Comer Vann Woodward (November 13, 1908 – December 17, 1999) was an American historian who focused primarily on the American South and race relations.  He was long a supporter of the approach of Charles A. Beard, stressing the influence of unseen economic motivations in politics.

Woodward was on the left end of the history profession in the 1930s. By  the 1950s he was a leading liberal and supporter of civil rights. His book The Strange Career of Jim Crow, which demonstrated that racial segregation was an invention of the late 19th century rather than an inevitable post-Civil-War development, was endorsed by Martin Luther King Jr. as "the historical Bible of the civil rights movement".  After attacks on him by the New Left in the late 1960s, he moved to the right politically. He won a Pulitzer Prize for History for his annotated edition of Mary Chestnut's Civil War diaries.

Early life and education
C. Vann Woodward was born in Vanndale, Arkansas, a town named after his mother's family and the county seat from 1886 to 1903.  It was in Cross County in eastern Arkansas. Woodward attended high school in Morrilton, Arkansas. He attended Henderson-Brown College, a small Methodist school in Arkadelphia, for two years. In 1930 he transferred to Emory University in Atlanta, Georgia, where his uncle was dean of students and professor of sociology. After graduating, he taught English composition for two years at Georgia Tech in Atlanta. There he met Will W. Alexander, head of the Commission on Interracial Cooperation, and J. Saunders Redding, a historian at Atlanta University.

Woodward enrolled in graduate school at Columbia University in 1931 and received his M.A. from that institution in 1932. In New York, Woodward met, and was influenced by, W. E. B. Du Bois, Langston Hughes, and other figures who were associated with the Harlem Renaissance movement. After receiving his master's degree in 1932, Woodward worked for the defense of Angelo Herndon, a young African-American Communist Party member who had been accused of subversive activities. He also traveled to the Soviet Union and Germany in 1932.

He did graduate work in history and sociology at the University of North Carolina. He was granted a Ph.D. in history in 1937, using as his dissertation the manuscript he had already finished on Thomas E. Watson. Woodward's dissertation director was Howard K. Beale, a Reconstruction specialist who promoted the Beardian economic interpretation of history that deemphasized ideology and ideas and stressed material self-interest as a motivating factor.

In World War II, Woodward served in the Navy, assigned to write the history of major battles. His The Battle for Leyte Gulf (1947) became the standard study of the largest naval battle in history.

Career
Woodward, starting out on the left politically, wanted to use history to explore dissent. He approached W. E. B. Du Bois about writing about him, and thought of following his biography of Watson with one of Eugene V. Debs.  He picked Georgia politician Tom Watson, who in the 1890s was a populist leader focusing the anger and hatred of poor whites against the establishment, banks, railroads and businessmen. Watson in 1908 was the presidential candidate of the Populist Party, but this time was the leader in mobilizing the hatred of the same poor whites against blacks, and a promoter of lynching.

The Strange Career of Jim Crow
Woodward's most influential book was The Strange Career of Jim Crow (1955), which explained that segregation was a relatively late development and was not inevitable. After the Supreme Court's decision in Brown v. Board of Education, in spring 1954, Woodward gave the Richards Lectures at the University of Virginia. The lectures were published in 1955 as The Strange Career of Jim Crow. With Woodward in the audience in Montgomery, Alabama, in March 1965, Martin Luther King Jr. proclaimed the book "the historical bible of the Civil Rights Movement."  It reached a large popular audience and helped shape the civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s.

Jim Crow laws, Woodward argued, were not part of the immediate aftermath of Reconstruction; they came later and were not inevitable.  Following the Compromise of 1877, into the 1880s there were localized informal practices of racial separation in some areas of society along with what he termed "forgotten alternatives" in others. Finally the 1890s saw white southerners "capitulate to racism" to create "legally prescribed, rigidly enforced, state-wide Jim Crowism."

Origins of the New South, 1877–1913
Origins of the New South, 1877–1913 was published in 1951 by Louisiana State University Press as multivolume history of the South. It combined the Beardian theme of economic forces shaping history and the Faulknerian tone of tragedy and decline. He insisted on the discontinuity of the era and rejected both the romantic antebellum popular images of the Lost Cause school and the overoptimistic business boosterism of the New South Creed. Sheldon Hackney, a Woodward student, hailed the book.

Appointments, teaching and awards
Woodward was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1958 and the American Philosophical Society in 1959.

Woodward taught at Johns Hopkins University from 1946 to 1961. He became Sterling Professor of History at Yale from 1961 to 1977, where he taught both graduate students and undergraduates. He did much writing but little original research at Yale, frequently writing essays for such outlets as the New York Review of Books.  He directed 25 PhD dissertations, including those by
 John W. Blassingame, former chair of the African American studies program at Yale;
 James M. McPherson, Professor of History at Princeton University;
 J. Morgan Kousser, Professor of History at California Institute of Technology
 J. Mills Thornton, Professor of History at University of Michigan
 Patricia Nelson Limerick, Professor of History at the University of Colorado at Boulder;
 Lawrence N. Powell, Professor of History at Tulane University
 Michel Wayne, Professor of History at the University of Toronto;
 Steven Hahn, Professor of History at the New York University;
 John Herbert Roper, Richardson Chair of American History at Emory & Henry College;
 Barbara Fields, Professor of History at Columbia University.

In 1974, the United States House Committee on the Judiciary asked Woodward for an historical study of misconduct in previous administrations and how the Presidents responded. Woodward led a group of fourteen historians, and they produced a 400-page report in less than four months, Responses of the Presidents to Charges of Misconduct.

In 1978 the National Endowment for the Humanities selected Woodward for the Jefferson Lecture, the federal government's highest honor for achievement in the humanities. His lecture, entitled "The European Vision of America," was later incorporated into his book The Old World's New World.

Woodward won the Pulitzer Prize in 1982 for Mary Chesnut's Civil War, an edited version of Mary Chesnut's Civil War diary. He won the Bancroft Prize for Origins of the New South.

Move to the Right
Peter Novick says, "Vann Woodward was always very conflicted about the 'presentism' of his work. He alternated between denying it, qualifying it, and apologizing for it." British historian Michael O'Brien, the editor of Woodward's letters in 2013, says that by the 1970s

He became greatly troubled by the rise of the black power movement, disliked affirmative action, never came to grips with feminism, mistrusted what came to be known as "theory," and became a strong opponent of multiculturalism and "political correctness."

In 1969, as president of the American Historical Association, Woodward led the fight to defeat a proposal by New Left historians to politicize the organization. He wrote his daughter afterwards, "The preparations paid off and I had pretty well second-guessed the Rads on every turn."

In 1975–6 Woodward led the unsuccessful fight at Yale to block the temporary appointment of Communist historian Herbert Aptheker to teach a course. Radicals denounced his actions but a joint committee of the Organization of American Historians and the American Historical Association exonerated the process and found that there was no evidence that political criteria had been used. In 1987 he joined the conservative scholars who made up the National Association of Scholars, a group explicitly opposed to the academic Left. Woodward wrote a favorable review in the New York Review of Books of Dinesh D'Souza's Illiberal Education: The Politics of Race and Sex on Campus. It said that Duke University used racial criteria when it hired John Hope Franklin; Franklin and Woodward publicly feuded. Hackney says, "Woodward became an open critic of political correctness and in other ways appeared to have shifted his seat at the political table."

Death and legacy
C. Vann Woodward died December 17, 1999, in Hamden, Connecticut, at the age of 91.

Woodward cautioned that the academicians had themselves abdicated their role as storytellers:Professionals do well to apply the term "amateur" with caution to the historian outside their ranks. The word does have deprecatory and patronizing connotations that occasionally backfire. This is especially true of narrative history, which nonprofessionals have all but taken over. The gradual withering of the narrative impulse in favor of the analytical urge among professional academic historians has resulted in a virtual abdication of the oldest and most honored role of the historian, that of storyteller. Having abdicated... the professional is in a poor position to patronize amateurs who fulfill the needed function he has abandoned.

The Southern Historical Association has established the C. Vann Woodward Dissertation Prize, awarded annually to the best dissertation on Southern history. There is a Peter V. and C. Vann Woodward Chair of History at Yale; it is now held by southern historian Glenda Gilmore. (Peter was Woodward's son, who died at age 26 in 1969.)

He was a Charter member of the Fellowship of Southern Writers.

Works

Books
 Tom Watson, Agrarian Rebel (1938)
  The Battle for Leyte Gulf (1947, new ed. 1965) online
 Origins of the New South, 1877–1913 (1951) borrow for 14 days
 Reunion and Reaction: The Compromise of 1877 and the End of Reconstruction (1951, rev. ed. 1991)
 The Strange Career of Jim Crow. (1st ed. February 1955; 2nd ed. August 1965; 3rd ed. NY: Oxford University Press, 1974).  . borrow for 14 days
 The Age of Reinterpretation (1961).  pamphlet
 The Burden of Southern History (1955; 3rd ed. 1993)
 The Comparative Approach to American History (1968),  editor
 American Counterpoint (1971). essays
 Mary Chesnut's Civil War (1981), editor. Pulitzer prize.
 Oxford History of the United States (1982–2018), series editor.
 The Private Mary Chestnut: The Unpublished Civil War Diaries (1984) edited, with Elizabeth Muhlenfeld. online
 Thinking Back: The Perils of Writing History (Louisiana State University Press, 1986). memoirs
 The Old World's New World (1991). lectures online
 The Letters of C. Vann Woodward. edited by Michael O'Brien, (Yale University Press, 2013)

Major journal articles
 "Tom Watson and the Negro in Agrarian Politics". Journal of Southern History, Vol. 4, No. 1 (Feb., 1938), pp. 14–33.
 "The Irony of Southern History". Journal of Southern History, Vol. 19, No. 1 (Feb., 1953), pp. 3–19.
 "The Political Legacy of Reconstruction". Journal of Negro Education, Vol. 26, No. 3, The Negro Voter in the South (Summer, 1957), pp. 231–240.
 "The Age of Reinterpretation". American Historical Review, Vol. 66, No. 1 (Oct., 1960), pp. 1–19.
 "Seeds of Failure in Radical Race Policy". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. 110, No. 1 (Feb. 18, 1966), pp. 1–9.
 "History and the Third Culture".  Journal of Contemporary History, Vol. 3, No. 2, Reappraisals (Apr., 1968), pp. 23–35.
 "The Southern Ethic in a Puritan World". William and Mary Quarterly, Vol. 25, No. 3 (Jul., 1968), pp. 344–370.
 "Clio With Soul". Journal of American History, Vol. 56, No. 1 (June, 1969), pp. 5–20.
 "The Future of the Past". American Historical Review, Vol. 75, No. 3 (Feb., 1970), pp. 711–726.
 "The Erosion of Academic Privileges and Immunities". Daedalus, Vol. 103, No. 4, (Fall, 1974), pp. 33–37.
 "The Aging of America". American Historical Review, Vol. 82, No. 3 (Jun., 1977), pp. 583–594.
 "The Fall of the American Adam". Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Vol. 35, No. 2 (Nov., 1981), pp. 26–34.
 "Strange Career Critics: Long May they Persevere". Journal of American History, Vol. 75, No. 3 (Dec., 1988), pp. 857–868.
 "Look Away, Look Away". Journal of Southern History, Vol. 59, No. 3 (Aug., 1993), pp. 487–504.

