Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher (; 21 November 1768 – 12 February 1834) was a German Reformed theologian, philosopher, and biblical scholar known for his attempt to reconcile the criticisms of the Enlightenment with traditional Protestant Christianity. He also became influential in the evolution of higher criticism, and his work forms part of the foundation of the modern field of hermeneutics.  Because of his profound effect on subsequent Christian thought, he is often called the "Father of Modern Liberal Theology" and is considered an early leader in liberal Christianity. The neo-orthodoxy movement of the twentieth century, typically (though not without challenge) seen to be spearheaded by Karl Barth, was in many ways an attempt to challenge his influence. As a philosopher he was a leader of German Romanticism.

Biography

Early life and development
Born in Breslau in Prussian Silesia as the grandson of Daniel Schleiermacher, a pastor at one time associated with the Zionites, and the son of Gottlieb Schleiermacher, a Reformed Church chaplain in the Prussian army, Schleiermacher started his formal education in a Moravian school at Niesky in Upper Lusatia, and at Barby near Magdeburg. However, pietistic Moravian theology failed to satisfy his increasing doubts, and his father reluctantly gave him permission to enter the University of Halle, which had already abandoned pietism and adopted the rationalist spirit of Christian Wolff and Johann Salomo Semler. As a theology student, Schleiermacher pursued an independent course of reading and neglected the study of the Old Testament and of Oriental languages. However, he attended the lectures of Semler and became acquainted with the techniques of historical criticism of the New Testament, and of Johann Augustus Eberhard from whom he acquired a love of the philosophy of Plato and Aristotle. At the same time, he studied the writings of Immanuel Kant and Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi and began to apply ideas from the Greek philosophers to a reconstruction of Kant's system.

Schleiermacher developed a deep-rooted skepticism as a student and soon rejected orthodox Christianity.

Brian Gerrish, a scholar of the works of Schleiermacher, wrote:

Schleiermacher confessed:  "Faith is the regalia of the Godhead, you say. Alas! dearest father, if you believe that without this faith no one can attain to salvation in the next world, nor to tranquility in this—and such, I know, is your belief—oh! then pray to God to grant it to me, for to me it is now lost. I cannot believe that he who called himself the Son of Man was the true, eternal God; I cannot believe that his death was a vicarious atonement."

Tutoring, chaplaincy and first works

At the completion of his course at Halle, Schleiermacher became the private tutor to the family of Friedrich Alexander Burggraf und Graf zu Dohna-Schlobitten (1741–1810), developing in a cultivated and aristocratic household his deep love of family and social life. Two years later, in 1796, he became chaplain to the Charité Hospital in Berlin. Lacking scope for the development of his preaching skills, he sought mental and spiritual satisfaction in the city's cultivated society and in intensive philosophical studies, beginning to construct the framework of his philosophical and religious system. Here  Schleiermacher became acquainted with art, literature, science and general culture. He was strongly influenced by German Romanticism, as represented by his friend Karl Wilhelm Friedrich von Schlegel. That interest is borne out by his Confidential Letters on Schlegel's Lucinde as well as by his seven-year relationship (1798–1805) with Eleonore Christiane Grunow (née Krüger) (1769/1770–1837), the wife of Berlin clergyman August Christian Wilhelm Grunow (1764–1831).

Though his ultimate principles remained unchanged, he placed more emphasis on human emotion and the imagination. Meanwhile, he studied Spinoza and Plato, both of whom were important influences. He became more indebted to Kant though they differed on fundamental points. He sympathised with some of Jacobi's positions, and took some ideas from Fichte and Schelling. The literary product of that period of rapid development was his influential book, Reden über die Religion (On Religion: Speeches to Its Cultured Despisers), and his "new year's gift" to the new century, the Monologen (Soliloquies).

In the first book, Schleiermacher gave religion an unchanging place among the divine mysteries of human nature, distinguished it from what he regarded as current caricatures of religion and described the perennial forms of its manifestation. That established the programme of his subsequent theological system. In the Monologen, he revealed his ethical manifesto in which he proclaimed his ideas on the freedom and independence of the spirit and on the relationship of the mind to the sensual world, and he sketched his ideal of the future of the individual and of society.

Pastorship
From 1802 to 1804, Schleiermacher served as a pastor of a small Reformed church in the Pomeranian town of Stolp. He relieved Friedrich Schlegel entirely of his nominal responsibility for the translation of Plato, which they had together undertaken (vols. 1–5, 1804–1810; vol. 6, Repub. 1828). Another work, Grundlinien einer Kritik der bisherigen Sittenlehre [Outlines of a Critique of the Doctrines of Morality to date] (1803), the first of his strictly critical and philosophical productions, occupied him; it is a criticism of all previous moral systems, including those of Kant and Fichte: Plato's and Spinoza's find most favour. It contends that the tests of the soundness of a moral system are the completeness of its view of the laws and ends of human life as a whole and the harmonious arrangement of its subject-matter under one fundamental principle. Although it is almost exclusively critical and negative, the book announces Schleiermacher's later view of moral science, attaching prime importance to a Güterlehre, or doctrine of the ends to be obtained by moral action. The obscurity of the book's style and its negative tone prevented immediate success.

Professorship
In 1804, Schleiermacher moved to become university preacher and professor of theology to the University of Halle, where he remained until 1807. He quickly obtained a reputation as professor and preacher and exercised a powerful influence in spite of charges of atheism, Spinozism and pietism. In this period, he began his lectures on hermeneutics (1805–1833) and he also wrote his dialogue the Weihnachtsfeier (Christmas Eve: Dialogue on the Incarnation, 1806), which represents a midway point between his Speeches and his great dogmatic work, Der christliche Glaube (The Christian Faith); the speeches represent phases of his growing appreciation of Christianity as well as the conflicting elements of the theology of the period. After the Battle of Jena, he returned to Berlin (1807), was soon appointed pastor of the Trinity Church and, on 18 May 1809, married Henriette von Willich (née von Mühlenfels; 1788–1840), the widow of his friend Johann Ehrenfried Theodor von Willich (1777–1807).

At the foundation of the University of Berlin (1810), in which he took a prominent part, Schleiermacher obtained a theological chair and soon became secretary to the Prussian Academy of Sciences. He took a prominent part in the reorganization of the Prussian church and became the most powerful advocate of the union of the Lutheran and Reformed divisions of German Protestantism, paving the way for the Prussian Union of Churches (1817). The 24 years of his professional career in Berlin began with his short outline of theological study (Kurze Darstellung des theologischen Studiums, 1811) in which he sought to do for theology what he had done for religion in his Speeches.

While he preached every Sunday, Schleiermacher also gradually took up in his lectures in the university almost every branch of theology and philosophy: New Testament exegesis, introduction to and interpretation of the New Testament, ethics (both philosophic and Christian), dogmatic and practical theology, church history, history of philosophy, psychology, dialectics (logic and metaphysics), politics, pedagogy, aesthetics and translation.

In politics, Schleiermacher supported liberty and progress, and in the period of reaction that followed the overthrow of Napoleon, he was charged by the Prussian government with "demagogic agitation" in conjunction with the patriot Ernst Moritz Arndt.

At the same time, Schleiermacher prepared his chief theological work, Der christliche Glaube nach den Grundsätzen der evangelischen Kirche (1821–1822; 2nd ed., greatly altered, 1830–1831; 6th ed., 1884; The Christian faith according to the principles of the evangelical church). Its fundamental principle is that the source and the basis of dogmatic theology are the religious feeling, the sense of absolute dependence on God as communicated by Jesus through the church, not the creeds or the letter of Scripture or the rationalistic understanding. The work is therefore simply a description of the facts of religious feeling, or of the inner life of the soul in its relations to God, and the inward facts are looked at in the various stages of their development and presented in their systematic connection. The aim of the work was to reform Protestant theology, to put an end to the unreason and superficiality of both supernaturalism and rationalism, and to deliver religion and theology from dependence on perpetually changing systems of philosophy.

Though the work added to the reputation of its author, it aroused the increased opposition of the theological schools it was intended to overthrow, and at the same time, Schleiermacher's defence of the right of the church to frame its own liturgy in opposition to the arbitrary dictation of the monarch or his ministers brought him fresh troubles. He felt isolated although his church and his lecture-room continued to be crowded.

Schleiermacher continued with his translation of Plato and prepared a new and greatly-altered edition of his Christlicher Glaube, anticipating the latter in two letters to his friend Gottfried Lücke (in the Studien und Kritiken, 1829) in which he defended his theological position generally and his book in particular against opponents on both the right and the left.

The same year, Schleiermacher lost his only son, Nathaniel (1820–1829), a blow that he said "drove the nails into his own coffin", but he continued to defend his theological position against Hengstenberg's party and the rationalists Daniel Georg Konrad von Cölln (1788–1833) and David Schulz (1779–1854), protesting against both subscription to the ancient creeds and the imposition of a new rationalistic formulary.

Death

Schleiermacher died at 65 of pneumonia on 12 February 1834.

Work

Doctrine of knowledge
Schleiermacher's psychology takes as its basis the phenomenal dualism of the ego and the non-ego, and regards the life of man as the interaction of these elements with their interpenetration as its infinite destination. The dualism is therefore not absolute, and, though present in man's own constitution as composed of body and soul, is relative only even there. The ego is itself both body and soul — the conjunction of both constitutes it. Our "organization" or sense nature has its intellectual element, and our "intellect" its organic element, and there is no such thing as "pure mind" or "pure body." The one general function of the ego, thought, becomes in relation to the non-ego either receptive or spontaneous action, and in both forms of action its organic, or sense, and its intellectual energies co-operate; and in relation to man, nature and the universe the ego gradually finds its true individuality by becoming a part of them, "every extension of consciousness being higher life."

The specific functions of the ego, as determined by the relative predominance of sense or intellect, are either functions of the senses (or organism) or functions of the intellect. The former fall into the two classes of feelings (subjective) and perceptions (objective); the latter, according as the receptive or the spontaneous element predominates, into cognition and volition. In cognition, thought is ontologically oriented to the object; and in volition it is the teleological purpose of thought. In the first case we receive (in our fashion) the object of thought into ourselves. In the latter we plant it out into the world. Both cognition and volition are functions of thought as well as forms of moral action.

It is in those two functions that the real life of the ego is manifested, but behind them is self-consciousness permanently present, which is always both subjective and objective — consciousness of ourselves and of the non-ego. This self-consciousness is the third special form or function of thought — which is also called feeling and immediate knowledge. In it we cognize our own inner life as affected by the non-ego. As the non-ego helps or hinders, enlarges or limits, our inner life, we feel pleasure or pain. Aesthetic, moral and religious feelings are respectively produced by the reception into consciousness of large ideas — nature, mankind and the world; those feelings are the sense of being one with these vast objects. Religious feeling therefore is the highest form of thought and of life; in it we are conscious of our unity with the world and God; it is thus the sense of absolute dependence.

