction of bedrock deposits of oil, gas, glacial sand, and gravel soon became important economic activities. Although logging activities dominated early history, health services and education have become more significant and enduring forces in shaping the community. Mecosta County has grown in population through the years to over 42,000 with a wealth of opportunity in industry, education, and small-town country living.

Mecosta County was first settled by African Americans in the 1860s when James Guy obtained  in Wheatland Township, with a deed signed by Abraham Lincoln. The Homestead Act of 1862 allowed each settler , resulting in African Americans owning  in the area where Remus sits today. They were woodsmen and farmers who established schools and churches in their community. Referred to as the "Old Settlers", a reunion is held every year in the Remus area to celebrate those who originally settled here.

Woodbridge N. Ferris, who later became a Michigan governor, established Ferris Industrial School in 1884 in Big Rapids. The  school became Ferris Institute, Ferris State College, and is currently home of the Bulldogs and Ferris State University. Before his death in 1928, Ferris had trained 50,000 students and attained a yearly enrollment of 1,800. Currently, enrollment is over 14,000.

The tourist industry within the area has had steady growth and is now an important source of income while development opportunities continue to exist. With Mecosta County's numerous lakes, streams, and rivers opportunities for water and fishing activities are limitless: golf courses, bike trails, and other outdoor experiences.

Ice Mountain bottling plant
In 2009, Michigan Citizens for Water Conservation  won their controversial case, The Michigan Citizens for Water Conservation v Nestle Waters North America, which had begun in 1999.  The Nestle/Perrier/Great Spring Waters of America/Ice Mountain bottling plant in Stanwood, Mecosta County, began production on May 23, 2002, extracting groundwater from the Muskegon aquifer that qualifies as a source of "spring water" under federal law. The  case has the potential of being one of the most important cases in terms of influencing and defining Michigan's water law jurisprudence. The decision involves the interpretation and application of the common law and several environmental statutes, mainly the Michigan Environmental Protection Act, the Inland Lakes and Streams Act, and the Wetland Protection Act. Citizens, disappointed by the inaction of the Michigan Department for Environmental Quality (MDEQ) and their disinclination to adequately monitor the bottling plant, had formed their own organization to conserve Michigan's water. For example, in 2003, the MDEQ, although they had determined that the bottling plant had already had a "measurable impact on certain waters and wetlands". MDEQ argued that "water levels in the impacted waters" in 2003 were at the "highest levels they have been in three years, thereby mitigating concern over possible imminent harm associated with Nestlé's continued operation at a reduced rate of 250 gallons per minute (gpm) averaged over a monthly time period." In 2009, an out-of-court settlement was reached. "Nestle/Ice Mountain's water pumping permit was reduced by almost half. Nestlé agreed to lower its spring pumping in Mecosta earlier in the spring during fish spawning and continue low pumping during the summer months to protect the already stressed stream and lake."

Geography
According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of , of which  is land and  (2.8%) is covered by water.

National protected area
 Manistee National Forest (part)

Adjacent counties
Osceola County (north)
Lake County (northwest)
Clare County (northeast)
Isabella County (east)
Montcalm County (south & southeast)
Newaygo County (west & southwest)

Demographics

As of the census of 2000, 40,553 people, 14,915 households, and 9,888 families resided in the county. The population density was . The 19,593 housing units averaged . The racial makeup of the county was 92.68% White, 3.60% Black or African American, 0.64% Native American, 0.87% Asian, 0.04% Pacific Islander, 0.37% from other races, and 1.79% from two or more races. About 1.28% of the population were Hispanics or Latinos of any race; 25.5% were of German, 20.6% English, 9.2% Irish, and 5.3% Polish ancestry according to the 2010 American Community Survey. 95.9% spoke English, 1.7% Spanish, and 1.1% German as their first language.

Of the 14,915 households, 29.10% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 53.30% were married couples living together, 9.30% had a female householder with no husband present, and 33.70% were not families. About 24.50% of all households were made up of individuals, and 8.90% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.49 and the average family size was 2.95.