References

Further reading
 Boles, John B. and Bethany L. Johnson, eds. Origins of the New South Fifty Years Later (2003), articles by scholars online review
 Cobb, James, C. Vann Woodward: America's Historian (2022). North Carolina Press. . Review by Eric Foner
 Ferrell, Robert. "C. Vann Woodward" in Clio's Favorites: Leading Historians of the United States, 1945–2000. ed. by Robert Allen Rutland (2000) pp. 170–81
 Hackney, Sheldon. "Origins of the New South in Retrospect," Journal of Southern History (1972) 38#2  pp. 191–216 in JSTOR
 Hackney, Sheldon. "C. Vann Woodward: 13 November 1908 – 17 December 1999," Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society (2001) 145#2 pp. 233–240 in JSTOR
 Hackney, Sheldon. "C. Vann Woodward, Dissenter," Historically Speaking (2009) 10#1 pp. 31–34 in Project MUSE
 Kousser, J. Morgan and James M. McPherson, eds. Religion, Race and Reconstruction: Essays in Honor of C. Vann Woodward (1982), festschrift of articles; also lists most of his Ph.D. students
 Lerner, Mitchell, "Conquering the Hearts of the People: Lyndon Johnson, C. Vann Woodward, and 'The Irony of Southern History,'" Southwestern Historical Quarterly 115 (Oct. 2011), 155–71.
 Potter, David M. "C. Vann Woodward," in Pastmasters: Some Essays on American Historians, ed. Marcus Cunliffe and Robin W. Winks (1969).
 Rabinowitz, Howard N. "More Than the Woodward Thesis: Assessing The Strange Career of Jim Crow," Journal of American History (1988) 75#3 pp. 842–856 in JSTOR
 Woodward, C. Vann. "Strange Career Critics: Long May They Persevere," Journal of American History (1988) 75#3 pp. 857–868. a reply to Rabinowitz in JSTOR

 Roper, John Herbert, ed. C. Vann Woodward: A Southern Historian and His Critics (1997), essays about Woodward

External links
 Woodward Papers at Yale with short biography
 Oral History Interview with C. Vann Woodward from Oral Histories of the American South
 Obituary and interview with Woodward's student, James McPherson, 24 December 1999 David Walsh on the World Socialist Web Site
 Who Speaks for the Negro Vanderbilt documentary website

1908 births
1999 deaths
Columbia University alumni
Henderson State University alumni
Vanderbilt University faculty
Historians of the Southern United States
Historians from Arkansas
Historians of race relations
Johns Hopkins University faculty
Writers from Arkansas
People from Cross County, Arkansas
Presidents of the American Historical Association
Pulitzer Prize for History winners
Bancroft Prize winners
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill alumni
Yale University faculty
Georgia Tech faculty
Historians of the American Civil War
20th-century American historians
American male non-fiction writers
People from Morrilton, Arkansas
People from Arkadelphia, Arkansas
Corresponding Fellows of the British Academy
Harold Vyvyan Harmsworth Professors of American History
Yale Sterling Professors
20th-century American male writers
Fulbright alumni
Members of the American Philosophical Society
Members of the American Academy of Arts and Letters

C. Vann Woodward


Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service (in the Department of Agriculture) (ASCS)
Replaced in 1994 with the Farm Service Agency.
 Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA)
 Board of Economic Warfare (BEW)
 Board of Tea Appeals
Abolished in 1996
 Bureau of Arms Control (in the Department of State)
Replaced September 13, 2005, by the Bureau of International Security and Nonproliferation
 Bureau of Nonproliferation (in the Department of State)
Replaced September 13, 2005, by the Bureau of International Security and Nonproliferation
 Bureau of Verification and Compliance (in the Department of State)
Replaced February 1, 2000 by the Bureau of Verification, Compliance, and Implementation
 Civil Aeronautics Board was an agency of the federal government of the United States, formed in 1938 and abolished in 1985.
 Committee on Public Information (CPI)
Department of War existed from August 7, 1789, until September 18, 1947, and renamed the United States Department of the Army in 1949.
 Farmers Home Administration
Replaced in 1994 with the Farm Service Agency.
 Farm Security Administration (FSA)
 Federal National Mortgage Association (FNMA or Fannie Mae)
Fannie Mae was partially privatized in 1968; its government administered portion was renamed the Government National Mortgage Association (Ginnie Mae); see Department of Housing and Urban Development, above
 Health Care Financing Administration (HCFA)
Renamed Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services; see Department of Health and Human Services, above
 Student Loan Marketing Association (SLMA or Sallie Mae)
Sallie Mae has been fully privatized and is no longer administered by the federal government.
 Foreign Economic Administration (FEA)
 Federal Theatre Project  (FTP)
 General Accounting Office (GAO)
Renamed "Government Accountability Office" in 2004; see #Legislative Branch, above.
 Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC)
 Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS)
Now the United States Citizenship and Immigration Service (USCIS)
 National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics  (NACA)
 U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey
Renamed U.S. National Geodetic Survey
 Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs (OCIAA)
 Office of Technology Assessment (OTA)
Congress closed the OTA in 2004.
 Office of War Information (OWI)
 Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC)
 Resettlement Administration (RA)
Turned into Farm Security Administration in 1937.
 United States Information Agency (USIA)
 United States Life-Saving Service
Merged with the Revenue Cutter Service to create the United States Coast Guard
 Veterans Administration (VA)
Became a cabinet department in 1988; see United States Department of Veterans Affairs, above.
 War Production Board (WPB)
 Works Progress Administration (WPA)

See also
List of United States federal agencies

External links
U.S. Government Manual, official online version of the United States Government Manual, continually updated.
U.S. Government Manual, official freely downloadable PDFs of  annual printed versions, 1995–present. Edition printed November 2013 includes appendix, "History of Agency Organizational Changes" (pp. 547–608) and "Commonly Used Agency Acronyms"(pp. 539–545).
CyberCemetery, online document archive of defunct U.S. Federal Agencies, maintained by the University of North Texas Libraries in partnership with the Federal Depository Library Program of the GPO

Defunct agencies of the United States government
United States federal agencies
-

List of defunct or renamed United States federal agencies


The Kronshtadt Orion is a family of Russian unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) developed by Kronstadt Group. There are several variants of the drone, both for Russia's domestic and export market.

Development
Kronstadt began the development of Orion in 2011 as part of the Russian MoD-funded Inokhodets programme. In 2013–2015, the company revealed the first layout of the Orion. In May 2016, RIA Novosti reported that test flights of the drone had begun.

On 24 August 2021, it was reported that the Russian MoD and Kronshtadt signed a deal for the procurement of 5 combat groups of an upgraded version of Orion, Inokhodets-RU (also known as Sirius). Each group will have several drones; delivery is scheduled for 2023.

The large-scale Russian-Belarusian exercise Zapad in September 2021 included Orion drones.

Operational history
According to Russian Defense Minister Sergei Shoigu, the Orion was tested for strike missions in 2019 in Syria. In 2020, the Russian Defence Ministry received the first batch of Orion drones for trial operation.

By 9 April during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, there was video confirmation of Orion performing six successful strikes on Ukrainian vehicles, however the first combat loss of a drone was reported on 7 April.

As of 17 August 2023, 6 Orion drones have reportedly been lost in combat according to Oryx. Oryx only counts losses confirmed through open sources.

Variants
Orion (Inokhodets)
Original version, also known as . Can carry four guided bombs or four missiles and has a maximum payload of 200 kg.

Orion-E
Export version of the Orion. Export contracts for the reconnaissance version of the drone have been signed.

Orion-2 (Helios)

Also known as Helios, the Orion-2 is a larger version of the original Orion, with a bigger payload, classified as a high-altitude long-endurance (HALE) UAV, rather than the medium-altitude long-endurance (MALE) classification of the original Orion. It weighs 5 tonnes (11,000 pounds) with a wingspan of 30 meters (98.42 feet). It is intended for autonomous operations of up to 30 hours, at altitudes above 10,000 meters. A full-scale mock-up was unveiled on August 27, 2020, at the Kronstadt pilot plant. The first flight is planned for 2023. There is also an export version of Orion-2.

Inokhodets-RU (Sirius)
Also known as Sirius, the Inokhodets-RU is an upgraded variant of the Orion with a bigger and different design, the key difference being twin engines. Sirius is a medium-altitude long-endurance (MALE) attack UAV, with a wingspan of 30m, length of 9m and height of 3.3m, a maximum combat load of 450kg, cruise speed of 295km/h, maximum altitude 12,000m, and an endurance of 40 hours. A full-size mock-up of the 5 tonne drone was presented at the MAKS-2019 International Aviation and Space Exposition held at Zhukovsky International Airport near Moscow, Russia.  Inokhodets-RU has been tested jointly with piloted aircraft as of August 2022. First flight occurred in 2023.

