Human relations movement refers to the researchers of organizational development who study the behaviour of people in groups, particularly in workplace groups and other related concepts in fields such as industrial and organizational psychology. It originated in the 1930s' Hawthorne studies, which examined the effects of social relations, motivation and employee satisfaction on factory productivity. The movement viewed workers in terms of their psychology and fit with companies, rather than as interchangeable parts, and it resulted in the creation of the discipline of human relations management.

Mayo's work
Elton Mayo stressed the following:
 The power of natural groups, in which social aspects take precedence over functional organizational structures.
 The need for reciprocal communication, in which communication is two way, from worker to chief executive, as well as vice versa.
 The development of high quality leadership to communicate goals and to ensure effective and coherent decision making.

It has become a concern of  all many companies to improve the job-oriented interpersonal skills of employees. The teaching of these skills to employees is referred to as "soft skills" training. Companies need their employees to be able to successfully communicate and convey information, to be able to interpret others' emotions, to be open to others' feelings, and to be able to solve conflicts and arrive at resolutions. By acquiring these skills, the employees, those in management positions, and the customer can maintain more compatible relationships.

Arguments against Mayo's involvement in human relations

Mayo's work is considered by various academics to be the basic  counterpoint of Taylorism and scientific management. Taylorism, founded by Frederick W. Taylor, sought to apply science to the management of employees in the workplace in order to gain economic efficiency through labour productivity. Elton Mayo's work has been widely attributed to the discovery of the 'social person', allowing for workers to be seen as individuals rather than merely robots designed to work for unethical and unrealistic productivity expectations. However, this theory has been contested, as Mayo's purported role in the human relations movement has been questioned. Nonetheless, although Taylorism attempted to justify scientific management as a holistic philosophy, rather than a set of principles, the human relations movement worked parallel to the notion of scientific management. Its aim was to address the social welfare needs of workers and therefore elicit their co-operation as a workforce.

The widely perceived view of human relations is said to be one that completely contradicts the traditional views of Taylorism. Whilst scientific management tries to apply science to the workforce, the accepted definition of human relations suggests that management should treat workers as individuals, with individual needs. In doing so, employees are supposed to gain an identity, stability within their job and job satisfaction, which in turn make them more willing to co-operate and contribute their efforts towards accomplishing organisational goals. The human relations movement supported the primacy of organizations to be attributed to natural human groupings, communication and leadership. However, the conventional depiction of the human relations 'school' of management, rising out of the ashes of scientific management is argued to be a rhetorical distortion of events.

Firstly, it has been argued that Elton Mayo's actual role in the human relations movement is controversial and although he is attributed to be the founder of this movement, some academics believe that the concept of human relations was used well before the Hawthorne investigations, which sparked the human relations movement. Bruce and Nyland (2011) suggest that many academics preceded Mayo in identifying a concept similar to that of the human relations movement even going as far to suggest that the output and information collected by the Hawthorne investigations was identified well before Mayo by Taylor. In addition, Wren and Greenwood (1998) argue that Taylor made important contributions to what inspires human motivation, even though his ultimate findings were somewhat different from the human relations movement.

Another name which has been attributed to pre-existing human relations ideas is that of Henry S. Dennison. The one time president of the Taylor Society has been linked to both Taylorist principles as well human relation ideals thus creating a nexus between Taylorism and human relation thought. Dennison demonstrated an activist concern both with the rationale and character of workers, and with the control and management undertaken by managers of the business enterprise.

In order to assess the validity of human relations as a benchmark for rights within the workplace, the contribution of Taylorism in comparison to human relations must be established. Taylorism and scientific management entailed to be a "complete mental revolution" and as Taylor explained, Taylorism sought to encourage managers and labourers to "take their eyes off of the division of the surplus as the important matter, and together turn their attention toward increasing the size of the surplus." This notion of management appealed to the employer as it addressed organisational problems, inefficiencies and adverse employer-employee relations. Scientific management aimed to use science and qualitative data in the selection of employees and facilitate the use of employee databases and performance reviews. Firstly, scientific management aimed to reduce inefficiency through studying the time and motions in work tasks. The object of time studies was to determine how fast a job should and could be done. Secondly, Taylor purported to introduce specific quantitative goals to individual employees in order to provide challenging time restraints and thus increasing productivity. Most importantly, Taylor sought to increase productivity through organization of behaviour.

See also

 Group dynamics
 People skills
 Social psychology

References

Organizational theory
Systems psychology
Human resource management
Industrial and organizational psychology

Human relations movement


Rajpath, officially named Kartavya Path (), and formerly known as Kingsway, is a ceremonial boulevard in New Delhi, India, that runs from Rashtrapati Bhavan on Raisina Hill through Vijay Chowk and India Gate, National War Memorial to National Stadium, Delhi. The avenue is lined on both sides by huge lawns, canals and rows of trees. Considered to be one of the most important roads in India, it is where the annual Republic Day parade takes place on 26 January. Janpath (meaning "People's Way") crosses the road. Rajpath runs in east-west direction. Roads from Connaught Place, the financial centre of Delhi, run into Rajpath from north.

After climbing Raisina Hill, Rajpath is flanked by the North and South Blocks of the Secretariat Building. Finally it ends at the gates of Rashtrapati Bhavan. At Vijay Chowk it crosses Sansad Marg, and the Parliament House of India can be seen to the right when coming from the India Gate.

It is also used for the funeral processions of key political leaders of India.

Name and history
In 1911 the British Imperial Government and the Viceregal administration determined that the capital of the British Indian Empire should be moved from Calcutta to Delhi.  Accordingly, construction in that year began on the district of New Delhi, which would serve as the purpose-built administrative capital of the Indian Empire.  The British Raj duly turned to Sir Edwin Lutyens to construct the new city. Lutyens conceived of a modern imperial city centred around a "ceremonial axis", such axis being the large boulevard now called the Rajpath. Lutyens wanted a panoramic view of the city of Delhi from the viceregal palace. Consequently, the view from Raisina Hill runs unhindered across Rajpath and the India Gate, and is obstructed only by the National Stadium.

Most of the buildings surrounding the Rajpath were designed by Lutyens and the second architect of the project, Sir Herbert Baker. The importance of such buildings in the government of India ensures the road's importance.

Name

When built, the road was named King's Way, or Kingsway, in honour of the Emperor of India George V, who had visited Delhi during the Durbar of 1911, and where the Emperor formally proclaimed the decision to move the capital. The name was similar to Kingsway in London, which had been opened in 1905, and which was also a custom-built arterial road, and which had been named in honour of George V's father, Edward VII (as King of the United Kingdom).

Following the Independence of India the road was given its Hindi name, 'Rajpath', in place of its English designation. This represented a mere translation more than a substantial renaming, since 'Rajpath' in Hindi is broadly analogous in meaning to 'King's Way'.

In September 2022, Rajpath was redeveloped under Central Vista Redevelopment Project and renamed Kartavya Path.

Landmarks
The Rashtrapati Bhavan, the official residence of the President of India. It was the viceroy's residence before Indian independence.
North Block and South Block, also called the Secretariat Building. North Block houses the offices of Finance and Home ministries. South Block hosts External affairs and Defense ministries. Other important offices like some of the Prime Ministers Offices are also in the Secretariat Buildings.
Vijay Chowk is a spacious plaza and the site of Beating the Retreat ceremony, which takes place on 29 January each year, which marks the end of Republic Day celebrations, in which Military Bands, Pipes and Drums Bands, Buglers and Trumpeters from various Army Regiments besides bands of the Navy and Air Force take part, with the President of India as the Chief Guest.
India Gate is India's war memorial arch in honour of those who died in the First World War and the Second Anglo-Afghan War. It is also India's memorial of the unknown soldier.
National War Memorial, built to honour and remember soldiers of the Indian military who fought in armed conflicts of independent India. Since Independence, more than 25,000 soldiers of the Indian Armed Forces have been killed in various conflicts, humanitarian assistance and disaster response operations.

Redevelopment

The Central Vista Redevelopment Project started construction on 4 February 2021 and is planned to be finished in 2026 in phases.

On 8 September 2022, the redeveloped  Boulevard was inaugurated by Prime Minister Narendra Modi. A number of new features like planned landscapes, lawns with walkways, green spaces, refurbished canals, amenity blocks, improved signages and vending kiosks, new pedestrian underpasses, improved parking spaces, new exhibition panels, and upgraded night lighting were added.

New sustainability features like solid waste management, storm-water management, recycling unit, rainwater harvesting, water conservation and energy efficient lighting systems were implemented. Foldable seats were added for the annual Republic Day parade.

Gallery

References

External links
Image of Rashtrapati Bhavan and the Secretariat buildings lit up for the Beating the Retreat at Vijay Chowk – Rediff

New Delhi
Roads in Delhi
Boulevards
National squares
Works of Edwin Lutyens in India

Rajpath


Lyn Yvonne Abramson (born February 7, 1950) is a professor of psychology at the University of Wisconsin–Madison. She was born in Benson, Minnesota. She took her undergraduate degree at the University of Wisconsin–Madison in 1972 before attaining her Ph.D. in clinical psychology at University of Pennsylvania in 1978.

Achievements
As a clinical psychologist, her main areas of research interest have been exploring vulnerability to major depressive disorder and psychobiological and cognitive approaches to depression, bipolar disorder, and eating disorders. She was the senior author of the paper "Learned Helplessness in Humans: Critique and Reformulation" published in the Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 1978, proposing a link between a particular explanatory style and depression.

With her co-authors William T. L. Cox, Patricia Devine, and Steven D. Hollon, she proposed the integrated perspective on prejudice and depression, which combines cognitive theories of depression with cognitive theories of prejudice. Lyn and her coauthors propose that many cases of depression may be caused by prejudice from the self or from another person. "This depression caused by prejudice – which the researchers call deprejudice — can occur at many levels. In the classic case, prejudice causes depression at the societal level (e.g., Nazis' prejudice causing Jews' depression), but this causal chain can also occur at the interpersonal level (e.g., an abuser's prejudice causing an abusee's depression), or even at the intrapersonal level, within a single person (e.g., a man's prejudice against himself causing his depression)."

Along with her frequent collaborator Lauren Alloy, Abramson was awarded the James McKeen Cattell Fellow Award for 2008–2009 by the Association for Psychological Science. She is on the Institute for Scientific Information list of highly cited researchers.

Books
Abramson, L. Y., Editor (1988). Social cognition and clinical psychology: A synthesis. New York: Guilford.