In the county, the population was distributed as 22.50% under the age of 18, 19.80% from 18 to 24, 23.00% from 25 to 44, 21.50% from 45 to 64, and 13.20% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 32 years. For every 100 females, there were 102.80 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 102.20 males.

The median income for a household in the county was $33,849, and for a family was $40,465. Males had a median income of $32,127 versus $22,467 for females. The per capita income for the county was $16,372. About 9.60% of families and 16.10% of the population were below the poverty line, including 16.60% of those under age 18 and 7.60% of those age 65 or over.

Transportation

Bus service
MOTA
Dial-a-Ride

Highways

County designated highways

Economy
Major employers in the county include:
Ferris State University, Big Rapids
Haworth, Big Rapids
Spectrum Health, Big Rapids
Wolverine Worldwide, Big Rapids

Government

The county government operates the jail, maintains rural roads, operates the major local courts, keeps files of deeds and mortgages, maintains vital records, administers
public health regulations, and participates with the state in the provision of welfare and other social services. The county board of commissioners controls the budget, but has only limited authority to make laws or ordinances. In Michigan, most local government functions — police and fire, building and zoning, tax assessment, street maintenance, etc. — are the responsibility of individual cities and townships.

Elected officials
 Prosecuting Attorney: Amy Clapp
 Sheriff: Brian Miller
 County Clerk: Marcee Purcell
 County Treasurer: Sherry Earnest
 Register of Deeds: Karen Hahn
 Drain Commissioner: Jackie Fitzgerald
 Road Commissioners: John R. Currie; Paul Jefts; Randy Maxwell
 49th Circuit Court Judges: Hon. Scott Hill-Kennedy; Hon. Kimberly Booher
 77th District Court Judge: Hon. Peter Jakelvic

(information as of August, 2016)

Communities

City
Big Rapids (county seat)

Villages
Barryton
Mecosta
Morley
Stanwood

Census Designated Place
Canadian Lakes

Unincorporated Communities

Altona
Chippewa Lake
Millbrook
Paris
Remus
Rodney
Sylvester
West Millbrook

Townships

Aetna Township
Austin Township
Big Rapids Township
Chippewa Township
Colfax Township
Deerfield Township
Fork Township
Grant Township
Green Charter Township
Hinton Township
Martiny Township
Mecosta Township
Millbrook Township
Morton Township
Sheridan Township
Wheatland Township

Education

The Mecosta–Osceola Intermediate School District, based in Big Rapids, services the districts in the county. The intermediate school district offers regional special education services, a residential at-risk youth center, and technical career programs for its students.

Mecosta County is served by the following regular public school districts:

 Big Rapids Public Schools
 Chippewa Hills School District
 Morley Stanwood Community Schools

The county also has one charter school, Crossroads Charter Academy.

Mecosta County has the following private schools:

 Brockway Christian Academy (Methodist)
 St. Michael Elementary School (Catholic)
 St. Peters Lutheran School (Lutheran)

See also
 List of Michigan State Historic Sites in Mecosta County, Michigan
National Register of Historic Places listings in Mecosta County, Michigan

References

Further reading

External links
Mecosta County official website
Mecosta County Area Chamber of Commerce
Mecosta County Development Corporation

Michigan counties
Michigan placenames of Native American origin
1859 establishments in Michigan
Populated places established in 1859

Mecosta County, Michigan


The 1898–99 WPHL season was the second season of operation for the Western Pennsylvania Hockey League. Four Pittsburgh-area teams competed in the season, in which all games were played at the Duquesne Gardens. The league reconstituted in the newly finished hockey rink at the Duquesne Gardens, after the Schenley Park Casino was destroyed in an 1896 fire that cut short the previous WPHL season. The old venue's in-house, Pittsburgh Casino team, was not reformed and only three teams played in the league.

The Pittsburgh Athletic Club won 9 of 12 games to win their first WPHL championship.