Specifications (Orion-E)

See also
Sokol Altius
Luch Korsar
Sukhoi S-70 Okhotnik-B

References

External links

Unmanned military aircraft of Russia
Aircraft first flown in 2019
2010s Russian military aircraft

Kronshtadt Orion


Sassenheim () is a town and former municipality in the western Netherlands, in the province of South Holland.

The former municipality covered an area of 6.62 km² (of which 0.23 km² water) and had a population of 14,906 in 2005. Since 1 January 2006, it is part of the Teylingen municipality. In 2020, the population reached 15,755.
The name Sassenheim consists of two parts; the first (Sassen) means Saxons, and the second portion (heim) is Old Frankish for "home".

History

The name Sassenheim is mentioned in documents for the first time in 870 as Hostsagnem ('East Sassenheim') and Westsagnem ('West Sassenheim'). Later, in the 10th century, the name Saxnem, Zassenem or Sassem was used. It was formed between the towns of Leiden and Lisse on the eastern edge of the old coastal beach ridges where the main road from Leiden to Haarlem was located. Along this road many castles and estates were built, including the mansions along Sassenheim's Main Street (Hoofdstraat) dating from the early 1900s. The village church is built on a dune top and portrays a variety of construction styles. Sassenheim is located in an area called the "Dune and Bulb Region" (Duin- en Bollenstreek). Historically, Sassenheim had a large bulbflower industry but this has now all but disappeared, only a few fields remain.

One of the most interesting attractions in Sassenheim are the ruins of Castle Teylingen. This stronghold was built to guard the north–south route in Holland and later became a residence of countess Jacoba of Bavaria. Its outer walls date from the beginning of the 13th century. Around 1570 during the Eighty Years' War, the castle was heavily damaged but rebuilt afterwards. It was bought by the State in 1889 and restored in 1900.

Since World War II it has placed much emphasis on attracting light industry. The territory of Sassenheim is partly used for this purpose and partly for residential construction. The few bulbs lands owned by the municipality, have virtually disappeared. The many bulbs barns are almost all demolished. Trade and production have moved to areas outside Sassenheim. In the second half of the 20th century Sassenheim becomes a greater town with new districts around the historical town center, first in the Southeast and the West (during the 60s-70s) and later in the rest of the village.

On December 11, 2011 Sassenheim Train station has opened near the motorway A44.

Gallery

Notable people from Sassenheim
Bart Zoet (20 October 1942), cyclist
Patty Trossèl (born 1963), singer and composer
Tim Mudde (23 February 1965), far-right activist and singer of Brigade M
Martin Hersman (26 February 1974), speed skater
Jacob Veldhuyzen van Zanten - pilot in the Tenerife disaster

References

External links

Official Website
History of Sassenheim and Teylingen (in Dutch)
 Information about the history

Municipalities of the Netherlands disestablished in 2006
Populated places in South Holland
Former municipalities of South Holland
Teylingen

Sassenheim


Angela of the Cross Guerrero y González ( or María de los Ángeles Guerrero González; 30 January 1846 – 2 March 1932) was a Spanish religious sister and the foundress of the , a Roman Catholic religious institute dedicated to helping the abandoned poor and the ill with no one to care for them. She was canonized in 2003 by Pope John Paul II.

Early life
Born in Seville on 30 January 1846, at 5 Plaza de Santa Lucia, she was baptised on 2 February in the Church of Santa Lucia under the name María de los Angeles.

The family was humble. Her father, Francisco Guerrero, was a wool carder from Grazalema who had moved to Seville. Her mother, Josefa González, was from Seville, a daughter of parents born in Arahal and Zafra. She was one of 14 children, of whom only six reached adulthood.

Both of Guerrero's parents worked in a priory of the Trinitarian friars in Seville, her father as a cook and her mother as a laundress and seamstress. Her schooling was limited, as was typical of young girls of that social class at the time. She received her first communion when she was eight years old and confirmation when she was nine. At 12 years of age she went to work in a shoe repair shop to help the family income, and remained there almost continuously until she was 29.

Religious awakening
Guerrero's supervisor at the shoe repair shop was Antonia Maldonado, a devout lady who encouraged her employees to pray together, recite the rosary, and read about the lives of saints. Through Maldonado, when Guerrero was 16 years old, she was introduced to José Torres y Padilla, a priest from the Canary Islands with a reputation for holiness, who was Maldonado's spiritual director. He became Guerrero's spiritual guide and confessor and came to have a major influence on her.

In 1865, at age 19, Guerrero applied to enter the convent of the Discalced Carmelite nuns in Seville as a lay sister. Her application, however, was denied because the state of her health seemed inadequate for the heavy physical work demanded of those members of the monastic community. She was then advised by Torres to start work among the ill, particularly those suffering from cholera, which was rife at that time. Three years later, in 1868, she applied again to enter consecrated life, this time to the Daughters of Charity in Seville and, although still not well, she was accepted. The sisters attempted to nurse her to full health, sending her to Valencia to recover, but Guerrero finally had to leave the convent during her novitiate and returned to work in the shoe factory. During this time she kept a detailed spiritual diary which revealed the style and life ideals that she felt called to live.

Foundress

On 2 August 1875, Guerrero (now 29 years old) left the shoe shop and was joined by three other women, Josefa de la Peña, who was wealthy, and Juana María Castro and Juana Magadán, both from poor families like Guerrero's, who established themselves as a religious community. Torres assumed the position of director of the new institute and appointed Guerrero as the sister superior of the community. With money from De la Peña, they had rented a small room with access to a kitchen at 13 San Luis Street in Seville, and from there they organized a day and night support service for the local poor and ill. At that time, they began to wear a religious habit and Guerrero took the religious name of Mother Angela of the Cross.

The community received official approval on 5 April 1876 from Luis de la Lastra y Cuesta, the cardinal archbishop of Seville. In 1877 a second community was founded in Utrera, in the Province of Seville, and later another was founded in Ayamonte. Torres died in the same year and his place as director of the institute was taken by his protegee, José María Alvarez y Delgado. That same year, Guerrero took her perpetual religious vows under him. 23 communities of the new institute came to be founded, mostly around western Andalusia and southern Extremadura.

Death
Guerrero died in Seville on 2 March 1932 from natural causes, aged 86, and was entombed in the Sisters of the Cross Convent. Seventy-one years later, on 4 May 2003, her body was transferred to Seville Cathedral as part of the celebration of her canonization. Her body remained on display for a week in a glass-sided coffin until it was returned to the convent on 11 May.

Canonization
Guerrero's cause was formally opened on 11 July 1952, granting her the title of Servant of God. She was declared venerable on 12 February 1976 by Pope Paul VI, and beatified on 5 November 1982 by Pope John Paul II in Seville. Finally she was declared a saint on 4 May 2003 by Pope John Paul II in the Plaza de Colón in Madrid.

References

1846 births
1932 deaths
People from Seville
Founders of Catholic religious communities
19th-century Spanish nuns
Incorrupt saints
Spanish Roman Catholic saints
Beatifications by Pope John Paul II
Canonizations by Pope John Paul II
20th-century Spanish nuns

Angela of the Cross


The 2012 Eastern Illinois Panthers football team represented Eastern Illinois University as a member of the Ohio Valley Conference (OVC) during the 2012 NCAA Division I FCS football season. Led by first-year head coach Dino Babers, the Panthers compiled an overall record of 7–5 overall with a mark of 6–1 in conference play, winning the OVC title. Eastern Illinois earned the conference's automatic bid into the NCAA Division I Football Championship playoffs, where they lost in the first round to South Dakota State. The team played home games at O'Brien Field in Charleston, Illinois.

Schedule

References

Eastern Illinois
Eastern Illinois Panthers football seasons
Ohio Valley Conference football champion seasons
Eastern Illinois
Eastern Illinois Panthers football


McNally v. United States, 483 U.S. 350 (1987), was a case in which the United States Supreme Court decided that the federal statute criminalizing mail fraud applied only to the schemes and artifices defrauding victims of money or property, as opposed to those defrauding citizens of their rights to good government. The case was superseded one year later when the United States Congress amended the law to specifically include honest services fraud in the mail and wire fraud statutes.

Background of case
Julian Carroll became Governor of Kentucky in 1974; that same year, Howard P. Hunt became the chairman of the Kentucky Democratic Party. Kentucky purchased workmen's compensation insurance from Wombwell Insurance Agency; Hunt conspired with Robert Tabeling, the vice president of the insurance agency, to award the state's insurance business to Wombwell in exchange for kickbacks being sent to other insurance agencies specified by Hunt. $200,000 in kickbacks made it to Seton Investments, Inc., which was nominally headed by Charles McNally but actually run by Hunt and Carroll's Secretary of Public Protection and Regulation, James E. Gray. McNally received $75,500 for acting as frontman for Seton, while Hunt and Gray used the rest of the money to purchase condominiums in Florida and an automobile, among others.

In 1983, Hunt, McNally, and Gray were indicted by a federal grand jury on charges of mail fraud for defrauding the citizens of Kentucky of "their right to have the Commonwealth's business and its affairs conducted honestly, impartially, free from corruption, bias, dishonesty, deceit, official misconduct, and fraud", and of "money and other things of value", using the United States mail. Hunt pleaded guilty to mail and tax fraud, and he was sentenced to three years in prison. Six of the eight charges against the defendants were dismissed before the trial, but they were convicted by a jury on the remaining two counts of conspiracy and fraud.

Appeal
McNally and Gray appealed to the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit, arguing that Hunt's fraud, which they had been convicted of abetting, was not honest services fraud because he had no fiduciary duty to the people of Kentucky. The Sixth Circuit, noting Gray's fiduciary duty to the people of Kentucky as Secretary of Public Protection and Regulation, concluded that Hunt also had a fiduciary duty to the people of Kentucky as a de facto public official due to his substantial participation in governmental affairs and "de facto control" of the awarding of the insurance contract to Wombwell.

