Echolalia is the unsolicited repetition of vocalizations made by another person (when repeated by the same person, it is called palilalia). In its profound form it is automatic and effortless. It is one of the echophenomena, closely related to echopraxia, the automatic repetition of movements made by another person; both are "subsets of imitative behavior" whereby sounds or actions are imitated "without explicit awareness". Echolalia may be an immediate reaction to a stimulus or may be delayed.

Echolalia occurs in many cases of autism spectrum disorder and Tourette syndrome. It may also occur in several other neurological conditions such as some forms of dementia or stroke-related aphasia.

The word "echolalia" is derived from the Greek  (ēchō), meaning "echo" or "to repeat", and  (laliá) meaning "speech" or "talk" (of onomatopoeic origin, from the verb  (laléo), meaning "to talk").

Signs and symptoms
Echolalia can be categorized as either immediate (occurring immediately after the stimulus) or delayed (some time after the occurrence of a stimulus). Immediate echolalia results from quick recall of information from the short-term memory and "superficial linguistic processing". A typical pediatric presentation of immediate echolalia might be as follows: a child is asked "Do you want dinner?"; the child echoes back "Do you want dinner?", followed by a pause, and then a response, "Yes. What's for dinner?" In delayed echolalia the patient repeats words, phrases, or multiple sentences after a delay that can be anywhere from hours to years later. Immediate echolalia can be indicative that a developmental disorder exists, but this is not necessarily the case. Sometimes echolalia can be observed when an individual echoes back a statement to indicate they are contemplating a response and fully heard the original statement.

Mitigated echolalia refers to a repetition in which the original stimulus is somewhat altered, and ambient echolalia refers to the repetition (typically occurring in individuals with dementia) of environmental stimuli such as a television program running in the background.

Examples of mitigated echolalia are pronoun changes or syntax corrections. The first can be seen in the example of asking the patient "Where are you going?" and with patient responding "Where am I going?" The latter would be seen in the clinician asking "Where are I going?" and the patient repeating "Where am I going?" In mitigated echolalia some language processing is occurring. Mitigated echolalia can be seen in dyspraxia and aphasia of speech.

A Japanese case report describes a 20-year-old college student who was admitted to the hospital complaining about headaches and meningitis; however, he also exhibited signs of ambient echolalia. The researchers stated that the young patient's repetition was occurring at approximately the same tempo as his normal speech rate. The patient did not simply repeat words he had heard one after another. The patient reported that his ambient echolalia appeared to be random but appeared when he was distracted. He was also aware of his echolalia, but said he is unable to stop the repetitions.

Associated disorders
Echolalia can be an indicator of communication disorders in autism, but is neither unique to, nor synonymous with syndromes. Echophenomena (particularly echolalia and echopraxia) were defining characteristics in the early descriptions of Tourette syndrome (TS). Echolalia also occurs in aphasia, schizophrenia, dementia, catatonia, epilepsy, after cerebral infarction (stroke), closed head injury, in blind children, children with language impairments, as well as certain developing neurotypical children. Other disorders associated with echolalia are Pick's disease, frontotemporal dementia, corticobasal degeneration, progressive supranuclear palsy, as well as pervasive developmental disorder.

In transcortical sensory aphasia, echolalia is common, with the patient incorporating another person's words or sentences into his or her own response. While these patients lack speech comprehension, they are still able to read.

Anatomical correlates
Echolalia can be the result of left hemisphere damage. Specifically, damage to the frontal lobe of the left hemisphere has been linked to effortful echolalia. Cases of echolalia have appeared after lesions of the left medial frontal lobe and supplemental motor areas. Unintentional or nonfunctional echolalia shows similarities to imitation behavior seen after disinhibition of the frontal network is most likely related to mirror neurons. In cases where echolalia is a part of mixed transitory aphasia, the perisylvian language area remains intact, but the surrounding anterior and posterior association cortexes degenerate or experience infarction.

Imitation and learning
Echolalia is common in young children who are first learning to speak. Echolalia is a form of imitation. Imitation is a useful, normal and necessary component of social learning: imitative learning occurs when the "observer acquires new behaviors through imitation" and mimicry or automatic imitation occurs when a "reenacted behavior is based on previously acquired motor (or vocal) patterns". Ganos et al (2012) define echolalia as an "automatic imitative action without explicit awareness". Children often first babble syllables and eventually words they hear. For example, a baby may often hear the word "bottle" in various sentences. The baby first repeats with only syllables such as "baba" but as their language skills progress the child will eventually be able to say the word "bottle". Echolalia becomes less and less common as a child's language skills develop. It is not possible to distinguish the imitative learning form of echolalia that occurs as part of normal development from automatic imitation or echolalia characteristic of a disorder until about the age of three, when some ability for self-regulation is developed. A disorder may be suspected if automatic imitation persists beyond the age of three.

Function
Before the 1980s, echolalia was regarded as negative, non-functional behavior. However, researchers such as Barry Prizant and colleagues have emphasized the communicative function of echolalia. Among the communicative functions noted are turntaking, requesting, self-regulation and rehearsal to aid comprehension. Echolalia can be categorized as communicative (in context and with "apparent communicative purpose") vs. semicommunicative (an "unclear communicative meaning").

The use of echolalia in task response to facilitate generalization is an area that holds much promise. Research in this area is certainly needed. Marjorie H. Charlop performed a series of task experiments with autistic children. The results suggest that perhaps in certain tasks (i.e., receptive labeling), echolalia should not be eliminated, but taken advantage of as it may facilitate acquisition and generalization for autistic children.

Tourette syndrome
Echolalia and echopraxia are distinguishing tics of Tourette syndrome (TS); the echolalic repetitions of individuals with TS are mainly echoes from within their own "tic repertoire". Evidence points to a healthy mirror neuron system (MNS) but "inadequate imitation-control mechanism, which make them vulnerable to interferences".

Autism
It is estimated that up to 75% of autistic people have exhibited echolalia. A symptom of some autistic children is the struggle to produce spontaneous speech. Studies have shown that in some cases echolalia is used as a coping mechanism allowing an autistic person to contribute to a conversation when unable to produce spontaneous speech. Studies in the 1980s showed that there may be communicative intent with delayed echolalia, "depending on the context in which it occurs"; this research on autistic children "raised questions related to behavior modification programs that defended the revocation or replacement of immediate echolalia".

Uta Frith, Prizant and others have interpreted echolalia as evidence of "gestalt" processing in autistic children, including in the acquisition of language. However, a 1990 study on the acquisition of grammar by Tager-Flusberg and Calkins found that echolalia did not facilitate grammatical development in autistic children.

See also
 List of language disorders

References

External links

Autism
Schizophrenia
Tourette syndrome
Symptoms and signs of mental disorders

Echolalia


Nag Nathaiya or Nag Nathaiya Leela is a Hindu festival held in the city of Varanasi in Bhojpur-Purvanchal region of India, commemorating the conquest of the god Krishna over the naga (serepnt) Kaliya. The tale is reenacted annually the Tulsi Ghat on the fourth tithi of Kartik's light fortnight, Paksha; which is usually sometime between November and December.

Background

This festival was started by Tulsi in the 16th century at Tulsi Ghat.

The legend of Nag Nathaiya festival is associated with Krishna's victory on the serpent (naga) Kaliya. One day while playing with his friends in Gokula, the child Krishna lost the ball in the Yamuna river. Krishna dived into the river to fetch it. There he was confronted by the poisonous serpent, Kaliya. The snake ensnared Krishna in his coils. After a long battle, Kaliya surrendered to Krishna and promised not to hurt the villagers. The snake lifted Krishna on its head and took him to the surface. On the other hand, Krishna's friends became worried as he was missing for a long time and gathered the villagers. Krishna not only defeated the snake but also purified the water and the air of the poison that was spread by the naga. It is described as one of lilas (Divine play) of Krishna.

festivities

At Tulsi ghat, a large branch of Kadamba tree is planted at the edge of the river Ganga. A young boy acting as Krishna - who is believed to be the embodied form (svarup) of Krishna - jumps from the tree branch into the river, where an effigy of Kaliya lies. The boy Krishna climbs onto Kaliya's head and strikes a flute playing pose. Propelled by human assistants, the serpent effigy along with the boy Krishna on its head make a circular sweep in the water, parading in front of thousands of spectators, who watch the display from the river bank or from boats floating on the river waters.

The festival is attended by Kashi Naresh (the titular king of Varanasi) every year who views the Leela from royal boat. Later he gives awards to the actors performing in Leela.

References

External links
 Nag Nathaiya at YouTube

Hindu festivals in India
Krishna
Religion in Varanasi

Nag Nathaiya


Rollkommando Hamann () was a small mobile unit that committed mass murders of Lithuanian Jews in the countryside in July–October 1941, with an estimated death toll of at least 60,000 Jews. The unit was also responsible for many murders in Latvia from July through August 1941. At the end of 1941 the destruction of Lithuanian Jewry was effectively accomplished by Hamann's unit in the countryside, by the Ypatingasis būrys in the Ponary massacre, and by the Tautinio Darbo Apsaugos Batalionas (TDA) in the Ninth Fort in Kaunas. In about six months an estimated 80% of all Lithuanian Jews were killed. The remaining few were spared for use as a labor force and concentrated in urban ghettos, mainly the Vilna and Kaunas Ghettos.

Organization
The group consisted of 8–10 Germans from Einsatzkommando 3, commanded by SS-Obersturmführer Joachim Hamann, and several dozen Lithuanians from the 3rd company of the TDA, commanded by Bronius Norkus. The unit had no permanent structure and was called for ad hoc missions in various towns in Lithuania. While Bubnys indicates Hamann primarily handed out assignments while not participating himself, post-war testimony indicates Hamann told others of his direct participation. The Jäger Report documents mass executions carried out by the unit in 54 locations across Lithuania. From July 13 to August 22, 1941, the commando operated out of Daugavpils, Latvia. During this time, the commando murdered 9,102 people, almost all of whom were Jews, from the Daugavpils Ghetto.

Operations
Usually the unit arrived after the local Jews were already rounded up and gathered in a more secluded area, usually a forest or a distant field, by local Nazi authorities and Lithuanian local collaborators. Sometimes small, temporary ghettos were set up for gathering the Jews from several nearby towns. Jews selected for executions were marched to the location, usually about  away from where they lived, and shot. Sometimes men were shot first, while women and children were executed towards the end of 1941. The corpses would be disposed of in pits dug in advance and the loot (clothes and other property of those killed) would be divided among the perpetrators. Such killings became known as "actions" (, ).