Book chapters
Abramson, L. Y., Alloy, L. B., Hankin, B. L., Haeffel, G. J., Gibb, B. E., & MacCoon, D. G. (2002). Cognitive vulnerability-stress models of depression in a self-regulatory and psychobiological context. In I.H. Gotlib & C.L. Hammen (Eds.), Handbook of depression. New York: Guilford
Abramson, L. Y., Alloy, L. B., & Panzarella, C. C. (2002). Depression. In Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science. London: Macmillan.
Abramson, L. Y., Bardone, A. M., Vohs, K. D., Joiner, T. E., & Heatherton, T. F. (2002). The Paradox of perfectionism and binge eating: Toward a resolution. In L.B. Alloy and J.H. Riskind (Eds.), Cognitive vulnerability to emotional disorders. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum.
Alloy, L. B., & Abramson, L. Y. (In Press). Cyclothymic personality. (2002) In W.E. Craighead and C.B. Nemeroff (Eds.), Concise Corsini Encyclopedia of Psychology and Behavioral Science. New York: Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Alloy, L. B., Abramson, L. Y., Safford, S. M., & Gibb, B. E. (2002) The Cognitive Vulnerability to Depression (CVD) Project: Current findings and future directions. In L.B. Alloy and J.H. Riskind (Eds.), Cognitive vulnerability to emotional disorders. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum.
Spasojevic, J., Alloy, L. B., Abramson, L. Y., MacCoon, D., & Robinson, M. S. (In Press). Reactive rumination: Consequences, mechanisms, and developmental antecedents. In C. Papageorgiou and A. Wells (Eds.), Depressive rumination: Nature, theory, and treatment. New York: Wiley. (2002)
Abramson, L. Y., Alloy, L. B., Hankin, B. L., Clements, C. M., Zhu, L., Hogan, M. E., & Whitehouse, W. G. (2000). Optimistic cognitive styles and invulnerability to depression. In J. Gillham (Ed.), The science of optimism and hope (pp. 75–98). Philadelphia: Templeton Foundation
Abramson, L. Y., Alloy, L. B., Hogan, M. E., Whitehouse, W. G., Gibb, B. E., Hankin, B. L., & Cornette, M. M. (2000). The hopelessness theory of suicidality. In T.E. Joiner and M.D. Rudd (Eds.), Suicide science: Expanding boundaries (pp. 17–32). Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishing
Alloy, L. B., & Abramson, L. Y. (2000). Cyclothymic personality. In W.E. Craighead and C.B. Nemeroff (Eds.), The Corsini Encyclopedia of psychology and neuroscience. (3rd edition, Vol. 1, pp. 417–418). New York: Wiley & Sons.
Alloy, L. B., Abramson, L. Y., & Chiara, A. M. (2000). On the mechanisms by which optimism promotes positive mental and physical health: A commentary on Aspinwall. In J. Gillham (Ed.), The science of optimism and hope (pp. 201–212). Philadelphia: Templeton Foundation
Cornette, M. M., Abramson, L. Y., & Bardone, A. M. (2000). Toward an integrated theory of suicidal behaviors: Merging the hopelessness, self-discrepancy, and escape theories. In T.E. Joiner and M.D. Rudd (Eds.), Suicide science: Expanding boundaries (pp. 43–66). Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishing
Alloy, L. B., Abramson, L. Y., Raniere, D., & Dyller, I. (1999). Research methods in adult psychopathology. In P.C. Kendall, J.N. Butcher, & G.N. Holmbeck (Eds.), Handbook of research methods in clinical psychology (2nd edition, pp. 466–498). New York: Wiley
Gotlib, I. H., & Abramson, L. Y. (1999). Attributional theories of emotion. In T. Dagleish & M. Power (Eds.), The handbook of cognition and emotion (pp. 613–636). Chichester, England: Wiley
Panzarella, C., Alloy, L. B., Abramson, L. Y., & Klein, K. (1999). Cognitive contributions to mental illness and mental health. In F.T. Durso, R.S., Nickerson, R.W. Schvaneveldt, S.T. Dumais, & M.T.H. Chi (Eds.), Handbook of applied cognition (pp. 725–755). New York: Wiley
Abramson, L. Y., Alloy, L. B., & Metalsky, G. I. (1995). Hopelessness depression. In G. Buchanan and M.E.P. Seligman (Eds.), Explanatory style. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum
Abramon, L. Y., Metalsky, G. I., & Alloy, L. B. (1993). Hopelessness. In C.G. Costello (Ed.), Symptoms of depression. New York: Wiley
Rose, D. T., & Abramson, L. Y. (1992). Developmental predictors of depressive cognitive style: Research and theory. In D. Cicchetti and S. Toth (Eds.), Rochester Symposium on Developmental Psychopathology, Vol. IV. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum
Abramson, L. Y., & Alloy, L. B. (1990). Search for the "Negative Cognition" subtype of depression. In C.D. McCann and N.S. Endler (Eds.), Depression: New directions in theory, research, and practice. Toronto: Wall and Thompson
Abramson, L. Y., Alloy, L. B., & Metalsky, G. I. (1990). The hopelessness theory of depression: Current status and future directions. In N. Stein (Ed.), University of Chicago Symposium on Emotion. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum
Alloy, L. B., Albright, J. S., Abramson, L. Y., & Dykman, B. M. (1990). Depressive realism and nondepressive optimistic illusions: The role of the self. In R.E. Ingram (Ed.), Contemporary psychological approaches to depression: Treatment, research, and theory. New York: Plenum
Abramson, L. Y., Alloy, L. B., & Metalsky, G. I. (1988). The cognitive diathesis-stress theories of depression: Toward an adequate evaluation of the theories' validities. In L.B. Alloy (Ed.), Cognitive processes in depression. New York: Guilford
Abramson, L. Y., Metalsky, G. I., & Alloy, L. B. (1988). The hopelessness theory of depression: Does the research test the theory? In L.Y. Abramson (Ed.), Social cognition and clinical psychology: A synthesis. New York: Guilford
Alloy, L. B., & Abramson, L. Y. (1988). Depressive realism: Four theoretical perspectives. In L.B. Alloy (Ed.), Cognitive processes in depression. New York: Guilford
Alloy, L. B., Hartlage, S., & Abramson, L. Y. (1988). Testing the cognitive diathesis-stress theories of depression: Issues of research design, conceptualization, and assessment. In L.B. Alloy (Ed.), Cognitive processes in depression. New York: Guilford
Alloy, L. B., Abramson, L. Y., & Kossman, D. (1985). The judgment of predictability in depressed and nondepressed college students. In J.B. Overmier and F.R. Brush (Eds.), Affect, conditioning, cognition: Essays on the determinants of behavior. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum
Halberstadt, L. J., Andrews, D., Metalsky, G. I., & Abramson, L. Y. (1984). Helplessness, hopelessness, and depression: A review of progress and future directions. In N.S. Endler and *J. Hunt (Eds.), Personality and behavior disorders. New York: Wiley
Abramson, L. Y., & Martin, D. J. (1981). Depression and the causal inference process. In J. Harvey, W. Ickes, and R. Kidd (Eds.), New directions in attribution research. Vol. III. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum
Beach, S., Abramson, L. Y., & Levine, F. (1981). The attributional reformulation of learned helplessness: Therapeutic implications. In H. Glazer and J. Clarkin (Eds.), Depression: Behavioral and directive intervention strategies. New York: Garland
Abramson, L. Y., & Alloy, L. B. (1980). The judgment of contingency: Errors and their implications. In J. Singer and A. Baum (Eds.), Advances in environmental psychology. Vol. II. New York: Erlbaum
Alloy, L. B., & Abramson, L. Y. (1980). The cognitive component of human helplessness and depression: A critical analysis. In J. Garber and M.E.P. Seligman (Eds.), Human helplessness. New York: Academic Press
Garber, J., Abramson, L. Y., & Miller, S. (1980). The relationship between depression and anxiety. In J. Garber and M.E.P. Seligman (Eds.), Human helplessness. New York: Academic Press
Metalsky, G. I., & Abramson, L. Y. (1980). Attributional styles: Toward a framework for conceptualization and assessment. In P.C. Kendall and S.D. Hollon (Eds.), Cognitive-behavioral interventions: Assessment methods. New York: Academic Press
Abramson, L. Y., & Seligman, M. E. P. (1977). Modeling psychopathology in the laboratory: History and rationale. In J. Maser and M.E.P. Seligman (Eds.), Psychopathology: Experimental models. San Francisco: Freeman

See also
Depressive realism

References

Further reading

External links
 Professor Lyn Abramson homepage at University of Wisconsin–Madison official website

American women psychologists
American social psychologists
University of Wisconsin–Madison alumni
Bipolar disorder researchers
Living people
1950 births
University of Wisconsin–Madison faculty
University of Pennsylvania School of Arts and Sciences alumni
People from Benson, Minnesota
21st-century American women academics
American clinical psychologists

Lyn Yvonne Abramson


The 63rd Scripps National Spelling Bee was held in Washington, D.C. at the Capital Hilton on May 30–31, 1990, sponsored by the E.W. Scripps Company.

The winner was 13-year-old Amy Marie Dimak of Seattle, Washington, correctly spelling "fibranne". Dimak reported that she knew all 11 words she faced, and did not make any guesses. Second place went to 13-year-old Eric Enders of El Paso, Texas, who missed "douanier", spelling it as "doinier".

There were 226 spellers this year, 127 girls and 99 boys. The youngest competitor was 9 year old Erika Harrell from Muncie, Indiana. Eight spellers dropped out in round one, 33 dropped in round two, and 30 were eliminated in round three. 155 spellers survived into day two.

Spellers' others activities included a visit to Gunston Hall on Monday of Bee Week, and visits to Washington monuments and Arlington National Cemetery on Tuesday. Competition began at 8:30am on Wednesday.

The first place prize was $5,000 (and other non-cash prizes), a sizable increase over $1,500 from the prior year. Second place received $4,000; third received $2,500 and fourth got $1,000. Total cash prizes to all spellers were $26,550.

References

External links

Scripps National Spelling Bee competitions
1990 in Washington, D.C.
1990 in education
May 1990 events in the United States

63rd Scripps National Spelling Bee


Tanjore District was one of the districts in the erstwhile Madras Presidency of British India. It covered the area of the present-day districts of Thanjavur, Tiruvarur and Nagapattinam and the Aranthangi taluk of Pudukkottai District in Tamil Nadu.Thanjavur was a centre of Chola cultural heritage and one of the richest and most prosperous districts in Madras Presidency.