Final standings

References

Western Pennsylvania Hockey League seasons
WPHL

1898–99 WPHL season


Google Translate is a multilingual neural machine translation service developed by Google to translate text, documents and websites from one language into another. It offers a website interface, a mobile app for Android and iOS, as well as an API that helps developers build browser extensions and software applications. As of 2022, Google Translate supports  languages at various levels; it claimed over 500 million total users , with more than 100 billion words translated daily, after the company stated in May 2013 that it served over 200 million people daily.

Launched in April 2006 as a statistical machine translation service, it used United Nations and European Parliament documents and transcripts to gather linguistic data. Rather than translating languages directly, it first translates text to English and then pivots to the target language in most of the language combinations it posits in its grid, with a few exceptions including Catalan–Spanish. During a translation, it looks for patterns in millions of documents to help decide which words to choose and how to arrange them in the target language. Its accuracy, which has been criticized on several occasions, has been measured to vary greatly across languages. In November 2016, Google announced that Google Translate would switch to a neural machine translation engine – Google Neural Machine Translation (GNMT) – which translates "whole sentences at a time, rather than just piece by piece. It uses this broader context to help it figure out the most relevant translation, which it then rearranges and adjusts to be more like a human speaking with proper grammar".

History
Google Translate is a web-based free-to-user translation service developed by Google in April 2006. It translates multiple forms of texts and media such as words, phrases and webpages.

Originally, Google Translate was released as a statistical machine translation service. The input text had to be translated into English first before being translated into the selected language. Since SMT uses predictive algorithms to translate text, it had poor grammatical accuracy. Despite this, Google initially did not hire experts to resolve this limitation due to the ever-evolving nature of language.

In January 2010, Google introduced an Android app and iOS version in February 2011 to serve as a portable personal interpreter. As of February 2010, it was integrated into browsers such as Chrome and was able to pronounce the translated text, automatically recognize words in a picture and spot unfamiliar text and languages.

In May 2014, Google acquired Word Lens to improve the quality of visual and voice translation. It is able to scan text or a picture using the device and have it translated instantly. Moreover, the system automatically identifies foreign languages and translates speech without requiring individuals to tap the microphone button whenever speech translation is needed.

In November 2016, Google transitioned its translating method to a system called neural machine translation. It uses deep learning techniques to translate whole sentences at a time, which has been measured to be more accurate between English and French, German, Spanish, and Chinese. No measurement results have been provided by Google researchers for GNMT from English to other languages, other languages to English, or between language pairs that do not include English. As of 2018, it translates more than 100 billion words a day.

In 2017, Google Translate was used during a court hearing when court officials at Teesside Magistrates' Court failed to book an interpreter for the Chinese defendant.

At the end of September 2022, Google Translate was discontinued in mainland China, which Google said was due to "low usage".

Functions
Google Translate can translate multiple forms of text and media, which includes text, speech, and text within still or moving images. Specifically, its functions include:
Written Words Translation: a function that translates written words or text to a foreign language.
Website Translation: a function that translates a whole webpage to selected languages.
Document Translation: a function that translates a document uploaded by the users to selected languages. The documents should be in the form of: .doc, .docx, .odf, .pdf, .ppt, .pptx, .ps, .rtf, .txt, .xls, .xlsx.
Speech Translation: a function that instantly translates spoken language into the selected foreign language.
Mobile App Translation: in 2018, Google introduced its new Google Translate feature called "Tap to Translate", which made instant translation accessible inside any app without exiting or switching it.
Image Translation: a function that identifies text in a picture taken by the users and translates text on the screen instantly by images.
Handwritten Translation: a function that translates language that are handwritten on the phone screen or drawn on a virtual keyboard without the support of a keyboard.
Bilingual Conversation Translation: a function that translates conversations in multiple languages.
Transcription: a function that transcribes speech in different languages.

For most of its features, Google Translate provides the pronunciation, dictionary, and listening to translation. Additionally, Google Translate has introduced its own Translate app, so translation is available with a mobile phone in offline mode.