Schleiermacher's doctrine of knowledge accepts the fundamental principle of Kant that knowledge is bounded by experience, but it seeks to remove Kant's skepticism as to knowledge of the ding an sich (the noumenon) or Sein, as Schleiermacher's term is. The idea of knowledge or scientific thought as distinguished from the passive form of thought — of aesthetics and religion — is thought which is produced by all thinkers in the same form and which corresponds to being. All knowledge takes the form of the concept (Begriff) or the judgment (Urteil), the former conceiving the variety of being as a definite unity and plurality, and the latter simply connecting the concept with certain individual objects.

In the concept, therefore, the intellectual and in the judgment the organic or sense element predominates. The universal uniformity of the production of judgments presupposes the uniformity of our relations to the outward world, and the uniformity of concepts rests similarly on the likeness of our inward nature. This uniformity is not based on the sameness of either the intellectual or the organic functions alone, but on the correspondence of the forms of thought and sensation with the forms of being. The essential nature of the concept is that it combines the general and the special, and the same combination recurs in being; in being the system of substantial or permanent forms answers to the system of concepts and the relation of cause and effect to the system of judgments, the higher concept answering to "force" and the lower to the phenomena of force, and the judgment to the contingent interaction of things.

The sum of being consists of the two systems of substantial forms and interactional relations, and it reappears in the form of concept and judgment, the concept representing being and the judgment being in action. Knowledge has under both forms the same object, the relative difference of the two being that when the conceptual form predominates we have speculative science and when the form of judgment prevails we have empirical or historical science. Throughout the domain of knowledge the two forms are found in constant mutual relations, another proof of the fundamental unity of thought and being or of the objectivity of knowledge. Plato, Spinoza and Kant had contributed characteristic elements of their thought to this system, and directly or indirectly it was largely indebted to Schelling for fundamental conceptions.

Hermeneutics
While Schleiermacher did not publish extensively on hermeneutics during his lifetime, he lectured widely on the field. His published and unpublished writings on the subject were collected together after his death and published in 1838 as Hermeneutik und Kritik mit besonderer Beziehung auf das Neue Testament.  However, it was not until Heinz Kimmerle's 1959 edition "based on a careful transcription of the original handwritten manuscripts, that an assured and comprehensive overview of Schleiermacher's theory of hermeneutics became possible."

Schleiermacher wanted to shift hermeneutics away from specific methods of interpretation (e.g. methods for interpreting biblical or classical texts) and toward a focus on how people understand texts in general. He was interested in interpreting Scripture, but he thought one could do so properly only after establishing a system of interpretation that was applicable to all texts. This process was not a systematic or strictly philological approach, but what he called "the art of understanding."  Schleiermacher viewed a text as a vehicle that an author used to communicate thoughts that he had had before creating the text.  These thoughts were what caused the author to produce the text; at the moment of text creation, these "inner thoughts" become "outer expression" in language. In order to interpret a text, then, the interpreter must consider both the inner thoughts of the author and the language that s/he used in writing the text.  This approach to interpreting texts involves both "grammatical interpretation" and "psychological (or technical) interpretation."  The former deals with the language of the text; the latter with the thoughts and aims of the author.

The language used by an author "is what mediates sensuously and externally between utterer and listener".  The ultimate goal of hermeneutics for Schleiermacher is "understanding in the highest sense"— experiencing the same thoughts that the author experienced when writing the text.  Understanding is a historical process involving learning about the context in which the author wrote, and how the text's original readership understood its language. Understanding is also a psychological process drawing upon intuition and a connection between interpreter and the author. Reader and author are both human.  As humans, they have some degree of shared understanding.  That shared understanding is what makes it possible for a reader to understand an author.

Part of the art of understanding is the art of avoiding misunderstanding.  Schleiermacher identifies two forms of misunderstanding. Qualitative misunderstanding is a failure of grammatical interpretation— failing to understand the language of the text— "the confusion of the meaning of a word for another."  Quantitative misunderstanding a failure of technical/psychological interpretation— misunderstanding the nuance in the author's own "sphere."

In studying the language that an author uses to present his/her thoughts, an interpreter may be able to understand these thoughts even better than the author him/herself. This can be done by discovering why a particular work was produced, and by discovering unity within other works produced in a similar genre by others, or unity in other works by the same author in any genre.

Despite Schleiermacher's claim to the possibility of understanding of the author's thoughts better than the author, he grants that "good interpretation can only be approximated" and that hermeneutics is not a "perfect art."  The art puts the interpreter in the best position by "putting oneself in possession of all the conditions of understanding."  However, the extent of an interpreter's understanding of a text is limited by the possibility of misunderstanding the text.

Schleiermacher's work had a profound impact on the field of hermeneutics, so much so that he is often referred to as "the father of modern hermeneutics as a general study." His work marks the beginning of hermeneutics as a general field of inquiry, separate from specific disciplines (e.g. law or theology). In the twentieth century, philosophers such as Heidegger, Gadamer, and Ricoeur would expand hermeneutics even farther, from a theory of interpretation of textual expressions into a theory of interpretation of lived experiences.

Ethics

Next to religion and theology, Schleiermacher devoted himself to the moral world, of which the phenomena of religion and theology were, in his systems, only constituent elements. In his earlier essays he endeavoured to point out the defects of ancient and modern ethical thinkers, particularly of Kant and Fichte, with only Plato and Spinoza finding favour in his eyes. He failed to discover in previous moral systems any necessary basis in thought, any completeness as regards the phenomena of moral action, any systematic arrangement of its parts and any clear and distinct treatment of specific moral acts and relations.

Schleiermacher's own moral system is an attempt to supply these deficiencies. It connects the moral world by a deductive process with the fundamental idea of knowledge and being; it offers a view of the entire world of human action which at all events aims at being exhaustive; it presents an arrangement of the matter of the science which tabulates its constituents after the model of the physical sciences; and it supplies a sharply defined treatment of specific moral phenomena in their relation to the fundamental idea of human life as a whole. Schleiermacher defines ethics as the theory of the nature of the reason, or as the scientific treatment of the effects produced by human reason in the world of nature and man.

As a theoretical or speculative science it is purely descriptive and not practical, being correlated on the one hand to physical science and on the other to history. Its method is the same as that of physical science, being distinguished from the latter only by its matter. The ontological basis of ethics is the unity of the real and the ideal, and the psychological and actual basis of the ethical process is the tendency of reason and nature to unite in the form of the complete organization of the latter by the former. The end of the ethical process is that nature (i.e. all that is not mind, the human body as well as external nature) may become the perfect symbol and organ of mind.

Conscience, as the subjective expression of the presupposed identity of reason and nature in their bases, guarantees the practicability of our moral vocation. Nature is preordained or constituted to become the symbol and organ of mind, just as mind is endowed with the impulse to realize this end. But the moral law must not be conceived under the form of an "imperative" or a "Sollen"; it differs from a law of nature only as being descriptive of the fact that it ranks the mind as conscious will, or Zweckdenken, above nature. Strictly speaking, the antitheses of good and bad and of free and necessary have no place in an ethical system, but simply in history, which is obliged to compare the actual with the ideal, but as far as the terms "good" and "bad" are used in morals they express the rule or the contrary of reason, or the harmony or the contrary of the particular and the general. The idea of free as opposed to necessary expresses simply the fact that the mind can propose to itself ends, though a man cannot alter his own nature.

In contrast to Kant and Fichte and modern moral philosophers, Schleiermacher reintroduced and assigned pre-eminent importance to the doctrine of the summum bonum, or highest good. It represents in his system the ideal and aim of the entire life of man, supplying the ethical view of the conduct of individuals in relation to society and the universe, and therewith constituting a philosophy of history at the same time. Starting with the idea of the highest good and of its constituent elements (Güter), or the chief forms of the union of mind and nature, Schleiermacher's system divides itself into the doctrine of moral ends, the doctrine of virtue and the doctrine of duties; in other words, as a development of the idea of the subjection of nature to reason it becomes a description of the actual forms of the triumphs of reason, of the moral power manifested therein and of the specific methods employed. Every moral good or product has a fourfold character: it is individual and universal; it is an organ and symbol of the reason, that is, it is the product of the individual with relation to the community, and represents or manifests as well as classifies and rules nature.

The first two characteristics provide for the functions and rights of the individual as well as those of the community or race. Though a moral action may have these four characteristics at various degrees of strength, it ceases to be moral if one of them is quite absent. All moral products may be classified according to the predominance of one or the other of these characteristics. Universal organizing action produces the forms of intercourse, and universal symbolizing action produces the various forms of science; individual organizing action yields the forms of property and individual symbolizing action the various representations of feeling, all these constituting the relations, the productive spheres, or the social conditions of moral action. Moral functions cannot be performed by the individual in isolation but only in his relation to the family, the state, the school, the church, and society — all forms of human life which ethical science finds to its hand and leaves to the science of natural history to account for. The moral process is accomplished by the various sections of humanity in their individual spheres, and the doctrine of virtue deals with the reason as the moral power in each individual by which the totality of moral products is obtained.

Schleiermacher classifies the virtues under the two forms of Gesinnung ("disposition, attitude") and Fertigkeit ("dexterity, proficiency"), the first consisting of the pure ideal element in action and the second the form it assumes in relation to circumstances, each of the two classes falling respectively into the two divisions of wisdom and love and of intelligence and application. In his system the doctrine of duty is the description of the method of the attainment of ethical ends, the conception of duty as an imperative, or obligation, being excluded, as we have seen. No action fulfills the conditions of duty except as it combines the three following antitheses: reference to the moral idea in its whole extent and likewise to a definite moral sphere; connection with existing conditions and at the same time absolute personal production; the fulfillment of the entire moral vocation every moment though it can only be done in a definite sphere. Duties are divided with reference to the principle that every man make his own the entire moral problem and act at the same time in an existing moral society. This condition gives four general classes of duty: duties of general association or duties with reference to the community (Rechtspflicht), and duties of vocation (Berufspflicht) — both with a universal reference, duties of the conscience (in which the individual is sole judge), and duties of love or of personal association.

It was only the first of the three sections of the science of ethics — the doctrine of moral ends — that Schleiermacher handled with approximate completeness; the other two sections were treated very summarily. In his Christian Ethics he dealt with the subject from the basis of the Christian consciousness instead of from that of reason generally; the ethical phenomena dealt with are the same in both systems, and they throw light on each other, while the Christian system treats more at length and less aphoristically the principal ethical realities — church, state, family, art, science and society. Rothe, amongst other moral philosophers, bases his system substantially, with important departures, on Schleiermacher's. In Beneke's moral system his fundamental idea was worked out in its psychological relations.