Tanjore district was constituted in 1799 when the Thanjavur Maratha ruler Serfoji II ceded most of his kingdom to the British East India Company in return for his restitution on the throne. Tanjore district, which is situated on the Cauvery Delta, is one of the richest rice-growing regions in South India. It was scarcely affected by famines such as the Great Famine of 1876–78.

Demographics
Tanjore District covered a total area of 9,600 square kilometres (3,710 sq mi). It had a population of 2,245,029 in 1901. The population density was 234 inhabitants per square kilometre (605/sq mi). As per the 1901 census statistics, Tanjore was the fifth most populous district in the Madras Presidency and the second most densely populated after Madras city.

According to the 1901 census, 91 percent of the population was Hindu, 5 percent Muslim and 4 percent Christian. Among Hindus, Paraiyars (310,391), Vanniyars (235,406), Vellalars (212,168), Kallars (188,463), Pallars (159,855), Valaiyars (137,216), and Brahmins (118,882) were the most numerous. Kallars were mainly found in the western part of Tanjore and Pattukkottai taluks. Tanjore had the third highest Brahmin population in the Madras Presidency (more than 6%) after South Canara and Ganjam and the highest among the Tamil-speaking districts. Most of the Muslims were Marakkayars or Labbais and concentrated in Kumbakonam taluk where they formed the majority in the towns of Ayyampettai, Rajagiri and Pandaravadai apart from Koothanallur in Mannargudi taluk. They were also found in large numbers in the Negapatam and Pattukkottai taluks. More than a third of the total Christian population of the district lived in Tanjore taluk. There were a total of about 600 Jains chiefly concentrated in the Tanjore and Mannargudi taluks.The chief Muslim places of worship were located in Tanjore and Muttupet apart from the Nagore dargah.

Tamil was spoken as mother tongue by an overwhelming majority of the population while Telugu was spoken by about 3%. Other languages spoken include Marathi (13,651) and Saurashtrian or Patnuli.

Reference

Madras Presidency

Tanjore District (Madras Presidency)


Degener Buggenhagen, also spelled Degner Buggenhagen (died: 16 July 1420 in Garbodenhagen, near Stralsund) was a German nobleman and Hereditary Lord Marshal of the Duchy of Pomerania-Wolgast.

He was a descendant of an ancient family of knights.  As Hereditary Lord Marshal, he came into conflict with Cord Bonow, an influential Roman Catholic clergyman.  Buggenhagen sided with the cities of Greifswald and Stralsund, which had a conflict with Bonow.  During the conflict, the citizens of Stralsund burned three clergy at the stake.

After the death of Duke Wartislaw VIII of Pomerania-Wolgast in 1415, his widow Agnes led the regency for her infant sons Barnim VIII and Swantibor IV as well as her nephews Wartislaw IX and Barnim VII.  She was assisted by a council, led by Bonow.  Buggenhagen was a member of this council.  Buggenhagen, who was supported by the cities, killed Bonow in Groß Kiesow, near Greifswald, probably in 1417 or 1419.

Duchess Agnes was so embittered that she ordered Henneke von Behr, one of her retainers, to kill Buggenhagen on 16 July 1420, when he met the young Duke Wartislaw IX at the mill of Garbodenhagen, near Stralsund, under protection of a safe conduct.  The act was committed at the Duke's table.  The cities of Greifswald and Stralsund demanded revenge and in 1421, von Behr and his helpers were executed in Stralsund.  Deeply impressed by these events, Duke Wartislaw IX agreed in 1421 with the cities and the nobility to establish a court of law, where such conflicts could be resolved peacefully.

References

Footnotes

People from Pomerania
German untitled nobility
14th-century births
Year of birth uncertain
1420 deaths
15th-century German people

Degener Buggenhagen


A blue-plate special is a discount-priced meal that usually changes daily: a term used in the United States and Canada by restaurants, especially diners and cafes.

The term was very common from the 1920s through the 1950s. , there are still a few restaurants and diners that offer blue-plate specials under that name, sometimes on blue plates, but it is a vanishing tradition. However, the phrase is still a common American colloquialism.

A Web collection of 1930s prose gives this definition: "A Blue Plate Special is a low-priced daily diner special — a main course with all the fixins, a daily combo, a square for two bits."

History
The origin and explanation of the phrase are unclear. Michael Quinion cites a dictionary entry indicating that the blue plates were, more specifically, inexpensive divided plates that were decorated with a "blue willow" or similar blue pattern, such as those popularized by the more expensive Spode and Wedgwood. One of his correspondents says that the first known use of the term is on an October 22, 1892, Fred Harvey Company restaurant menu and implies that blue-plate specials were regular features at Harvey Houses in the late 19th century. Alternatively, Kevin Reed says that "during the Depression, a manufacturer started making plates with separate sections for each part of a meal — like a TV dinner tray — it seems that for whatever reason they were only available in the color blue."

The term became common starting in the late 1920s. A May 27, 1926, advertisement in The New York Times for "The Famous Old Sea Grill Lobster and Chop House" at 141 West 45th Street promised "A La Carte All Hours", "Moderate Prices", and "Blue Plate Specials". A December 2, 1928, article, lamenting the rise in prices that had made it difficult to "dine on a dime," praised an Ann Street establishment where one could still get "a steak-and-lots-of-onion sandwich for a dime" and a "big blue-plate special, with meat course and three vegetables, is purchasable for a quarter, just as it has been for the last ten years." The first book publication of Damon Runyon's story, "Little Miss Marker," was in a 1934 collection titled Damon Runyon's Blue Plate Special. A Hollywood columnist wrote in 1940, "Every time Spencer Tracy enters the Metro commissary, executives and minor geniuses look up from their blue plate specials to look at the actor and marvel."

"No substitutions" was a common policy on blue-plate specials. One 1947 Candid Microphone episode features Allen Funt ordering a blue-plate special and trying to talk the waiter into making various changes, such as replacing the vegetable soup with consommé, while the polite but increasingly annoyed waiter tries in vain to explain to Funt that "no substitutions" means what it says. Our Man in Havana (1958) by Graham Greene has the following exchange regarding an "American blue-plate lunch":

Contemporary usage

In contemporary usage, a "blue-plate special" can be any inexpensive full meal, a daily special, or merely a whimsical phrase for a home meal composed of odds and ends or leftovers.

In film and television
In the 1973 film The Sting, Robert Redford's character Johnny "Kelly" Hooker orders the blue-plate special at the diner. In the 1974 film The Front Page, condemned killer Earl Williams is said to be getting a "95-cent blue plate special from the greasy spoon across the street" for his last meal. In the 1997 movie Good Will Hunting Matt Damon's character references a "blue plate special" in one of the movie's more memorable monologues when explaining why he does not wish to work for the government. In the television series Double Dare, one obstacle on the final course is called the Blue Plate Special. In The Devil All The Time (Netflix), Willard is offered the meatloaf "blue plate special" by the waitress in the Wooden Spoon Diner in Meade, Ohio; he opts instead for coffee and a doughnut. In The X-Files, Skinner orders a "blue plate special" in a diner, just before getting shot.

In print
In Graham Greene's Our Man in Havana (first published in 1958), the protagonist, Mr Wormold, is almost poisoned by a rival while eating a blue-plate lunch at a meeting of the European Traders' Association.

In the Blondie comic strip for July 8, 1964, Dagwood is curious about the blue plate special being served on a white plate, and the explanation is that it's named after the cook, Oscar Blueplate.

Richard Bernstein titled his New York Times review of Andrew Hurley's book Diners, Bowling Alleys, and Trailer Parks (2001), "The Red, White and Blue Plate Special".

Road food experts Jane and Michael Stern titled their guidebook Blue Plate Specials and Blue Ribbon Chefs: The Heart And Soul of America's Great Roadside Restaurants (2001).

See also

 List of restaurant terminology

References

External links
 Blue Plate Special, anyone? Kevin Reed's article
 Blue Plate Special A competing explanation by Michael Quinion
 Blue Plate Special "a square for two bits"
 Children's museum show (sponsorship by Blue Cross mentioned elsewhere)
 WREK Sound Blocks (Georgia Tech's WREK radio)

Restaurant terminology
Food combinations
History of American cuisine

Blue-plate special


The Cascade Mountains leeward forests are a temperate coniferous forest ecoregion of North America, as defined by the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) categorization system.

Setting
This is a band of mountain habitat running north–south along the leeward side of the Cascade Mountains in British Columbia, Canada and Washington, United States, with the Okanagan Highland to the south on the US-Canada border and the Chilcotin Ranges to the north.

This is a varied mountain landscape of rugged, snowy peaks, glaciers and alpine meadows. In the southern ranges the temperature varies from  in summer to  in winter with the northern ranges 2–3 °C (4–5 °F) cooler.

Flora
Higher elevation subalpine slopes are home to Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii), subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa) and lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) while lower montane forests consist of lodgepole pine, quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides), white spruce (Picea glauca) and Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir.

Fauna
Wildlife of the mountains includes bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis), mountain goat (Oreamnos americanus), grizzly bear (Ursus arctos) and black bear (Ursus americanus), black-tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus), coyote (Canis latrans) and cougar (Puma concolor couguar) with smaller mammals such as the northern flying squirrel. The birds include spotted owl, dusky grouse (Dendragapus obscurus) and a number of birds of prey. The Fraser River is particularly important for salmon and also acts as a barrier to the movement of wildlife within the region.

Threats and preservation
Most of this forest is still intact although threatened by logging, mining and other human intervention. Large blocks of intact forest include North Cascades National Park in Washington and the following areas of British Columbia; Big Creek Provincial Park and Spruce Lake Protected Area, the Stein Valley Nlaka'pamux Heritage Park, E. C. Manning Provincial Park, Ts'ilʔos Provincial Park, Cathedral Provincial Park and Protected Area, Skagit Valley Provincial Park, Marble Range Provincial Park, Cascade Recreation Area and Edge Hills Provincial Park near Fraser Canyon.

See also
List of ecoregions in Canada (WWF)
List of ecoregions in the United States (WWF)

References

External links

North Cascades
Temperate coniferous forests
Temperate coniferous forests of the United States
Ecoregions of the United States
Ecozones and ecoregions of British Columbia

Forests of British Columbia
Forests of Washington (state)
Montane forests
Natural history of British Columbia
Natural history of Washington (state)

Plant communities of the West Coast of the United States
Nearctic ecoregions

Cascade Mountains leeward forests


Alice Louisa Theodora Zimmern (22 September 1855 – 22 March 1939) was an English writer, translator and suffragist. Her books made a significant contribution to debate on the education and rights of women.