Features

Web interface
Google Translate produces approximations across languages of multiple forms of text and media, including text, speech, websites, or text on display in still or live video images. For some languages, Google Translate can synthesize speech from text, and in certain pairs it is possible to highlight specific corresponding words and phrases between the source and target text. Results are sometimes shown with dictional information below the translation box, but it is not a dictionary and has been shown to invent translations in all languages for words it does not recognize. If "Detect language" is selected, text in an unknown language can be automatically identified. In the web interface, users can suggest alternate translations, such as for technical terms, or correct mistakes. These suggestions may be included in future updates to the translation process. If a user enters a URL in the source text, Google Translate will produce a hyperlink to a machine translation of the website. Users can save translation proposals in a "phrasebook" for later use, and a shareable URL is generated for each translation. For some languages, text can be entered via an on-screen keyboard, through handwriting recognition, or speech recognition. It is possible to enter searches in a source language that are first translated to a destination language allowing one to browse and interpret results from the selected destination language in the source language.

Texts written in the Arabic, Cyrillic, Devanagari and Greek scripts can be transliterated automatically from phonetic equivalents written in the Latin alphabet. The browser version of Google Translate provides the option to show phonetic equivalents of text translated from Japanese to English. The same option is not available on the paid API version.

Many of the more popular languages have a "text-to-speech" audio function that is able to read back a text in that language, up to several hundred words or so. In the case of pluricentric languages, the accent depends on the region: for English, in the Americas, most of the Asia-Pacific and Western Asia, the audio uses a female General American accent, whereas in Europe, Hong Kong, Malaysia, Singapore, Guyana and all other parts of the world, a female British (Received Pronunciation) accent is used, except for a special General Australian accent used in Australia, New Zealand and Norfolk Island, and an Indian English accent used in India; for Spanish, in the Americas, a Latin American accent is used, while in other parts of the world, a Castilian accent is used; for Portuguese, a São Paulo accent is used around the world, except in Portugal, where their native accent is used instead; for French, a Quebec accent is used in Canada, while in other parts of the world, a standard European accent is used; for Bengali, a male Bangladeshi accent is used, except in India, where a special female Indian Bengali accent is used instead. Until March 2023, some less widely spoken languages used the open-source eSpeak synthesizer for their speech; producing a robotic, awkward voice that may be difficult to understand.

Browser integration
Google Translate is available in some web browsers as an optional downloadable extension that can run the translation engine, which allow right-click command access to the translation service. In February 2010, Google Translate was integrated into the Google Chrome browser by default, for optional automatic webpage translation.

Mobile app

The Google Translate app for Android and iOS supports  languages and can propose translations for 37 languages via photo, 32 via voice in "conversation mode", and 27 via live video imagery in "augmented reality mode".

The Android app was released in January 2010, and for iOS on February 8, 2011, after an HTML5 web application was released for iOS users in August 2008. The Android app is compatible with devices running at least Android 2.1, while the iOS app is compatible with iPod Touches, iPads, and iPhones updated to iOS 7.0+.

A January 2011 Android version experimented with a "Conversation Mode" that aims to allow users to communicate fluidly with a nearby person in another language. Originally limited to English and Spanish, the feature received support for 12 new languages, still in testing, the following October.

The 'Camera input' functionality allows users to take a photograph of a document, signboard, etc. Google Translate recognises the text from the image using optical character recognition (OCR) technology and gives the translation. Camera input is not available for all languages.

In January 2015, the apps gained the ability to propose translations of physical signs in real time using the device's camera, as a result of Google's acquisition of the Word Lens app. The original January launch only supported seven languages, but a July update added support for 20 new languages, with the release of a new implementation that utilizes convolutional neural networks, and also enhanced the speed and quality of Conversation Mode translations (augmented reality). The feature was subsequently renamed Instant Camera. The technology underlying Instant Camera combines image processing and optical character recognition, then attempts to produce cross-language equivalents using standard Google Translate estimations for the text as it is perceived.