The appellants also argued that their rights to due process of law were violated by the indictment, contending that it failed to allege that Hunt and Gray had a fiduciary duty to the citizens of Kentucky, a fact of which they necessarily had to be informed in order to understand the elements of the charges against them. The Sixth Circuit rejected this argument as well, stating that the indictment contained sufficient information for the defendants to be apprised of the charges, including the identification of the roles Hunt and Gray played in the conspiracy to defraud.

The Sixth Circuit affirmed the convictions on May 12, 1986. The Supreme Court of the United States granted certiorari and reversed the decision of the lower court; the case was argued before the Court on April 22, 1987, and decided on June 24 of that year.

Decision

Majority
Justice White wrote the opinion of the Court, holding that the federal mail fraud statute only protected money and property, not the public's intangible right to honest government:
Rather than construe the statute in a manner that leaves its outer boundaries ambiguous and involves the Federal Government in setting standards of disclosure and good government for local and state officials, we read 1341 as limited in scope to the protection of property rights. If Congress desires to go further, it must speak more clearly than it has.
The law, passed in 1872 during a postal law recodification, originally only criminalized "any scheme or artifice to defraud." In March 1909, Congress added another clause, reading "or for obtaining money or property by means of false or fraudulent pretenses, representations, or promises." In McNally, the Court therefore concluded that Congress intended the mail fraud statute's scope to be limited to protecting money and property, citing its ruling in United States v. Universal C. I. T. Credit Corp., which stated that "when choice has to be made between two readings of what conduct Congress has made a crime, it is appropriate, before we choose the harsher alternative, to require that Congress should have spoken in language that is clear and definite. We should not derive criminal outlawry from some ambiguous implication."

The convictions of McNally and Gray were thus reversed.

Dissent
Justice Stevens wrote the dissenting opinion, arguing that "nothing in the words 'any scheme or artifice to defraud,' or in the purpose of the statute, justifies limiting its application to schemes intended to deprive victims of money or property."

See also
 List of abrogated U.S. Supreme Court decisions
 List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 483
 List of United States Supreme Court cases
 Lists of United States Supreme Court cases by volume
 List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Rehnquist Court
Skilling v. United States

References

External links

United States Supreme Court cases
United States Supreme Court cases of the Rehnquist Court
United States statutory interpretation case law
1987 in United States case law
Honest services fraud case law
United States federal public corruption crime case law
Abrogated United States Supreme Court decisions
Legal history of Kentucky
Political corruption scandals in the United States

McNally v. United States


Suzuka International Racin Course (鈴鹿サーキット, Suzuka Sākitto?), Suzuka Circuit for short, is a motorsport race track located in Ino, Suzuka, Mie Prefectur, Japan an operate bi Mobilityland Corporation, a subsidiar o Honda Motor Co., Ltd..

Introduction
Designed as a Honda test track in 1962 bi John Hugenholtz, Suzuka is ane o few circuits in the warld to hae a figure 8 layoot. Due tae the obvious danger it woud present, the track disna actually intersect wi itsel; insteid, the back straucht passes ower the front section bi means o an overpass.

The circuit can be uised in three configurations; the fou circuit, the "Suzuka East" an "Suzuka Wast" configuration. The "East" portion o the course consists o the pit straucht tae the first hauf o the Dunlop curve (turn 7), before leadin back to the pit straight via a ticht right-hander. The "Wast" course is made up o the ither pairt o the fou circuit, wi the pitlane located at the straucht afore the 130R corner. Baith the "Suzuka East" an "Suzuka Wast" configurations dinna include the Casio Triangle chicane.

References

Honda
Motorsport venues in Japan
Suzuka
Suzuka
Japanese Grand Prix
NASCAR tracks
Sports venues in Mie Prefectur
World Touring Car Championship circuits

Suzuka Circuit


Shanachie Records is an American, New Jersey-based record label, founded in 1975 by Richard Nevins and Dan Collins. The label is named for the Gaelic word seanchaí (anglicised as shanachie), an Irish storyteller.

It was previously distributed by Entertainment One Distribution.

Starting as a label that specialized in fiddle music, they began releasing work by Celtic groups such as Planxty and Clannad. Other genres on the label include Latin American, African music, soul, country, and ska. In 1989 they acquired Yazoo Records from Nick Perls. This allowed them to release vintage jazz and blues recordings. Today they have another imprint, Shanachie Jazz.

In 1992 Shanachie began releasing CDs by folk singer-songwriters including Richard Shindell, Dolores Keane, John Stewart, Rod MacDonald, Richard Meyer, Karan Casey, Sue Foley, Four Bitchin' Babes, Kevin Gordon, and others.

In 1980 Shanachie released its first reggae album, King Tubbys Meets Rockers In a Firehouse by Augustus Pablo, and soon after released albums from many reggae artists including Rita Marley, Culture, Bunny Wailer, Judy Mowatt, Alpha Blondy, Lucky Dube, The Skatalites and others. Shanachie was the U.S. liaison for the UK-based reggae label, Greensleeves Records, until about 1987. Shanachie also released material for Augustus Pablo under the Message imprint of his company, Rockers International. The Grammy Award-winning Soweto Gospel Choir releases albums on Shanachie Records, as has Grammy nominated Liquid Soul.

The Latin acts on the label include Los Jovenes del Barrio.

See also
List of record labels

References

External links

1976 establishments in the United States
American country music record labels
American independent record labels
Folk record labels
Jazz record labels
Latin American music record labels
Record labels established in 1976
Reggae record labels
Ska record labels
Smooth jazz record labels
Soul music record labels
World music record labels

Shanachie Records


Heavyweight Wrestling from Washington is the first weekly televised wrestling program that was produced by the WWE, which at the time was a regional professional wrestling promotion called Capitol Wrestling Corporation, a member of the National Wrestling Alliance. The show was hosted by Bill Malone (1956), Morris Siegel (1956–1959) and Ray Morgan (1959–1971) and was taped at the Capitol Arena in Washington, D.C.

The show debuted on January 5, 1956, and aired until September 1971 when Vincent James McMahon moved the television tapings to eastern Pennsylvania and replaced Heavyweight Wrestling with All Star Wrestling. Morgan stayed with All Star Wrestling until he was replaced by McMahon's son Vincent K. McMahon.

References

1956 American television series debuts
1972 American television series endings
Television series by WWE

Heavyweight Wrestling


Gay was Toronto's first gay magazine, published almost simultaneously with ASK Newsletter, together among Canada's first gay magazines. The magazine was first printed on 30 March 1964. The earliest periodical anywhere to use "Gay" in its title. Produced by four Toronto men in a commercial venture, the Gay Publishing Company, Gay ran "serious" articles, letters to the editor, a diary, gossip columns, a feature called the "Gabrial Club", poetry, fiction, politics and a discreet personal column. Gay was illustrated, usually with photographs of drag queens, but also including physique photography.

Intended for a "mainstream" gay audience, it reflected cautious reformism, defending the rights and normalcy of a constituency living in a hostile environment. This was not unlike the political activism emerging in a few large American and European cities before more confrontational activism. Gay also published articles on Toronto police raids on bars, and on the calls for social and political change that were beginning to surface.

The first 500-copy issue sold out almost immediately. With a print-run of 2000 copies by issue three, the magazine was distributed to a number of outlets in Toronto and Montreal. Shortly afterwards, Gay expanded into the United States as Gay International. It quickly outstripped American publications' distribution, and by the spring of 1965 it was distributing 20,000 copies across North America and selling about 8000. Publication ended in 1966 when criminal charges were levied against one of its central creators.

References

1960s LGBT literature
1964 establishments in Ontario
1966 disestablishments in Ontario
Defunct magazines published in Canada
Gay culture in Canada
Gay history
Gay men's magazines
LGBT culture in Toronto
LGBT history in Canada
LGBT-related magazines published in Canada
Magazines disestablished in 1966
Magazines established in 1964
Magazines published in Toronto

Gay (magazine)


Jorge Leal Amado de Faria (10 August 1912 – 6 August 2001) was a Brazilian writer of the modernist school. He remains the best known of modern Brazilian writers, with his work having been translated into some 49 languages and popularized in film, notably Dona Flor and Her Two Husbands in 1976. His work reflects the image of a Mestiço Brazil and is marked by religious syncretism. He depicted a cheerful and optimistic country that was beset, at the same time, with deep social and economic differences.

References

1912 births
2001 deaths
Brazilian writers

Jorge Amado


The tour of the Bangladesh team to Kenya, during February, 1984, was the first visit of Bangladesh to any associate member country. The tour started a rivalry (between Bangladesh & Kenya cricket teams) which became very intense in the 1990s. On this tour, Bangladesh drew the only 3-Day fixture, won a 2-day (over restricted) match, but won only 1 of the 5 limited over matches(That too against the Combined School XI). Overall, it was a disappointing tour for the Bangladesh side.

The Bangladesh team

The tour followed immediately after the South East Asian Cricket cup in Bangladesh. Apart from the Bangladesh National team (which won the cup), The Bangladesh Tigers (The unofficial 'A' team, consisting mostly of youngsters) had participated in that cup. Players like, Rafiqul Alam. Minhajul Abedin Nannu, Hafizur Rahman & Wahidul Gani, having done well for the tigers were included in the team for Kenya tour. The team had a nice balance of youth and experience, yet during the tour, they failed to perform up to expectations, mainly due to disunity among the players. There was conflict of interests between the younger and older members of the side.

Scores in brief

Bangladesh performance

Despite the poor performance of the side Assaduzzaman Misha emerged as a bright light during the tour. Considered as not suitable for limited over game, he was not picked for the first two one-day matches. Given his chance in the 2 Day match, he scored 33 and 36. But his best came in the 3-Day match against the Kenya national XI. After the hosts posted a 300+ score, Misha led a spirited Bangladesh reply. He top scored with 68 & put on 73 with Minhajul Abedin for the 1st wicket, and 71 with Gazi Ashraf for the 2nd. Surprisingly, despite this performance Misha was dropped for the One-Day Match against Kenya Cricket Association. He returned to the team for the last two matches and scored 47 & 23 (top score for his side on each occasion). Following the retirement of Yousuf Rahman, at the end of the season, Misha was the undisputed No. 1 opener of the country. Unfortunately, like many others of his generation, he gave greater importance to his professional career (he was a doctor by profession). Thus, he was very rarely available for national team duty after 1985.