Early years and education
Zimmern was born at Postern Street, Nottingham, the youngest of three daughters of the lace merchant Hermann Theodore Zimmern, a German Jewish immigrant, and his wife Antonia Marie Therese Regina Zimmern, née Leo, sister of Carl Leo, a syndic of Hamburg. Alice collaborated with her elder sister Helen Zimmern on two volumes of translated excerpts from European novels (1880 and 1884). The scholar and political scientist Alfred Eckhard Zimmern was a cousin of hers.

Alice Zimmern was educated at a private school and at Bedford College, London, before entering Girton College, Cambridge in 1881 to read Classics. She and Janet Case organized a society for classical drama that performed a 1883 college production of Elektra, "breaking down", as Virginia Woolf noted, "the tradition that only men acted in the Greek play." Zimmern left Girton in 1885 with honours in both parts of the Cambridge classical tripos. In 1888–1894, she taught Classics at English girls' schools, including Tunbridge Wells High School (1888–1891).

Career
While teaching, Zimmern produced a school edition of the Meditations of Marcus Aurelius in 1887, a translation of Hugo Bluemner's The Home Life of the Ancient Greeks (1893), and a translation of Porphyry: The Philosopher to his Wife Marcella (1896). She later wrote children's books on ancient Greece (Greek History for Young Readers, 1895, Old Tales from Greece, 1897) and Rome (Old Tales from Rome, 1906), all of which were reprinted several times. Greek History for Young Readers was still being praised in the Parents' Review six years later.

In 1893, she and four other women were awarded Gilchrist scholarships to study the US education system. They were: Miss A. Bramwell, B.Sc., Lecturer at the Cambridge Training College; Miss S. A. Burstall, B.A., Mistress at the North London Collegiate School for Girls; Miss H. M. Hughes, Lecturer on Education at University College, Cardiff; Miss Mary Hannah Page, Head Mistress of the Skinners Company's School for Girls, Stamford Hill. Each woman received £100 to pursue their studies in the US for two months.

This resulted in her book Methods of Education in America (1894), in which she praised the articulacy of American school students and their enthusiasm for classic English literature, but noted that their written work and their textbooks were of a poor standard and the teaching of American history ludicrously patriotic.

Zimmern ceased to teach in schools in 1894, but continued to tutor private students in Classics. She regularly wrote journal articles on comparative education and the education of women. Her book Women's Suffrage in Many Lands (1909) appeared to coincide with the Fourth Congress of the International Women's Suffrage Alliance. This book and The Renaissance of Girls' Education (1898) made big contributions to the debate on the education and rights of women in Zimmern's time. In the former she noted an "intimate... connexion between enfranchisement and the just treatment of women." While most of her arguments are moderate and pragmatic, she acknowledges the militant tactics of British suffragettes as effective in making women's suffrage "the question of the day".

Much of Zimmern's research was done in the British Museum Reading Room, where she associated with suffragists and Fabians such as Edith Bland, Eleanor Marx, and Beatrice Potter. Other works by Zimmern include Demand and Achievement. The International Women's Suffrage Movement (1912), a translation of Paul Kajus von Hoesbroech's Fourteen Years a Jesuit (1911), and Gods and Heroes of the North (1907).

Resident in Hampstead in her later years, Zimmern was limited in her capacity to travel in the last decades of her life, although she remained interested in the rights of women and in pacifism, and continued to entertain many visitors from abroad. Her last work was a translation of The Origins of the War (1917) by Take Ionescu. She was unmarried and died at her home, 45 Clevedon Mansions, Highgate Road, London, on 22 March 1939. She was buried on 25 March at Kentish Town parish church. She left £150 to Girton College to establish the Alice Zimmern Memorial Prize in Classics.

References

1855 births
1939 deaths
19th-century British women writers
19th-century British writers
20th-century British women writers
20th-century translators
Translators to English
English Jews
English people of German-Jewish descent
English suffragists
British women activists
Jewish suffragists
People from Nottingham
Alumni of Bedford College, London
Alumni of Girton College, Cambridge
19th-century translators

Alice Zimmern


The Broad River is a  tributary of the Savannah River in northeastern Georgia. The North Fork of the Broad River begins in the foothills of the Appalachian Mountains in Stephens County, then joins the Middle Fork west of Royston in Franklin County to form the main stem.  The Broad River continues south, being joined by the Hudson River flowing from the west out of Franklin County. The Broad was used for reference as the county line between Madison and Elbert counties as it turns southeast.

Below Carlton, the South Fork Broad River joins the Broad River from the west at what is now the junction of Oglethorpe, Madison and Elbert counties. The South Fork originates at Minish's Lake near Danielsville and passes through Watson Mill Bridge State Park, which borders Oglethorpe and Madison counties.

The Broad River continues its flow uninterrupted toward the Savannah River between Elbert County to the north, and Oglethorpe, Wilkes and Lincoln counties to the south. Most of the Broad River's course runs across the Piedmont Plateau. It flows into the Savannah River in Elbert County, where the confluence is inundated by Lake Strom Thurmond, formed by a dam downriver. The watershed of the Broad River is one of the least developed watersheds in the Georgia Piedmont.

Efforts to protect the Broad River as one of Georgia's last free-flowing rivers include a local group, the Broad River Watershed Association, as well as legislative protection at the federal, state, and county levels. The Broad is known for its relatively unspoiled nature, with numerous shoals and mild rapids snaking through farmlands and bounded by bluffs of up to  in height.

Prior to the 19th century, the Broad River in Georgia was used as a border between the territories of the Cherokee bands to the north, and the Creek people to the south.

Meriwether Lewis, later known for the Lewis and Clark Expedition, grew up in this area in the 1780s, where he honed his skills of exploration and wilderness survival. He also gained first-hand knowledge about some Native American peoples while living beside the Broad River in Wilkes (now Oglethorpe) County.

Tributaries
 Nancy Town Creek
 Whitehouse Creek

Notes

Rivers of Georgia (U.S. state)
Tributaries of the Savannah River
Rivers of Stephens County, Georgia
Rivers of Franklin County, Georgia
Rivers of Madison County, Georgia
Rivers of Elbert County, Georgia
Rivers of Oglethorpe County, Georgia

Broad River (Georgia)


The Soviet Union issued an ultimatum to Lithuania before midnight of June 14, 1940. The Soviets, using a formal pretext, demanded that an unspecified number of Soviet soldiers be allowed to enter the Lithuanian territory and that a new pro-Soviet government (later known as the "People's Government") be formed. The ultimatum and subsequent incorporation of Lithuania into the Soviet Union stemmed from the division of Eastern Europe into the German and Soviet spheres of influence agreed in the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939. Lithuania, along with Latvia and Estonia, fell into the Soviet sphere. According to the Soviet–Lithuanian Mutual Assistance Treaty of October 1939, Lithuania agreed to allow some 20,000 Soviets troops to be stationed at bases within Lithuania in exchange for receiving a portion of the Vilnius Region (previously Polish territory). Further Soviet actions to establish its dominance in its sphere of influence were delayed by the Winter War with Finland and resumed in spring 1940 when Germany was making rapid advances in western Europe. Despite the threat to the country's independence, Lithuanian authorities did little to plan for contingencies and were unprepared for the ultimatum.

With Soviet troops already stationed in the country in accordance with to the Mutual Assistance Treaty, it was impossible to mount effective military resistance. On the 15th of June, Lithuania unconditionally accepted the ultimatum and lost its independence. The Soviets sought to show the world that this was not a military occupation and annexation, but a socialist revolution initiated by the local population demanding to join the Soviet Union. In conformity with this, the Soviets followed semi-legal procedures: they took control of the governmental institutions, installed a puppet government, and carried out show elections to the People's Seimas. During its first session, the Seimas proclaimed the creation of the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic and petitioned to be admitted into the Soviet Union. The petition was officially accepted by the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union on 3 August 1940. At the same time, almost identical processes took place in Latvia and Estonia. Lithuania would not regain its independence until the proclamation of the Act of the Re-Establishment of the State of Lithuania on 11 March 1990.

Background

The Baltic states of Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia were part of the Russian Empire during the 19th century, achieving independence in the aftermath of World War I. The rise of Nazi Germany during the 1930s created Soviet fears of a German invasion, further aggravated by German expansion to the East, such as the ultimatum to Lithuania in March 1939, as a result of which the nation was forced to cede its most industrially developed region, Klaipėda, to the Reich.

The Soviet Union signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact with Germany in August 1939, in part as an attempt to delay the possibility of invasion. Germany shortly initiated World War II by invading Poland on September 1. Lithuania at first was found to be in Nazi Germany's sphere of influence according to the secret protocol of Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, but later German–Soviet Boundary and Friendship Treaty of September 28, divided large portions of northeastern Europe between the two powers, and assigned Lithuania to the Soviet sphere of influence. A Lithuanian delegation was invited to Moscow, where it signed the Soviet–Lithuanian Mutual Assistance Treaty on October 10, 1939. According to the treaty, the Soviet Union would cede a portion of the Vilnius Region, including the important city of Vilnius, which it had gained during the invasion of Poland, to Lithuania in exchange for the right to station up to 20,000 (the original bargaining point was 50,000) Soviet troops in Lithuania on a permanent basis. Official Soviet sources claimed that the presence of the Soviet military was necessary to strengthen defenses of a weak nation against possible attacks by Nazi Germany. In reality, it was the first step toward the eventual occupation of Lithuania and was described by The New York Times as a "virtual sacrifice of independence."

Despite the pacts, the Soviet Union's fears continued. In a stance long held by Russian military theorists, control of the Baltic Sea was crucial to the defense of St. Petersburg, the Soviet Union's second-largest city, and the Baltic states offered a buffer zone between the Soviet Union and Germany. Pursuing this strategy, the Soviet Union initiated the Winter War in Finland after that country rejected a similar Moscow-offered mutual assistance treaty. Stalin was unnerved by German successes in Europe, since they had taken Denmark, Norway, the Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg by spring of 1940. According to Nikita Khrushchev, after the fall of France in May, Joseph Stalin expressed the concern that Adolf Hitler would 'beat our brains in'.

