was the chief engineer of many Japanese fighter designs of World War II, including the Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighter.

Early life
Jiro Horikoshi was born near the city of Fujioka, Gunma Prefecture, Japan, in 1903. Horikoshi graduated from the newly established Aviation Laboratory (Kōkū Kenkyūjo) within the Engineering Department of the University of Tokyo, and started his career in Mitsubishi Internal Combustion Engine Company Limited, which later became Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Nagoya Aircraft Manufacturing Plant.

Engineering career

One of Jiro Horikoshi's first works was the flawed Mitsubishi 1MF10, an experimental aircraft that never passed the prototype stage after some flight tests. However, lessons learned from this design led to the development of the far more successful Mitsubishi A5M (Allied codename "Claude") which entered mass production in 1936.

In 1937, Horikoshi and his team at Mitsubishi were asked to design Prototype 12 (corresponding to the 12th year of the Shōwa era). Prototype 12 was completed in July 1940, and it was accepted by the Imperial Japanese Navy. Since 1940 was the Japanese year 2600, the new fighter was named as "Model 00", "Zero" or A6M Zero, in Japan also known as the "Rei-sen" (literally meaning "zero fight", shortened for Model zero fighter airplane). Subsequently, he was involved with designing many other fighters manufactured by Mitsubishi, including the Mitsubishi J2M Raiden ("Thunderbolt") and the Mitsubishi A7M Reppu ("Strong gale").

World War II

Pearl Harbor
Despite Mitsubishi's close ties to the Japanese military establishment and his direct participation in the nation's buildup towards the Second World War, Horikoshi was strongly opposed to what he regarded as a futile war. Excerpts from his personal diary during the final year of the war were published in 1956 and made his position clear:

Earthquake
On 7 December 1944, a powerful earthquake in the Tokai region forced Mitsubishi to halt aircraft production at its plant in Ohimachi, Nagoya. An air raid made by B-29s on the Mitsubishi Engine Works in Daiko-cho, Nagoya a week later caused extensive damage to the works and a severe setback in production. Horikoshi, who had been at a conference in Tokyo with Imperial Navy officers to discuss the new Reppu fighter, returned to Nagoya on the 17th, in time to experience another air raid on the Mitsubishi factories the next day. As a result of the air raid, the company evacuated its machinery and engineers to the suburbs of eastern Nagoya. Horikoshi and the Engineering Department were rehoused in a school building which had been requisitioned.

Illness
Exhausted and overworked, Horikoshi fell ill with pleurisy on 25 December and remained bedridden through early April. During this time, he recorded in detail the horrors of the increasing air raids on Tokyo and Nagoya, including the devastating Operation Meetinghouse Tokyo incendiary raid of 9–10 March.  A massive air raid on Nagoya the following night, with B-29s hurling "tens of thousands of incendiary bombs," destroyed most of the largely wooden city. On 12 March, Horikoshi sent most of his family, including his elderly mother, children and brother-in-law, to his home village near Takasaki to be safe from the bombings, though his wife remained with him in Nagoya.

Though greatly weakened by his long illness, Horikoshi returned to work at Mitsubishi in May. He was assigned to the company's No. 1 Works, located at Matsumoto in Nagano Prefecture. While on the train to Matsumoto, he witnessed the true scale of the war's impact on Nagoya:

Still very weak, Horikoshi was sent home to rest after only a week back at work. He returned to his hometown, where he rejoined his family and rested through the month of July.  In his diary, he recorded how they could still hear distant explosions as the Allies bombed nearby Takasaki and Maebashi. During the war's final months, Horikoshi recorded Japan's descent into chaos and exhaustion. Though he returned to work at the Matsumoto plant on 22 July, as Matsumoto had been spared from air raids, he found the workforce demoralised and operations in chaos as a result of the emergency evacuations which had scattered employees and workshops around the country. Most of the remaining Mitsubishi employees abandoned all efforts to work by early August and prepared for Japan's defeat and surrender, which came on 15 August, six days after the atomic bombing of Nagasaki.