Lipu did well in the 2 Day and 3 Day matches. but failed in the One-Day matches. With, regular opener Yousuf Babu struggling for form, Nehal Hasnain & Minhajul Abedin Nannu were tried in the opening slot.

Yousuf Rahman failed with the bat, but rather unexpectedly, he emerged as his team's most effective bowler. Badshah put on a big effort in the 3 Day match and won admiration from the opponents. Lipu and Misha did a good job as part-time spinners, but the main spin bowler Wahidul Gani was very disappointing.

Top batsman and bowler

A bitter rivalry

This tour started a bitter rivalry between two of the more stronger associate member nations. During the next decade or so, they met each other regularly in different ICC Trophy tournaments.

In 1986, both the teams performed very poorly in the tournament. But, in 1990, both the teams reached SF with Bangladeshfinishing 3rd, and Kenya 4th. They met in a vital match in the 94 ICC trophy. After their defeat at the hands of the Netherlands, it was a do or die match for Bangladesh. A narrow defeat saw them miss their chance of a WC place. Kenya eventually finished runners up (Behind UAE) and qualified for the 1996 WC in the Indian subcontinent. In !997, the two teams met in a thrilling final. With both sides already assured of WC places only pride was at stake. Bangladesh snatched a last ball victory to lift the Trophy. In July, 1997, both the nations were granted permission to play full ODIs and thus were guaranteed a place in the future WCs, so the saga of ICC Trophy ended there.

The only meeting between the two nations in WC cricket came at Johannesburg, South Africa, in 2003. Kenya won this match and eventually went onto reach the Semi-Finals. The old nemesis, Maurice Odumbe came back to haunt the Bangladeshi players again, with a superb all-round performance. This, however, is Kenya's last ODI win (Until July 2009), over Bangladesh. Bangladesh has dominated the recent matches.

Bangladesh vs Kenya: head to head in ODIs

The first full ODI between the 2 teams took place at Nairobi, in Oct. 1997, and resulted in a crushing victory for the hosts. Chudasama (122) & Kennedy Otieno (144) put on 225 for the first wicket, as the hosts rattled a huge total of 347/3 from their 50 overs. In reply, Bangladesh could only master 197. Bangladesh achieved their first ever ODI win, when they beat Kenya at Hyderabad(India)in 1998. Chasing 237 for victory, Bangladesh reached their target thanks mainly to Mohammad Rafique, who scored 77. Bangladesh's next victory over Kenya didn't come before 2006. But, since then, Bangladesh, now a full member of ICC, has totally dominated the rivalry.

Co-operation between the rivals
Despite the intense rivalry between the two countries, there is also considerable cooperation as well. In early 1995, Kenya toured Bangladesh. Though, they lost most of the games, this tour gave them the opportunity to gain valuable experience about South Asian pitches and conditions. This experience helped them in their WC performance a year later. With the Bangladesh side going through some changes, following the disastrous ICC Trophy, a year earlier, this tour provided the local selectors the chance to try some youngsters.

Kenya's two most famous cricketers, Maurice Odumbe & Steve Tikolo have played club cricket at Dhaka, with great distinction.

References

1983 in cricket
1984 in cricket
1983 in Kenya
1984 in Kenya
1983-84
International cricket competitions from 1980–81 to 1985
Kenyan cricket seasons to 1999–2000
1983 in Bangladeshi cricket
1984 in Bangladeshi cricket
1984 in Kenyan cricket

Bangladeshi cricket team in Kenya in 1983–84


A bicameral system of government is one where there are two legislative or parliamentary chambers. The word comes from the Latin "bi" (meaning two) and "camera" (meaning chamber). In most cases they have different numbers of members. The smaller legislature is often called the "upper house" or "senate" and the larger is called the "lower house", and sometimes also called by another name such as "assembly" or "commons". For legislation to be passed, bicameral legislatures normally need a majority of members of both chambers to vote for the legislation.

Experts sometimes point out that often deadlocks occur in this kind of system. This can make it harder to pass laws. But others point out the checks and balances this system maintains. This prevents laws from being passed that favor a certain political faction, the government or group of people.

Bicameral systems in the world
 In the United Kingdom, the two chambers are called the House of Commons and the House of Lords.
 The United States Congress is bicameral.
 All the states apart from Nebraska use the bicameral system. Nebraska is unicameral.
 Australia has a bicameral system with a House of Representatives and a Senate. All the Australian states are also bicameral, except Queensland which is unicameral.
 India has bicameral central and state parliaments.

Related pages
 Unicameral

References

Legislatures

Bicameral


The Central Bank of the Comros (, ; BCC) is the central bank of the Comoros, a group of islands in the Indian Ocean.

Operations
The statutes of the BCC state that its board of directors shall have eight members who are chosen from the Comorian Government, the French Central Bank (Banque de France) and the French government.  The post of Deputy Director of the Central Bank of the Comoros is held by a Banque de France official, who is responsible for monetary policy.  Since 19 November 1999, all the central bank's official rates have been pegged to the Euro Overnight Index Average (EONIA) leading to a stabilisation of interest rate differentials with the euro.

The BCC applies a compulsory reserves system (30% of deposits) and a bank monitoring system.  The headquarters are located in Moroni.

Banking system

The Comorian banking system is constituted of six different banks: the Central Bank (BCC); the Banque pour l'Industrie et pour le Commerce-Comores (BIC-C), the Banque de Développement des Comores (BDC), the Banque Fédérale de Commerce (BFC), the Exim Bank Comores SA and the Société Nationale des Postes et des Services Financiers (SNPSF). In addition, two mutual savings banks (SANDUK and MECK) play a role.

One of the roles of the Central Bank of the Comoros is to approve the establishment of new banks on all three islands of the Union of Comoros (Grande-Comore, Anjouan and Mohéli).

Governors
The governor is appointed for a five-year term.

See also
 Banque de Madagascar
 Central banks and currencies of Africa
 Economy of Comoros
 List of banks in the Arab world
 List of central banks
 Comorian franc

References

External links
 Official site of Banque Centrale des Comores

Banks of the Comoros
Economy of the Comoros
Comoros
Moroni, Comoros
Banks established in 1981
1981 establishments in the Comoros

Central Bank of the Comoros


Ana Maria de Lorena, Duchess of Abrantes (Ana Maria Catarina Henriqueta de Lorena; 3 September 1691 – 1761) was a Portuguese noblewoman and courtier.

Life
The eldest daughter of Rodrigo Anes de Sá Almeida e Menezes, 1st Marquis of Abrantes and 7th Count of Penaguião, she adopted the surname "de Lorena" after a maternal great-grandfather, François-Louis de Lorraine.

By Royal Decree of King Joseph I of Portugal of 9 December 1753, she was created Duchess of Abrantes vitalício upon her appointment as The Queen's Mistress of the Robes (in Portuguese Camareira-Môr), the highest court position for a lady. She inherited her family estates and honours three years later, upon her brother's death. Her younger brother, Joaquim Francisco de Sá Almeida e Menezes, had succeeded their father as 2nd Marquis of Abrantes and married Dona Ana Maria's only daughter, but died without issue; thus, in 1756, she became 3rd Marchioness of Abrantes and 9th Countess of Penaguião.

Her surname of Lorena (the Portuguese translation for Lorraine) was inherited from her maternal grandmother, Marie-Angelique-Henriette de Lorraine, daughter of François-Louis, comte d'Harcourt.

Duquesa Ana Maria married Dom Rodrigo de Mello (1688–1713), second child of Nuno Álvares Pereira de Mello, 1st Duke of Cadaval. They had an only daughter, Maria Margarida de Lorena (likewise created Duchess of Abrantes), who married her uncle (Ana Maria's brother), Dom Joaquim Francisco de Sá Almeida e Menezes, 2nd Marquis of Abrantes.

See also
 Dukedoms in Portugal

Bibliography
"Nobreza de Portugal e do Brasil" – Vol. II, page 205. Published by Zairol Lda., Lisbon 1989.

External links
Genealogical information on Ana Maria Catarina Henriqueta de Lorena, Duchess of Abrantes

1691 births
1761 deaths
Portuguese maids of honour
Portuguese nobility
201
18th-century Portuguese people
18th-century Portuguese women

Ana Maria de Lorena, 1st Duchess of Abrantes


Implicit Meanings: Essays in Anthropology is a collection of essays written in the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s by the influential social anthropologist and cultural theorist Mary Douglas.

Publication history
The volume Implicit Meanings was first published by Routledge in 1975 and was reprinted in 1978 and 1991. It went into a second edition in 1999, with revisions and additional material (including a new preface), which was reprinted in 2001, and again in 2003 as volume 5 of Mary Douglas: Collected Works (). The essays printed had originally appeared in journals, such as Man or Daedalus, or as contributions to scholarly collections.

Contents
In the second edition, the volume contains 21 essays divided into three sections: "Essays on the Implicit", comprising essays from the 1950s, primarily about specific aspects of Lele culture and ending with "Looking Back on the 1950s essays"; "Critical Essays", comprising essays from the 1960s, often commenting directly on the work of other anthropologists, such as Godfrey Lienhardt, and ending with  "Looking Back on the 1960s essays"; and "Essays on the a priori", comprising essays from the 1970s, discussing risk, food, and the broader issues of categorization that were becoming one of Douglas's main intellectual concerns, and ending with  "Looking Back on the 1970s essays".

The essay "Jokes" was reprinted in Rethinking Popular Culture: Contemporary Perspectives in Cultural Studies, edited by Chandra Mukerji and Michael Schudson (1991), pp. 291–310.