The political situation in Lithuania, however, remained stable between October 1939 and March 1940. The Soviets did not interfere with Lithuania's domestic affairs and the Soviet soldiers were well-behaved in their bases. As late as March 29, 1940, Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov delivered a speech before the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union expressing his satisfaction with the execution of the mutual assistance treaties with Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia. While Lithuanian politicians publicly praised the Soviet Union for its generosity and touted the "traditional Soviet–Lithuanian friendship", in private they understood this treaty was a serious threat to Lithuanian independence. The popular attitude was reflected in the slogan "Vilnius – mūsų, Lietuva – rusų" (Vilnius is ours, but Lithuania is Russia's).

The Lithuanian government had been debating its options and discussing the possibility of occupation since November 1939. At that time, the Lithuanian envoys Stasys Lozoraitis, Petras Klimas, and Bronius Kazys Balutis prepared a memorandum containing contingency plans. They advised strengthening the army, depositing funds abroad, reinforcing the 1934 Baltic Entente alliance with Latvia and Estonia, and investigating the establishment of a government-in-exile. Although various resolutions were forwarded, nothing tangible was accomplished. During winter 1940 the Baltic Entente nations discussed greater cooperation. Mindful of their circumstances, the three governments worded their communications carefully, but the talks would be used as evidence that Lithuania was conspiring with Latvia and Estonia in violation of the mutual assistance treaty.

Rising tension

Initial accusations
Tensions between the Soviet Union and Lithuania escalated along with Germany's successes. By mid-March 1940, the Winter War with Finland was over and the Soviets could concentrate their attention on gaining control of the Baltic states. In April, after Germany occupied Denmark, a Lithuanian envoy in Moscow reported rising hostility from Soviet diplomats. During May, while the Battle of France was in full swing, the Soviets intensified their rhetoric and diplomatic pressure. On May 16, shortly after the German invasion of Luxembourg, Belgium, and the Netherlands, Soviet official newspaper Izvestia published an article warning that it was naive for a small country to attempt neutrality while giants were fighting for survival. Between May 18 and May 25, Soviet soldiers moved some military equipment from Vilnius to Gaižiūnai, a location much closer to the government seat in Kaunas. The action's proximity to the then-capital carried symbolic weight.

On May 25, the day before the Dunkirk evacuation, Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov presented a diplomatic note that accused the Lithuanian government of abducting three Soviet soldiers stationed in Lithuania in accordance with the terms of the mutual assistance treaty. The note alleged that two soldiers had been tortured to obtain Soviet military secrets but managed to escape, and that the third, Butayev, was murdered. Earlier in May, Butayev had deserted his unit and was searched by the Lithuanian police. When found, he committed suicide. The Lithuanian government replied that the accusations were baseless, but promised a full investigation of the incident and convened a special commission. However, the commission's requests for detailed information, including interviews, photographs, physical descriptions, or other data that could further the investigation, went unanswered. The official Soviet stance was that Lithuania needed to carry out the investigation on its own and that its requests were an attempt to shift responsibility to the Soviets.

Direct negotiations
On May 30, the accusations were restated, in an official communique, published by TASS, the official Soviet news agency. The same day, Stasys Lozoraitis—the Lithuanian envoy in Rome—was authorized to form a government in exile in case of the Soviet occupation. The Lithuanian police tightened security around Soviet bases and arrested 272 suspicious individuals, but that only drew additional criticism of harassment. Foreign Minister Juozas Urbšys offered to settle the matter in direct negotiations in Moscow. Molotov agreed to talk but only with Prime Minister Antanas Merkys. On June 7, Merkys arrived in Moscow. The Soviets repeated the accusations of kidnapping. Other charges were leveled, including the allegation that Minister of the Interior Kazys Skučas and Director of State Security Department Augustinas Povilaitis had provoked Soviet soldiers. During the second meeting on June 9, Molotov also accused the Lithuanian government of conspiring with Latvia and Estonia to establish a secret military union (in reference to the Baltic Entente), thereby violating the mutual assistance pact.

On June 10, the Lithuanian government discussed the new developments. It decided that Merkys should return to Kaunas and Urbšys should deliver a note offering withdrawal from the Baltic Entente, a full investigation of the incident, and dismissal of Skučas and Povilaitis. A personal letter from President Antanas Smetona to Chairman of Presidium of the Supreme Soviet Mikhail Kalinin repeated assurances that Lithuania always honored the mutual assistance pact. The third and final meeting between Merkys, Urbšys, and Molotov on June 11 brought no resolution. The Soviets continued to press charges which the Lithuanians could not meaningfully answer and made no more actionable requests. On June 12, Merkys returned to Lithuania and informed the government of the situation. It was decided that Skučas should resign and Povilaitis would be immediately dismissed. The Lithuanian Army was ordered to be alert, but no orders were issued regarding mobilization or preparedness. Lithuanian politicians did not fully understand the gravity of the situation and did not think the results would be catastrophic. Urbšys reported that the Soviets strongly disapproved of Merkys and his cabinet; he suggested that a new government be installed, possibly led by Stasys Raštikis, former Commander-in-Chief of the Lithuanian Army. Such suggestion interfered with Lithuania's domestic affairs.

Internal crisis
While Merkys and Urbšys negotiated in Moscow, the Lithuanian opposition saw an opportunity to unseat the authoritarian regime of Smetona and his Lithuanian Nationalist Union. On June 12, the Christian Democrats and the Peasant Popular Union met and decided to ask Kazys Bizauskas and Juozas Audėnas to resign from the cabinet, expecting that these resignations would trigger a government crisis. The opposition saw Soviet pressure as a means of ousting Smetona's regime, restoring democracy, and preserving some form of autonomy. The opposition also hoped to persuade Merkys, who had just returned from Moscow, to resign along with the rest of the cabinet. However, Merkys could not be found—he was apparently resting at his estate near Kaunas. This episode was harshly criticized afterwards as an illustration of several weaknesses in the Lithuanian government: it underestimated the threat posed by the Soviet Union, it was disoriented during the crisis, and its members focused on party interests rather than national priorities. Algirdas Julien Greimas later described the opposition's actions as a "joyful dance next to the corpse of the lost state".

Military movements
Mobilization of the Red Army had begun before the last round of meetings in Moscow. On June 7, the Army was ordered to prepare for an attack against Lithuania. As of June 5, all Soviet forces in the Baltic region were assigned to command of Semyon Timoshenko, People's Commissar for Defense. The Soviets gathered their forces on Lithuania's eastern border in modern-day Belarus; they consisted of five divisions and supporting units from the 3rd and the 11th Armies. The armies included 221,260 soldiers, operating 1,140 airplanes and 1,513 tanks. Lithuania already housed 18,786 Soviet troops within its territory. At the time the Lithuanian Army comprised 28,005 troops and owned 118 planes. The Soviets readied hospitals for the wounded and prisoner-of-war camps. On June 11, under the command of General Dmitry Pavlov, the Soviets finalized their attack plan and assigned specific tasks to all units. The orders were to cross the border silently, use bayonets as gunshots would be noticed, and to maneuver around defensive forces in order to occupy the territory more quickly. The Soviets expected to take control of the entire territory in three to four days.

On the night of June 14, while the Lithuanian government was discussing the ultimatum, Soviet soldiers began actions at the border. They fired shots at a border post near Alytus and killed policeman Aleksas Barauskas. At other points the Soviets interrogated Lithuanian border guards and harassed civilians, hoping to provoke a retaliation that would serve as a rationale for a full-scale military attack.

Ultimatum and acceptance

Just before midnight on June 14, while the world was focused on the imminent capitulation of Paris, Molotov presented the ultimatum to Urbšys in Moscow. It reiterated the earlier charges of kidnapping Soviet soldiers and conspiracy with Latvia and Estonia. The ultimatum demanded:
That Skučas and Povilaitis be put on trial for ordering the Soviet soldiers to be kidnapped;
That a government, more capable of adhering to the Mutual Assistance Pact, be formed;
That an unspecified, but "sufficiently large" number of Soviet troops be allowed to enter Lithuanian territory;
That an answer be given by 10:00 am the next morning.

The Lithuanian government—given less than 12 hours to respond—debated the ultimatum during the night session. It was clear that no matter how the government responded, the Soviet army would invade Lithuania. President Antanas Smetona agreed only with the demand to form a new government argued for military resistance, even if it were symbolic. Merkys and his deputy Kazys Bizauskas urged acceptance. Soviet troops were stationed in Lithuania since October 1939 and acted honorably – the Soviets would surely continue to be reasonable. Bizauskas, a member of the opposition, saw the ultimatum as an opportunity to get rid of the Smetona regime. Historians cited his attitudes to illustrate his incomprehension of the dire situation. Raštikis, as the potential head of a new government, was invited to the meeting. Both former and current Chief Military Commanders Raštikis and Vincas Vitkauskas reported that mounting an effective armed resistance, when Soviet troops were already in the country and the Lithuanian military was not mobilized, was impossible. The government also rejected a diplomatic protest.  In Raštikis' view, such actions were empty and would do no more than anger the Soviets and Urbšys, calling from Moscow, urged not to needlessly antagonize the Soviets. Merkys and his cabinet resigned to make way for a new government led by Raštikis. The session ended at 7 am with a decision to accept all Soviet demands without expressing protest or complaint.

By noon, the Lithuanians received a reply from Moscow stating that Raštikis was not a suitable candidate for Prime Minister. The selection of another candidate would be supervised by Molotov's deputy Vladimir Dekanozov. Merkys continued to act as Prime Minister. Smetona, who continued to disagree with the majority of his government, decided to leave the country in protest and appointed Merkys as acting president. By late evening on June 15, Smetona and Minister of Defense Kazys Musteikis reached Kybartai and crossed the border into Germany, where they were granted temporary asylum. The Lithuanian guards did not allow them to pass; thus, Smetona had to wade across the shallow Liepona rivulet. Smetona's departure worked to the Soviets′ advantage; its indignity opened him to ridicule and they were able to exploit the sentiments against him without fearing that he would be seen as a martyr. By fleeing, Smetona escaped the fate of Latvian President Kārlis Ulmanis and Estonian President Konstantin Päts, who were manipulated by the Soviets and later arrested. Under the Lithuanian constitution, Merkys became acting president.