References

1941 in Lithuania
The Holocaust in Lithuania
The Holocaust in Latvia
Lithuanian collaboration with Nazi Germany
Einsatzgruppen
Generalbezirk Litauen
Local participation in the Holocaust

Rollkommando Hamann


Meer Uitgebreid Lager Onderwijs (Dutch, "more advanced primary education") was during part of the twentieth century a level of education in the Netherlands (and the Dutch East Indies), comparable with the junior high school level in the US education system. Its successors were the mavo and vbo, now both replaced by vmbo. This level of education was used up to 2021 in Suriname, when it was replaced with "voortgezet onderwijs".

In Suriname, MULO was a four year program. It was split into MULO-A which was focused on business and MULO-B which was focused on science. After graduating, students could move onto three-year VWO leading to university or a two-year HAVO leading to higher vocational training.

See also
 Education in the Netherlands

References

Education in Indonesia
Education in Suriname
Schools in the Dutch East Indies

Meer Uitgebreid Lager Onderwijs


Exchange rate, also known as the foreign exchange rate, is how much one currency is worth compared to a different one. It is the rate at which one currency can be exchanged for another. Exchanges rates can change for many different reasons, for example the inflation rate of a country. For much of the 20th century the Bretton Woods system fixed exchange rates.

Currency

Exchange rate


General Sir Edward Charles Whinyates,  (6 May 1782 – 25 December 1865) was a senior British Army artillery officer.

Biography
Whinyates was the son of Major Thomas Whinyates of Abbotsleigh, Devon, and his wife Katharine Frankland, and was educated at Newcombe's School in Hackney. In 1796 he entered the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich as a cadet and was commissioned as second lieutenant in the Royal Artillery on 1 March 1798.

He became lieutenant in 1799 and accompanied the expedition in that year to Den Helder in the Netherlands and the expedition to Madeira in 1801. When Madeira was evacuated at the Peace of Amiens, he went with his company to Jamaica and was made adjutant. In 1805 he was promoted second captain and came home. He served as adjutant to the artillery in the attack on Copenhagen in 1807 and the following year was posted to D troop of the Royal Horse Artillery.

In February 1810 he embarked with his unit for the Peninsula, but their transport ship Camilla nearly sank and had to put back. Owing to this, D troop did not take the field as a unit until 1811. However, Whinyates was present at Busaco in 1810, acting as adjutant to the officer commanding the artillery. He was also at the Battle of Albuera on 16 May 1811 with four guns, the cavalry affair at Usagre on 25 May, and in the actions at Fuentes de Guinaldo and Aldea de Ponte on 25 and 27 Sep

In 1812 D troop was with Rowland Hill's corps on the Tagus river. At Ribera, Whinyates made such good use of two guns that the French commander Lallemand inquired his name, and sent him a message: 'Tell that brave man that if it had not been for him, I should have beaten your cavalry'. When the captain of D troop died at Madrid in October Whinyates took over the command for the next four months, during which time the troop distinguished itself at San Muñoz on 17 November, at the close of the retreat from Burgos, five out of its six guns being injured. General Long, who commanded the cavalry to which it was attached, afterwards wrote of the troop that he had never witnessed 'more exemplary conduct in quarters, nor more distinguished zeal and gallantry in the field.'

In 1813 Whinyates was made captain, and consequently left the Peninsula in March. In 1814 he was appointed to the second rocket troop, and he commanded it at Waterloo. Wellington, who did not believe in rockets, ordered that they should be left behind. When he was told that this would break Whinyates's heart, he replied: 'Damn his heart; let my orders be obeyed.' However, Whinyates eventually obtained leave to bring them into the field, together with his six guns. When Ponsonby's brigade charged D'Erlon's corps, he followed it with his rocket sections, and fired several volleys of ground-rockets with good effect against the French cavalry. He then rejoined his guns, which were placed in front of Picton's division. In the course of the day he had three horses shot under him, was struck on the leg, and severely wounded in the left arm. He received a brevet majority and the Waterloo medal, and afterwards the Peninsular silver medal with clasps for Busaco and Albuera.

At the end of 1815, the rocket troop were sent to England to be reduced, and Whinyates remained behind until 1818, appointed to a troop of drivers in the army of occupation. He commanded H troop of horse artillery from 1823 to 22 July 1830, when he became regimental lieutenant-colonel and was made KH in 1823 and CB in 1831. He had command of the horse artillery at Woolwich from November 1834 to May 1840, and of the artillery in the northern district for eleven years afterwards, having become regimental colonel on 23 November 1841.

On 1 April 1852 he was appointed director-general of artillery, and on 19 August commandant at Woolwich, where he remained till 1 June 1856. He had been promoted major-general on 20 June 1854, and became lieutenant-general on 7 June 1856, and general on 10 December 1864. He was elevated to KCB on 18 May 1860. He had become colonel-commandant of a battalion on 1 April 1855, and was transferred to the horse artillery on 22 July 1864.

He died at Cheltenham on 25 December 1865. In 1827 he had married Elizabeth, only daughter of Samuel Compton of Wood End, North Riding, Yorkshire but left no children. He did have five brothers, of whom four served with distinction in the army and navy.

See also
List of British Army full generals

References

1782 births
1865 deaths
Military personnel from Devon
British Army generals
Knights Commander of the Order of the Bath
British Army personnel of the Napoleonic Wars
British Army personnel of the Peninsular War
Recipients of the Waterloo Medal
Royal Artillery officers

Edward Charles Whinyates


Kriminal is an  Italian comics series featuring an eponymous fictional character, created in 1964 by Magnus and Max Bunker, the authors of Alan Ford, Maxmagnus and Satanik.

Characters
Kriminal is an English master thief, Anthony Logan, who dresses in black and yellow costume with a fearsome skull face for his adventures. The character was directly inspired by the contemporary (and more successful) Diabolik, with whom he shares the ability to use masks that allow him to assume any identity. In the earliest adventures, Kriminal was a near sadistic killer fighting for revenge against the criminals who had pushed his father to commit suicide. Having also lost his mother and sister, Logan spent his youth in a reformatory, from which he managed to escape, intent to pursue vengeance.

Kriminal has a female companion, Lola Hudson whom he married and with whom he had a child, Max. He also has a love-hate relationship with Gloria, who was once the wife of Scotland Yard Inspector Patrick Milton, his main enemy. Gradually over time, Kriminal's most extreme villainous features were toned down, and in the later stories he assumed more positive and heroic connotations.

The series was one of the first to employ continuity in Italian comic books, as any new story would begin exactly at the point the previous had ended, and the characters' lives continually evolved (in contrast to Diabolik). Logan himself married and had a child, who soon died.

The series ended in November 1974, after 419 episodes.

Censorship
Due to the violence and the proto-erotic scenes in the comic book (as well as in Satanik), Bunker and Raviola had problems with Italian censorship. Bunker was prosecuted several times, but never condemned. The panels depicting semi-nude girls were often censored by the publisher itself.

Crossovers
In the episode #90, "Quello che non ti aspetti", Kriminal meets Satanik: this is the first example of crossover in Italian comics. The character is also featured in Alan Ford #150, also by Magnus & Bunker.

Cinema
Kriminal has been adapted for the big screen several times. The first film, simply titled Kriminal, was released in 1966 by Umberto Lenzi, starring Dutch actor Glenn Saxson in the lead role. The skeleton costume was slightly altered. A sequel, Il marchio di Kriminal ("The Mark of Kriminal") directed by Fernando Cerchio, followed in the summer of 1968

References

External links
Kriminal's entry at the International Catalogue of Superheroes
List of Kriminal issues and authors

Italian comics
Italian comics characters
Fictional murderers
Italian comics titles
Magazines established in 1964
Magazines disestablished in 1974
1964 comics debuts
Comics characters introduced in 1964
Crime comics
Comic book digests
Italian comics adapted into films
Fictional American people
Fictional English people
Defunct magazines published in Italy
Magazines about comics
Italian-language magazines
1964 establishments in Italy
1974 disestablishments in Italy

Kriminal


Ronald Ossory Dunlop  (28 June 1894 – 18 May 1973) was an Irish writer and painter in oil of landscapes, seascapes, figure studies, portraits and still life.

Life and career
Dunlop was born in Dublin, Ireland, to a Scottish-Irish Anthroposophical-Quaker family. His mother painted in watercolour. He studied at Manchester School of Art, at Wimbledon College of Art and in Paris, having spent some time working in an advertising agency. He became a prolific exhibitor, venues including the Royal Academy, the New English Art Club, Leicester and Redfern Galleries, the Royal Society of Arts, the Royal Hibernian Academy and the Royal Glasgow Institute of the Fine Arts. In 1916 he was granted exemption from military service as a conscientious objector, and worked on the land in the General Service section of the Friends' Ambulance Unit.

His first one-man show (1928) was at the Redfern Gallery in Cork Street, London. In 1923 he had founded the Emotionist Group of writers and artists, and his own work is characterised by a painterly exuberance. He joined The London Group of artists in 1931. Dunlop's work is in a number of public galleries, including the Tate.

Most of his life was spent in England, latterly at Barnham, West Sussex, close to Chichester. He achieved fame in his lifetime, having been elected a full member of the Royal Academy in 1950, and his work is instantly recognisable, as are the many fakes which have appeared on the market over the past thirty years or so!

Alex Fraser of Vancouver was Dunlop's dealer in London and again later in Canada once Fraser had emigrated in the 1940s.

Dunlop's mother, Eleanor (née Fitzpatrick) was herself a watercolour artist. His father Daniel Nicol Dunlop (1868–1935), was a great friend of W. B. Yeats, James Stephens and George Russell (Æ). Yeats, Russell, and Daniel Nicol Dunlop had together published The Irish Theosophist from the home of Eleanor's father, the Shakespearean scholar R. H. Fitzpatrick.

Thus Dunlop grew up surrounded by the seminal figures of the Irish Literary Renaissance, in an atmosphere smacking of mysticism and Spiritualism. The Dunlop family moved to New York in 1899, then London three years later. From here, they made the annual pilgrimage back to Dublin during Horse Show week, with Dunlop's father returning to London clutching two or three more 'Æ' canvasses each time. Dunlop trained in art in London, associating with a group of young artists who exhibited at the Hurricane Lamp Gallery in Chelsea. In 1928 the group published a journal called Emotionism: Dunlop supplied a rather vague manifesto ("Art is the expression of the essence of life"), a poem, and an illustration of one of his paintings, "The Fish Market". Dunlop soon expanded his exhibiting circle, showing with the New English Art Club and later with the Royal Academy and the Royal Society of British Artists. He maintained his Irish connections, returning periodically to paint in Dublin and submitting a number of works to the RHA in the 1940s and 1950s.