Schleiermacher held that an eternal hell was not compatible with the love of God.  Divine punishment was rehabilitative, not penal, and designed to reform the person.  He was one of the first major theologians of modern times to teach Christian Universalism.

Writings concerning society
On Religion: Speeches to its Cultured Despisers is a book written by Schleiermacher dealing with the gap he saw as emerging between the cultural elite and general society. Schleiermacher was writing when the Enlightenment was in full swing and when the first major transition into modernity was simultaneously occurring. With the fall of the late Middle Ages and a vigorous discourse taking hold of Western European intellectuals, the fields of art and natural philosophy were flourishing. However, the discourse of theologians, arguably the primary and only discourse of intellectuals for centuries, had taken to its own now minor corner in the universities. On Religion is divided into five major sections: the Defense (Apologie), the Nature of Religion (Über das Wesen der Religion), the Cultivation of Religion (Über die Bildung zur Religion), Association in Religion (Über das Gesellige in der Religion, oder über Kirche und Priesterthum), and the Religions (Über die Religionen). Schleiermacher initiates his speeches on religion in its opening chapter by asserting that the contemporary critique of religion is often over-simplified by the assumption that there are two supposed "hinges" upon which all critiques of religion(s) are based. These two over-simplifications are given by Schleiermacher as first, that their conscience shall be put into judgement, and second, the "general idea turns on the fear of an eternal being, or, broadly, respect for his influence on the occurrences of this life called by you providence, or expectation of a future life after this one, called by you immortality."

Religious thought
From Leibniz, Lessing, Fichte, Jacobi and the Romantic school, Schleiermacher had imbibed a profound and mystical view of the inner depths of the human personality. His religious thought found its expression most notably in The Christian Faith, one of the most influential works of Christian theology of its time.

Schleiermacher saw the ego, the person, as an individualization of universal reason; and the primary act of self-consciousness as the first conjunction of universal and individual life, the immediate union or marriage of the universe with incarnated reason. Thus every person becomes a specific and original representation of the universe and a compendium of humanity, a microcosmos in which the world is immediately reflected. While therefore we cannot, as we have seen, attain the idea of the supreme unity of thought and being by either cognition or volition, we can find it in our own personality, in immediate self-consciousness or (which is the same in Schleiermacher's terminology) feeling. Feeling in this higher sense (as distinguished from "organic" sensibility, Empfindung), which is the minimum of distinct antithetic consciousness, the cessation of the antithesis of subject and object, constitutes likewise the unity of our being, in which the opposite functions of cognition and volition have their fundamental and permanent background of personality and their transitional link. Having its seat in this central point of our being, or indeed consisting in the essential fact of self-consciousness, religion lies at the basis of all thought, feeling and action.

At various periods of his life Schleiermacher used different terms to represent the character and relation of religious feeling. In his earlier days he called it a feeling or intuition of the universe, consciousness of the unity of reason and nature, of the infinite and the eternal within the finite and the temporal. In later life he described it as the feeling of absolute dependence, or, as meaning the same thing, the consciousness of being in relation to God. In his Addresses on Religion (1799), he wrote:

Schleiermacher's concept of church has been contrasted with J.S. Semler's.

Reception
The Dutch Reformed theologian Herman Bavinck, deeply concerned with the problem of objectivism and subjectivism in the doctrine of revelation, employs Schleiermacher's doctrine of revelation in his own way and regards the Bible as the objective standard for his theological work. Bavinck also stresses the importance of the church, which forms the Christian consciousness and experience. In so doing, he attempts to overcome the latent weakness of Schleiermacher's doctrine of revelation through his emphasis on the ecclesiological doctrine of revelation.

Legacy
 Asteroid 12694 Schleiermacher is named for this German theologian—the name was chosen by German astronomer Freimut Börngen.

 In the Berlin-Kreuzberg district, Schleiermacherstrasse was named after him in 1875; an area in which the streets were named after the founding professors of the Berlin University.

Works
Under the title Gesamtausgabe der Werke Schleiermachers in drei Abteilungen, Schleiermacher's works were first published in three sections:
 Theological (11 vols.)
 Sermons (10 vols., 1873–1874, 5 vols)
 Philosophical and Miscellaneous (9 vols., 1835–1864).
See also Sämmtliche Werke (Berlin, 1834ff.), and Werke: mit einem Bildnis Schleiermachers (Leipzig, 1910) in four volumes.

Other works include:
Pädagogische Schriften (3rd ed., 1902).
Aus Schleiermachers Leben in Briefen (Berlin, 1858–1863, in 4 vols., correspondence).
Leben Schleiermachers. Vol. 1. Ed. Wilhelm Dilthey. Berlin: Reimer, 1870. (Correspondence from 1768–1804).
The Life of Schleiermacher as Unfolded in His Autobiography and Letters. Vol. 1 and Vol. 2. Tr. F. Rowan. London: 1860.
Friedrich Schleiermacher, ein Lebens- und Charakterbild. D. Schenkel, 1868 (based on selection of letters).

Modern editions:
Brief Outline for the Study of Theology (Kurze Darstellung des theologischen Studiums zum Behuf einleitender Vorlesungen, 1830).
 1850 text tr. by William Farrer, Edinburgh.
 1966 text tr. by Terrence Tice, Richmond, VA.
The Christian Faith in Outline (2nd ed. of Der Christliche Glaube, 1830–1).
 1911 condensed presentation tr. and ed. by George Cross, The Theology of Friedrich Schleiermacher. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1911.
 1922 outline tr. by D. M. (Donald Macpherson) Baillie, Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark.
 1999 text tr. by H. R. MacKintosh, ed. J. S. Stewart. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark. Paperback: .
Christmas Eve: A Dialogue on the Incarnation (Die Weihnachtsfeier: Ein Gespräch, 1826).
 1890 text tr. by W. Hastie, Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark.
 1967 text tr. by Terrence Tice, Richmond, VA: Scholars Press.
Dialectic, or, The Art of Doing Philosophy: A Study Edition of the 1811 Notes (Schleiermachers Dialektik, 1903). Tr. Terrence Tice. Atlanta, GA: Scholars Press, 2000. Paperback:
Fifteen Sermons of Friedrich Schleiermacher Delivered to Celebrate the Beginning of a New Year (Monologues, 1800), tr. Edwina G. Lawler, Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press, 2003. hardcover:
Selected Sermons of Schleiermacher. Tr. Mary F. Wilson. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1890.
Schleiermacher's Introductions to the Dialogues of Plato, trans. William Dobson. 1836; reprint, New York: Arno Press, 1973; reprint, Charleston, SC: BiblioBazaar, 2009. Paperback: .
Lectures on Philosophical Ethics (Grundriss der philosophischen Ethik, 1841). Tr. Louise Adey Huish. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. Paperback:
The Life of Jesus, tr. S. Maclean Gilmour. Sigler Press 1997. Paperback:
A Critical Essay on the Gospel of Luke (Űber die Schriften des Lukas: ein kritischer Versuch, 1817). London: Taylor, 1825.
Hermeneutics and Criticism and Other Writings (Hermeneutik und Kritik mit besonderer Beziehung auf das Neue Testament, 1838). Tr. Andrew Bowie. Cambridge University Press, 1998 Paperback:
Hermeneutics: The Handwritten Manuscripts, Ed. Heinz Kimmerle. Tr. James O. Duke and Jack Forstman. Atlanta, GA: Scholars Press, 1977 Paperback
On Creeds, Confessions And Church Union: "That They May Be One", tr. Iain G. Nicol. Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press, 2004. hardcover:
On Freedom, trans. A. L. Blackwell. Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press, 1992.
On the Glaubenslehre: Two Letters to Dr. Lucke (Schleiermachers Sendschreiben über seine Glaubenslehre an Lücke). Tr. James O. Duke and Francis Fiorenza. Atlanta, GA: Scholars Press, 1981.
On the Highest Good, trans. H. V. Froese. Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press, 1992.
On Religion: Speeches to its Cultured Despisers (Über die Religion: Reden an die Gebildeten unter ihren Verächtern, three editions: 1799, 1806, 1831)
1799 text tr. Richard Crouter, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. Paperback:
1893 text tr. by John Oman, Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 1994. Paperback:
On the Worth of Life (Űber den Wert des Lebens), trans. E. Lawlor, T. N. Tice. Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press, 1995.
Soliloquies, trans. Horace L. Friess. Chicago, 1957.
Toward a Theory of Sociable Conduct and Essays in Its Intellectual-Cultural Context, tr. Ruth Drucilla Richardson. Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press, 1996 hardcover:
Selected Sermons of Schleiermacher, tr. Mary F. Wilson. Wipf & Stock Publishers, 2004. Paperback:
Winkler, M., Beljan, J., Ehrhardt, Ch., Meier, D., Virmond, W., Vorlesungen über die Pädagogik und amtliche Voten zum öffentlichen Unterricht. Friedrich Schleiermacher Kritische Gesamtausgabe, Abteiling II: Vorlesungen, Band 12, Berlin / New York, Walter de Gruyter, 2017

See also
 First Alcibiades
 Fidelity and transparency
 Allegorical interpretations of Plato, for Schleiermacher's influential Plato interpretation
 Plato's unwritten doctrines, for the reaction against Schleiermacher's Plato interpretation
 Hermeneutic circle

Notes

References
 Heinrich Fink: Begründung der Funktion der Praktischen Theologie bei Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher: Eine Untersuchung anhand seiner praktisch-theologischen Vorlesungen. Berlin 1966 (Berlin, Humboldt-U., Theol. F., Diss. v. 25. Jan. 1966) [master's thesis]
 Wilhelm Dilthey: Leben Schleiermachers, ed. M. Redeker, Berlin 1966
 Falk Wagner: Schleiermachers Dialektik. Eine kritische Interpretation, Gütersloh 1974
 Brian A. Gerrish: A Prince of the Church. Schleiermacher and the Beginnings of Modern Theology, London / Philadelphia 1984
 Kurt-Victor Selge (ed.): Internationaler Schleiermacher-Kongreß Berlin 1984 (Zwei Teilbände), Berlin / New York 1985
 Günter Meckenstock: Deterministische Ethik und kritische Theologie. Die Auseinandersetzung des frühen Schleiermacher mit Kant und Spinoza 1789–1794, Berlin / New York 1988
 Hans-Joachim Birkner: Schleiermacher-Studien. (Schleiermacher-Archiv. Band 16), Berlin / New York 1996
 Julia A. Lamm: The Living God: Schleiermacher's Theological Appropriation of Spinoza, University Park, Pennsylvania 1996
 Ulrich Barth / Claus-Dieter Osthövener (Hg.), 200 Jahre "Reden über die Religion". Akten des 1. Internationalen Kongresses der Schleiermacher-Gesellschaft Halle, 14.–17. March 1999 (Schleiermacher Archiv 19), Berlin / New York 2000
 Kurt Nowak: Schleiermacher. Leben, Werk und Wirkung. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2001.
 Matthias Wolfes: Öffentlichkeit und Bürgergesellschaft. Friedrich Schleiermachers politische Wirksamkeit, Berlin / New York 2004