The Red Army was scheduled to enter Lithuanian territory from three separate directions at 3:00 pm and had orders to take control of Vilnius, Kaunas, Raseiniai, Panevėžys, and Šiauliai. The Lithuanian Army was ordered not to resist and to extend friendly greetings; its air force was ordered to remain on the ground. The Soviets came in great numbers clogging Lithuanian roads. They had an obvious intention to show power and intimidate any resistance. Writer Ignas Šeinius claimed that he observed the same squadron of Soviet planes making the same flight over and over again to create an impression of much larger Soviet Air Forces.

On June 16, nearly identical ultimata were issued to Latvia and Estonia, although they were given only eight hours to respond. With Lithuania already in Soviet hands, armed resistance in Latvia or Estonia was even more futile. All three states were occupied and lost their independence until 1990.

Aftermath

Legitimization of the occupation

One of Dekanozov's primary goals was the organization of a puppet government that would legitimize the occupation. On June 16, the Lithuanian government, exceeding its authority, decided that Smetona's emigration was in effect a resignation and granted Merkys full presidential powers. On June 17, Merkys appointed Justas Paleckis the new Prime Minister and confirmed the new government, known as the People's Government. Merkys and Urbšys then resigned; both would later be arrested and deported to Russia. Paleckis assumed the presidency and appointed writer Vincas Krėvė-Mickevičius as Prime Minister. The People's Government included several well-known politicians and public figures to reassure the public that the new government was not a tool of Soviet occupation, but a simple replacement of the authoritarian Smetona regime. Since there had been strong opposition to Smetona's rule, it was interpreted by some Lithuanians as a destruction of presidential power rather than as a loss of independence.

On July 1, the People's Government dissolved the Fourth Seimas of Lithuania and announced a show election for a "People's Seimas "to be held on July 14. A new electoral law was adopted on July 5. The law, in violation of the constitution, specified that only candidate could stand for each seat available in the parliament. It was also worded in such a way to effectively limit the field to the Lithuanian Communist Party and its supporters. The official fraudulent results showed a voter turnout of 95.51% and support of 99.19% to the  communist delegates. Officially, however, 39 of the elected delegates were Communists and 40 were independents. During its first session on July 21, the parliament proclaimed the creation of the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic and petitioned the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union to accept this new republic into the Union. A 20-member Lithuanian delegation presented the case for incorporation in Moscow on August 1. The petition was accepted on August 3 and Lithuania became the 14th republic of the Soviet Union.

Sovietization of Lithuania
Immediately after the occupation, the new government began implementing political, economic, and social Sovietization policies. On July 1, all cultural and religious organizations were closed. The Communist Party of Lithuania—with some 1,500 members,—and its youth branch were designated the only legitimate political entities. Before the elections to the People's Seimas, the Soviets arrested about 2,000 of the most prominent political activists. These arrests paralyzed the opposition. The repressions continued and intensified. An estimated 12,000 individuals were imprisoned as "enemies of the people" during the year following the annexation. Between June 14 and June 18, 1941, less than a week before the Nazi invasion, some 17,000 Lithuanians were deported to Siberia, where many perished due to inhumane living conditions (see the June deportation).

All banks (including all accounts holding over 1,000 litas), real estate holdings larger than , and private enterprises employing over 20 workers or grossing more than 150,000 litas were nationalized. This disruption in management and operations created a sharp drop in production. The Lithuanian litas was artificially depreciated by three to four times less than its actual value and withdrawn by March 1941. The drop in production, combined with massive spending of appreciated roubles by Soviet soldiers and officials, caused widespread shortages. All land was nationalized; the largest farms were reduced to , and extra land (some ) was distributed to small farmers. To turn small peasants against large landowners, collectivization was not immediately introduced in Lithuania. In preparation for eventual collectivization, farm taxes were increased by 50–200% and additional heavy in-kind conscriptions were enacted. Some farmers were unable to pay the exorbitant new taxes, and about 1,100 of the larger ones were put on trial.

Nazi occupation

On June 22, 1941, Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union and within a week took control of all Lithuania. At first the Germans were greeted as liberators from the oppressive Soviet regime. The Lithuanians hoped that the Germans would re-establish their independence or at least allow some degree of autonomy (similar to the Slovak Republic). Organized by the Lithuanian Activist Front (LAF), Lithuanians rose in the anti-Soviet and pro-Nazi June Uprising, established the short-lived Provisional Government, and declared independence. However, the Germans did not recognize the Provisional Government and established their own civil administration, the Reichskommissariat Ostland. When the Red Army regained control of Lithuania in summer 1944 – January 1945, the Lithuanian partisans began an armed struggle against the second Soviet occupation. An estimated 30,000 partisans and partisan supporters were killed during the guerrilla warfare between 1944 and 1953.

Impacts and evaluation
While unsuccessful, the June Uprising demonstrated that many Lithuanians were determined to be independent. Lithuania would become disillusioned with the Nazi regime and organize resistance, notably the Supreme Committee for the Liberation of Lithuania, but the Soviet Union remained "Public Enemy Number One." A Lithuanian perception that Jewish Bolshevism was involved in the occupation strengthened antisemitic attitudes and contributed to Lithuanian participation in the Holocaust.

The acceptance of the ultimatum remains a highly controversial topic in Lithuania. Observers criticize the Lithuanian Army, which had been consuming some 20% of the state budget, for not staging even a symbolic resistance that would have invalidated Soviet claims that the takeover was a "socialist revolution" and a legitimate change of government. Others criticize the government of inaction: there were eight months in which to create contingency plans. Barring armed resistance, diplomatic options remained — the Lithuanian government could have rejected the ultimatum, retreated abroad, and formed a recognized government-in-exile. Historian Alfonsas Eidintas points to a lack of public comprehension of the risk. Negative news about the Soviets was censored and even politicians did not believe the ultimatum would mean a complete loss of independence. Another debate centers on the lack of bloodshed. By accepting the ultimatum, the government may have avoided loss of life at the time, but its submission may also have encouraged later Soviet repressions. Russia, the primary successor state of the Soviet Union, continues to dispute whether the events surrounding the ultimatum and the subsequent years that Lithuania spent as a Soviet Socialist Republic constitute an occupation.

See also

Vladimir Putin's December 2021 ultimatum

References

Notes

Bibliography

Ultimatum
Ultimatum
People's Government of Lithuania
Occupation of the Baltic states
Ultimata
Diplomatic incidents
Lithuania–Soviet Union relations
June 1940 events
1940 documents
Politics of World War II

Soviet ultimatum to Lithuania


RDS Arena is a multi-purpose sports stadium, owned by the Royal Dublin Society (RDS) and located in the Dublin suburb of Ballsbridge, Ireland.

The arena was developed to host equestrian events, primarily the annual Dublin Horse Show, which was first held there in 1881. The site had been acquired in 1879 by the RDS. The primary tenants of the RDS Arena are Leinster Rugby who compete in the United Rugby Championship and Champions Cup. The arena has also hosted soccer and wrestling events and concerts. It has a capacity of 18,500, 16,500 of which is seated.

The demountable north and south stands are removed for equestrian events, with only the Grandstand and Anglesea Stand permanent. The Anglesea Stand was completed in 1927.

History
The Grandstand was rebuilt in 2006 for the 2006–07 rugby season, to replace the old wooden stand when Leinster first became permanent tenants. A roof was added during 2008–09. There are plans to redevelop the Arena, replacing the Anglesea Stand with another new permanent stand, which would incorporate the only terraced area of the stadium.

In July 2014, it was announced by the RDS and Leinster Rugby that a design competition was being held to develop the arena into a 25,000 capacity world class stadium, with work expected to commence on the redevelopment in April 2016. The selling of naming rights to the arena will be a key component in funding the project, with a budget of at least €20,000,000 being proposed. A consortium of architect firms, Dublin-based Newenham Mulligan Architects and London-based Grimshaw Architects, won the international design competition for the multimillion-euro redevelopment of the RDS Arena.

Sporting events

Association Football
The Stadium first hosted a football match on 30 September 1990 when Shamrock Rovers used it as a home ground. For the next six seasons until April 1996 Rovers played their home games there. The Stadium held its first international match on 19 February 1992 when it played host to a home game between Ireland and Wales national football team. The stadium hosted some games of the 1994 UEFA European Under-16 Football Championships including the third-place playoff and the final. The final of the FAI Cup was held at the RDS in 2007 and 2008 during the construction of the Aviva Stadium. The 2009 final, however, was moved to Tallaght Stadium. The RDS hosted a game between St Patrick's Athletic and Hertha Berlin in the 2008–09 UEFA Cup first round. St Patrick's Athletic also played Steaua București in the Arena on 27 August 2009 in the Europa League. The RDS Arena hosted the Ireland team when they played Paraguay and Algeria in May 2010.

Show Jumping
The Arena was originally constructed to host show-jumping events, the Dublin Horse Show having been held by the RDS annually since 1864. In 1881 the Show moved to 'Ball's Bridge', a greenfield site. The first continuous 'leaping' course was introduced at the Show. In the same year the first viewing stand was erected on the site of the present Grand Stand. It held 800 people.

In 1925 Colonel Zeigler of the Swiss Army first suggested holding an international jumping event. The Aga Khan of the time heard of this proposal and offered a challenge trophy to the winner of the competition.
In 1926 International Competitions were introduced to the show and was the first time the Nations' Cup for the Aga Khan Challenge trophy was held. Up until 1949 the Nations' Cup teams had to consist of military officers. Six countries competed in the first international teams competition for the Aga Khan Challenge trophy – Great Britain, the Netherlands, Belgium, France, Switzerland and Ireland. The Swiss team won the title on Irish bred horses.

In 1976, after 50 years of international competition, the two grass banks in the Arena were removed so the Arena could be used for other events. The continental bank at the western end of the Main Arena was added later.

The RDS also hosted the Show Jumping World Championships in 1982.

Rugby union
The stadium first opened its doors to rugby union on Saturday 15 October 2005, hosting a game between Leinster Rugby and the Cardiff Blues, which Leinster won 34–15, the arena hosted four further games that season. The following season, the RDS was not used by Leinster due to redevelopment.

The 2007–08 season saw the RDS become the official home of Leinster when the branch signed a 20-year lease on the ground, with all of the home games for the season to be hosted there. This change came about after it became apparent that the team's former home of Donnybrook Stadium no longer had a sufficient capacity. After renovation and expansion, the Grandstand and North and South Stands were expanded, boosting the capacity to 18,500 along with floodlights being installed and a new playing surface being laid, to withstand the demands of a full rugby season and show jumping events.