On May 11, 2016, Google introduced Tap to Translate for Google Translate for Android. Upon highlighting text in an app that is in a foreign language, Translate will pop up inside of the app and offer translations.

API
On May 26, 2011, Google announced that the Google Translate API for software developers had been deprecated and would cease functioning. The Translate API page stated the reason as "substantial economic burden caused by extensive abuse" with an end date set for December 1, 2011. In response to public pressure, Google announced in June 2011 that the API would continue to be available as a paid service.

Because the API was used in numerous third-party websites and apps, the original decision to deprecate it led some developers to criticize Google and question the viability of using Google APIs in their products.

Google Assistant
Google Translate also provides translations for Google Assistant and the devices that Google Assistant runs on such as Google Nest and Pixel Buds.

Supported languages
As of  , the following 133 languages are supported by Google Translate:

Languages in development and beta version
The following languages are not yet supported by Google Translate, but are available in the Translate Community. As of  , there are 103 languages in development, of which 9 are in beta version.

The languages in beta version are closer to their public release and have an exclusive extra option to contribute that allows evaluating up to 4 translations of the beta version by translating an English text of up to 50 characters.

There is currently a petition for Google to add Cree to Google Translate, but as of  , it is not one of the languages in development yet.

 Acehnese (Achinese)
 Adyghe (Western Circassian)
 Afar
 Aragonese
 Avar (Avaric)
 Bagheli
 Balochi (Baluchi)
 Bangala
 Baoulé
 Bashkir
 Berber (Tamazight)
 Betawi
 Boro (India) (Bodo)
 Breton
 Cantonese
 Chechen
 Cherokee
 Chhattisgarhi
 Chittagonian
 Chuvash
 Deccani
 Dholuo
 Dyula
 Dzongkha
 Edo
 Efik
 Esan
 Fon
 Fula (Fulfulde)
 Gagauz
 Garhwali
 Greenlandic (Kalaallisut)
 Haryanvi
 Hiligaynon
 Inuktitut
 Isoko
 Kamba
 Kanuri
 Kapampangan (Pampanga)
 Karachay-Balkar
 Karakalpak (Kara-Kalpak)
 Kashmiri
 Kedah Malay
 Kelantan-Pattani Malay (Pattani Malay)
 Khakas
 Khandeshi (Ahirani)
 Khorasani Turkic
 Kikuyu
 Kokborok (Tripuri)
 Kumyk
 K'iche'
 Lakota
 Lhasa Tibetan (Tibetan)
 Luba-Kasai (Tshiluba)
 Luba-Katanga (Luba)
 Madurese
 Magahi
 Marwari
 Mazanderani
 Minangkabau
 Montenegrin
 Mooré (Mossi)
 Nagpuri (Sadri)
 Navajo
 Newar (Nepalbhasa)
 Nigerian Pidgin
 Northern Sámi (Northern Sami)
 Occitan
 Qashqai
 Rajasthani
 Rangpuri (Kamtapuri)
 Rohingya
 Romansh
 Salar
 Samogitian
 Sango
 Santali
 Saraiki
 Serrano
 Shor
 Siberian Tatar
 Sicilian
 Southern Altai
 Southern Ndebele
 Surjapuri
 Swahili Congo
 Sylheti
 Tiv
 Toba Batak (Batak Toba)
 Tok Pisin
 Tonga (Zambia and Zimbabwe) (Chitonga)
 Tswana (Setswana)
 Tswa
 Tuvan (Tuvinian)
 Urhobo
 Urum
 Varhadi (Varhadi-Nagpuri)
 Venda (Tshivenda)
 Wolof
 Yakut
 Yucatec Maya (Yucateco)
 Zaza (Zazaki)
 Zhuang

Translation methodology
In April 2006, Google Translate launched with a statistical machine translation engine.