 Christof Ellsiepen: Anschauung des Universums und Scientia Intuitiva. Die spinozistischen Grundlagen von Schleiermachers früher Religionstheorie, Berlin / New York 2006
 Walter Wyman, Jr.: "The Role of the Protestant Confessions in Schleiermacher's The Christian Faith". The Journal of Religion 87:355–385, July 2007
 Christentum – Staat – Kultur. Akten des Kongresses der Internationalen Schleiermacher-Gesellschaft in Berlin, March 2006. Hrsg. von Andreas Arndt, Ulrich Barth and Wilhelm Gräb (Schleiermacher-Archiv 22), De Gruyter: Berlin / New York 2008
 Daan Thoomes, Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768 - 1834): Theoloog, filosoof en pedagoog. In: Tom Kroon & Bas Levering (red.), Grote pedagogen in klein bestek. Amsterdam, SWP, 2008 / 2019

Further reading
In English
 Andrejč, Gorazd. "Bridging the gap between social and existential-mystical interpretations of Schleiermacher's 'feeling'." Religious Studies (2012): 377-401. online
Barth, Karl. The Theology of Schleiermacher. trans. Geoffrey Bromiley. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans, 1982.
Barth, Karl. "Schleiermacher," in Protestant Theology from Rousseau to Ritschl. New York: Harper, 1959. Ch. VIII, pp. 306–354.
Brandt, R. B. The Philosophy of Schleiermacher: The Development of his Theory of Scientific and Religious Knowledge. Westport, CT: 1968.
Crouter, Richard. Friedrich Schleiermacher: Between Enlightenment and Romanticism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 2008.
 Dawson, Jerry F. Friedrich Schleiermacher: The Evolution of a Nationalist. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1966.
 Dole, Andrew. Schleiermacher on religion and the natural order (AAR: Religion, Culture & History, 2010).
 Dole, Andrew. "What is 'religious experience' in Schleiermacher's Dogmatics, and why does it matter?." Journal of Analytic Theology 4 (2016): 44-65. online
Gadamer, Hans-Georg. Truth and Method, 2nd revised ed. tr. Joel Weinsheimer and Donald . Marshall. New York: Continuum, 1994.

Kenklies, Karsten. "Schleiermacher, Friedrich Daniel Ernst". In Encyclopedia of Educational Theory and Philosophy. Edited by D.C. Phillips.  Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications, 2014, pp. 733–735.
Kerber, Hannes. "Strauss and Schleiermacher. An Introduction to 'Exoteric Teaching".  In Reorientation: Leo Strauss in the 1930s. Edited by Martin D. Yaffe and Richard S. Ruderman.  New York: Palgrave, 2014, pp. 203–214.

Kirn, O. "Schleiermacher, Friedrich Daniel Ernst." The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge. Vol. X. New York: Funk and Wagnalls, 1911. pp. 240–246.
Mariña, Jacqueline, ed. The Cambridge Companion to Schleiermacher. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
Munro, Robert.  Schleiermacher: Personal and Speculative. Paisley: A. Gardner, 1903.
Niehbuhr, Richard R. Schleiermacher on Christ and Religion: A New Introduction. New York: Scribners, 1964.
Park, Jae-Eun. "Schleiermacher's Perspective on Redemption: A Fulfillment of the coincidentia oppositorum between the Finite and the Infinite in Participation with Christ." Journal of Reformed Theology 9/3 (2015): 270-294.
 Pedersen, Daniel James. The eternal covenant: Schleiermacher on God and natural science (de Gruyter, 2017).
 Pedersen, Daniel J. Schleiermacher's Theology of Sin and Nature: Agency, Value, and Modern Theology (Routledge, 2020)
 Poe, Shelli M. Essential Trinitarianism: Schleiermacher as Trinitarian Theologian (Bloomsbury, 2017).
 Poe, Shelli M., ed. Schleiermacher and sustainability: a theology for ecological living (John Knox Press, 2018).

 Robinson, Matthew Ryan. Redeeming relationship, relationships that redeem: free sociability and the completion of humanity in the thought of Friedrich Schleiermacher (Mohr Siebeck, 2018).
Selbie, W. E.  Schleiermacher: A Critical and Historical Study. New York: Dutton, 1913.
 Stratis, Justin. God's Being Towards Fellowship: Schleiermacher, Barth, and the Meaning of 'God is Love'. (Bloomsbury, 2019).

In French
 Berman, Antoine. L'épreuve de l'étranger. Culture et traduction dans l'Allemagne romantique: Herder, Goethe, Schlegel, Novalis, Humboldt, Schleiermacher, Hölderlin, Paris, Gallimard, Essais, 1984.

External links

Infography about Friedrich Schleiermacher

1768 births
1834 deaths
18th-century Christian universalists
18th-century essayists
18th-century German male writers
18th-century German philosophers
18th-century German Protestant theologians
18th-century German writers
18th-century non-fiction writers
18th-century philosophers
18th-century German translators
19th-century Christian universalists
19th-century essayists
19th-century German male writers
19th-century German non-fiction writers
19th-century German philosophers
19th-century German Protestant theologians
19th-century German writers
19th-century philosophers
19th-century translators
Age of Enlightenment
Christian universalist theologians
Deaths from pneumonia in Germany
Enlightenment philosophers
Epistemologists
German biblical scholars
German Christian universalists
German essayists
German ethicists
German logicians
German male non-fiction writers
German male writers
German sermon writers
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Hermeneutists
Academic staff of the Humboldt University of Berlin
German idealists
Members of the Prussian Academy of Sciences
Ontologists
People from the Province of Silesia
Philosophers of culture
Philosophers of education
Philosophers of history
Philosophers of logic
Philosophers of mind
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Political philosophers
Protestant philosophers
Romanticism
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Spinoza scholars
Systematic theologians
Translators of Ancient Greek texts
University of Halle alumni
Academic staff of the University of Halle
Writers about activism and social change
Writers from Wrocław

Friedrich Schleiermacher


Wednesday is a comedy horror TV show about the character Wednesday Addams from The Addams Family. The series is created by Alfred Gough and Miles Millar and stars Jenna Ortega as the main character.  Catherine Zeta-Jones, Luis Guzmán, Isaac Ordonez, Gwendoline Christie, Riki Lindhome, Jamie McShane, Fred Armisen, and Christina Ricci appears in supporting roles. Tim Burton directed four out of the six episodes. He also serves as executive producer of the series.

Cast

Jenna Ortega as Wednesday Addams, a girl who has psychic powers. She is sent to Nevermore Academy for causing mischief at other schools. Ortega also plays Goody Addams, Wednesday's deceased ancestor who Wednesday sees in visions of the past.
Karina Varadi as young Wednesday
Gwendoline Christie as Larissa Weems, the principal of Nevermore Academy. She is a former student who was roommates with Morticia Addams.
Oliver Wickham as young Larissa Weems
 Riki Lindhome as Dr. Valerie Kinbott, Wednesday's therapist
 Jamie McShane as Donovan Galpin, Jericho's sheriff and former deputy. He is suspicious of Nevermore Academy and Wednesday specifically.
 Ben Wilson as young Donovan Galpin
 Hunter Doohan as Tyler Galpin, a barista at a local coffee shop and Sheriff Galpin's son who has a romantic interest in Wednesday
 Percy Hynes White as Xavier Thorpe, a student of Nevermore Academy who has the ability to make his art come to life
 Emma Myers as Enid Sinclair, Wednesday's colorful werewolf roommate who attempts to become her friend despite Wednesday's lack of interest
 Joy Sunday as Bianca Barclay, a successful student at Nevermore Academy who is a siren and Xavier's ex-girlfriend
 Georgie Farmer as Ajax Petropolus, a gorgon student at Nevermore Academy who is Enid's crush
 Naomi J. Ogawa as Yoko Tanaka, a vampire and student at Nevermore Academy
 Christina Ricci as Marilyn Thornhill/Laurel Gates, a botany teacher at Nevermore Academy and dorm mom of Wednesday and Enid
 Moosa Mostafa as Eugene Otinger, a student at Nevermore Academy who has the power to control bees

Other websites

References

2022 American television series debuts
American fantasy television series
English-language television programs
Television series about families

Wednesday (TV series)


A fixed-rate mortgage (FRM) is a mortgage loan where the interest rate on the note remains the same through the term of the loan, as opposed to loans where the interest rate may adjust or "float". As a result, payment amounts and the duration of the loan are fixed and the person who is responsible for paying back the loan benefits from a consistent, single payment and the ability to plan a budget based on this fixed cost.

Other forms of mortgage loans include interest only mortgage, graduated payment mortgage, variable rate mortgage (including adjustable-rate mortgages and tracker mortgages), negative amortization mortgage, and balloon payment mortgage. Unlike many other loan types, FRM interest payments and loan duration is fixed from beginning to end.

Fixed-rate mortgages are characterized by amount of loan, interest rate, compounding frequency, and duration. With these values, the monthly repayments can be calculated.

Fixed-rate mortgages are vulnerable to inflation risk, which means that borrowers with such mortgages are better off under unexpectedly high inflation (as the inflation lowers the real present value of their loan repayments), while they are worse off if there is a drop in inflation that lowers interest rates. Fixed-rate mortgages usually charge higher interest rates than those with adjustable rates. According to scholars, "borrowers should generally prefer adjustable-rate over fixed-rate mortgages, unless interest rates are low."

Usage throughout the world
The availability of fixed-rate mortgages varies between countries.

In the United States, United States Federal Housing Administration (FHA) helped develop and standardize the fixed rate mortgage as an alternative to the balloon payment mortgage by insuring them and by doing so helped the mortgage design garner usage. Because of the large payment at the end of the older, balloon-payment loan, refinancing risk resulted in widespread foreclosures. The fixed-rate mortgage was the first mortgage loan that was fully amortized (fully paid at the end of the loan) precluding successive loans, and had fixed interest rates and payments. Fixed-rate mortgages are the most classic form of loan for home and product purchasing in the United States. The most common terms are 15-year and 30-year mortgages, but shorter terms are available, and 40-year and 50-year mortgages are now available (common in areas with high housing costs, where even a 30-year term leaves the monthly payments out of reach of the average family).