The RDS had proven to be a very successful hunting ground for Leinster, as they won 11 of their 12 home games that season, culminating on Saturday 3 May 2008 in a 41–8 victory over Newport Gwent Dragons and lifting the Celtic League trophy that day. In all, Leinster had played 18 games in the RDS, losing only twice, to Bath and Scarlets. Between March 2008 and 2010, the final of the Leinster Schools Senior Cup was played in the RDS due to the redevelopment of Lansdowne Road, its traditional venue.

The RDS hosted the autumn rugby international between Ireland and Fiji on 21 November 2009, with Ireland running out convincing winners 41–6. The stadium also hosted the 2010, 2012, 2013, 2014, and 2021 Pro12 and Pro14 Grand Finals and the 2013 Challenge Cup Final between Leinster and Stade Français, which saw a sell-out crowd of 20,396 people. On 26 March 2022, the RDS hosted 6,113 fans for the opening round of the 2022 Women's Six Nations Championship, a record attendance for an Irish women's international test match.

Rugby League
In August 1995 Ireland won their first ever home rugby league match against Scotland at the RDS Arena, as a curtain raiser to the charity shield match between Leeds Rhinos and Wigan Warriors. The matches were played before an attendance of 5,716, a record for an international rugby league match on Irish soil.

Wrestling
The Arena hosted a WWE event on 18 June 2005, part of the WWE Summerbash Tour, which featured Kurt Angle, Eddie Guerrero, Rey Mysterio, John Cena and Stone Cold Steve Austin.

Concerts
Prince played the venue on 13 June 1992 as part of his Diamonds and Pearls Tour

Boyzone played at the arena in 1999 and once again in their reunion in 2008.

Bruce Springsteen played 11 times at the arena. His first show was during the Tunnel of Love Express Tour in 1988 in front of 42 000 fans, the second one in 1993 during the Bruce Springsteen 1992–1993 World Tour in front of 40 000 people and then during the Reunion Tour in front of 40 000 people and The Rising Tour in 1999 and 2003 in front of 40 000 people each time. He played three sold-out shows during the Magic Tour in 2008 in front of more than 115,000 people, and then in 2009 during the Working on a Dream Tour his two concerts at the arena sold more than 80,000 tickets. He played again in 2012 during his Wrecking Ball World Tour for 76,000 people. Bruce Springsteen And The E Street Band will return to the Arena on the 5 and 7 May 2023 as part of their 2023 International Tour, with a third, additional show on 9 May 2023.

U2 played here on 27 and 28 August 1993 as a conclusion to the Zooropa tour, the European stadium leg of the ZooTV tour which supported the album Achtung Baby. The second show was broadcast internationally on the radio, being 15–20 minutes delayed, reportedly due to the band's generosity to the playing time of their opening bands (Scary Eire and Stereo MC's). During the opening number Zoo Station on this night, Bono altered a lyric to say "Hey child, it's alright, sleeping in my own bed tonight."

Guns N' Roses played at the venue on 9 June 2006, as part of their Chinese Democracy Tour.

Michael Jackson also played his HIStory World Tour concert on 19 July 1997 here in front of more than 43 000 people.

Bon Jovi have played the venue many times most recently in June 2019 playing two nights. They played over two nights in June 2011 to over 80,000 people.

Thin Lizzy played RDS Area on April 9 and 10th 1983 on Thunder and Lighting tour.

Metallica, Alice In Chains and Avenged Sevenfold played at the venue on 11 June 2006.

Radiohead played to 38,000 people, on 20 June 1997, which was their highest attended performance at the time.

Paul McCartney played there on his Up and Coming Tour on 12 June 2010 and was host to him, due to a fireworks display that couldn't be done in an indoor arena, such as the O2 Arena, which hosted his Good Evening Europe Tour on 22 December 2009.

Tina Turner played to 40,000 people here on her Twenty Four Seven Tour on 11 July 2000; Foreign Affair: The Farewell Tour on 27–29 October 1990; Break Every Rule World Tour on 30 May 1987.

The Eagles played their Hell Freezes Over tour on 6 July 1996.

Simple Minds played the RDS on their Street Fighting Years tour, 19 August 1989.

Shania Twain performed there on 10 July 1999 as part of her Come On Over Tour.

P!nk performed at the venue on 19 June 2010 during The Funhouse Summer Carnival and again on 18 June 2019 as part of her Beautiful Trauma World Tour.

Justin Bieber played here as part of his Purpose World Tour on 21 June 2017.

Iron Maiden performed at the RDS during their Early Days tour in 2005 to a crowd of over 35 thousand, supported by Turbonegro and Marilyn Manson, the first time the latter had been allowed to play in Ireland.

Fleetwood Mac played at the RDS as part of their An Evening with Fleetwood Mac tour on 13 June 2019.

Boney M. performed at the RDS on 27 November 1978. This concert was recorded by RTÉ Television and broadcast on Christmas Day 1978 as part of the 'Event on Two' series.

Foo Fighters performed here on 21 August 2019 as part of their Summer European Tour

Post Malone played at the RDS as part of his Beerbongs & Bentleys Tour on 22 August 2019

Religious Gatherings
The Arena was the principal venue for the 50th International Catholic Eucharistic Congress held 10–17 June 2012.  Eucharistic Congresses are held generally every four years in various places around the world to promote an awareness of the central place of the Eucharist in the life and mission of the Catholic Church, to help improve the understanding and celebration of the liturgy and to draw attention to the social dimension of the Eucharist.  Expected attendance was 10,000-20,000 persons each day, with up to 80,000 at the closing Mass in Croke Park on 17 June. Prior to this event, Congress was last held in Ireland in 1932.

References

Association football venues in the Republic of Ireland
Shamrock Rovers F.C.
Rugby union stadiums in Ireland
Leinster Rugby
Sports venues in Dublin (city)
Republic of Ireland national football team home stadiums
Association football venues in County Dublin

RDS Arena


Hristo Ivanov Atanassov (born August 29, 1965) is Bulgarian politician Chairman of the National Council of the political party Libertas Bulgaria (LB).
Hristo Atanasov  is a Member of the Parliament in 36th (1991–1994) National Assembly of Republic of Bulgaria.

Life and politics
Hristo Atanassov was born in the town of Svilengrad, Bulgaria. Son of Ivan Atanassov Ivanov and  Kichka Hristova Ivanova, has a brother - Atanas. In 1990, became Master in History in Veliko Turnovo University St. Cyril and St. Methodius. In 1999–2001, should the second degree in International Economic Relations in the University of National and World Economic. In January 1990, as a student, initiated the restoration of People's Liberal Party (Stefan Stambolov) and was elected spokesman and representative. In elections in 1991 was elected Member of Bulgarian Parliament from Veliko Tarnovo region and became a member of the coalition PSSD (Parliamentary Union for Social Democracy) in the 36th National Assembly of Bulgaria. In 1995 - 1998 was an employee at the Ministry of Defence initially (1995–1997) is referrer responsible for bilateral military cooperation with United Kingdom and the countries of Northern Europe, and subsequently chief expert in the direction NATO. In 1995, despite the reluctance of people from the government of Zhan Videnov, was able to prepare and to conclude an agreement on bilateral military cooperation with United Kingdom, to arrange a visit to the British defense minister in Bulgaria and to arrange a donation of 300 computers for the needs of the Bulgarian Army. In 1998 Hristo Atanasov leave the defense ministry and established the Centre for European contacts, who leads. Issue and is editor of the Journal Evromost (EuroBridge). In 2000 Hristo Atanasov headed to private business. A company operating in its field of information technology. In 2003 launched the idea of establishing anti-corruption movement. In 2005 he established and registered Forum. TV on free speech,

Family
Hristo Atanasov is married and has four children:
 Annabella (1988)
 Joanna (1990)
 Maria (1994)
 Cyril (1998)

External links
 Forum TV
 Libertas Bulgaria

Living people
1965 births
Bulgarian politicians

Hristo Atanassov


(lit. "Soap Bubbles") is a Japanese nursery rhyme written by Ujō Noguchi in 1922. It is widely taught in Japanese nursery schools and kindergartens as a simple melody; it is also sometimes used in elementary school moral education courses, where students learn that it is a meditation on the death of a child.

Noguchi's daughter Midori died at the age of just 7 days in 1908. In the Meiji period, the infant mortality rate was quite high and 20 to 30 percent of children died before reaching schooling age. It was common to have many children to aim for success of the household, but Noguchi was divorced, and he thus mourned the loss of his only child for a long time.

It is widely believed that Noguchi, seeing the girls in his village play with bubbles, was reminded of the brief existence of his daughter, and wrote this poem on that occasion. However, other than the above facts, the direct inspiration for the song is unknown.

The tune is a modification of the Christian hymn "Jesus Loves Me, This I Know".

It is used as the melody for departing trains in Yumoto Station, Iwaki, Fukushima Prefecture.

Melody and lyrics

References

External links
 Performance at Toyama University
Hiroshima Piano (2020 film) (official website)

1922 songs
Japanese children's songs
Japanese-language songs
Japanese nursery rhymes

Shabondama


The International Max Planck Research School for Molecules of Life (short: IMPRS-ML) is a German centre for postgraduate training and research in life sciences. It is one among over 60 International Max Planck Research Schools in Germany. It is located in Munich and was established in 2005. The Ph.D. program is operated by the Max Planck Institute of Biochemistry and works in close collaboration with the Max Planck Institute for Biological Intelligence and two universities in Munich.

International Max Planck Research Schools
To date more than 60 International Max Planck Research Schools (short: IMPRS) have been established in Germany, each representing a joint cooperative of Max Planck Institutes and one or several German universities. The concept for the International Max Planck Research Schools was jointly developed in 1999 by the Max Planck Society and the so-called Hochschul Rektoren Konferenz (HRK), a body representing all German universities. The aim of these PhD programs is to offer German and international doctoral students a first class education in innovative and interdisciplinary research environments with facilities and research projects. Each International Max Planck Research School covers a specific topic in one of the following areas: chemistry, physics & technology, biology & medicine or human sciences. In contrast to traditional doctoral education in Germany where a doctoral student is trained and supervised individually by a professor or group leader, Max Planck Research Schools offer structured programs with a defined curriculum and a supervision by a committee of normally 3 or more expert scientists.  Language of instruction is English. German language courses are provided to interested international students.
In order to maintain highest educational standards, all IMPRS programs are evaluated on a regular basis by an international and independent scientific commission.