Google Translate does not apply grammatical rules, since its algorithms are based on statistical or pattern analysis rather than traditional rule-based analysis. The system's original creator, Franz Josef Och, has criticized the effectiveness of rule-based algorithms in favor of statistical approaches. Original versions of Google Translate were based on a method called statistical machine translation, and more specifically, on research by Och who won the DARPA contest for speed machine translation in 2003. Och was the head of Google's machine translation group until leaving to join Human Longevity, Inc. in July 2014.

Google Translate does not translate from one language to another (L1 → L2). Instead, it often translates first to English and then to the target language (L1 → EN → L2). However, because English, like all human languages, is ambiguous and depends on context, this can cause translation errors. For example, translating  from French to Russian gives  → you →  OR . If Google were using an unambiguous, artificial language as the intermediary, it would be  → you →  OR  → thou → . Such a suffixing of words disambiguates their different meanings. Hence, publishing in English, using unambiguous words, providing context, using expressions such as "you all" may or may not make a better one-step translation depending on the target language.

The following languages do not have a direct Google translation to or from English. These languages are translated through the indicated intermediate language (which in most cases is closely related to the desired language but more widely spoken) in addition to through English:
 Belarusian (be ↔ ru ↔ en ↔ other);
 Catalan (ca ↔ es ↔ en ↔ other);
 Galician (gl ↔ pt ↔ en ↔ other);
 Haitian Creole (ht ↔ fr ↔ en ↔ other);
 Korean (ko ↔ ja ↔ en ↔ other);
 Slovak (sk ↔ cs ↔ en ↔ other);
 Ukrainian (uk ↔ ru ↔ en ↔ other);
 Urdu (ur ↔ hi ↔ en ↔ other).

According to Och, a solid base for developing a usable statistical machine translation system for a new pair of languages from scratch would consist of a bilingual text corpus (or parallel collection) of more than 150-200 million words, and two monolingual corpora each of more than a billion words. Statistical models from these data are then used to translate between those languages.

To acquire this huge amount of linguistic data, Google used United Nations and European Parliament documents and transcripts. The UN typically publishes documents in all six official UN languages, which has produced a very large 6-language corpus.

Google representatives have been involved with domestic conferences in Japan where it has solicited bilingual data from researchers.

When Google Translate generates a translation proposal, it looks for patterns in hundreds of millions of documents to help decide on the best translation. By detecting patterns in documents that have already been translated by human translators, Google Translate makes informed guesses (AI) as to what an appropriate translation should be.

Before October 2007, for languages other than Arabic, Chinese and Russian, Google Translate was based on SYSTRAN, a software engine which is still used by several other online translation services such as Babel Fish (now defunct). From October 2007, Google Translate used proprietary, in-house technology based on statistical machine translation instead, before transitioning to neural machine translation.

Google Translate Community
Google has crowdsourcing features for volunteers to be a part of its "Translate Community", intended to help improve Google Translate's accuracy. Volunteers can select up to five languages to help improve translation; users can verify translated phrases and translate phrases in their languages to and from English, helping to improve the accuracy of translating more rare and complex phrases. In August 2016, a Google Crowdsource app was released for Android users, in which translation tasks are offered. There are three ways to contribute. First, Google will show a phrase that one should type in the translated version. Second, Google will show a proposed translation for a user to agree, disagree, or skip. Third, users can suggest translations for phrases where they think they can improve on Google's results. Tests in 44 languages show that the "suggest an edit" feature led to an improvement in a maximum of 40% of cases over four years.

Statistical machine translation
Although Google deployed a new system called neural machine translation for better quality translation, there are languages that still use the traditional translation method called statistical machine translation. It is a rule-based translation method that utilizes predictive algorithms to guess ways to translate texts in foreign languages. It aims to translate whole phrases rather than single words then gather overlapping phrases for translation. Moreover, it also analyzes bilingual text corpora to generate statistical model that translates texts from one language to another.