Frances Spalding described Dunlop as an 'alla prima' painter of traditional subjects. At some stage he settled in Barnham, West Sussex, and in 1947 or 1948 exhibited at Bognor Regis, which led to a connection with Bibby (see below).

He generally signed his work "Dunlop" and his correspondence "R O Dunlop", and as a result his given names were not widely known.

Dunlop's paintings can be seen at the Crawford Gallery in Cork, at the Tate Gallery in London, at the Cheltenham Art Gallery & Museum and the National Portrait Gallery, London.

Books
In addition to painting, Dunlop was a prolific author; his books include:
 Modern Still Life Painting in Oil (London, 1938)
 Understanding Pictures (London, 1948)
 Painting for Pleasure (London, 1951)
 Sketching for Pleasure (London, 1952)
 How to Paint for Pleasure (New York, 1953)
 Ancient Arundel (London, 1953)
 Landscape Painting: Ma Yuan to Picasso (London, 1954)
 Struggling with Paint: Some Reminiscences (London, 1956, autobiography)

References

External links
 : works by Dunlop in public British collections
 Profile on Royal Academy of Arts Collections

1894 births
1973 deaths
British conscientious objectors
People associated with the Friends' Ambulance Unit
20th-century Irish painters
Irish male painters
Irish writers
Writers from Dublin (city)
Royal Academicians
Painters from Dublin (city)
20th-century Irish male artists

Ronald Ossory Dunlop


Richard Malcolm Weaver, Jr (March 3, 1910 – April 1, 1963) was an American scholar who taught English at the University of Chicago. He is primarily known as an intellectual historian, political philosopher, and a mid-20th century conservative and as an authority on modern rhetoric. Weaver was briefly a socialist during his youth, a lapsed leftist intellectual (conservative by the time he was in graduate school), a teacher of composition, a Platonist philosopher, cultural critic, and a theorist of human nature and society.

Described by biographer Fred Young as a "radical and original thinker", Weaver's books Ideas Have Consequences (1948) and The Ethics of Rhetoric (1953) remain influential among conservative theorists and scholars of the American South.  Weaver was also associated with a group of scholars who in the 1940s and 1950s promoted traditionalist conservatism.

Life
Weaver was the eldest of four children born to a middle-class Southern family in Asheville, North Carolina.  His father, Richard Sr., owned a livery stable. After the death of her husband during 1915, Carolyn Embry Weaver supported her children by working in her family's department store in her native Lexington, Kentucky.  Lexington is the home of the University of Kentucky and of two private colleges.

Despite his family's straitened circumstances after the death of his father, Richard Jr. attended a private boarding school and the University of Kentucky. He earned an A.B in English during 1932. The teacher at Kentucky who most influenced him was Francis Galloway.  After a year of graduate study at Kentucky, Weaver began a master's degree in English at Vanderbilt University. John Crowe Ransom supervised his thesis, titled The Revolt against Humanism, a critique of the humanism of Irving Babbitt and Paul Elmer More.  Weaver then taught one year at Auburn University and three years at Texas A&M University.

During 1940, Weaver began a Ph.D. in English at Louisiana State University (LSU), whose faculty included the rhetoricians and critics Cleanth Brooks and Robert Penn Warren, and the conservative political philosopher Eric Voegelin. While at LSU, Weaver spent summers studying at Harvard University, the University of Virginia, and the Sorbonne. His Ph.D. was awarded during 1943 for a thesis, supervised first by Arlin Turner then by Cleanth Brooks, titled The Confederate South, 1865-1910: A Study in the Survival of a Mind and a Culture. It was published during 1968, posthumously, with the title The Southern Tradition at Bay.

After one year's teaching at North Carolina State University, Weaver joined the English department at the University of Chicago, where he spent the rest of his career, and where his exceptional teaching earned him that university's Quantrell Award during 1949. During 1957, Weaver published the first article in the inaugural issue of Russell Kirk's Modern Age.

Weaver spent his academic summers in a house he purchased in his ancestral Weaverville, North Carolina, very near Asheville.  His widowed mother resided there year-round.  Weaver traveled between Chicago and Asheville by train.  To connect himself with traditional modes of agrarian life, he insisted that the family vegetable garden in Weaverville be plowed by mule. Every August the Weaver family had a reunion which Richard regularly attended and not infrequently addressed.

Precocious and bookish from a very young age, Weaver grew up to become "one of the most well-educated intellectuals of his era". Highly self-sufficient and independent, he has been described as "solitary and remote", as a "shy little bulldog of a man". Lacking close friends, and having few lifelong correspondents other than his Vanderbilt teacher and fellow Agrarian Donald Davidson, Weaver was able to concentrate on his scholarly activities.

During 1962, the Young Americans for Freedom gave Weaver an award for "service to education and the philosophy of a free society". Shortly before his sudden death in Chicago, Weaver accepted an appointment at Vanderbilt University. Dr. Weaver died on April 1, 1963. According to his sister, he died from a cerebral hemorrhage. During 1964, the Intercollegiate Studies Institute created a graduate fellowship in his memory. In 1983, the Rockford Institute established the annual Richard M. Weaver Award for Scholarly Letters.

Early influences
Weaver strongly believed in preserving and defending what he considered to be traditional Southern principles. These principles, such as anti-consumerism and chivalry, were the basis of Weaver's teaching, writing, and speaking.

Having been raised with strong moral values, Weaver considered religion as the foundation for family and civilization. His appreciation for religion is evident in speeches he gave early while an undergraduate at the Christian Endeavour Society, as well as in his later writings.

Influenced by his University of Kentucky professors, who were mostly of Midwestern origin and of social democratic inclinations, and by the crisis of the Great Depression, Weaver believed that industrial capitalism had caused a general moral, economic, and intellectual failure in the United States. Hoping initially that socialism would afford an alternative to the prevailing industrialist culture, he joined the Kentucky chapter of the American Socialist Party. During 1932 Weaver actively campaigned for Norman Thomas, the standard-bearer of that party. A few years later, he made a financial contribution to the Loyalist cause in the Spanish Civil War. Encounters with intellectuals in coming years, such as Dr. Tricia McMillan, would unsettle his early acceptance of socialism.

While completing a thesis for a master's degree in English at Vanderbilt University, Weaver discovered ideas related to the Southern Agrarians there. Gradually he began a rejection of socialism and embrace of tradition but he loved it. He admired and sought to emulate its leader, the "doctor of culture" John Crowe Ransom.

The Agrarians wrote passionately about the traditional values of community and the Old South. During 1930, a number of Vanderbilt University faculty and their students, led by Ransom, wrote an Agrarian manifesto, titled I'll Take My Stand. Weaver agreed with the group's suspicion of the post-Civil War industrialization of the South. He found more congenial Agrarianism's focus on traditionalism and regional cultures than socialism's egalitarian "romanticizing" of the welfare state. Weaver abandoned socialism for Agrarianism only gradually over a number of years; the thinking of his 1934 M.A. thesis was not Agrarian.

Social philosophy

Weaver's Old South
The Southern Tradition at Bay, the title under which Weaver's 1943 doctoral dissertation was published in 1968 after his death, surveyed the post-Appomattox literature of the states that were part of the Confederacy. He revealed what he considered its continuities with the antebellum era. Weaver also discussed certain Southerners who dissented from this tradition, such as Walter Hines Page, George Washington Cable, and Henry W. Grady, whom he termed "Southern liberals."

Weaver identified four traditional Southern characteristics: "a feudal theory of society, a code of chivalry, the ancient concept of the gentleman, and a noncreedal faith". According to him, the Southern feudal system was centered on the legitimate pride a family line derived from linking its name to a piece of land. For Weaver, land ownership gave the individual a much needed "stability, responsibility, dignity, and sentiment".

However, in his Ideas Have Consequences, Weaver downplayed the materialistic notion of ownership.  He asserted that private property was "the last metaphysical right" of the individual. Southern chivalry and gentlemen's behavior, on the other hand, emphasized a paternalistic personal honor, and decorum over competition and cleverness. Weaver claimed that women preferred the romanticized soldier to the materialistic businessman.

The noncreedal faith that Weaver advocated (he was a nonpracticing Protestant) grew out of what he termed the South's "older religiousness." The "religion" emphasized a respect for tradition and nature and for the Anglican/Episcopal church, the established church in Virginia and south during the colonial era. Weaver agreed with the traditional Christian notion that external science and technology could not save man, who was born a sinner and in need of redemption.

Weaver believed that the South was the "last non-materialist civilization in the Western World." Weaver came to advocate a revival of southern traditions as the only cure for a commodity-based capitalism. He believed it was a way to combat the social degradation that he witnessed while he lived in Chicago.

Communitarian individualism
In a short speech delivered to the 1950 reunion of the Weaver clan, Weaver criticized urban life in Chicago as follows: "the more closely people are crowded together, the less they know one another". In a comparative study of Randolph of Roanoke and Thoreau, Weaver defined  "individualism" in two ways: 1) "studied withdrawal from society" (i.e. Thoreau) and 2) "political action at the social level" (i.e. Randolph). Thoreau (according to Weaver) rejected society while Randolph embraced social bonds through politics.

Personally opposed to America's centralized political power, Weaver, like Randolph, preferred an individualism that included community. "Community" here refers to a shared identity of values tied to a geographical and spatial location – in Weaver's case, the Old South. He concluded that individualism that is founded on community enabled a citizen "to know who he was and what he was about". Without this intimate foundation, citizens seeking individualism would be unable to reach a true, personal identity. More importantly, he believed that people should grant priority to a living community and its well-being, not to individual fulfillment.

Philosophy of language

Linguistics
Weaver gradually came to see himself as the "cultural doctor of the South" although he made his career in Chicago. More specifically, he sought to resist what he saw as America's growing barbarism by teaching his students of the correct way to write, use, and understand language, which connected Weaver with Platonist ideals. Following the tradition of the Socratic dialogues, Weaver taught that misuse of language caused social corruption. That belief led him to criticize jazz as a medium that promoted "barbaric impulses" because he perceived the idiom as lacking form and rules.

Poetry
Weaver's study of American literature emphasized the past, such as the 19th-century culture of New England and the South and the Lincoln-Douglas debates. Attempting a true understanding of language, Weaver concentrated on a culture's fundamental beliefs; that is, beliefs that strengthened and educated citizens into a course of action. By teaching and studying language, he endeavored to generate a healthier culture that would no longer use language as a tool of lies and persuasion in a "prostitution of words." Moreover, in a capitalist society, applied science was the "sterile opposite" of what he saw as redemption, the "poetic and ethical vision of life".