International Max Planck Research School for Molecules of Life (IMPRS-ML)
The International Max Planck Research School for Molecules of Life (short: IMPRS-ML) was established in 2005. The research oriented PhD program is operated by the Max Planck Institute of Biochemistry and works in close collaboration with the Max Planck Institute for Biological Intelligence and two of Germany's leading universities, the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München and the Technische Universität München. Over 30 research groups from the Munich area participate in the program, covering many aspects of life sciences including biochemistry, structural biology, biophysics, cell biology, systems biology and computational biology.

IMPRS-ML is 100% committed to basic research and aims to address fundamental questions in the following research areas:

 Biochemistry
 Biophysics
 Bio-imaging
 Computational Biology
 Gene Regulation
 Immunobiology
 Proteomics
 Structural Biology
 Signaling
 Systems Biology

Although students specialize in a particular research topic, the interdisciplinary context of the program facilitates interactions with other research groups and fosters the ability of cross-frontier thinking. Laboratory work is supplemented by seminars, summer schools, elective courses, training in soft skills and participation in national or international conferences. Currently, more than 200 doctoral students are enrolled in IMPRS-ML and approximately 50% of those come from abroad (Germany: 50%, Europe: 30%, Overseas: 20%)

Annually, 30 to 40 doctoral students from all over the world are accepted to the program. Deadline for application at the end of October, each year. All doctoral students receive a fellowship covering living expenses and tuition. Entry requirement is a MSc degree (or equivalent) in the fields of biology, biochemistry, bioinformatics, biophysics, biotechnology, or in a related discipline. The doctoral degree is usually awarded by one of the two participating Munich universities. International doctoral students may also obtain their doctoral degree from a university residing in their home country.

Currently, more than 250 doctoral students from all over the world are working at the Max Planck Institutes of Biochemistry and Biological Intelligence, together with numerous doctoral students from close by university laboratories. Amongst other activities, graduate students organize a regular social get together, a seminar series, and <interact>, an annual student symposium.

See also

Max Planck Institute of Biochemistry
Max Planck Institute for Biological Intelligence
Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München
Technische Universität München

References

External links
 Homepage of the International Max Planck Research School for Molecules of Life (IMPRS-ML)

Molecular Life Sciences and Cellular Life Sciences
Higher education in Germany

International Max Planck Research School for Molecular and Cellular Life Sciences


SMPTE timecode ( or ) is a set of cooperating standards to label individual frames of video or film with a timecode. The system is defined by the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers in the SMPTE 12M specification. SMPTE revised the standard in 2008, turning it into a two-part document: SMPTE 12M-1 and SMPTE 12M-2, including new explanations and clarifications.

Timecodes are added to film, video or audio material, and have also been adapted to synchronize music and theatrical production. They provide a time reference for editing, synchronization and identification. Timecode is a form of media metadata. The invention of timecode made modern videotape editing possible and led eventually to the creation of non-linear editing systems.

Basic concepts

SMPTE timecode is presented in hour:minute:second:frame format and is typically represented in 32 bits using binary-coded decimal. There are also drop-frame and color framing flags and three extra binary group flag bits used for defining the use of the user bits. The formats of other varieties of SMPTE timecode are derived from that of the linear timecode. More complex timecodes such as vertical interval timecode can also include extra information in a variety of encodings.

Sub-second timecode time values are expressed in terms of frames. Common supported frame rates include:
 24 frame/sec. (film, ATSC, 2K, 4K, 6K)
 25 frame/sec. (PAL (Europe, Uruguay, Argentina, Australia), SECAM, DVB, ATSC)
 29.97 (30 ÷ 1.001) frame/sec. (NTSC American System (U.S., Canada, Mexico, Colombia, et al.), ATSC, PAL-M (Brazil))
 30 frame/sec. (ATSC)

In general, SMPTE timecode frame rate information is implicit, known from the rate of arrival of the timecode from the medium. It may also be specified in other metadata encoded in the medium. The interpretation of several bits, including the color framing and drop frame bits, depends on the underlying data rate. In particular, the drop frame bit is only valid for 29.97 and 30 frame/sec.

Discontinuous timecode, and flywheel processing
Timecodes are generated as a continuous stream of sequential data values. In some applications wall-clock time is used, in others the time encoded is a notional time with more arbitrary reference. After making a series of recordings, or after crude editing, recorded timecodes may consist of discontinuous segments.

In general, it is not possible to know the linear timecode (LTC) of the current frame until the frame has already gone by, by which time it is too late to make an edit. Practical systems watch the ascending sequence of the timecode and infer the time of the current frame from that.

As timecodes in analog systems are prone to bit-errors and drop-outs, most timecode processing devices check for internal consistency in the sequence of timecode values and use simple error correction schemes to correct for short error bursts. Thus, a boundary between discontinuous timecode ranges cannot be determined exactly until several subsequent frames have passed.

Drop-frame timecode
Drop-frame timecode originates from a compromise introduced when color NTSC video was invented. The NTSC designers wanted to retain compatibility with existing monochrome televisions. To minimize subcarrier visibility on a monochrome receiver it was necessary to make the color subcarrier an odd multiple of half the line scan frequency; the multiple originally chosen was 495. With a 30 Hz frame rate the line scan frequency is (30 × 525) = 15750 Hz. So the subcarrier frequency would have been  × 15750 = 3.898125 MHz.

This was the subcarrier frequency originally chosen, but tests showed that on some monochrome receivers an interference pattern caused by the beat between the color subcarrier and the 4.5 MHz sound intercarrier could be seen. The visibility of this pattern could be greatly reduced by lowering the subcarrier frequency multiple to 455 (thus increasing the beat frequency from approximately 600 kHz to approximately 920 kHz) and by making the beat frequency also equal to an odd multiple of half the line scan frequency. This latter change could have been achieved by raising the sound intercarrier by 0.1% to 4.5045 MHz, but the designers, concerned that this might cause problems with some existing receivers, decided instead to reduce the color subcarrier frequency, and thus both the line scan frequency and the frame rate, by 0.1% instead. Thus the NTSC color subcarrier ended up as 3.579 MHz ( MHz), the line scan frequency as 15. kHz ( MHz) and the frame rate 29. Hz ( Hz).

The altered frame rate meant that an "hour of timecode" at a nominal frame rate of 29.97 frame/s was longer than an hour of wall-clock time by 3.6 seconds (for 29.97 non-drop timecode of 01:00:00:00 drop-frame timecode is 01:00:03;18 and for non-drop 00:59:56:12 drop-frame is 01:00:00;00), leading to an error of almost a minute and a half over a day.

To correct this, drop-frame SMPTE timecode was invented. In spite of what the name implies, no video frames are dropped or skipped when using drop-frame timecode. Rather, some of the timecodes are dropped. In order to make an hour of timecode match an hour on the clock, drop-frame timecode skips frame numbers 0 and 1 of the first second of every minute, except when the number of minutes is divisible by ten. This causes timecode to skip 18 frames each ten minutes (18,000 frames @ 30 frame/s) and almost perfectly compensates for the difference in rate (but still accumulates 1 frame every 9 hours 15 minutes).

For example, the sequence when frame counts are dropped:
01:08:59:28
01:08:59:29
01:09:00:02
01:09:00:03

For each tenth minute
01:09:59:28
01:09:59:29
01:10:00:00
01:10:00:01

While non-drop timecode is displayed with colons separating the digit pairs—"HH:MM:SS:FF"—drop-frame is usually represented with a semicolon (;) or period (.) as the divider between all the digit pairs—"HH;MM;SS;FF", "HH.MM.SS.FF"—or just between the seconds and frames—"HH:MM:SS;FF" or "HH:MM:SS.FF". Drop-frame timecode is typically abbreviated as DF and non-drop as NDF.

Color framing and timecode
A color framing bit is often used to indicate field 1 of the color frame so that editing equipment can make sure to edit only on appropriate color frame sequence boundaries in order to prevent picture corruption.

Studio operations and master clocks
In television studio operations, longitudinal timecode is generated by the studio master sync generator and distributed from a central point. Central sync generators usually derive their timing from an atomic clock, using either network time or GPS. Studios usually operate multiple clocks and automatically switch over if one fails.

Music production
Longitudinal SMPTE timecode is widely used to synchronize music. A frame rate of 30 frame/s is often used for audio in America, Japan, and other countries that rely on a 60 Hz mains frequency and use the NTSC television standard. The European Broadcasting Union standard frame rate of 25 frame/s is used throughout Europe, Australia and wherever the mains frequency is 50 Hz and the PAL or SECAM television standards are used.

Variants
Timecode may be attached to a recording medium in a number of different ways.
Linear timecode, a.k.a. "longitudinal timecode" and "LTC": suitable to be recorded on an audio channel, or carried by audio wires for distribution within a studio to synchronize recorders and cameras. To read LTC, the recording must be moving, meaning that LTC is useless when the recording is stationary or nearly stationary. This shortcoming led to the development of VITC.
Vertical interval timecode, (VITC, pronounced "vit-see"): recorded into the vertical blanking interval of the video signal on each frame of video. The advantage of VITC is that, since it is a part of the playback video, it can be read when the tape is stationary.
AES-EBU embedded timecode, SMPTE timecode embedded in an AES3 digital audio connection.
control track longitudinal timecode (CTL timecode): SMPTE timecode embedded in the control track of a video tape.
Visible time code, a.k.a. burnt-in timecode and BITC (pronounced "bit-see") - the numbers are burnt into the video image so that humans can easily read the time code. Videotapes that are duplicated with these time code numbers "burnt-in" to the video are known as window dubs.
Film labels, such as Keykode.

History

There were several iterations of timecode in the late 1960's (EECO, AES, EBU, DaVinci, Seimens, etc.). The version adopted by SMPTE was developed by Leo O'Donnell while he was working for the National Film Board of Canada. Leo's version referenced time of day and used an 80 bit word derived from rocket telemetry. There were several patents issued on Leo's version (US3877799, for example). Since that time, several changes have been made by SMPTE to keep up with technology.

See also
 Burnt-in timecode
 Field dominance
 IRIG timecode
 Linear timecode
 MIDI timecode
 Rewritable consumer timecode
 Vertical interval timecode

Notes

References

External links
 Technical Introduction to Timecode by Charles Poynton
 Article on timecode by Chris Pirazzi
 Synchronisation and SMPTE TimeCodes.

 Conversion between SMPTE hh:mm:ss:ff Time Code and Frames with c source code by Brooks Harris

Encodings
Timecodes
SMPTE standards

SMPTE timecode