Google Neural Machine Translation

In September 2016, a research team at Google announced the development of the Google Neural Machine Translation system (GNMT) to increase fluency and accuracy in Google Translate and in November announced that Google Translate would switch to GNMT.

Google Translate's neural machine translation system uses a large end-to-end artificial neural network that attempts to perform deep learning, in particular, long short-term memory networks. GNMT improves the quality of translation over SMT in some instances because it uses an example-based machine translation (EBMT) method in which the system "learns from millions of examples." According to Google researchers, it translates "whole sentences at a time, rather than just piece by piece. It uses this broader context to help it figure out the most relevant translation, which it then rearranges and adjusts to be more like a human speaking with proper grammar". GNMT's "proposed architecture" of "system learning" has been implemented on over a hundred languages supported by Google Translate. With the end-to-end framework, Google states but does not demonstrate for most languages that "the system learns over time to create better, more natural translations." The GNMT network attempts interlingual machine translation, which encodes the "semantics of the sentence rather than simply memorizing phrase-to-phrase translations", and the system did not invent its own universal language, but uses "the commonality found in between many languages". GNMT was first enabled for eight languages: to and from English and Chinese, French, German, Japanese, Korean, Portuguese, Spanish and Turkish. In March 2017, it was enabled for Hindi, Russian and Vietnamese, followed by Bengali, Gujarati, Indonesian, Kannada, Malayalam, Marathi, Punjabi, Tamil and Telugu in April.

Accuracy
Google Translate is not as reliable as human translation. When text is well-structured, written using formal language, with simple sentences, relating to formal topics for which training data is ample, it often produces conversions similar to human translations between English and a number of high-resource languages. Accuracy decreases for those languages when fewer of those conditions apply, for example when sentence length increases or the text uses familiar or literary language. For many other languages vis-à-vis English, it can produce the gist of text in those formal circumstances. Human evaluation from English to all 102 languages shows that the main idea of a text is conveyed more than 50% of the time for 35 languages. For 67 languages, a minimally comprehensible result is not achieved 50% of the time or greater. A few studies have evaluated Chinese, French, German, and Spanish to English, but no systematic human evaluation has been conducted from most Google Translate languages to English. Speculative language-to-language scores extrapolated from English-to-other measurements indicate that Google Translate will produce translation results that convey the gist of a text from one language to another more than half the time in about 1% of language pairs, where neither language is English. Research conducted in 2011 showed that Google Translate got a slightly higher score than the UCLA minimum score for the English Proficiency Exam. Due to its identical choice of words without considering the flexibility of choosing alternative words or expressions, it produces a relatively similar translation to human translation from the perspective of formality, referential cohesion, and conceptual cohesion. Moreover, a number of languages are translated into a sentence structure and sentence length similar to a human translation. Furthermore, Google carried out a test that required native speakers of each language to rate the translation on a scale between 0 and 6, and Google Translate scored 5.43 on average.

When used as a dictionary to translate single words, Google Translate is highly inaccurate because it must guess between polysemic words. Among the top 100 words in the English language, which make up more than 50% of all written English, the average word has more than 15 senses, which makes the odds against a correct translation about 15 to 1 if each sense maps to a different word in the target language. Most common English words have at least two senses, which produces 50/50 odds in the likely case that the target language uses different words for those different senses. The odds are similar from other languages to English. Google Translate makes statistical guesses that raise the likelihood of producing the most frequent sense of a word, with the consequence that an accurate translation will be unobtainable in cases that do not match the majority or plurality corpus occurrence. The accuracy of single-word predictions has not been measured for any language. Because almost all non-English language pairs pivot through English, the odds against obtaining accurate single-word translations from one non-English language to another can be estimated by multiplying the number of senses in the source language with the number of senses each of those terms have in English. When Google Translate does not have a word in its vocabulary, it makes up a result as part of its algorithm.