Weaver condemned modern media and modern journalism as tools for exploiting the passive viewer. Convinced that ideas, not machines, compelled humanity towards a better future, he gave words precedence over technology. Influenced by the Agrarians' emphasis of poetry, he began writing poetry. In a civilized society, poetry allowed one to express personal beliefs that science and technology could not overrule. In Weaver's words, "We can will our world." That is, human beings, not mechanical or social forces, can make positive decisions by language that will change their existence.

Rhetoric

In The Ethics of Rhetoric, Weaver evaluates the ability of rhetoric to persuade. Similarly to ancient philosophers, Weaver found that language has the power to move people to do good, to do evil, or to do nothing at all. In his defense of orthodoxy, Weaver set down a number of rhetorical principles. He grounded his definition of "noble rhetoric" in the work of Plato; such rhetoric aimed to improve intellect by presenting men with "better versions of themselves". He also agreed with Plato's notions of the realities of transcendentals (recall Weaver's hostility to nominalism) and the connection between form and substance. For instance, Weaver admired the connection between the forms of poetry and rhetoric. Like poetry, rhetoric relies on the connotation of words as well as their denotation. Good rhetoricians, he asserted, use poetic analogies to relate abstract ideas directly to the listeners. Specifically emphasizing metaphor, he found that comparison should be an essential part of the rhetorical process. However, arguments from definition—that is, from the very nature of things (justice, beauty, the nature of man) -- had an even higher ethical status, because they were grounded in essences rather than similarities. Arguments grounded in mere circumstance ("I have to quit school because I cannot afford the tuition") Weaver viewed as the least ethical, because they grant the immediate facts a higher status than principle. Finally, Weaver pointed out that arguments from authority are only as good as the authority itself.

In Language is Sermonic, Weaver pointed to rhetoric as a presentation of values. Sermonic language seeks to persuade the listener, and is inherent in all communication. Indeed, the very choice to present arguments from definition instead of from consequence implies that one of the modes of reason carries greater value. He also considered rhetoric and the multiplicity of man. That is, he acknowledged that logic alone was not enough to persuade man, who is "a pathetic being, that is, a being feeling and suffering". He felt that societies that placed great value on technology often became dehumanized. Like a machine relying purely on logic, the rhetorician was in danger of becoming "a thinking robot".

Weaver divided the nature of man into four categories: rational, emotional, ethical, and religious. Without considering these characteristics as a whole, rhetoricians cannot hope to persuade their listeners. Moreover, when motivating the listener to adopt attitudes and actions, rhetoricians must consider the uniqueness of each audience. In other words, orators should acknowledge that each audience has different needs and responses, and must formulate their arguments accordingly. Weaver also divided "argumentation" into four categories: cause-effect, definition, consequences, and circumstances. The rhetorician must decide which method of argument will best persuade a given audience.

In his The Ethics of Rhetoric, Weaver coined the phrases "god terms" and "devil terms". "God terms" are words particular to a certain age and are vague, but have "inherent potency" in their meanings. Such words include progress and freedom – words that seem impenetrable and automatically give a phrase positive meaning. In contrast, "devil terms" are the mirror image, and include words such as Communist and Un-American. Rhetoric, Weaver argued, must employ such terminology only with care. Employing ethical rhetoric is the first step towards rejecting vague terminology with propagandistic value. Upon hearing a "god" or "devil" term, Weaver suggested that a listener should "hold a dialectic with himself" to consider the intention behind such persuasive words. He concluded that "a society's health or declension was mirrored in how it used language". If a language is pure, so too will be those who employ it.

Metaphysics
In Ideas Have Consequences, Weaver analyzed William of Occam's 14th century notions of nominalist philosophy. In broad terms, nominalism is the idea that "universals are not real, only particulars". Nominalism deprives people of a measure of universal truth, so that each man becomes his own "priest and ethics professor". Weaver deplored this relativism, and believed that modern men were "moral idiots, ... incapable of distinguishing between better and worse".

Weaver viewed America's moral degradation and turn toward commodity-culture as the unwitting consequences of its belief in nominalism. That is, a civilization that no longer believed in universal transcendental values had no moral ambition to understand a higher truth outside of man. The result was a "shattered world", in which truth was unattainable, and freedom only an illusion. Moreover, without a focus on the sort of higher truth that can be found in organized religions, people turned to the more tangible idols of science and materialism.

Weaver's ideal society was that of the European Middle Ages, when the Roman Catholic Church gave to all an accurate picture of reality and truth. Nominalism emerged in the late Middle Ages and quickly came to dominate Western thinking. More generally, Weaver felt that the shift from universal truth and transcendental order to individual opinion and industrialism adversely affected the moral health of Americans.

Nominalism also undermines the concept of hierarchy, which depends entirely on fundamental truths about people. Weaver, in contrast, believed that hierarchies are necessary. He argued that social, gender, and age-related equality actually undermine stability and order. Believing in "natural social groupings". he claimed that it should be possible to sort people into suitable categories without the envy of equality. Using the hierarchical structure of a family as an example, he thought that family members accept various duties grounded in "sentiment" and "fraternity," not equality and rights. Continuing in this direction, he claimed not to understand the feminist movement, which led women to abandon their stronger connection to nature and intuition for a superficial political and economic equality with men.

Weaver maintained that egalitarianism only promoted "[s]uspicion, hostility, and lack of trust and loyalty". Instead, he believed that there must be a center, a transcendent truth on which people could focus and structure their lives. Contrary to what nominalism would suggest, language can be pinned down, can serve as a foundation through which one can "find real meaning". So, those who do not understand language can never find real meaning, which is inordinately tragic. In Weaver's words, "a world without generalization would be a world without knowledge". Thus universals allow true knowledge.

Influence and legacy
Some regard The Southern Tradition at Bay as Weaver's best work.  Ideas Have Consequences is more widely known, thanks to its substantial influence on the "postwar intellectual Right". The leading young conservative intellectuals of the era, including Russell Kirk, William F. Buckley Jr., and Willmoore Kendall, praised the book for its critical insights. Publisher Henry Regnery claims that the book gave the modern conservative movement a strong intellectual foundation. Frank S. Meyer, a  libertarian theorist of the 1960s – and former Communist Party USA member – publicly thanked Weaver for inspiring him to join the Right.

For many liberals, Weaver was a misguided authoritarian. For many conservatives, he was a champion of tradition and liberty, with the emphasis on tradition. For Southerners, he was a refreshing defender of an "antimodern" South. For others he was a historical revisionist.

His refutation of what Russell Kirk termed "ritualistic liberalism" struck a chord with conservative intellectuals. Stemming from a tradition of "cultural pessimism", his critique of nominalism, however startling, gave conservatives a new philosophical direction. His writing attacked the growing number of modern Americans denying conservative structure and moral uprightness, confronting them with empirical functionalism. During the 1980s, the emerging paleoconservatives adapted his vision of the Old South to express antimodernism. Weaver has come to be seen as defining America's plight and as inspiring conservatives to find "the relationship between faith and reason for an age that does not know the meaning of faith".

Weaver's personal library is kept at Hillsdale College in Hillsdale, Michigan.

See also

 Agrarianism
 Neo-Confederate
 Nominalism
 Paleo-conservatism
 Problem of universals
 Rhetoric

People

 Wendell Berry (b. 1934)
 Donald Davidson (1893-1968)
 Russell Kirk (1918-1994)
 John Crowe Ransom (1888-1974)
 Leo Strauss (1899-1973)
 Eric Voegelin (1901-1985)

Bibliography
 1948. Ideas Have Consequences. Univ. of Chicago Press.
 1985 (1953). The Ethics of Rhetoric. Davis CA: Hermagoras Press.
 1967 (1957). Rhetoric and Composition, 2nd ed. of Composition: A Course in Reading and Writing. Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.
 1995 (1964). Visions of Order: The Cultural Crisis of Our Time. Bryn Mawr PA: ISI Press.
 1965. Life without Prejudice and Other Essays. Chicago: Henry Regnery.
 1989 (1968). The Southern Tradition at Bay, Core, George, and Bradford, M.E., eds. Washington DC: Regnery Gateway.
 1970. Language is Sermonic: R. M. Weaver on the Nature of Rhetoric, Johannesen, R., Strickland, R., and Eubanks, R.T., eds. Louisiana State Univ. Press.
 1987. The Southern Essays of Richard M. Weaver, Curtis, G. M. III, and Thompson, James J. Jr., eds. Indianapolis: Liberty Fund.

References

Further reading
 Drumm, Robert J.  Richard M. Weaver's Approach to Criticism.  A thesis In Communication Studies Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Texas Tech University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master OF Arts.
 Duffy, Bernard K. and Martin Jacobi, 1993.  The Politics of Rhetoric:  Richard Weaver and the Conservative Tradition.  Greenwood Press.
 Johannesen, Richard L.  ″Some Pedagogical Implications of Richard M. Weaver's Views on Rhetoric″.  College Composition and Communication, Vol. 29, No. 3 (Oct., 1978), pp. 272–279.
 Johannesen, Richard L., Rennard Strickland, and Ralph T. Eubanks, 1970. Richard M. Weaver on the Nature of Rhetoric: An Interpretation in Weaver, R. M., Language is Sermonic. Louisiana State University Press: 7-30.
 Nash, George H., 1998, "The Influence of Ideas Have Consequences on the Conservative Intellectual Movement in America," in Smith (1998): 81-124.
 Scotchie, Joseph, ed., 1995. The Vision of Richard Weaver. New Brunswick NJ: Transaction Publishers.
 -------, 1997. Barbarians in the Saddle: An Intellectual Biography of Richard M. Weaver. New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers.
 Smith, Ted J. III et al., eds., 1998. Steps Toward Restoration: The Consequences of Richard Weaver's Ideas. Wilmington DL: Intercollegiate Studies Institute.
 Toledano, Ben C., 1998. "The Ideas of Richard Weaver," in Smith (1998): 256-286.
 Young, Fred Douglas, 1995. Richard Weaver: A Life of the Mind. University of Missouri Press.