In Canada, the longest term for which a mortgage rate can be fixed is typically no more than ten years, while mortgage maturities are commonly 25 years. In Denmark, fixed-rate 30-year mortgages are the standard form of home loan. A fixed rate mortgage in Singapore has the interest rate fixed for only the first three to five years of the loan, and it then becomes variable. In Australia, "honeymoon" mortgages with introductory rates are common, but can last as short as a year, and may instead offer a fixed reduction in interest rate rather than a fixed rate itself. Furthermore, they are often combined with properties of flexible mortgages to create what is known as an Australian mortgage, which often allow borrowers to overpay to reduce interest charges and then draw on these overpayments in the future.

In the UK, fixed-rate mortgage is the name given to an adjustable-rate mortgage with the interest rate locked in for the first two to five years.  At the end of that time, many borrowers refinance their mortgages to lock in another stable rate for the next few years.  The mortgage industry of the United Kingdom has traditionally been dominated by building societies, whose raised funds must be at least 50% deposits, so lenders prefer variable-rate mortgages to fixed-rate mortgages, to reduce asset–liability mismatch due to interest rate risk. Lenders, in turn, influence consumer decisions which already prefer lower initial monthly payments. Nationwide Commercial recently issued a 30-year fixed rate mortgage as bridging finance.

Comparisons
Fixed-rate mortgages are usually more expensive than adjustable rate mortgages. The inherent interest rate risk makes long-term fixed rate loans tend to have a higher interest rate than short-term loans. The relationship between interest rates for short and long-term loans is represented by the yield curve, which generally slopes upward (longer terms are more expensive). The opposite circumstance is known as an inverted yield curve and occurs less often.

The fact that a fixed-rate mortgage has a higher starting interest rate does not indicate that it is a worse type of borrowing than an adjustable-rate mortgage. If interest rates rise, the ARM will cost more, but the FRM will cost the same. In effect, the lender has agreed to take the interest rate risk on a fixed-rate loan.

Some studies have shown that the majority of borrowers with adjustable rate mortgages save money in the long term but also that some borrowers pay more. The price of potentially saving money, in other words, is balanced by the risk of potentially higher costs. In each case, a choice would need to be made based upon the loan term, the current interest rate, and the likelihood that the rate will increase or decrease during the life of the loan.

Pricing
Note: Fixed-rate mortgage interest may be compounded differently in other countries, such as in Canada, where it is compounded every 6 months.

The fixed monthly payment for a fixed rate mortgage is the amount paid by the borrower every month that ensures that the loan is paid off in full with interest at the end of its term. This monthly payment  depends upon the monthly interest rate  (expressed as a fraction, not a percentage, i.e., divide the quoted yearly nominal percentage rate by 100 and by 12 to obtain the monthly interest rate), the number of monthly payments  called the loan's term, and the amount borrowed  known as the loan's principal; rearranging the formula for the present value of an ordinary annuity we get the formula for :

For example, for a home loan for $200,000 with a fixed yearly nominal interest rate of 6.5% for 30 years, the principal is , the monthly interest rate is , the number of monthly payments is , the fixed monthly payment . This formula is provided using the financial function  in a spreadsheet such as Excel. In the example, the monthly payment is obtained by entering either of these formulas:

This monthly payment formula is easy to derive, and the derivation illustrates how fixed-rate mortgage loans work. The amount owed on the loan at the end of every month equals the amount owed from the previous month, plus the interest on this amount, minus the fixed amount paid every month.
Amount owed at month 0:

Amount owed at month 1:
 ( principal + interest – payment)
 (equation 1)
Amount owed at month 2:

Using equation 1 for

 (equation 2)
Amount owed at month 3:

Using equation 2 for

Amount owed at month N:

 (equation 3)
Where  (equation 4) (see geometric progression)
 (equation 5)
With the exception of two terms the  and  series are the same so when you subtract all but two terms cancel:
Using equation 4 and 5

 (equation 6)
Putting equation 6 back into 3:

 will be zero because we have paid the loan off.

We want to know

Divide top and bottom with

This derivation illustrates three key components of fixed-rate loans: (1) the fixed monthly payment depends upon the amount borrowed, the interest rate, and the length of time over which the loan is repaid; (2) the amount owed every month equals the amount owed from the previous month plus interest on that amount, minus the fixed monthly payment; (3) the fixed monthly payment is chosen so that the loan is paid off in full with interest at the end of its term and no more money is owed.

The vendor may sell off the fix element as a "fixed to floating" derivative. Look up "Black-Scholes" to see how this is done.

See also
Adjustable-rate mortgage
Singapore Swap Offer Rate (SOR)
SIBOR
VA loan
FHA loan

References

External links
 Daily Fixed Mortgage Rates by Mortgage News Daily, Daily Mortgage Market Survey

Mortgage

Fixed-rate mortgage


Preston Bierce Plumb (October 12, 1837December 20, 1891) was a United States senator from Kansas, as well as an officer in the Union Army during the American Civil War.

Biography
Born in Delaware County, Ohio, at 9 his family removed to Marysville, Ohio, where he flourished in the local schools.  At 11 he attended Kenyon College, a preparatory school and learned the trade of printing.  After 3 years there, he returned to Marysville where he worked for the local paper, The Tribune, and afterwards purchased and edited the Xenia News.

He moved to Lawrence, Kansas in 1856, to support the "Free-State" movement. He was one of the founders of Emporia, Kansas, where he established the Kansas News in 1857. He was secretary of the Free-State convention in 1857 and a member of the Leavenworth constitutional convention in 1859. Plumb studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1861. He was elected to the Kansas House of Representatives in 1862 and was a reporter for the Kansas Supreme Court.

During the Civil War, Plumb entered the Union Army in 1862 as a second lieutenant in the 11th Kansas Infantry, which was redesignated as the 11th Kansas Cavalry in August 1863 in Kansas City. He served successively as captain, major, and lieutenant colonel of the regiment. He was on duty on the eastern border of Kansas until October 1864, helping fight pro-Confederacy Missouri partisans and raiders under William Quantrill, as well as serving in Nebraska against Indians. Starting in October, Plumb and his regiment fought against the Confederates in several battles during Price's Raid. He was mustered out September 26, 1865.

He was a member of the State House of Representatives in 1867 and 1868, and also served as speaker in the latter year. He was prosecuting attorney of Lyon County and was president of the Emporia National Bank in 1873.

In 1877, Preston Plumb was elected as a Republican to the U.S. Senate; he was reelected in 1883 and 1888 and served from March 4, 1877, until his death. While in the Senate, he was chairman of the Committee on Public Lands (Forty-seventh through Fifty-second Congresses). He died in Washington, D.C., in 1891, and was buried in Maplewood Cemetery in Emporia.

In popular culture
The lead character in the popular 1890 play The Senator was modeled after Plumb.

See also
List of United States Congress members who died in office (1790–1899)

Notes

References

1837 births
1891 deaths
People from Delaware County, Ohio
American newspaper editors
Kenyon College alumni
Republican Party members of the Kansas House of Representatives
Union Army officers
People of Kansas in the American Civil War
Republican Party United States senators from Kansas
People from Emporia, Kansas
19th-century American journalists
American male journalists
19th-century American male writers
19th-century American politicians
Journalists from Ohio
People from Marysville, Ohio

Preston B. Plumb


Kate ("Tiki") Barber (born November 22, 1976 in West Chester, Pennsylvania) is a field hockey forward and midfield player from the United States, who made her international senior debut for the Women's National Team in 1998 by scoring two goals in a 3-3 draw with New Zealand. The former student of Unionville High School and the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill was a member of the team, that won the silver medal at the 1999 Pan American Games in Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada.

She was the captain of the American field hockey team which competed in the 2008 Summer Olympics.  It was the first Olympics for which the United States had qualified since the 1996 Summer Olympics.

She was once interviewed on the NBC Today Show by American football player, Tiki Barber, where it was revealed that she received her nickname "Tiki" because of his nickname.  They were contemporary athletes in the Atlantic Coast Conference.  Since he was a headlining football player at the University of Virginia at the time of her success at the University of North Carolina, her teammates began calling her "Tiki" as well.  The nickname persisted into her international career.

International Senior Tournaments
 1998 – World Cup, Utrecht, The Netherlands (8th)
 1999 – Pan American Games, Winnipeg, Canada (2nd)
 2000 – Olympic Qualifying Tournament, Milton Keynes, England (6th)
 2001 – Pan American Cup, Kingston, Jamaica (2nd)
 2002 – Champions Challenge, Johannesburg, South Africa (5th)
 2002 – USA vs India WC Qualifying Series, Cannock, England (1st)
 2002 – World Cup, Perth, Australia (9th)
 2003 – Champions Challenge, Catania, Italy (5th)
 2003 – Pan American Games, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic (2nd)
 2004 – Olympic Qualifying Tournament, Auckland, New Zealand (6th)
 2004 – Pan American Cup, Bridgetown, Barbados (2nd)
 2005 – Champions Challenge, Virginia Beach, United States (5th)
 2006 – World Cup Qualifier, Rome, Italy (4th)
 2006 – World Cup, Madrid, Spain (6th)
 2007 – Pan American Games, Rio de Janeiro (2nd)
 2008 – 2008 Summer Olympics, Beijing, China (8th)

References

External links

1976 births
Living people
Sportspeople from West Chester, Pennsylvania
American female field hockey players
Sportspeople from Pennsylvania
North Carolina Tar Heels field hockey players
Field hockey players at the 2007 Pan American Games
Field hockey players at the 2008 Summer Olympics
Olympic field hockey players for the United States
Pan American Games silver medalists for the United States
Pan American Games medalists in field hockey
Female field hockey midfielders
Female field hockey forwards
Medalists at the 2007 Pan American Games
21st-century American women

Kate Barber


Captain Sarah Ellen Oakley (born February 1973) is a British Royal Navy officer, currently serving as commanding officer of the Britannia Royal Naval College, Dartmouth.

In the Iraq War, Oakley worked in oil platform protection. Her first command was , on fisheries protection duties, her second , based in the Falkland Islands. She headed the Fishery Protection Squadron from 2017 to 2019.

Early life
Born in February 1973, in Portsmouth, Oakley was educated at Trinity College, Oxford, where she took a degree in Modern History, and in 1995 joined the Britannia Royal Naval College, Dartmouth. As a graduate, she was commissioned as a Lieutenant on 13 September 1995.

In 2017, Oakley was one of sixteen former women students at Trinity College who were celebrated by the new college president Hilary Boulding in a poster and booklet entitled "Feminae Trinitatis". The others included Dame Frances Ashcroft, Siân Berry, Dame Sally Davies, Olivia Hetreed, Kate Mavor, Roma Tearne, and the opera singer Claire Booth.

Career
After graduating from Dartmouth in 1996, Oakley's early career was at sea and on operational tours. Her first job was as gunnery officer in HMS Alderney, a fishery protection vessel. From there she was posted as Communications Officer in the Type 23 frigate HMS Kent, and then as navigator of another ship of the same class, HMS Norfolk.