Reviewers
 Rodney Needham in Man, New Series, 11:1 (1976), pp. 127–128.
 David Silverman, Edward A. Tiryakian, Nanette J. Davis and Barry Schwartz in The Sociological Quarterly, 19:2 (1978), pp. 355–368.
 Barry Barnes and Steven Shapin, "Where Is the Edge of Objectivity?", in The British Journal for the History of Science, 10:1 (1977), pp. 61–66.
 Bennetta Jules-Rosette in Contemporary Sociology, Vol. 6, No. 5 (1977), pp. 554–555.
 Renato Rosaldo in The American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 82, No. 5 (Mar., 1977), pp. 1152–1156.

External links
 Preview of Implicit Meanings on Google Books.

1975 books
Books by Mary Douglas
Anthropology books

Implicit Meanings


Galloo Island light is a historic lighthouse that is located the South Western side of the island of Galloo. It is found six miles off the mainland of Jefferson Country which is part of the state of New York. According to its location, it falls under the jurisdiction of the town of Hounsfield. The light tower and the majority of the island are privately owned. However, because of the law, the Coast Guard is permitted to cross into this private property because of the light in the tower that is used to guide ships. The lighthouse is a fixed white light that produces a beam that is visible at a maximum distance of 15 miles. It also consists of a steam whistle that it sounds when the weather turns foggy. The whistle blows for 10 seconds and then it is silent for 30 seconds. The island does not have a harbor and landings have to be made from smaller boats. Today it stands tall and abandoned, overlooking the waves.

Galloo Island
The island, on which this lighthouse is constructed, covers approximately 3.46 mi2 . At its furthest point, the island spans a total of 4.47 mi in length and has a breadth of 1.49 mi. It also covers a total of 2,217 by 28.8 acres of land respectively. At 23/8 miles WNW, Stony Island is the closest island to this land mass. This island, previously spelled "Galloup", sits on the eastern side of Lake Ontario and can be located near the entrance of the Sackets Harbor. It sits on the outer edge of a group of islands and shoals which guard the entrance to Sackets Harbor and the Saint Lawrence River. The island was placed on auction and is currently owned by its highest bidder: Cara C. Dibnah. She comes from Vallejo, California.

History
On April 21, 1818, legislation was passed so that a huge portion of Galloo island could be officially handed over to the government of the United States of America for the sole purpose of erecting a lighthouse. Congress had set aside $12,500 for the construction of this lighthouse which was to be built in the Southwest end so that it could mark the outer lying islands and shoals that the ships frequently came across when traveling to St. Lawrence River or the nearby Sackets Harbor. The first light on the island was established in 1820. Magazines and Gazette published this happening. The government paid David. O a total amount of $411 for the 30 acres near the southwestern part of the island that had been designated for the lighthouse. The construction of the tower and its dwelling was handed over to Elisha Ely. On 15 February 1823, Galloo island fell under the legal protection of Elisha Camp. It was then annexed to the town of Hounsfield. The construction of the lighthouse was finally completed in 1867. After much lobbying from the lighthouse keepers, the light was finally automated in 1963. In the year 1983, it was added to the National Register of Historic places as the first lighthouse to be erected in Lake Ontario. The lighthouse was abandoned and in August 1999, the island was purchased by a private company called PRK Holdings Group of Syracuse. The tower and the keeper's house went on auction set up by the U.S General Services Administration Building Office of Surplus Property on the 27th of September 2000. This is now owned privately by Cara Dibnah,

Keepers
Zenas Hastings (1820 – 1837)
Goodale Lewis (1837 – 1839)
John Pringle (1839 – 1849)
Benjamin Henshaw (1849 – 1850)
John Gill (1850 – 1851)
Benjamin Henshaw (1851– 1853)
Kendall Hursley (1853 – 1861)
Theophilus Stevens (1861 – 1870)
William W. Harris (1870 – 1871)
Warren Fuller (1871 – 1876)
Filander Lyman (1876)
F. Byron Johnson (1876 – 1906)
Robert C. Graves (1906 – 1933)
Wylie E. Koepka (1933 – 1942)
Harry L. Klein (1942 – 1946)

Dimensions

Premises
The premises adjoining the lighthouse is of reasonable size. The entire site covers approximately 30 acres. Due to erosion by water and wind, this size has been currently reduced to 27 acres. The entire premises are enclosed for the purposes of protecting the lighthouse keeper from strong winds and harsh weather during storms. The highest watermark is approximately 200 feet from the tower. The area is cordoned off with a wooden fence. The nearest post office is approximately 12 mi away in Henderson, NY. The dwelling is attached to the lighthouse through a passageway. The building has a Grey limestone color. It consists of 6 rooms in total all at the disposal of one keeper at a time. Some of the lands nearby is cultivated to the Garden. Around 1/8th of an acre is dedicated to this. The premises also contain an assistant keeper's dwelling that is located 50 feet in the North Westerly direction form the main tower. This too contains 6 rooms besides closets and a number of bathrooms. Similarly, it contains 1/8th acre of land for the Garden and about 3 acres is used for cultivating and producing food to lower costs of transporting absolutely everything from nearby towns.

Lighthouse, Lantern and Whistle
The lantern is supported by the tower. The tower is primarily a circular shape which forms a conical shape from top to bottom when viewed sideways. There is only one other separate light. The tower covers a total of 60 feet when measured from the base to the top of the ventilator ball. The height of the focal plane above means high water is about 58 feet and 3 inches. The lighthouse is in Grey color and most of its base is made out of a 4-inch-thick wall so that the tower can withstand strong winds.

The lantern has a polygonal shape and is 6 feet and 10 inches in diameter. It has a total of 10 sides and most of its bars are vertical. The lantern doors and the floor of the lantern are both made out of cast iron.

The steam whistle that is blown during fog is about 10 inches in diameter. It is operated by Crosby Automatic Apparatus. It was manufactured by a local company called Thomson Kingsford based in Oswego, NY. It has a total height of about 20 inches. It is placed at the top of the lighthouse building.

References

External links

Lighthouses completed in 1820
Lighthouses completed in 1866
Houses completed in 1866
Lighthouses on the National Register of Historic Places in New York (state)
Lighthouses in Jefferson County, New York
1866 establishments in New York (state)
National Register of Historic Places in Jefferson County, New York

Galloo Island Light


You Are There is a 1947–1957 American historical educational television and radio series broadcast over the CBS Radio and CBS Television networks.

Radio
Created by Goodman Ace for CBS Radio, it blended history with modern technology, taking an entire network newsroom on a figurative time warp each week reporting the great events of the past. Reporters included John Charles Daly, Don Hollenbeck, and Richard C. Hottelet. The series was first heard on July 7, 1947, under the title CBS Is There. Its final broadcast was on March 19, 1950, under the title You Are There.

According to author/historian Martin Grams, actor Canada Lee was a guest in episodes 32 and 60. Martin Gabel appeared in character in episode 82. The first 23 broadcasts went under the title CBS Is There and beginning with episode 24, the title changed to You Are There. A total of 90 episodes were broadcast. Only 75 episodes are known to exist in recorded form.

Television
The radio program made a transition to television in 1953, with Walter Cronkite as the regular host. Reporters included veteran radio announcers Dick Joy and Harlow Wilcox. The first telecast took place on February 1, 1953, and featured a re-enactment of the Hindenburg disaster. The final telecast took place on October 13, 1957.

Originally telecast live, most of the later episodes were produced on film. One of the episodes, for instance, features actor Pat Conway as James J. Corbett, the boxer who fought champion John L. Sullivan in 1892.

The series also featured various key events in American and world history, portrayed in dramatic recreations. Events that were covered included the Battle of Hastings, the execution of Joan of Arc, the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire by Hernán Cortés, and the signing of the U.S. Declaration of Independence. Additionally, CBS News reporters, in modern-day suits, reported on the action and interviewed the protagonists of each of the historical episodes. Each episode  began with the characters setting the scene. Cronkite, from his anchor desk in New York City, gave a few words on what was about to happen. An announcer then gave the date and the event, followed by a loud and boldly spoken "You are there!"

At the end of the program, after Cronkite summarized what happened in the preceding event, he reminded viewers, "What sort of day was it? A day like all days, filled with those events that alter and illuminate our times... all things are as they were then, except you were there."

The program was seen again on Saturday morning as a videotaped color program from 1971 to 1972. The format of the revival was basically the same as the original versions. These programs were also hosted by Cronkite. Both series were produced by CBS News.

From 2000 to 2005, Cronkite presented a series of essays for National Public Radio, reflecting on various key events of his life, including his involvement in You Are There in the 1950s.

Notable guest stars included:
John Cassavetes as Plato in "The Death of Socrates"
James Dean as Robert Ford in "The Capture of Jesse James"
Vivi Janiss as Mrs. Gilchrist in "Pearl Harbor (December 7, 1941)"
Paul Newman as Marcus Brutus in "The Assassination of Julius Caesar" and as Nathan Hale in "The Fate of Nathan Hale"
Jeanette Nolan as Sarah Bernhardt in "The Final Performance of Sarah Bernhardt"
Felicia Montealegre Bernstein in "The Death of Rasputin" (1954)
Kim Stanley as Cleopatra in "The Death of Cleopatra" (1953)
Rod Steiger as Richard Burbage in "The First Command Performance of Romeo and Juliet"
Beatrice Straight as Anne Boleyn in "The Crisis of Anne Boleyn"
Joanne Woodward in "The Oklahoma Land Rush"

Home media
22 episodes of the 1950s version of You Are There are available on DVD from Woodhaven Entertainment. The 1970s version is currently not available on VHS or DVD. Chicago's Museum of Broadcast Communications has 20 episodes available for on-site viewing only. Both versions have also been made available to schools on 16mm film for educational purposes.

Some episodes of the radio and television version are available for sale commercially. CBS retains the copyrights.