External links

Articles and studies
 "Agrarianism" by Ted J. Smith, III. Virginia Viewpoint (July 2002).
 The consequences of Richard Weaver by Roger Kimball.  The New Criterion, (September 2006).
 ″The Critique of Modernity in the Work of Richard M. Weaver″ by Jeffrey B. Gayner.  The Intercollegiate Review, (Spring 1979), pp. 97–104.
 ″The Ethical Approach: the Literary Philosophy of Richard M. Weaver″ by James J. Kirschke. (9 pdfs)
 How to Read Richard Weaver: Philosopher of "We the (Virtuous) People" by Willmoore Kendall, Jr.  The Intercollegiate Review, Vol. 2, No. 1, (September 1965), pp. 77–86.
 Richard Weaver: Ideas Have Consequences by Dr. Enrico Peppe (7 January 2004) No. 21 on Intellectual Conservative's Top 25 Philosophical and Ideological Conservative Books
 Richard Weaver, Intercollegiate Studies Institute, and The Philadelphia Society
 "Richard M. Weaver on Civilization, Ontology, and War" by Joseph Stromberg. (Feb. 27, 2001) antiwar.com
 .  Formerly on the Southern Events website.
 Richard M. Weaver: Philosopher From Dixie. Ideas Have Consequences by Joe Scotchie.  The knowsouthernhistory.net version of this article.
 Richard Weaver: An Appreciation by Frank S. Meyer.  Modern Age, (Summer-Fall 1970), pp. 243–248.
 ″Richard Weaver Revisited: Rhetoric Left, Right, and Middle″ by Roger Gilles. Published in Rhetoric Review, Vol. 15 (Fall 1996), pp. 128–141.
  Touchstone, Nov./Dec. 1998 issue devoted to Richard Weaver's work.
 "Weaver of Liberty" by Joseph Stromberg. (March 6, 2001) Review of the anthology In Defense of Tradition edited by Ted J. Smith, III (1945-2004). Ludwig von Mises Institute.

Works overviews
 Rhetoric | Richard M. Weaver by James M. Tallmon.
 Richard M. Weaver PHILWEB Bibliographical Archive: Theortetical Resources Off- and On-line.

Biographical overviews
 North Carolina History Project : Richard M. Weaver, Jr. (1910-1963) by Troy L. Kickler.
 Richard M. Weaver (1910-1963).  Religion & Liberty, Vol. 13, No. 2.  The Acton Institute for the Study of Religion and Liberty website

Writings by Richard M. Weaver
 Beginning of Ideas Have Consequences
 "Up from Liberalism" (pdf) as it first appeared in the Winter 1958-1959 issue (Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 21–32) of Modern Age.

1910 births
1963 deaths
American literary critics
American political philosophers
American social sciences writers
Auburn University faculty
Harvard University alumni
Louisiana State University alumni
North Carolina State University faculty
Writers from Asheville, North Carolina
People from Asheville, North Carolina
People from Weaverville, North Carolina
Rhetoric theorists
American rhetoricians
Texas A&M University faculty
University of Chicago faculty
University of Kentucky alumni
University of Paris alumni
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20th-century American philosophers
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American male non-fiction writers
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20th-century American male writers
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Richard M. Weaver


Ravensworth was an 18th-century plantation house near Annandale in Fairfax County, Virginia. Ravensworth was the Northern Virginia residence of William Fitzhugh, William Henry Fitzhugh, Mary Lee Fitzhugh Custis, William Henry Fitzhugh Lee and George Washington Custis Lee. It was built in 1796.

Location
Ravensworth was located near Annandale, Virginia, south of Braddock Road, west of the Capital Beltway (Interstate 495).

History

Ravensworth was one of three mansions built on the large Ravensworth land grant; the other two were Ossian Hall and Oak Hill. William Fitzhugh, who owned significant estates in northern Virginia and also served in the Continental Congress and both houses of the Virginia General Assembly, was buried there in 1809. William Fitzhugh also had a townhouse in Alexandria at 607 Oronoco Street in 1799, which his family – in 1818 – lent to their cousin, Anne Hill Carter Lee, widow of Henry "Light Horse Harry" Lee, and her eleven-year-old son, Robert Edward.  Eleven years later, on 26 July 1829, Anne Hill Carter Lee died at Ravensworth.

Ravensworth then passed to Fitzhugh's son William Henry Fitzhugh, who died in 1830. William Henry Fitzhugh's childless widow, Anna Maria Sarah Goldsborough Fitzhugh, ran the estate until her death in 1874.

William Fitzhugh and Ann Bolling Randolph's daughter Mary Lee Fitzhugh married George Washington Parke Custis (Martha Washington's grandson) and became the mistress of Arlington House. Their grandson, Confederate general William Henry Fitzhugh "Rooney" Lee, inherited Ravensworth after the death of his great-aunt and lived there from 1874 until his death in 1891. In 1897 George Washington Custis Lee moved to Ravensworth after resigning as president of Washington and Lee University and lived there until his death in 1913.

When Mary Anna Custis Lee fled Arlington House in May 1861 after the outbreak of the Civil War, she stayed at Ravensworth briefly, but then moved further south for fear of inviting damage to the home.  Both Union and Confederate forces took advantage of resources and location at Ravensworth; during 1863, in addition to Union forces foraging hay, partisan forces commanded by John S. Mosby once slept in a haystack there and at daybreak discovered they were in full view of a Union encampment.  All three of the Fitzhugh estates were protected by orders from both sides throughout the war.

The house mysteriously burned on 1 August 1926.

In 1957, Dr. George Bolling Lee's widow sold the estate for development. That same year the remains from the Fitzhugh family cemetery, including those of William Fitzhugh and his wife, were removed and reinterred at the cemetery of Pohick Church in Lorton. The grounds later became the Ravensworth Farm subdivision, which today is a census-designated place also called Ravensworth. The locality's population as of the 2010 census was 2,466.

See also
 Historic houses in Virginia

References

1796 establishments in Virginia
1926 disestablishments in Virginia
1926 fires in the United States
Annandale, Virginia
Buildings and structures demolished in 1926
Burned houses in the United States
Colonial architecture in Virginia
Custis family residences
Fitzhugh family residences
History of Virginia
Houses completed in 1796
Houses in Fairfax County, Virginia
Landmarks in Virginia
Lee family residences
Plantation houses in Virginia

Ravensworth (plantation)


The Yard is one of the main quadrangles on the campus of Howard University in Northwest Washington, DC. The Yard is the principal open space at the northern end of the academic portion of the campus, flanked by nine academic buildings. It is the site of a variety of campus gatherings, most notably for its annual Homecoming festivities, known as "Yardfest". The quadrangle and three buildings, Andrew Rankin Memorial Chapel, Frederick Douglass Memorial Hall, and Founders Library, are a listed National Historic Landmark, important for their role in the advancement of civil rights in education during the 20th century.

Description
The Yard is located in the northern half of Howard University's campus in Washington, D.C., bounded roughly on the west by 6th Street NW, the east by 5th Street NW, and the south by Howard Place. The southern edge of the Yard directly abuts Howard Place, while it is separated from the other roads by intervening buildings. To the north of the buildings, facing The Yard, lies the school's athletic facilities and some of its residence halls. The Yard is a roughly flat grassy expanse, dotted with trees around its edges, and traversed by an intersecting network of paved paths. At the center of The Yard's northern half, eight paths radiate from a paved circle. A service road runs along the eastern edge of the grass, between it and the flanking buildings.

North side buildings
Two buildings face The Yard from the north.  They are the Ira Aldridge Theatre and  the Chadwick A. Boseman College of Fine Arts. These buildings house a portion of the school's theatrical and arts programs.

East side buildings
Three buildings face The Yard from the east. These three buildings are the Armour J. Blackburn Center, Alain Locke Hall, and the Human Ecology Building.

South side buildings
Facing The Yard, across Howard Place from the south, are the combined Founders and Undergraduate Libraries, along with the Andrew Rankin Chapel. Rankin Chapel, built in 1894, is the school's main religious meeting place. Founders Library, built in 1939, has historically housed the Howard University School of Law and its law library.

West side buildings
There are two buildings on the west side of The Yard. The Carnegie Building, built in 1910,  which houses classrooms and offices, and the Douglass Memorial Hall, built in 1935, which houses classrooms as well.

Historic significance
Three of the four buildings on the south and west sides of The Yard are historically significant for the role they played in the legal school desegregation battles of the 20th century. Howard's law school was the epicenter where the legal strategies were formulated, leading to the landmark Brown v. Board of Education Supreme Court case. This legal work often took place in Founders Library. Research in support of this work often took place in departments located in Douglass Memorial Hall. In addition, Rankin Chapel was the site of conferences held to discuss ongoing legal challenges. As a group, these three buildings, along with the Carnegie Building and the quadrangle itself, was declared a U.S. National Historic Landmark in 2001.

See also
General Oliver Otis Howard House
List of National Historic Landmarks in Washington, D.C.
National Register of Historic Places listings in the upper NW Quadrant of Washington, D.C.

References

External links

Andrew Rankin Memorial Chapel, Frederick Douglass Memorial Hall, Founders Library on Google Street View

Monuments and memorials on the National Register of Historic Places in Washington, D.C.
Properties of religious function on the National Register of Historic Places in Washington, D.C.
Historic American Buildings Survey in Washington, D.C.
Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Washington, D.C.
National Historic Landmarks in Washington, D.C.
Howard University

The Yard (Howard University)


Friedrich Wilhelm Freiherr von Seydlitz (3 February 1721 – 8 November 1773) was a Prussian officer, lieutenant general, and among the greatest of the Prussian cavalry generals.  He commanded one of the first Hussar squadrons of Frederick the Great's army and is credited with the development of the Prussian cavalry to its efficient level of performance in the Seven Years' War. His cavalryman father retired and then died while Seydlitz was still young. Subsequently, he was mentored by Margrave Frederick William of Brandenburg-Schwedt. Seydlitz's superb horsemanship and his recklessness combined to make him a stand-out subaltern, and he emerged as a redoubtable Rittmeister (cavalry captain) in the War of Austrian Succession (1740–1748) during the First and Second Silesian Wars.

Seydlitz became legendary throughout the Prussian Army both for his leadership and for his reckless courage. During the Seven Years' War, he came into his own as a cavalry general, known for his coup d'œil, his ability to assess at a glance the entire battlefield situation and to understand intuitively what needed to be done: he excelled at converting the King's directives into flexible tactics. At the Battle of Rossbach, his cavalry was instrumental in routing the French and Imperial armies. His cavalry subsequently played an important role in crushing the Habsburg and Imperial left flank at the Battle of Leuthen. Seydlitz was wounded in battle several times. After the Battle of Kunersdorf in August 1759, he semi-retired to recover from his wounds, charged with the protection of the city of Berlin.  He was not healthy enough to campaign again until 1761.

Frederick rewarded him with Order of the Black Eagle on the field after the Battle of Rossbach; he had already received the Pour le Mérite for his action at the Battle of Kolin. Although estranged from Frederick for several years, the two were reconciled during Seydlitz's final illness. Seydlitz died in 1773, and Frederick's heirs included his name on the Equestrian statue of Frederick the Great in Berlin, in a place of honor.