Oakley taught at Dartmouth from 2003 to 2005 and was principal warfare and operations officer of the Type 22 frigate HMS Chatham serving in the Gulf. She was later posted to Middle East task forces dealing with terrorism and drug smuggling.

At the time of the Iraq War, Oakley was posted as Operations Officer to the Combined Task Group Iraqi Maritime. She spent seven months living on an Iraqi oil platform in the Gulf, after which her team worked on the transfer of oil platform protection duties from the Coalition forces to Iraqi control.

In May 2012, Oakley was given her first command, HMS Mersey, a River-class offshore patrol vessel on fisheries protection duties in home waters. She later commanded another of the class, HMS Clyde, the navy's patrol ship based in the Falkland Islands. On 18 November 2015, Clyde helped to rescue passengers and crew from the cruise ship Le Boreal, drifting off the Falkland Islands after an engine room fire had caused passengers to take to the boats. At 21 knots, it took Clyde four hours to reach the spot, off the north end of Falkland Sound. Clyde resupplied one of the two larger lifeboats with fuel and took on people from the smaller lifeboats, then escorted them to Falkland Sound, where passengers transferred to Le Boreals sister ship, .

From July 2017, Oakley headed the Fishery Protection Squadron. When HMS Forth was commissioned in April 2018, Oakley commented "Forth brings with her an array of new technology, and we will be increasing the number of ships we have from four Batch One Offshore Patrol Vessels (OPVs) to five Batch Two ships. It is fabulous to watch the Navy grow again and to see that the squadron will play such an important part in its development." She relinquished command of the squadron in April 2019.

Oakley's next posting was to the Ministry of Defence, where she joined the Naval Staff Strategy team working on the Integrated Review of Security, Defence, Development and Foreign Policy, published in 2021. On 15 September 2020, Oakley was promoted to Captain. In December 2020 she was awarded the Naval Long Service and Good Conduct Medal.

In May 2022, Oakley took over command of the Britannia Royal Naval College. At the college's passing out parade in August 2022, BBC News noted that it was the first such parade "with a female captain at the helm."

She is a Director of the Royal Navy Rugby Union.

Personal life
On 26 September 2020, in a COVID-19 compliant wedding at St Mary's Church, Alverstoke, Gosport, Oakley married Group Captain Darren Thorley, Royal Air Force. Apart from the vicar and the couple, the only others present were the photographer and the verger, who acted as witnesses.

In June 2021, Oakley joined the Parochial Church Council of Alverstoke.

Notes

External links
Captain S. E. Oakley Royal Navy Captain Britannia Royal Naval College profile at royalnavy.mod.uk

1973 births
Alumni of Trinity College, Oxford
Graduates of Britannia Royal Naval College
Living people
Military personnel from Portsmouth
Royal Navy officers
Royal Navy personnel of the Iraq War

Sarah Oakley


Judge Dredd versus Aliens: Incubus is an intercompany crossover, featuring Judge Dredd and the Xenomorph from the Alien franchise. It was published in 2003, weekly in 2000 AD and as a monthly miniseries by Dark Horse Comics.

Plot

A shoot out in a traffic jam, an all too common occurrence in the teeming and turbulent Mega-City One, inevitably draws the attention of the judges. Carlos Lenning a.k.a. Jeremiah, the anti-judicial activist, is in hot pursuit of Jimson James "Jimmy" Godber, a small-time crook, headed for Eisenhower Hospital. But Godber only arrives inside in time for a chestburster to erupt from his chest. Judge Dredd gets on the case and summons the Verminator team in order to follow up the various leads on the criminal associates of the late Godber.

The Verminators seal off the hospital and begin their search. Meanwhile, the judges learn that Godber had planned to exploit the Aliens for illegal pit fighting and wagering, leading them in turn to Godber's warehouse hideout and a deadly clutch of Alien eggs. They also find Godber's dead neighbor, murdered in revenge for noise pollution, and the dead husks of face huggers. Suddenly Judge Brubaker is ambushed by a live facehugger suddenly hatching from an egg. Leaping to his defense, the Verminators discover that Aliens bleed deadly acid. The Judges have underestimated the danger and are losing control, as the Alien attacks.

As the body count rises steeply, the judges rush back to the hospital where things are just as bad. Evacuating the hospital they eventually eliminate a second alien, but then reassessing the trace evidence leads to the conclusion that there may already be many more Aliens on the loose. Jeremiah's driver, Futsie, is still at large. Futsie has descended into the Undercity where he meets with Mr Bones, the architect of the entire evil plan.

Walking with Futsie ever deeper into his lair, Bones outlines his plan for the 'Incubus' as he calls the Aliens. Bones discovered them during his days as a space pirate and brought some back to serve his scheme for revenge upon Mega-City One. It rapidly becomes clear that there is already a vast hive beneath the city ready to be unleashed.

Throwing Futsie to the monsters, Bones prepares the final stages of his dastardly plan. The Alien hive has been cultivated directly beneath the Grand Hall of Justice and Bones deploys a shaped charge to blow an entry for hordes of killer aliens into the Grand Hall. Things look grim for the judges, even backed by assault squads and the Verminators. Judge Giant, with the command codes, is able to fight his way to the sub-armory to activate the four Mechanismo robo-judges, finally turning the tide and repelling the Aliens back underground.

But in the struggle, the raw recruit Judge Sanchez is taken by the enemy, and Dredd goes in alone to bring her back. They both become infected in the rescue. Dredd and Sanchez must find the way to destroy the Aliens and save themselves. Bones wears a special device to prevent the Aliens from turning upon him. As they escape, Dredd and Sanchez destroy Bones device, leaving Bones to be torn apart by the Aliens. Then upon discovery of the Alien Queen, the source of all the eggs, Dredd and Sanchez open fire upon a nearby geothermal heating tower to Mega-City One above, in hopes of releasing the magma to destroy her. But the geothermal heating tower proves too solidly constructed until Packer, leader of the Verminators, soaring in to the fray, fires upon the geothermal heating tower with her own heavier weaponry. The ensuing magma flow finally wipes out the deadly Alien hordes. Dredd and Sanchez escape and doctors remove the chestbursters just in time before they can erupt. The doctors are eager to study the extracted Alien chestbursters, but thinking better of that idea, Judge Dredd summarily executes the deadly creatures. "I'm just not the motherly type" quips Dredd, sardonically.

Characters
Judges include:
Judge Dredd
Judge Giant
Judge Sanchez, only a month out of the Academy
Judge Hershey
Mechanismo
Brubaker, the first Judge to become infected by the creatures
Judge Gomer
Judge Bevan
Judge Brubaker
Judge Pitt
Judge Combell
A team of pest controllers (Verminators) also took a prominent role:
Packer, the leader of the team
Millar
Marinello
Fisk, Marinello's fiancé
Wilson
Maier
Butterman
Orson
Shook
Villains include:
Jimson James "Jimmy" Godber, a small-time crook
Carlos Lenning (a.k.a. Jeremiah), an anti-judicial activist
Frank Rimm (a.k.a. Futsie), another activist
Mr Bones

Collections

Judge Dredd versus Aliens: Incubus has been collected in three volumes:

Rebellion Developments, paperback, 104 pages, 2003,
Dark Horse, paperback, 104 pages, 2004,
Rebellion Developments, hardcover, 112 pages, 2007,

See also

Predator vs. Judge Dredd

References

2000 AD profile

External links
Review of the hardback trade

Judge Dredd storylines
Alien (franchise) comics
Crossover comics
Intercompany crossovers
Dark Horse Comics limited series

Judge Dredd versus Aliens: Incubus


Prom Night IV: Deliver Us from Evil is a 1991 Canadian slasher film directed by Clay Borris and starring Nicole de Boer and J.H. Wyman. The film follows a deranged Catholic priest who targets four teenagers on their prom night. It is the fourth and final film in the original Prom Night film series. Like the previous film, it was released briefly in theaters before later being released to video.

Plot
At Hamilton High School's 1957 prom, students Lisa and Brad leave the festivities to have sex in Brad's car. Before the two can undress, they are distracted by a noise, revealed to be someone putting candles on the hood of the car. After spotting the candles, Lisa has her throat slashed by a metal crucifix, wielded by psychotic religious fanatic, Father Jonas; he then stabs Brad in the chest before igniting the car in flames. After committing this double homicide, Father Jonas reveals he had suffered sexual abuse from priests in the church and displays stigmata. He is transported from St. Basil Seminary to the St. George Church by a group of fellow priests led by Father Jaeger, who refers to the rambling Father Jonas as an abomination and believes him possessed by dark forces.

In 1991 at St. George Church, young Father Colin is informed by the now-elderly Father Jaeger that his trip to Africa for missionary work has been put off and that he has been ordered by the church with watching over Father Jonas, who has been held captive in the church basement for thirty-three years in a drug-induced stupor. Shortly after showing Colin the catatonic Jonas, Jaeger passes away, officially leaving Colin as Jonas's new guardian. Believing he can help Jonas, Colin neglects drugging him, an act which allows Jonas to regain consciousness. Father Jonas escapes, killing Colin before fleeing to St. Basil Seminary. Discovering Colin's death and Jonas' escape, Cardinal Turint stages Colin's murder to appear as a suicide before going off in search of Jonas.

At the St. Basil Seminary, which has long since been abandoned and converted into a summer home, two young couples—consisting of the summer home owner's son Mark, his girlfriend Meagan, the mischievous Laura and her boyfriend Jeff—arrive, planning to celebrate their graduation privately instead of going to prom, but find most of the electronics and appliances in the house have been stolen. Deciding to stay and party anyway, the group is stalked by Jonas, who acquires his old metal crucifix and uses it to kill Mark's younger brother Jonathan, who had followed the group to the house.

After injuring herself in the wine cellar, Meagan receives an obscene phone call from Jonas while Mark is away, getting the first-aid kit to tend to her wounds. After calling Meagan, Jonas enters the house through his old lair and kills Laura, subsequently moving her body. While looking for the missing Laura, Mark and Meagan find Jonas's lair, while Jeff searches the attic. Finding what looks like Laura, Jeff approaches the figure, only to find it is Jonas wearing Laura's scalp; Jonas proceeds to kill Jeff by crushing the boy's skull with his bare hands.