In popular culture
 The 1950s edition was briefly parodied in a Merrie Melodies cartoon, Wideo Wabbit, featuring Bugs Bunny and Elmer Fudd, as Fudd's pursuit of Bugs lands him in a re-enactment of Custer's Last Stand.
 On one of the "Classic 39" episodes of The Honeymooners, Art Carney as Norton—hearing Jackie Gleason as Ralph say he had a plan to get wife Alice (Audrey Meadows) to give him the money to go to the Raccoon Lodge convention—launched into this soliloquy parodying You Are There'''s famous catchphrase: "May 3, 1953. Ralph Kramden … in search … for money … for capital … to enter his No-Cal Pizzeria … He says, 'I have a sure-fire plan of getting the money, it can't fail!'  … Alice Kramden says, 'No!' … unquote … all things are as they were then, except you are there!"
 The series was parodied on The Ernie Kovacs Show as "Vas You Dere?"  The cast performed a lampoon of the stabbing of Julius Caesar, presented as a carnival act.
 The series was parodied on a segment of The Victor Borge Show which featured journalist Mike Wallace interviewing Franz Liszt (played by Borge) through a "time window". Wallace opened the interview by asking "Are you there?" in a similar style to the series' opening.
 The series was parodied on The Electric Company in a sketch titled You Weren't There. "You weren't born yet, you were out of town, or you just weren't paying attention," says the narrator.
 The Evangelical Christian radio program Adventures in Odyssey used the device of a modern news room reporting on past events for their "O.T. Action News" segments.
 The series was parodied in an episode of Xena: Warrior Princess. Titled "You Are There", the episode features a modern-day reporter doggedly following and interviewing various characters (believed to be real, historical figures within the premise of the TV show), both in the field and a studio setting.

Sources
 The Complete Directory to Prime Time Network and Cable TV Shows 1946 – Present by Tim Brooks and Earle Marsh (Ballantine Books, New York, 1995)
 Radio Drama: American Programs 1932–1962'' by Martin Grams (McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers, North Carolina, 2000)

References

External links

 NPR: Cronkite's essays
 Episodes of the You Are There radio series
 You Are There episode list at CVTA

1953 American television series debuts
1957 American television series endings
1971 American television series debuts
1972 American television series endings
American children's radio programs
1947 radio programme debuts
1950 radio programme endings
Radio programs adapted into television shows
1940s American radio programs
CBS Radio programs
1950s American children's television series
1970s American children's television series
American television series revived after cancellation
Black-and-white American television shows
CBS News
CBS original programming
English-language television shows
Historical television series
Television series by CBS Studios
Peabody Award-winning television programs

You Are There (series)


Nawab Hafiz Sir Muhammad Ibrahim Ali Khan Bahadur  (8 November 1849 – 23 June 1930) was the Nawab of Tonk from 1867 until his death in 1930.

He ascended the throne of Tonk following the deposition of his father by the British, who was charged guilty of mass murder. He attended all the three Delhi Durbars. In 1901, he passed a law for the conservation of wildlife and the environment in his state. This was also the first law enacted in present day Rajasthan for such a purpose.

Early life
Ibrahim Ali Khan was born on 8 November 1849 at Tonk State, British India. His father Muhammad Ali Khan was the third Nawab of Tonk. His mother was a daughter of Ahmad Ali Khan.

In 1864, Ibrahim Ali Khan started a practise of sacrificing camels on Eid al-Adha. The family discontinued the practise in 2014, after Rajasthan declared the camel as a state animal.

Reign
Ibrahim Ali Khan's father Muhammad Ali Khan was found guilty in the mass-killings of the Thakur of Lawa state and his relatives. As a result, he was deposed by the British and exiled to Varanasi with an yearly pension of . Subsequently, Ibrahim Ali Khan ascended the throne of Tonk on 20 December 1867 at the age of 20. As a punishment, his gun salute was reduced to 17 from 21.

As the Tonk State was in debts to the British at the time of Ibrahim Ali Khan's coronation, a regency council under the leadership of his grand-uncle Ubaidullah Khan was appointed. The council was removed in 1870 and Ibrahim Ali Khan was investitured to rule the state. At the 1877 Delhi Durbar, he was given a salute of 17 guns in the presence of Edward VII, the Prince of Wales. He also attended the other two Delhi Durbars held at 1903 and 1911. He was appointed a Knight Grand Commander of the Order of the Star of India in the 1913 New Year Honours.

In 1901, Ibrahim Ali Khan passed the Shikar Act of 1901. This was the first law enacted in present day Rajasthan for the conservation of natural resources, wildlife and the environment.

Ibrahim Ali Khan died on 23 June 1930 at Tonk. He was succeeded by Saadat Ali Khan, a son of Ladli Begum.

Personal life
Ibrahim Ali Khan married six times. While four of his wives were from the royal family, one wife was from the royal family of Rampur State. His wives are - Nawab Ladli Begum, Nawab Hajira Begum, Nawab Maimuna Begum, Nawab Mulka Jamil-uz-Zamani Begum, Amir-uz-Zamani Begum and Mubarak-uz-Zamani Begum. He fathered twenty-one sons and fifteen daughters.

Ibrahim Ali Khan's full name with titles is "His Highness, Wazir-ul-Mulk, Nawab Hafiz Sir Muhammad Ibrahim Ali Khan Sahib Bahadur, Saulat Jung, Nawab of Tonk.

References

Further reading

1849 births
1930 deaths
Indian royalty
Muslim monarchs
Pashtun diaspora in India
Knights Grand Commander of the Order of the Star of India

Ibrahim Ali Khan


Cynan (also spelled Conan or Kenan) is a Welsh masculine given name. It may refer to:

 Cynan, the bardic name of Albert Evans-Jones (1895–1970), Welsh poet and dramatist
 Cynan ab Iago (11th century), prince of Gwynedd and father of Gruffydd ap Cynan
 Cynan ab Owain Gwynedd (fl. 1169–1174), Lord of Meirionnydd, illegitimate son of Owain Gwynedd
 Cynan ap Hywel (fl. 999–1005), Prince of Gwynedd
 Cynan ap Maredudd (fl. 1294–1295), Welsh nobleman
 Cynan Dindaethwy, king of Gwynedd
 Cynan Garwyn (fl. 6th century), king of Powys
 Cynan Jones (born 1975), Welsh writer
 Cynan Nant Nyfer (9th century), Welsh warrior

Welsh masculine given names
Welsh given names

Cynan


Ludwig Brunow (9 July 1843, Lutheran - 13 January 1913, Berlin) was a German sculptor.

Life
He was the illegitimate child of the local sexton's daughter and spent most of his youth working as a shepherd, but quickly caught up on his education when the opportunity arose. First, he went to Lübz, completing an apprenticeship in carpentry, then found work as a journeyman in Rostock, where he began taking drawing lessons. In 1866, he planned to emigrate to America, but his plans fell through and he became a student of  at the Bauakademie in Berlin. The following year, his talent was recognized by the art historian Friedrich Eggers and, at Eggers request, he moved to the Prussian Academy of Art. From 1871 to 1873, he worked as an assistant on the staffs of Rudolf Siemering and Christian Genschow.

He won his first award in 1876 at the Centennial Exhibition in Philadelphia, followed that same year by the "Verdienstkreuz" of the House Order of the Wendish Crown of  Mecklenburg-Schwerin. In 1893, he was appointed a "Grand Ducal Professor". In 1901 he closed his studio and stopped accepting large projects. In his spare time, he was a member of a private chamber music quartet, along with the poet Karl Eggers (Friedrich's brother) and Heinrich Seidel. His grave in the  is unmarked.

Selected major works
An exhaustive list of his works may be found in the corresponding article on German Wikipedia
 1876: Statue of Helmut von Moltke, Moltkeplatz, Parchim
 1884: Statue of Frederick I, Berlin-Mitte, Ruhmeshalle (Hall of Fame); in Hohenzollern Castle since 1961.
 1884: Statue of Frederick William II, Berlin-Mitte, Ruhmeshalle; in Hohenzollern Castle since 1961.
 1886:: Cornice sculpture of Gustavus II Adolphus, Lützen, Rathaus.
 1891: Statues with copper sheet of John Albert I, Duke of Mecklenburg and Frederick Francis II, Rostock, Ständehaus; part of a four figure group (the other two are by )
 1893: Equestrian statue of Frederick Francis II. Schwerin, castle garden.
 1898: Statue of Otto von Bismarck, Elberfeld; melted down during World War II.
 1900: Equestrian statue of Kaiser Wilhelm I, Erfurt, Kaiserplatz; melted down during World War II.
 1902: Bust on a pedestal of Ernst Dircksen, Berlin, Bahnhof Friedrichstraße; melted down during World War II.

Gallery

References

Further reading
 Fred Ruchhöft: Aus dem Leben des Bildhauers Ludwig Brunow. In: Stier und Greif, Vol.4, 1994, pgs.62–65

External links

1843 births
1913 deaths
People from Lübz
People from the Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin
Prussian Academy of Arts alumni
20th-century German sculptors
20th-century German male artists
German male sculptors
19th-century sculptors

Ludwig Brunow


Ulysses ( ,  ; , ) is one Latinized version of Odysseus. The name was made more famous in modern times by the American Civil War hero and eighteenth president of the United States, Ulysses S. Grant, by James Joyce's novel Ulysses, and the film of the same name.

People named Ulysses
In the United States "Ulysses" is perhaps best known as the name of Ulysses S. Grant (1822–1885), the U.S. Army general and President of the United States. Many Americans born during or after the Civil War were named in his honour.