Early life
Seydlitz was born on 3 February 1721, in Kalkar in the Duchy of Cleves, where his father, Daniel Florian von Seydlitz, was a major of Prussian cavalry with the Cuirassier Regiment Markgraf Friedrich Wilhelm of Brandenburg-Schwedt No. 5. In 1726, his father left military service and moved the family to Schwedt, where he became a forestry master in East Prussia; the senior Seydlitz died in 1728, leaving a widow and children in restricted financial circumstances. Limited schooling was available to young Seydlitz; sources differ whether he knew how to speak and write in French, the lingua franca of Frederick the Great's Court. One biographer, Bernhard von Poten, maintained that his German was good, and if he knew French, he preferred German and wrote it with a "fine, firm hand, unusually correct, in well-formed sentences and with apt expression," and he knew enough Latin to express himself well.  His future sovereign, Frederick, always addressed him in German.

By Seydlitz's seventh year, he could ride a horse well, raced with older boys, and he was, by most accounts, a wild and high-spirited child.  At the age of fourteen he went as a page to the court of the Margrave Frederick Wilhelm of Brandenburg-Schwedt, who had been his father's colonel. The Margrave was a grandson of the Great Elector, and a nephew to both Frederick I of Prussia and Leopold of Anhalt Dessau. Himself a reckless man, the "Mad" Margrave inspired in young Seydlitz a passion for feats of daredevil horsemanship.  Seydlitz did not limit this passion to horses: the Margrave once dared him to ride a wild stag, which he did. Seydlitz became a skilled horseman, and many stories tell of his feats, the best known of which involved riding between the sails of a windmill in full swing. Seydlitz remained in his position as a page to the Margrave until King Frederick William appointed him as cornet in the Margrave's Cuirassier Regiment No. 5 (his father's old regiment) on 13 February 1740.

Military career

Seydlitz's first months as a cornet were made difficult by the regimental colonel, who considered him a spy for the Margrave, and abused him by sending him on useless errands and generally making it clear that the cornet was no match for the colonel. Within a year of Seydlitz's commission, the old King Frederick William died and his son, Frederick II of Prussia, ascended to the throne.  Frederick claimed Silesia from the Habsburg's Maria Theresa, and made a broad appeal to arms.  The Margrave's regiment played an important role in the ensuing war, during which Seydlitz came to the notice of the King several times. Once, when Frederick asked the caliber of the artillery shelling the Prussian line, opinions were divided and vague. Seydlitz rode in front of the battery, halting in their line of fire. When he saw a ball hit the ground, he picked it up, wrapped it in his handkerchief and presented it to the King.

In May 1742, while stationed with his regiment in Kranowitz during the First Silesian War, the regimental colonel ordered him to take 30 men and hold a village post until infantry came to his assistance; despite heavy fire, the grudging colonel did not send reinforcements.  Realizing what had happened, the brigade's general took three squadrons of heavy cavalry to relieve Seydlitz, but these were turned back by fire from the Austrian line. Subsequently, Seydlitz was forced to surrender his small unit. He entered into Austrian captivity with several of his closest comrades, including Charles de Warnery.

Frederick exchanged an Austrian captain for Cornet Seydlitz. Upon his return from captivity, Seydlitz had a choice to wait for the first lieutenancy that became available in a cuirassier regiment, or take the immediate command of a troop of hussars, as a captain.  Hussars were the newest form of service in the Prussian army, and not as prestigious an assignment as cuirassiers, but Seydlitz chose the immediate promotion to a lesser unit.  In 1743, the King made him a Rittmeister (captain) in the 4th Hussars. He entirely skipped the rank of lieutenant.  With the 4th Hussars, he was stationed in the city of Trebnitz and he brought his squadron to a state of conspicuous efficiency.

In August 1744, the King entered Bohemia, took Prague, and then moved south. Lieutenant General Count Nassau led the vanguard, and Seydlitz participated with the Natzmer Hussars, commanded by Major Hans Heinrich Adam Schütz, a violent man of whose conduct of warfare Seydlitz disapproved. Seydlitz served through the Second Silesian War. On 22 May, Hans Karl von Winterfeldt, trusted by the King as a good judge of character, reported to Frederick: "Certainly, at Hohenfriedberg, on the 4 June, [Seydlitz] captured the Saxon general [Georg Sigismund] von Schlichting personally, after he had cut the reins from him." Based largely on his conduct at Hohenfriedberg and Winterfeldt's recommendation, Frederick promoted Seydlitz to major on 28 July at the unusually young age of twenty-four.

Seydlitz led his squadron at the Battle of Soor on 30 September, scouting the enemy's position before the battle, and then participating in the action.  He was also present in the engagement at Katholisch-Hennersdorf on 23 November, which proved convincingly to Frederick the benefit of close support during a cavalry charge. At the successful action on 27 November, Seydlitz led 15 squadrons in an attack on the Austrian rear guard. The Austrians were dispersed and nearly destroyed.

Development of cavalry tactics

After Frederick concluded the peace on 25 December 1748, Seydlitz returned with his squadron to Trebnitz. In the subsequent years of peace, Seydlitz developed flexible cavalry tactics. He assembled a plan on tactical form and training for the Prussian cavalry and presented it to the King.  Frederick approved the procedures and Seydlitz established a rigorous training program. He would leave his own estate by jumping the gate; he required similar horsemanship from all his men, regardless of whether they were cuirassiers, hussars or dragoons. They had to be capable of galloping across broken fields, wheeling in formation, and riding in close action. Furthermore, they had to be prepared to support any movement of infantry, or to react to any action from the enemy. Under Seydlitz's direction, possibly influenced by the ideas of Frederik Sirtema van Grovestins, Prussian cavalry learned to use only their swords, as pistols or carbines could not be fired with accuracy and had to be reloaded. Frederick set up straw dummies for his troopers to shoot; their shots were woefully inaccurate, but Seydlitz's tactics demonstrated that the troopers could hit their target with a sword every time. Generally, cavalry horses were the sturdy warm-blood Trakehners, from Frederick's stud farm in Trakenhen, East Prussia.

On 21 September 1752, after a successful review in which the different cavalry forms demonstrated their competencies, the King promoted Seydlitz to lieutenant colonel and the commander-in-chief of cavalry and, on 13 October of the same year, to the commander of the Dragoon Regiment Württemberg No. 12, whose staff was at Treptow. Frederick was not satisfied with the regiment's performance, and instructed Seydlitz to "put it back into order". In 1753 Frederick appointed Seydlitz to the command of the 8th Cuirassiers. In Seydlitz's hands, this regiment soon became a model for the rest of the Prussian Army's mounted force. In 1755 Frederick promoted him to colonel.

By the start of the Seven Years' War, Seydlitz's transformed cavalry had become Frederick's pride and joy: it had unrivaled training and an esprit de corps bolstered by Frederick's confidence in its members, and by their confidence in Seydlitz. The King had issued orders that no Prussian cavalryman would allow himself to be attacked without a commensurate response, under penalty of being cashiered; consequently, Prussian cavalrymen were active, impetuous and aggressive. For the King, Seydlitz's cavalry became the dynamic factor in the army of the state, and would be the tool by which Frederick could challenge empires. In 1756, Seydlitz's cavalry became Frederick's weapon of choice.

Seven Years' War

In May 1757, in defiance of the custom of holding the heavy cavalry in reserve, Seydlitz brought his regiment forward to join the advance guard at the Battle of Prague. Here he nearly lost his life attempting to ride through a marshy pool; his horse became stuck in quicksand and his troopers pulled him away. At the Prussian loss at Kolin in June 1757, he and a cavalry brigade checked the Austrian pursuit by a brilliant charge. Two days later, the King promoted him to major general and awarded him the Pour le Mérite. Seydlitz felt he had deserved the promotion for a long time, for he responded to Hans Joachim von Zieten's congratulations by saying, "It was high time, Excellency, if they wanted more work out of me. I am already thirty-six."

Another example of his leadership and his coup d'œil, the ability to see at a glance what needed to be done, occurred after the Battle of Kolin. The loss at Kolin forced the King to lift the siege at Prague. The King's brother, Augustus William, took command of the army and ordered the retreat from Prague. Seydlitz was attached to the advanced corps of Karl Christoph von Schmettau in a brigade of ten squadrons. As Seydlitz's wing entered Lusatia, near the town of Zittau, the Austrians were present in force, and Seydlitz with his squadrons were trapped in the town. Tricking the Austrians into thinking his troop was a foraging party, his cavalry burst on the Austrian cavalry before they could climb into their saddles. Seydlitz led his cavalry in an escape, in close column, and was quickly out of sight.

Battle of Rossbach
On the morning of the Battle of Rossbach, Frederick passed over two senior generals and placed Seydlitz in command of the whole of the cavalry, much to those men's annoyance and to Seydlitz's satisfaction. At Rossbach, Seydlitz's coup d'œil and his understanding of the King's objectives led to battlefield success.  After positioning the cavalry in two ranked lines, he watched the French army move for several minutes, while puffing on his pipe; his troopers never took their eyes off him.  When he threw his pipe away, this was the signal they had waited for: the first line of massed squadrons surged forward, smashing the unprepared French in the flank. Typically, cavalry action in the mid-eighteenth century meant a single cavalry charge; the cavalry would spend the rest of the action pursuing fleeing troops. At Rossbach, though, not content with this single attack, Seydlitz called his second formation of squadrons in another charge; he then withdrew all 38 squadrons into a copse, where they regrouped under cover of the trees.  Without waiting for new orders from the King, Seydlitz deployed the Prussian cavalry a third time; this proved a critical factor in the battle. As trained, Seydlitz's squadrons charged headlong into the French columns: a massive wall of horses galloping flank to flank, their riders flashing swords and maneuvering at full speed. By the end of the battle, only seven infantry battalions of Frederick's army had fired a shot; the rest of the victory had been the work of Seydlitz's 38 squadrons and Karl Friedrich von Moller's artillery.

That day, the Prussians took as trophies 72 cannons (62 percent of the French/Imperial artillery), seven flags, and 21 standards. With some 3,500 horsemen and 20 cannons, plus a portion of Prince Henry's regiment of infantry, the Prussian army had defeated the combined armies of two European powers, France and the Holy Roman Empire. The tactics at Rossbach became a landmark in the history of military art. The same night, on the field, the King awarded Seydlitz the Order of the Black Eagle, and promoted him to lieutenant general. Seydlitz had been wounded during the melée and he remained out of action for four months, nursed by a lady in Leipzig.