Going outside to look around, Mark and Meagan rush back inside where they find Laura and Jeff's bodies crucified and ablaze. As Meagan tries to call the police Mark arms himself with a gun and has Meagan flee outside when Jonas appears. Rushing to the roof of the house, Mark is stabbed in the foot through the roof by Jonas, causing him to fall to the ground below. Jonas stabs Mark to death with his crucifix, and then pursues Meagan, who temporarily manages to incapacitate him by spraying him in the face with bug spray. Outside, Meagan arms herself with a gun Mark had dropped, gets bullets from inside and, after being phoned by the police (a call which is interrupted by Jonas) goes to the wood shed. After missing several times, Meagan manages to shoot Jonas and, believing him dead, begins praying for forgiveness, only to be attacked mid-prayer by the still-living Jonas, who begins setting the barn on fire using an aspergillum that emits flames instead of holy water. Grabbing a shovel, Meagan beats Jonas with it and rushes outside and locks the door, leaving Jonas to burn and subsequently be blown up when the shed explodes.

In the morning, Meagan is loaded into an ambulance while the charred and seemingly dead Jonas is placed in another, which is manned by Cardinal Turint and his followers. While in the back of the ambulance, Jonas opens his eyes, while elsewhere Meagan does the same simultaneously.

Cast
Nicole de Boer as Meagan
J.H. Wyman as Mark
Joy Tanner as Laura
Alle Ghadban as Jeff
Kenneth McGregor as Father Jaeger
Brock Simpson as Father Colin
James Carver as Father Jonas
Krista Bulmer as Lisa
Phil Morrison as Brad
Fab Filippo as Jonathan
Colin D. Simpson as Larry
Thea Andrews as Louise
Deni DeLory as Jennifer
Carolyn Tweedle as Sister Jude

Reception
In a retrospective assessment of the film, critic Thomas Waugh noted that the film "milks in its own way the then recent but in fact perennial abuse scandals in the Catholic church." Chris Parry of eFilmcritic.com said the film "beats the tar out of the second and third films in the Prom Night series, but that's kind of like beating a wheelchair kid with a rake; though it might be fun for a moment or two, it's hardly a landmark achievement."

References

Works cited

External links

1991 films
1991 horror films
1990s slasher films
Canadian slasher films
Films about Catholic priests
Films about child sexual abuse
Films about clerical celibacy
Films about stalking
Films critical of the Catholic Church
Films scored by Paul Zaza
Films set in 1991
Films set in abandoned houses
Films set in schools
Films about proms
Religious horror films
1990s teen horror films
Prom Night (film series)
English-language Canadian films
1990s English-language films
Films directed by Clay Borris
1990s Canadian films

Prom Night IV: Deliver Us from Evil


Jane Greenebaum Eskind (May 18, 1933 – August 4, 2016) was an American activist and politician from the state of Tennessee. She served on the Tennessee Public Service Commission, becoming the first woman to win an election to a statewide office in Tennessee.

Early life and career
Eskind was born on May 18, 1933, in Louisville, Kentucky to Samuel "Bud" and Doni Greenebaum. She graduated from Atherton High School, and then attended Brandeis University before graduating from the University of Louisville. She moved to Nashville, Tennessee, in 1956.

From 1964 to 1969, Eskind worked as a lobbyist for the Tennessee chapter of the League of Women Voters. She left the league to join the Democratic Party over what she saw as a limitation of the league's nonpartisan strategy. Eskind joined the Democratic Women's Club. She was elected and served as the president of the Davidson County Democratic Women in 1973. She served as a representative of Tennessee on the Democratic National Platform Committee in 1972 and 1976, and was elected to the Democratic State Executive Committee in 1974.

Electoral politics
In the 1978 United States Senate elections, Eskind ran for the United States Senate seat representing Tennessee. She won the Democratic Party's primary election to become the Democratic nominee, becoming the first woman to win a statewide primary in Tennessee. She lost the general election to incumbent Howard Baker. In 1980, Eskind won election to the Tennessee Public Service Commission, becoming the first woman to win an election to a statewide office in Tennessee.

Eskind ran for governor of Tennessee in the 1986 election, but lost to Ned McWherter in the Democratic Party's primary election, though finishing ahead of Richard Fulton. In 1987, Eskind ran to represent  in a special election to the United States House of Representatives, but the election was won by Bob Clement. Eskind was elected the chair of the Tennessee Democratic Party in 1994, becoming the first woman to serve in the role.

Recognition
Eskind was the Tennessee Women's Hall of Fame's first inductee and received a lifetime achievement award from the American Civil Liberties Union.

Personal life
Eskind's husband, Richard Eskind, was a stockbroker. They met while she attended Brandeis and he attended Harvard University. The Eskinds married in 1954 and had two children and six grandchildren. Her cousin, Linda Eskind Rebrovick, ran for mayor of Nashville in the 2015 election.

Eskind died on August 4, 2016.

References

1933 births
2016 deaths
21st-century American women
Politicians from Louisville, Kentucky
Politicians from Nashville, Tennessee
Tennessee Democratic Party chairs
University of Louisville alumni
Women in Tennessee politics

Jane Eskind


The Directorate General of Foreign Trade (DGFT) is the agency of the Ministry of Commerce and Industry of the Government of India responsible for administering laws regarding foreign trade.

IEC
DGFT provides a complete searchable database of all exporters and importers of India.

DGFT

The Central Government appoints any person to be the Directorate General of Foreign Trade. Normally a member of the Indian Administrative Service having rendered 30 or more years is appointed to the post of the Director-General of Foreign Trade. The Director-General heads an attached office under the administrative control of the Ministry of Commerce and Industry of the Government of India. The Director-General is an Ex-Officio Additional Secretary to the Government of India. The Director-General advises the central Government in the formulation of Foreign Trade Policy and is responsible for carrying out that Policy. At present, the Director-General formulates Foreign Trade Policy and Hand Book of Procedures of Foreign Trade Policy and ITC (HS) Classifications of Import and Export Items. The Director-General heads an organization known as the Directorate General of Foreign Trade. The organization has its offices known as Regional Authority (RA) and Zonal Office. These offices administer the Foreign Trade Policy and Procedures. While the Regional Offices at Kolkata, Delhi, Chennai and Mumbai are Zonal Offices which are headed by Additional Director General of Foreign Trade, the remaining Regional Offices are headed by Joint Director General, Deputy Director General and Assistant Director-General. Some of the RAs are also headed by Additional Director General. Office of the Director-General is located at Gate No 2 of Udyog Bhavan, New Delhi.

Sh. Amit Yadav, IAS, is currently serving as Director General, Directorate General of Foreign Trade.

References

External links

Executive branch of the government of India
 Foreign trade of India
 Export and import control
 Ministry of Commerce and Industry (India)

Directorate General of Foreign Trade


David Andrew Hansen (born November 24, 1968) is a former Major League Baseball (MLB) player, specializing as a pinch hitter. He played in MLB for the Los Angeles Dodgers, Chicago Cubs, San Diego Padres and Seattle Mariners and in Nippon Professional Baseball (NPB) for the Hanshin Tigers. He also was a coach in MLB for the Dodgers, Mariners, Los Angeles Angels.

Professional career

Los Angeles Dodgers
Hansen was drafted by the Los Angeles Dodgers in the 2nd round of the 1986 MLB Draft out of John A. Rowland High School in California. He made his Major League debut for the Dodgers on September 16, 1990 against the Cincinnati Reds, striking out as a pinch hitter. His first career hit was in his first career start, in the last game of the season, October 3, against the San Diego Padres. He hit an RBI single in the bottom of the fifth inning off of Padres starter Eric Show. He remained with the Dodgers through the 1996 season, playing third base and first base but mostly appearing as a pinch hitter.

Chicago Cubs
Hansen signed with the Chicago Cubs as a free agent prior to the 1997 season. In 90 games with the Cubs, he hit .311.

On April 10, 1997, he broke up a no-hitter at Wrigley Field that was being thrown by the Florida Marlins' Alex Fernandez with a one-out pinch hit single in the ninth inning.  The Chicago Tribune called Hansen's hit a "wicked one-out one-hopper."

Hanshin Tigers
Hansen played with the Hanshin Tigers in Japan in 1998.

Los Angeles Dodgers (2nd stint)
Hansen re-signed with the Dodgers as a free agent in 1999. In 2000, he set a Major League record with seven pinch-hit home runs.

San Diego Padres/Seattle Mariners
He signed with the San Diego Padres prior to the 2003 season. After one season with the Padres, where he hit .244 in 110 games, he was traded to the Seattle Mariners (along with Wiki Gonzalez, Kevin Jarvis and minor leaguer Vince Faison) for Jeff Cirillo, Brian Sweeney and cash. He appeared in 57 games with the Mariners, hitting .282 before they traded him back to the Padres on July 30, 2004 for Jon Huber. He was signed by the Cubs as a free agent for 2005 but was released at the end of spring training and returned to the Mariners.

Hansen retired at the end of the 2005 season. He told Baseball Digest magazine that he describes pinch-hitting not as a position, not as a role, but "a state of mind."

As of , Hansen ranked sixth all-time in Major League Baseball career pinch hits with 138.

Coaching career
Hansen was the hitting coach for the Mobile BayBears, the Arizona Diamondbacks Double-A affiliate in . On September 26, 2007, Hansen was named the Diamondbacks minor league hitting coordinator.

On November 22, 2010 he was announced as a secondary hitting instructor by the Los Angeles Dodgers.  On July 20, 2011, he was named interim hitting coach by the team. He had the interim tag removed when he was retained for the job in 2012. After the 2012 season, Hansen was dismissed from the position of hitting coach and offered another position within the baseball organization.

Hansen was hired as hitting coach for the Seattle Mariners on October 22, 2012.

For the 2014 season, Hansen was hired as an assistant hitting coach for the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim, along with Don Baylor, the newly acquired principal hitting coach and former Angels slugger.

On November 3, 2015, the Angels promoted Hansen to hitting coach after parting ways with Baylor. Paul Sorrento served as his assistant hitting coach.

At the end of the 2017 season, Hansen was let go by the Angels, then hired by the San Francisco Giants as their minor league organization's hitting coordinator.

References

External links

1968 births
Living people
Basketball players from Long Beach, California
Major League Baseball hitting coaches
Los Angeles Dodgers players
Chicago Cubs players
San Diego Padres players
Seattle Mariners players
Major League Baseball third basemen
Baseball players from Long Beach, California
American expatriate baseball players in Japan
Hanshin Tigers players
Minor league baseball coaches
Arizona Diamondbacks scouts
Los Angeles Dodgers coaches
Los Angeles Angels coaches
Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim coaches
Seattle Mariners coaches
Great Falls Dodgers players
Bakersfield Dodgers players
Vero Beach Dodgers players
Albuquerque Dukes players
San Antonio Missions players
Tacoma Rainiers players

Dave Hansen (baseball)


Alfred Jarry (; 8 September 1873 – 1 November 1907) was a French symbolist writer who is best known for his play Ubu Roi (1896), often cited as a forerunner of Dada and the Surrealist and Futurist movements of the 1920s and 1930s. He also coined the term and philosophical concept of 'pataphysics.