Limitations
Google Translate, like other automatic translation tools, has its limitations. The service limits the number of paragraphs and the range of technical terms that can be translated, and while it can help the reader understand the general content of a foreign language text, it does not always deliver accurate translations, and most times it tends to repeat verbatim the same word it is expected to translate. Grammatically, for example, Google Translate struggles to differentiate between imperfect and perfect aspects in Romance languages so habitual and continuous acts in the past often become single historical events. Although seemingly pedantic, this can often lead to incorrect results (to a native speaker of for example French and Spanish) which would have been avoided by a human translator. Knowledge of the subjunctive mood is virtually non-existent. Moreover, the formal second person () is often chosen, whatever the context or accepted usage. Since its English reference material contains only "you" forms, it has difficulty translating a language with "you all" or formal "you" variations.

Due to differences between languages in investment, research, and the extent of digital resources, the accuracy of Google Translate varies greatly among languages. Some languages produce better results than others. Most languages from Africa, Asia, and the Pacific, tend to score poorly in relation to the scores of many well-financed European languages, Afrikaans and Chinese being the high-scoring exceptions from their continents. No languages indigenous to Australia are included within Google Translate. Higher scores for European can be partially attributed to the Europarl Corpus, a trove of documents from the European Parliament that have been professionally translated by the mandate of the European Union into as many as 21 languages. A 2010 analysis indicated that French to English translation is relatively accurate, and 2011 and 2012 analyses showed that Italian to English translation is relatively accurate as well. However, if the source text is shorter, rule-based machine translations often perform better; this effect is particularly evident in Chinese to English translations. While edits of translations may be submitted, in Chinese specifically one cannot edit sentences as a whole. Instead, one must edit sometimes arbitrary sets of characters, leading to incorrect edits. A good example is Russian-to-English. Formerly one would use Google Translate to make a draft and then use a dictionary and common sense to correct the numerous mistakes. As of early 2018 Translate is sufficiently accurate to make the Russian Wikipedia accessible to those who can read English. The quality of Translate can be checked by adding it as an extension to Chrome or Firefox and applying it to the left language links of any Wikipedia article. It can be used as a dictionary by typing in words. One can translate from a book by using a scanner and an OCR like Google Drive, but this takes about five minutes per page.

In its Written Words Translation function, there is a word limit on the amount of text that can be translated at once. Therefore, long text should be transferred to a document form and translated through its Document Translate function.

Moreover, like all machine translation programs, Google Translate struggles with polysemy (the multiple meanings a word may have) and multiword expressions (terms that have meanings that cannot be understood or translated by analyzing the individual word units that compose them). A word in a foreign language might have two different meanings in the translated language. This might lead to mistranslations.

Additionally, grammatical errors remain a major limitation to the accuracy of Google Translate.

Open-source licenses and components

Irish language data from Foras na Gaeilge's New English-Irish Dictionary (English database designed and developed for Foras na Gaeilge by Lexicography MasterClass Ltd.)

Welsh language data from Gweiadur by Gwerin.

Certain content is copyright Oxford University Press USA. Some phrase translations come from Wikitravel.

Reviews
Shortly after launching the translation service for the first time, Google won an international competition for English–Arabic and English–Chinese machine translation.

Translation mistakes and oddities
Since Google Translate used statistical matching to translate, translated text can often include apparently nonsensical and obvious errors, often swapping common terms for similar but nonequivalent common terms in the other language, as well as inverting sentence meaning. Novelty websites like Bad Translator and Translation Party have utilized the service to produce humorous text by translating back and forth between multiple languages, similar to the children's game telephone.

See also

 Apertium
 Babel Fish (discontinued; redirects to the main Yahoo! site)
 Comparison of machine translation applications
 DeepL Translator
 Google Dictionary
 Google Translator Toolkit
 Jollo (discontinued)
 List of Google products
 Microsoft Translator
 Reverso
 Smartcat
 Speech Services
 SYSTRAN
 Word Lens (discontinued; merged into Google Translate app)
 Yandex Translate

References

External links

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Google Translate
Internet properties established in 2006
Machine translation software
Natural language processing software
Products introduced in 2006
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