Campaign 1758–59
Seydlitz rejoined the King in 1758 and on 25 August, at the Battle of Zorndorf, Seydlitz's cavalry again secured the victory. He led thirty-six squadrons into a mass of Russian cavalry mingled with infantry. This charge broke the Russian right wing and sent them running for the woods. At the Prussian debacle at Hochkirch, on 14 October 1758, he covered the Prussian retreat with 108 squadrons, and in the disaster of Kunersdorf, on 12 August 1759, he received another severe wound in a hopeless attempt to storm a hill held by the Russians; his 8th Cuirassiers was one of the few intact regiments at the end of the battle. While recuperating in Berlin, he helped organize a defense of the city during the Austro-Russian raid (October 1760). Although he was unable to prevent the Russians from briefly occupying the city, Frederick later praised Seydlitz for his conduct.

Seydlitz's health frequently kept him off the battlefield, and he did not reappear at the front until 1761. Then, he received command of a wing of Prince Henry's army, composed of troops of all arms, and many of his fellow officers expressed doubts as to his fitness for this command, as his service had been with the cavalry exclusively. Subsequently, though, at Freiberg on 29 October 1762, his direction of both his infantry and his cavalry in turn decided the outcome of the battle.

Later life

After the Seven Years' War concluded with the Treaty of Hubertusburg (1763), Seydlitz became inspector general of the cavalry in Silesia, where eleven regiments were permanently stationed and where Frederick sent all his most promising officers to be trained. In 1767, Frederick promoted Seydlitz to general of cavalry.

Seydlitz's later years were marred by domestic unhappiness. During his convalescence in Berlin, on 18 April 1761, he had married Susannah Johanna Albertine Hacke, daughter of Hans Christoph Friedrich Graf von Hacke, and she was eventually unfaithful to him, reportedly due to the syphilis from which he had suffered for decades.  He had at least one daughter, according to an early biographer, Anton König, and two according to another biographer, Robert Lawley. The oldest daughter married first to an official from Breslau, and was divorced.  She married second to a Polish count, and divorced soon after. She eventually converted to Catholicism, but died in a madhouse in Brieg. The youngest lived to old age and died in poverty near Lausitz.

By the end of the decade, some misunderstanding brought an end to his formerly close friendship with the King. Seydlitz's health had been declining for years and he suffered from recurrent bouts of syphilis; in 1772, after an attack of apoplexy, he completed a couple of stays at the spa at Carlsbad to take the mineral waters. While these helped somewhat, his other activities continued without moderation, and to his detriment. A subordinate brought him two healthy Circassian beauties, whose company he enjoyed but who undoubtedly stressed his tenuous health. In August 1773, in his last illness, Frederick and Seydlitz met again at Seydlitz's home at Minkovsky near Ohlau (now Oława, Poland). The King sat beside his sickbed, horrified at Seydlitz's condition, and even persuaded him to take some of his medications, but Seydlitz would not look at him; the illness had already deformed his face.  Eventually paralyzed, whether from another stroke or the underlying tertiary syphilis, Seydlitz died at Ohlau in Silesia in November 1773.

Character
Seydlitz was generally admired for the superb coup d'œil that allowed him to utilize the cavalry to its full potential. His 19th-century biographer, K. A. Varnhagen von Ense, related that Seydlitz lived above all for the service, and promoted the training of his hussars before all else. According to Anton Balthasar König, who wrote in 1780–1790, Seydlitz performed best at taverns and excelled in practical jokes: one would gather that Seydlitz was a drunkard, a rake, and a savage, but another of his biographers, Bernhard von Poten, cited conflicting descriptions offered by Seydlitz's contemporaries, particularly Warnery, as more accurate. Nevertheless, there is some evidence to support König's assertion, at least of Seydlitz's excesses: Seydlitz was no doubt dependent upon his tobacco and had been since his teenage years, although he smoked a pipe rather than using snuff, as many officers did; he was indeed reckless, as his career testified; he enjoyed the company of women; and Seydlitz indeed suffered from recurring illness.

Memorials

In 1851, Frederick William IV, Frederick's great-great nephew, included Seydlitz's name on the Equestrian statue of Frederick the Great in Berlin, honoring those who had helped to build the Prussian state.  Seydlitz holds a position of honor as one of the four full-sized mounted figures, sharing the first tier of the plinth with the King's brother, his cousin, and Hans Joachim von Zieten. A bronze sculpture installed at Wilhelmplatz, in Berlin, was created by Anton Lulvès, a copper worker from Hamburg. , representing the first generation of battlecruisers, was ordered in 1910 and commissioned in May 1913, the fourth such vessel built for the Imperial German Navy's High Seas Fleet. The heavy cruiser , of the , was launched in 1939, but never completed.

References

Notes

Citations

Resources

Further reading

External links

 Google Maps. Seydlitz Strasse in Reichertswerben. April 2017.
 Reichertswerben village. 03. – 05. November 2017, Biwak in Reichardtswerben, anlässlich des 260. Jahrestages der Schlacht bei Roßbach, Diorama. Accessed 8 November 2017.

1721 births
1773 deaths
Barons of Germany
Cavalry commanders
Deaths from syphilis
Generals of Cavalry (Prussia)
Military personnel from North Rhine-Westphalia
People from Kleve (district)
People from the Duchy of Cleves
People of the Silesian Wars
Prussian military personnel of the Seven Years' War
Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (military class)

Friedrich Wilhelm von Seydlitz


Marion Studholme (27 June 1927 – 6 January 2016) was an English soprano, best known for her performances with Sadler's Wells Opera Company, and as a regular performer on the popular BBC radio programme Friday Night is Music Night.

Studholme was born in Blackpool; her parents were John Studholme, a water board engineer, and his wife Daisy. She was educated at Childwall Valley High School, and then studied under Rodolfo Mele at the Royal College of Music. After completing her studies, she joined the chorus of Sadler's Wells Opera and was soon taking leading roles, such as Lucinda in School for Fathers by Ermanno Wolf-Ferrari. She later became a teacher at the Royal College of Music.

In 1952 she married Andrew Downie, who had been a fellow student at the Royal College of Music. They performed together in several productions of Gilbert & Sullivan operettas, directed by Tyrone Guthrie. They had two sons.

Marion Studholme made few recordings. One was the 1959 Decca recording of Benjamin Britten's Peter Grimes, conducted by the composer himself, in which she sang the role of "Niece 1".  Another was as Yum-Yum in The Mikado, conducted by Alexander Faris. On television she played Mabel Stanley in The Pirates of Penzance, Josephine in HMS Pinafore (1960–62)  and as "Molly" in an adaptation of Die Fledermaus (1950). Her husband Andrew Downie had a long career as a television actor, and died in 2009.

References

1927 births
2016 deaths
English sopranos
People educated at Childwall Valley High School for Girls

Marion Studholme


"I Luv You HB" Demos are a collection of demos from I Love You, Honeybear. The cassette-only release features different track names than the final release and also a cover of a Cass McCombs track exclusively to "I Luv You HB" Demos. The EP was given away free with the pre-orders of the Sub Pop CD and LP edition while supplies lasted as well as with some of the Bella Union CD and LP releases for the UK and Ireland.

Track listing
 I Luv U Honeybear
 Chateau/First Time
 True Affection
 Smiling/Astride Me
 Strange Encounter
 "Past Is A Nightmare I'm Trying To Wake Up From"
 Bored In The USA
 Went To The Store
 Nobody's Nixon (Cass McCombs)

References

Josh Tillman albums
2015 EPs
Demo albums

"I Luv You HB" Demos


The St Helens & District Football Combination was an English football league based in St Helens, Merseyside.

History
The league was formed on 4 August 1917 when Ernest Worrall distributed notices to several of his friends & colleagues calling a meeting in the old LMS Club now known as The British Rail Club, Penlake Lane, Sutton. A league was formed but was initially known as The St Helens & District Junior Football League. The officers were Harry Thompson (Chairman), John Marsh (President) & Ernest Worrall (Gen Secretary).

The League Championship Cup dates back to the year 1917 but in 1919, Mr John Martin, a town centre hairdresser, presented the "Martin Cup" to the league. This Cup competition became immediately very popular especially in the 1930-1940 period when crowd numbers reached 3000-4000.

In 1921, a restructure of the divisions resulted in the division 1 clubs being formed into the St Helens "Senior" league and a further amalgamation saw Div1 and Div2 clubs having sections A & B thus forming the combination of sections. At the end of the 1921/22 season following a special meeting it was decided to run the league similar to that of the neighbouring Lancashire Alliance thus the St Helens and & District Junior League now became The St Helens & District Football Combination to commence in "March 1923". Running parallel with the Combination in the late 1920s and throughout the 1930s and early 1940s was the Sunday School League in which the majority of the church clubs took part.

Clubs in the Sunday School League played for the Hewitt Cup (origin unknown) and players received a silver and enamel medal.

When that league finished clubs like Holy Cross and Holy Trinity eventually joined the combination.

In 1926 the Hospitals Charity Cup was introduced and is now the Combinations main cup competition and played for in open tournament for all combination clubs. In 1926 the Rainford Potteries Company donated to the Rainford Potteries Cup which at present is at temporary retirement. The DH Griffiths & Tom Worrall cup (1933) is the present Divisional Cups played for to coincide into an end of season final.

In the 1930s the most popular cup venue was Peasley Cross Rec, but since the loss of the ground due to industrial building several well-known venues were used; e.g. British Rail, (Penlake Sutton), Beecham's (Sutton Road), Greenall Whitley (Alder Hey Road) and at each ground, the attendance was outstanding. Finally at the eventual loss of these grounds the Hospital Cup Final which had become the Combination's F.A. Cup was held at St Helens Town Hoghton Road, but sadly, as progress is inevitable the "Town Ground" is no longer available, but up to the present moment Prescot Cables have come to the rescue and the Hospital Cup Final at Valerie Park Prescot has now become a very popular venue.

Going back to the pre-war years many talented clubs have graced the local Pitches. Names Like, British Sidac, Greenalls FC, Haydock C&B Recs, Haydock Villa (who in 1937/38 won 5 Trophies), Derbyshire Hill Rovers, Holy Cross, Holy Trinity, Beechams and Pilkingtons to name but a few. Even during the war years, football still was organised by the Combination, but only with a struggle as it was dramatically short of clubs and players. League rules were annulled so a "Home Guard" section was formed to accommodate up to eight clubs at one spell, following the World War II things got back to normal. Alf Moran was a long serving Chairman with popular secretary Jock Craig, the President was Tom Gordon MBE. Other officials to the present day, as Ernie Worrall, the Combination founder said, the four stalwarts of any league were. President, Chairman, Secretary and Treasurer, many well-known local figures have filled these roles over the years namely Presidents: John Marsh, Hugh Collins, Harry Wimpenny, Tom Gordon, Gerald Seddon and Latterly Bert Rawsthorne. Chairmen have included Harry Thompson, Arthur Fenton, Gus Atkins, Alf Moran, Gil Ryan, and the present incumbent Eric Bond. The job of Secretary, never easy, has been magnificently carried out by Ernie Worrall, Peter Smith, E Bradbury, R Williams, Ernie Baines, Jim Craig, David Watkins & the final secretary Robert Deakin. Treasurers have included W Leyland, Roddie Winstanley, Harry Wimpenny, John May, Jim Craig, J Dutton, Gil Ryan, Derek Roughley and the last man in office Derek Cleveland.