Jarry was born in Laval, Mayenne, France, and his mother was from Brittany. He wrote in a variety of hybrid genres and styles, prefiguring the postmodern, including novels, poems, short plays and opéras bouffes, absurdist essays and speculative journalism. His texts are considered examples of absurdist literature and postmodern philosophy.

Biography and works

His father Anselme Jarry (1837–1895) was a salesman who descended into alcoholism; his mother Caroline, née Quernest (1842–1893), was interested in music and literature, but her family had a streak of insanity, and her mother and brother were institutionalized. The couple had two surviving children, a daughter Caroline-Marie, called Charlotte (1865–1925), and Alfred. In 1879 Caroline left Anselme and took the children to Saint-Brieuc in Brittany.

In 1888 the family moved to Rennes, where Jarry entered the lycée at 15. There he led a group of boys who enjoyed poking fun at their well-meaning, but obese and incompetent physics teacher, a man named Hébert. Jarry and his classmate, Henri Morin, wrote a play they called Les Polonais and performed it with marionettes in the home of one of their friends. The main character, Père Heb, was a blunderer with a huge belly, three teeth (one of stone, one of iron and one of wood), a single, retractable ear and a misshapen body. In Jarry's later work Ubu Roi, Père Heb would develop into Ubu, one of the most monstrous and astonishing characters in French literature.

At 17 Jarry passed his baccalauréat and moved to Paris to prepare for admission to the École Normale Supérieure. Though he was not admitted, he soon gained attention for his original poems and prose-poems. A collection of his work, Les minutes de sable mémorial, was published in 1893.

That same year, Jarry contracted influenza. His mother and sister tended him, but once he recovered his mother fell ill of the disease and died; two years later his father perished from influenza as well, leaving Jarry a small inheritance which he quickly spent.

Jarry had meantime discovered the pleasures of alcohol, which he called "my sacred herb" or, when referring to absinthe, the "green goddess". A story is told that he once painted his face green and rode through town on his bicycle in its honour (and possibly under its influence).

When he was drafted into the army in 1894, his gift for turning notions upside down defeated attempts to instill military discipline. The sight of the diminutive Jarry in a uniform much too large for his less than 5-foot frame – the army did not issue uniforms small enough – was so disruptively funny that he was excused from parades and marching drills. Eventually the army discharged him for medical reasons. His military experience eventually inspired his novel Days and Nights.

In his youth, Jarry was homosexually inclined, although like many bohemians he disavowed sexual categorization. A brief but passionate relationship with future poet Léon-Paul Fargue inspired his semi-autobiographical play Haldernablou (1894).

Jarry returned to Paris and applied himself to writing, drinking and the company of friends who appreciated his witty, sweet-tempered and unpredictable conversation. This period is marked by his intense involvement with Remy de Gourmont in the publication of L'Ymagier , a luxuriously produced "art" magazine devoted to the symbolic analysis of medieval and popular prints. Symbolism as an art movement was in full swing at this time, and L'Ymagier provided a nexus for many of its key contributors. Jarry's play Caesar Antichrist (1895) drew on this movement for material. This is a work that bridges the gap between serious symbolic meaning and the type of critical absurdity with which Jarry would soon become associated. Using the biblical Book of Revelation as a point of departure, Caesar Antichrist presents a parallel world of extreme formal symbolism in which Christ is resurrected not as an agent of spirituality but as an agent of the Roman Empire that seeks to dominate spirituality. It is a unique narrative that effectively links the domination of the soul to contemporaneous advances in the field of Egyptology such as the 1894 excavation of the Narmer Palette, an ancient artifact used for situating the rebus within hermeneutics. The character Ubu Roi first appears in this play.

The spring of 1896 saw the publication, in Paul Fort's review Le Livre d'art, of Jarry's 5-act play Ubu Roi, the rewritten and expanded Les Polonais of his school days. Ubu Rois savage humour and monstrous absurdity, unlike anything thus far performed in French theatre, seemed unlikely to ever actually be performed on stage. However, impetuous theatre director Aurélien-Marie Lugné-Poe took the risk, producing the play at his Théâtre de l'Œuvre.

On opening night (10 December 1896), with traditionalists and the avant-garde in the audience, King Ubu (played by Firmin Gémier) stepped forward and intoned the opening word, "Merdre!" (often translated as "Pshit" or "Shittr!" in English). A quarter of an hour of pandemonium ensued: outraged cries, booing, and whistling by the offended parties, countered by cheers and applause by the more bohemian contingent. Such interruptions continued through the evening. At the time, only the dress rehearsal and opening night performance were held, and the play was not revived until after Jarry's death.

The play brought fame to the 23-year-old Jarry, and he immersed himself in the fiction he had created. Gémier had modelled his portrayal of Ubu on Jarry's own staccato, nasal vocal delivery, which emphasized each syllable (even the silent ones). From then on, Jarry would always speak in this style. He adopted Ubu's ridiculous and pedantic figures of speech; for example, he referred to himself using the royal we, and called the wind "that which blows" and the bicycle he rode everywhere "that which rolls."

Jarry moved into a flat which the landlord had created through the unusual expedient of subdividing a larger flat by means of a horizontal rather than a vertical partition. The diminutive Jarry could just manage to stand up in the place, but guests had to bend or crouch. Jarry also took to carrying a loaded revolver. In response to a neighbour's complaint that his target shooting endangered her children, he replied, "If that should ever happen, ma-da-me, we should ourselves be happy to get new ones with you."

With Franc-Nohain and Claude Terrasse he co-founded the Théâtre des Pantins, which in 1898 was the site of marionette performances of Ubu Roi.

Living in worsening poverty, neglecting his health and drinking excessively, Jarry went on to write the novel Le Surmâle (The Supermale), which is partly a satire on the Symbolist ideal of self-transcendence.

Unpublished until after his death, his fiction Exploits and Opinions of Dr. Faustroll, Pataphysician (Gestes et opinions du docteur Faustroll, pataphysicien) describes the exploits and teachings of a sort of antiphilosopher who, born at age 63, travels through a hallucinatory Paris in a sieve and subscribes to the tenets of 'pataphysics. 'Pataphysics deals with "the laws which govern exceptions and will explain the universe supplementary to this one." In 'pataphysics, every event in the universe is accepted as an extraordinary event.

Jarry once wrote, expressing some of the bizarre logic of 'pataphysics, "If you let a coin fall and it falls, the next time it is just by an infinite coincidence that it will fall again the same way; hundreds of other coins on other hands will follow this pattern in an infinitely unimaginable fashion."

In his final years, he was a legendary and heroic figure to some of the young writers and artists in Paris. Guillaume Apollinaire, André Salmon and Max Jacob sought him out in his truncated apartment. Pablo Picasso was fascinated with Jarry. After Jarry's death Picasso acquired his revolver and wore it on his nocturnal expeditions in Paris. He later bought many of his manuscripts as well as executing a fine drawing of him.

Jarry died in Paris on 1 November 1907 of tuberculosis, aggravated by drug and alcohol misuse. When he could not afford alcohol, he drank ether. It is recorded that his last request was for a toothpick. He was interred in the Cimetière de Bagneux, near Paris.

The complete works of Alfred Jarry are published in three volumes by Gallimard in the collection Bibliothèque de la Pléiade.

Selected works

Plays
 César-Antéchrist (1895) – (Caesar Antichrist) – which introduces Père Ubu and his symbolic meaning.
 Ubu Roi (1896, revised from 1888) – (Ubu Rex) – which portrays the ambition of Père Ubu.
 Ubu Cocu, ou l'Archeopteryx (1897) – (Ubu Cuckolded) – which portrays the inconstancy of Ubu's closest.
 Ubu Enchaíné (1899) – (Ubu in Chains) – which portrays Père Ubu in service.
 Ubu Sur La Butte (1906)

Novels
  Les Jours et Les Nuits, roman d'un déserteur (1897) – (Days and Nights, novel of a deserter).  The first part of a fictional (or pataphysical) autobiography of life in the army.
  L'Amour en Visites (1897) – (Love in Visits).  The second part of a fictional (or pataphysical) autobiography of life and the theatre.
  L'Amour Absolu (1899) – (Absolute Love).  The third and final part of this autobiography.
  Messaline (1901) – (Messalina in English translation) – set in ancient Rome.
  Le Surmâle (1902) – (The Supermale) – features a superhuman bicycle race in which the hero is propelled by perpetual motion food (alcohol).
  Gestes et Opinions du Docteur Faustroll, Pataphysicien (Exploits and Opinions of Dr. Faustroll, Pataphysician) – published posthumously in 1911.  This novel's symbolism defines the symbolic meaning of pataphysique.
 La Dragonne – assembled and published posthumously in 1943.

Other notable works
 Short story La Passion considérée comme course de côte (The Passion Considered as an Uphill Bicycle Race) has been widely circulated and imitated, notably by J. G. Ballard and Robert Anton Wilson.
 Comic operetta The Pope's Mustard-Maker (Le Moutardier du pape) First English translation (2019) by Doug Skinner.
 Speculative essays Speculations (Spéculations) English translation (2022) by R J Dent.
 Les Minutes de Sable Memorial (1894) – (Minutes of Memorial Sand) – a collection of short early works including the symbolist play Haldernablou.
 La Chandelle Verte: Lumières sur les Choses de ce Temps – (The Green Candle) – a collection of absurdist essays which revert his pataphysique the other way round.  They address contemporary issues in an absurd manner.  Originally published in reviews and collected in 1969.
 Illustrated Almanac of Père Ubu (1899).
 Illustrated Almanac of Père Ubu – 2nd edition (1901). Both the 1899 and 1901 almanacs are downloadable (in French) at http://alfredjarry.fr/jarry/

References

Further reading

 Fell, Jill (2005). Alfred Jarry. An Imagination in Revolt. U.S.: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. .
 Fell, Jill (2010). Alfred Jarry. London, Reaktion Books. .

  Revised edition of 1958 book.

 Stillman, Linda Klieger (1980). La Theatralité dans l'Œuvre d'Alfred Jarry. U.S.: French Literature Publications Company.
 Stillman, Linda Klieger (1983). Alfred Jarry. U.S.: Twayne Publishers, .

External links

 Ubu Roi ou Les Polonais at athena.unige.ch

French satirists
French surrealist writers
Surrealist dramatists and playwrights
Symbolist writers
Absurdist writers
1873 births
1907 deaths

Writers from Brittany
Modernist theatre
Pataphysicians
French people of Breton descent
Lycée Henri-IV alumni
People from Laval, Mayenne
20th-century deaths from tuberculosis
Tuberculosis deaths in France
Burials at the Cimetière parisien de Bagneux
19th-century French dramatists and playwrights
19th-century French novelists
20th-century French novelists
'Pataphysics

Alfred Jarry