Other people with the name "Ulysses" include:

In arts and entertainment
 Ulysses Cuadra (born 1987), American actor
 Ulysses Davis (1872–1924), American film director
 Ulysses Davis (artist) (1913–1990), American artist
 Ulysses Dove (1947–1996), American choreographer
 Ulysses Kay (1917–1995), American composer
 Ulysses Livingston (1912–1988), American musician
 Ulysses Owens (born 1982), American musician
 Ulysses J. Lincoln Peoples (1865–?), American architect
 Ulysses Ricci (1888–1960), American sculptor
 Ulysses "Slow Kid" Thompson (1888–1990), American entertainer
 Ulysses Kae Williams (1921–1987), American radio personality

In law, politics, and military
 Ulysses N. Arnett (1820–1880), American politician in West Virginia
 Ulysses Burgh, 2nd Baron Downes (1788–1864), British Army general
 Ulysses G. Buzzard (1865–1939), U.S. Army soldier
 Ulysses Currie (1937–2019), American politician from Maryland
 Ulysses G. Denman (1866–1962), American politician from Ohio
 Ulysses Doubleday (general) (1824–1893), U.S. Army general
 Ulysses F. Doubleday (1792–1866), American politician from New York
 Ulysses S. Grant (1822–1885), the 18th President of the United States
 Ulysses S. Grant Jr. (1852–1929), American lawyer
 Ulysses S. Grant III (1881–1968), U.S. Army general
 Ulysses Grant-Smith (1870–1959), American diplomat
 Ulysses Samuel Guyer (1868–1943), American politician from Kansas
 Ulysses Samuel Lesh (1868–1965), American politician from Indiana
 Ulysses Jones, Jr. (1951–2010), American politician from Tennessee
 Ulysses G. Lee (1913–1969), American soldier and academic
 Ulysses J. Lupien (1883–1965), American local government official
 Ulysses G. McAlexander (1864–1936), U.S. Army general
 Ulysses Mercur (1818–1887), American politician from Pennsylvania
 Ulysses Shelton (1917–1981), American politician from Pennsylvania
 Ulysses S. Webb (1864–1947), American politician from California

In science and medicine
 Ulysses Grant Bourne (1873–1956), American physician
 Ulysses Grant Dailey (1885–1961), American surgeon
 Ulysses S. Grant IV (1893–1977), American geologist
 Ulysses Prentiss Hedrick (1870–1951), American botanist
 Ulysses G. Weatherly (1865–1940), American sociologist

In sport
 Ulysses Brown (1920–1942), American baseball player
 Ulysses Coumier (c. 1905–?), American football player
 Ulysses Curtis (1926–2013), Canadian football player
 Ulysses Gomez (born 1983), Mexican-American mixed martial arts fighter
 Ulysses Lawrence (born 1954), Antiguan cricketer
 Ulysses Llanez (born 2001), American soccer player
 Ulysses S. McPherson, American football coach
 Ulysses Norris (born 1957), American footballer player
 Ulysses Reed (born 1959), American basketball player

Other people
 Ulysses Burgh (1632–1692), Irish Anglican bishop
 Ulysses Grant Groff (1865–1950), American philanthropist
 Ulysses Grant Baker Pierce (1865–1943), American Unitarian minister

Fictional characters
Odysseus, the main character of Homer's Odyssey, known as Ulysses in Latin
Ulysses Bloodstone, Marvel Comics character
Ulysses Moore, character in the book series of the same name
Ulysses Paxton, character in The Master Mind of Mars, by Edgar Rice Burroughs
Ulysses Klaue, Marvel Comics character
Ulysses Trustable, a character in Ninjago
Ulysses, antagonist of Fallout: New Vegas's Lonesome Road DLC

See also
Ulises, the Spanish version of the name
Ulisses, the Portuguese version of the name

References

Masculine given names
Given names of Greek language origin
Latin masculine given names
English masculine given names

Ulysses (given name)


Shell Shaker (2001) is a novel by American LeAnne Howe (Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma). The novel's plot revolves around two tales of murder involving historical Choctaw political leaders. Set over a 200-year period, it focuses on several generations of the fictional Billy family, who try to keep the peace. It won the 2002 Before Columbus American Book Award.

According to Howe, Shell Shaker is "a book about power, its misuse, and how a community responds. It's not for Indians only."

Title
A shell shaker is a woman who participates in a Choctaw ceremony for which empty turtle shells are tied around a dancer's feet. The dance is a prayer to the spirits to answer a request. The Billy family is descended from the first shell shaker, called Grandmother of Birds.

Plot

Shell Shaker links two distant generations of the Billy family. The novel begins in 1738 in Choctaw Mississippi, initially focusing on Red Shoes (a historical Choctaw chief). He has two wives, one who is Choctaw and one who is Chickasaw, from a neighboring tribe. When his Chickasaw wife is found murdered, his Choctaw wife Anoleta is blamed. Anoleta's mother, Shakbatina, sacrifices her life to save her daughter and avert a war between the tribes. But during the next decade, the Choctaw try to decide what action to take against Red Shoes, while Anoleta and her family try to survive. Red Shoes plays both sides in what becomes a civil war that devastates both the Choctaw town of Yanàbi and Anoleta's family.

The novel picks up in 1991, long after Removal, when Shakbatina's descendants live in Durant, Oklahoma. As a wildfire destroys the land around them, the Choctaw chief Redford McAlester is murdered. Assistant chief Auda Billy (also his lover) is blamed. Auda's mother Susan Billy confesses to the murder, and Isaac Billy (Auda's maternal uncle) gathers their scattered family to help with the investigation. Plot threads include embezzlement, rape, money laundering, and donations to the Irish Republican Army and the Mafia. An old woman claims to be actress Sarah Bernhardt.

Themes
The novel explores a number of themes, particularly regarding the circular nature of time and issues of Native American identity. The novel presents time as circular, and incapable of being divided into a separate past and the present. It explores connections over time, including the concept that when a shilombish (soul) is troubled in life, it casts a shadow over a family that endures  until the problem is solved.

Howe also explores themes related specifically to Choctaw traditions and legends. The novel uses the traditional Choctaw burial practices to show the connection between the body and the land. In discussing this novel, Howe has explained that, "Native stories ... seem to pull all the elements together of the storyteller's tribe, meaning the people, the land, and multiple characters and all their manifestations and revelations, and connect these in past, present and future milieus."

The novel also explores issues of identity. Howe has been praised for presenting the Billy sisters as "real" Indian women, who also exercise autonomy in their careers, rather than as marginalized figures or romanticized Indian princesses.

Other themes explored in the work are the power of words, which become real if spoken. It also studies the Americanization of the Choctaw tribe.

Motifs and images
The novel has a number of motifs and images; for instance, both murders occur during the autumnal equinox. Burial rituals connect the novel's two time periods.

Smoke is a screen between eras, becoming thicker as the stories begin to meet. Birds appear throughout the novel, which tells the story of the Grandmother of Birds (who becomes a bird to punish Spanish invaders when her husband is killed).

Reception
Shell Shaker has been praised for emphasizing the importance of history in the lives of a Native American group as they deal with decolonization.  Scholar and critic P. Jane Hafen (Taos Pueblo) said in 2002, "Howe seamlessly integrates a history of desperate and gruesome fights for survival with modern Faustian pacts with materialism and wealth.  At the heart of the story are generations of Choctaw peoples who preserve with ritual gestures of 'life everlasting.

This is one of the few novels to focus on Choctaw history from the point of view of a native author. According to Ken McCullough, "Although there has been significant scholarship on this historical period in the southeast, between the arrival of De Soto and Removal, no one has written a work of the imagination (of this magnitude) set in this period". The novel presents its characters differently from preconceived American ideas: "The variations in voice among the protagonists show that Howe knows how to imagine different characters, and those figures confirm and challenge stereotypes about Native Americans in a way that can only be productive for all readers."

Style and technique
The novel begins from the point of view of Shakbatina, who describes her death. Except for two later chapters, the remainder is third-person narration. This viewpoint change is part of traditional Choctaw storytelling, giving voices to its characters rather than describing them.

Repetition is used throughout Shell Shaker in situations and quotations to connect the generations. One example is "ten thousand feet of intestines hanging from trees in Yanabi Town", which is finally explained at the end of the novel. Articles such as a porcupine sash and turtle shells are passed down, along with their imagery, from generation to generation. The repetition of images, connecting the generations, enforces the themes of circular time and the connection of people.

Memories and flashbacks are used, becoming longer and more frequent as the Billy family attempts to piece together its past. According to writer Lucy Maddox, memory in the novel "alternates scenes from present and the past, conflating ancestral lives and contemporary ones to produce stories about the ways in which identity is both constructed and understood in a tribal context that makes memory more relevant than chronology".

The translated Choctaw language is featured, beginning with Shell Shaker opening lines. The novel's main themes are expressed in the Choctaw language, including the bloodsucker (osano) and the search for the Greatest Giver (Imataha Chitto).

Grandmother Porcupine, a trickster, provides humor as she imparts knowledge to those she chooses (Isaac, Hoppy and Nick). Claiming to be an animal spirit over 400 years old and a protector of the family, she represents "an openness to life's multiplicity and paradoxes".

Criticism
Shell Shaker has been praised for its dynamic presentation of characters, without resorting to stereotypes of either whites or Native Americans. In the sections set in the 18th century, whites are often referred to as the enemy; they are identified as either "inklish okla," English people, or "filanchi okla," French people, reflecting the historical record. In the sections set in the present day, some white characters are presented as sympathetic and rounded people; these include Borden, who is married to a Native American woman. Italian mobsters and Irish gangsters are described in stereotypical ways, but Howe acknowledges that "corruption [is not] necessarily a condition of Americans and American society overall, and if it is, then American Indians are participants, not exempt". The novel contains elements of sex and violence, with scenes of rape, war, and cannibalism .

References

Fiction set in 1738
Fiction set in 1991
2001 American novels
Choctaw culture
Literature by Native American women
Native American novels
Novels set in Mississippi
Novels set in Oklahoma
Novels set in the 1730s
Novels set in the 1990s
American Book Award-winning works
2001 debut novels

Shell Shaker


Anthe Ioanna Philippides was appointed as a judge on 14 December 2000 to the Supreme Court of Queensland, which is the highest ranking court in the Australian State of Queensland.

Philippides has also served on the Mental Health Court and the Southern District of the Land Appeal Court.

She was educated at Somerville House, the University of Queensland, and Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge .

See also
 Judiciary of Australia
 List of Judges of the Supreme Court of Queensland

References

External links
Qld Judiciary Profile

Judges of the Supreme Court of Queensland
Australian women judges
Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
University of Queensland alumni
Alumni of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge

Anthe Philippides