Final Seasons

The Combination which comprised 15 clubs at end went from strength to strength since its formation, well over three quarters of a century ago to eventually decline, folding in 2016 due to lack of teams. It helped hundreds of young, and not so young footballers to get their feet on the ladders to success and is a perfect example of the well-known phrase:
"GRASS ROOTS FOOTBALL."

Its clubs have won Liverpool County FA & Lancashire County FA Cup Competitions. Its Youth and Open Age Inter League sides, have lifted Liverpool County FA & Lancashire County FA Trophies and a number of players have gone on to tread the holy grounds of the football league and in some cases the world.

During the 2010–2011 season, Division Two club Mere recorded an unbeaten campaign, in their debut season in the St Helens Combination. After playing twenty games, their record was nineteen wins, one draw and no losses, scoring exactly one hundred goals in the process. An achievement never attained by any other club in the history of the league.

Knowsley South were treble winners in the 2010–2011 season.

Winners of the Premier Division for 2015–2016 were New Street Reserves.

Winners of Division One for 2015–2016 were Cheshire Lines Reserves.

When the league folded some clubs transferred to the Warrington & District Football League.

Famous past players

Sammy Lynn, Bert Redwood, Bill Foulkes, Tommy O'Neil (Manchester United), Derek Hennin (Bolton Wanderers), Ray Ranson, Gary Owen (Manchester City), John Connelly (Burnley and Manchester United), Eric Moore (Everton), Bill Pilling, Alan A'Court (Liverpool), Geoff Nulty (Everton & Newcastle United), Mick Davock, Jim (Packy) Morris (Stockport County), John Quinn (Sheffield Wednesday), Mark Harris (Wrexham) and Jay Parker (Chelsea 'B').

Clubs

Premier Division
 Boilermakers Arms
 Clock Face Miners
 New Street Reserves
 Old Mill
 Parr Conservative
 Prescot Sun Inn
 Tanner Athletic
 West Park

First Division
 Bold Rangers
 Cheshire Lines Reserves
 Ecclesfield FC
 Manor Athletic
 Rockware
 Sutton Junction
 West Park Reserves

References
 Official Site

Football Combination
Football leagues in England
Sports leagues established in 1917
1917 establishments in England


Venom is an supervillain turned-antihero appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics, as well as in the Spider-Man franchise. He is one of Spider-Man's archenemies later turned rival. The name has belonged to several different hosts over the years, which means that Venom is indeed the identity of this particular alien Symbiote. One of the most known versions of the character is Eddie Brock. The Symbiote named itself Venom and considered itself as a venom for Spider-Man.

Marvel Comics characters

Venom (character)


Juan Ramón Rivas Contreras (born March 16, 1966) is a Puerto Rican retired professional basketball player, and sports color commentator. Rivas was the third player from Puerto Rico to play in the NBA (after Butch Lee and José Ortiz), and half of the first duo of Puerto Ricans to be active in the NBA simultaneously (with Ortiz). Rivas has played in the NBA, NCAA Division I, and in the Puerto Rican National Superior League (BSN), with the Carolina Giants.

Rivas also played internationally, in Spain, Greece, and Italy. Rivas was also a member of the senior Puerto Rican National Basketball Team for several years.  He represented Puerto Rico at the following tournaments: the 1986 FIBA World Championship, in Málaga, Spain; the 1988 Summer Olympic Games, in Seoul, South Korea; the 1990 FIBA World Championship, in Buenos Aires, Argentina; the 1992 Summer Olympic Games, in Barcelona, Spain; and the 1996 Summer Olympics, in Atlanta, United States.

Biography

Early years
As a youngster, Rivas played at The San Juan Y.M.C.A, for Millin Romero. He progressed through Carolina's minor basketball tournaments, becoming one of the best centers in Puerto Rico, while he played for Levittown's Pedro Albizu Campos High School's team. Flor Melendez took note of his progress, and signed him to play for the Carolina Giants, of Puerto Rico's top-tier level league, the BSN. That year he was selected BSN Rookie of the Year.

The changes on the Carolina Giants were evident, when Rivas joined the team: From being one of the worst teams in the league, during the 1983 tournament, they got better every year. In 1987, the team almost reached the BSN playoffs, and, in 1988, the team finally reached the BSN playoffs, for the first time, having the best record in the regular season (1989 Regular Season: PPG.24.4, Reb.17.4 in 30 games).

College career
Rivas attended Temple University, where he played NCAA Division I college basketball with the Temple Owls, from 1984 to 1988, going on four occasions to the NCAA post season tournament. He was coached by Hall of Fame head coach John Chaney. Temple was ranked 1st in the nation in his senior year, with a record of 34 wins and 2 losses. Playing with the Owls helped him gain experience, and improve his game in the NCAA. He became well-known in the United States, as a center who could score points, and rebound in double figures, and was a respected player among his peers.

Professional career

Signed by the NBA
Thanks to his notable NCAA Division I college basketball career, the Boston Celtics announced that they would sign Rivas for a full season, towards the end of the 1988 Summer Olympic Games, in Seoul. Having coincided with José Ortiz's signing by the Utah Jazz two weeks prior, Rivas' signing by the Celtics was a cause of great celebration for Puerto Ricans, many of whom felt their efforts in basketball were finally being recognized by the NBA.

With the Celtics, Rivas had the opportunity to share playing time alongside Larry Bird, Kevin McHale, Dennis Johnson, Robert Parish, Reggie Lewis, and Brian Shaw, among others. The Celtics reached the playoffs, by beating the Washington Bullets by two games, for the eighth and final playoff spot in the NBA east that year, but were swept in three games, by the eventual champion Detroit Pistons, in the playoffs' first round.

Because of his height, Rivas had to change playing positions when he arrived to the Celtics, going from playing center in Puerto Rico, to power forward in Boston.

After that season with the Celtics, he came back to Puerto Rico, and received his first Puerto Rican League MVP honor, while playing for the Carolina Giants. That summer, he was signed by a basketball club in Spain, called Taugrés, which became his home for the next 7 years.

Europe
Rivas played for Taugrés in the Spanish League from 1989 until 1996, winning the Spanish King's Cup in 1995. He arrived with the Vitorian team to the FIBA European Cup (later called FIBA Saporta Cup) Finals in three consecutive years (1994, 1995, 1996) finally winning it in the 1995–96 season, against Peja Stojaković's team PAOK, and becoming the Finals MVP, with 32 points and 15 rebounds. In the 1996–97 season, he won the Spanish league with FC Barcelona and also finished runner-up of the 1996–97 FIBA EuroLeague, losing to Olympiacos from Greek Basket League. The following season went to Athens to play for AEK of Giannis Ioannidis, one of the biggest clubs in Greece, and played in another EuroLeague Final (1997–98 FIBA EuroLeague) against Ettore Messina's Kinder Bologna. In 1998, he went back to Spain, for his final year with the club Cáceres. In 1999, he played in Italy for the club Fabriano.

National team career
Rivas represented Puerto Rico, as a member of the senior Puerto Rican national basketball team, at the 1988 Summer Olympic Games, in Seoul, South Korea, the 1992 Summer Olympic Games, held at Barcelona, Spain, and the 1996 Summer Olympic Games, held in Atlanta. He also won the gold medal at the 1991 Pan American Games, and he also played at the 1986 FIBA World Championship, and the 1990 FIBA World Championship.

Sports commentator
Rivas worked for the Orlando Magic for 9 years, as a sports broadcasting color analyst, and for 5 years, for Fox Sports in Spanish. He worked as a TV sports color analyst at the Summer Olympic Games of Beijing 2008, and the Summer Olympic Games of London 2012, next to Edgar Lopez, for NBC Telemundo.

References

External links
acb.com
baskonia.com
nba.com
basketballreference.com
basket-stats.info
basketball-reference.com
puertorico-herald.org

1966 births
Living people
1986 FIBA World Championship players
AEK B.C. players
Baloncesto Superior Nacional players
Basketball players at the 1988 Summer Olympics
Basketball players at the 1992 Summer Olympics
Basketball players at the 1996 Summer Olympics
Boston Celtics players
Centers (basketball)
Liga ACB players
National Basketball Association broadcasters
Olympic basketball players for Puerto Rico
Sportspeople from Carolina, Puerto Rico
Power forwards (basketball)
Puerto Rican men's basketball players
1990 FIBA World Championship players
Puerto Rico men's national basketball team players
Puerto Rican expatriate sportspeople in Spain
Saski Baskonia players
Spanish men's basketball players
Temple Owls men's basketball players
Undrafted National Basketball Association players
Gigantes de Carolina basketball players

Ramón Rivas


Isabela Garcia Costa (born June 11, 1967 in Rio de Janeiro) is a Brazilian actress.

Because of her incredible resemblance to Shirley Temple in her childhood years, Garcia was evidently destined to be an actress. At just four years she made her debut in a telenovela. In 1976 it appeared for the first time on the big screen. 1980 was the year of the debut of Isabela, in the telenovela Água Viva, where she played Maria Helena, the tender orphan girl of a mother who enters the lives of all the characters of the story. Garcia was the daughter of a radio actor.

In 1986 she was in the cast of Anos Dourados and Roda de Fogo. In Bebê a Bordo, Isabela played the lead, Ana. The novel was a great success and the actress was the highlight of the year 1988. In the following novels, O Sexo dos Anjos (1989) and Lua Cheia de Amor (1990), Isabela played leading paerts.

In 1993, she played the villain Lúcia Guerra in Sonho Meu. In the miniseries Labirinto, 1998, her character was the fun Yoyô socialite. In 2003, Isabela returned to be in evidence with the character Eliete, of Celebridade.

In 2007, Isabela won the Friends of Best Supporting Actress Award for her performance in the novel Paraíso Tropical. In 2012 he acted in Lado a Lado.

Isabela is the daughter of Dirce Prieto and of the radioactor Gilberto Garcia, who died in 1996. She has three brothers Gilberto, Ricardo and Rosana Garcia, actress, performer of the famous Narizinho of Sítio do Picapau Amarelo.

She has four children.

References

Other websites

1967 births
Living people
Brazilian television actors
Brazilian movie actors
Brazilian stage actors
Actors from Rio de Janeiro

Isabela Garcia