Post-war
After the war, Horikoshi participated in the design of the YS-11 with Hidemasa Kimura. He subsequently left Mitsubishi and taught at educational and research institutions. From 1963 to 1965, he was a lecturer at the University of Tokyo's Institute of Space and Aeronautics, and was subsequently a professor at the National Defense Academy from 1965 to 1969. Between 1972 and 1973, he was a professor of the Faculty of Engineering of Nihon University.

In 1956, Horikoshi collaborated on a book about the Zero with Okumiya Masatake, a general in the JASDF and a former Imperial Navy commander who had led Zero fighter squadrons during the war. The book was published in the US in 1956 as Zero: The Story of Japan's Air War in the Pacific.

Later life
In semi-retirement by the early 1970s, he served as an advisor to the society of Japanese aircraft constructors, and continued to receive letters from aircraft enthusiasts around the world. On a trip to New York, he travelled to Long Island and stayed in the Garden City Hotel, where Charles Lindbergh had spent the night before his solo trans-Atlantic flight in 1927.

In the 1973 autumn honours list, Horikoshi was awarded the Order of the Rising Sun, Third Class, for his achievements. His memoir regarding the development of the Zero was published in Japan in 1970, and was translated by the University of Washington Press as Eagles of Mitsubishi: The Story of the Zero Fighter, which was published in English in 1981.

Horikoshi died of pneumonia in a Tokyo hospital on 11 January 1982, aged 78.  His obituary was covered in several major newspapers around the world. He was posthumously promoted to the fourth rank in the order of precedence. He was survived by five children, none of whom pursued a career in aircraft design or engineering.

In popular culture
Horikoshi is the subject of The Wind Rises, a fictionalized biographical animated film by Hayao Miyazaki, released in 2013, in which his voice was provided by Hideaki Anno (and Joseph Gordon-Levitt in the English dub).  In particular, although the film follows the progression of his aircraft designs, the details of his personal life are mostly fictitious (for example, he had an older brother, not a younger sister). These additional plot elements were adapted by Miyazaki from Hori Tatsuo's 1937 novel The Wind Has Risen.

Honors
:
 Order of the Rising Sun, 3rd Class (1973)

References

Bibliography

1903 births
1982 deaths
Aircraft designers
Japanese aerospace engineers
Mitsubishi Heavy Industries people
Academic staff of Nihon University
People from Gunma Prefecture
Deaths from pneumonia in Japan
20th-century Japanese engineers
Recipients of the Order of the Rising Sun, 3rd class

Jiro Horikoshi


Joseph E. Brown (April 4, 1859 – June 28, 1888 in Warren, Pennsylvania) was a pitcher/utility player in Major League Baseball for the Chicago White Stockings and Baltimore Orioles.

It was relatively common in the 19th century for baseball teams to use a reserve fielder as a pitcher, and this appears to be true in Brown's case. He appeared in 15 games for the 1884 Cubs (debuting August 16), pitching in seven of those games, six as a starter. His mark that season was 4–2 with a 4.68 ERA. He also played center field, right field, first baseman, and catcher for the Cubs that season, hitting .213 with 3 RBI in 61 trips to the plate.

Brown found himself with the American Association's Orioles in the 1886 season in a similar role for a brief period of time. He pitched in four games, completing and losing each one for a record of 0–4 and an ERA of 5.68. He also appeared in one game as a second baseman. Brown was 3-for-19 at the plate in 1886 to finish his career with a batting average of exactly .200 (16-for-80).

Brown died on June 28, 1888, in Warren, Pennsylvania, aged just 29.

External links

1859 births
1888 deaths
Baseball players from Pennsylvania
Chicago White Stockings players
Baltimore Orioles (AA) players
Major League Baseball outfielders
Major League Baseball pitchers
Major League Baseball first basemen
Major League Baseball second basemen
Major League Baseball catchers
Fort Wayne Hoosiers players
Milwaukee Brewers (minor league) players
Bridgeport Giants players
Jersey City Skeeters players
19th-century baseball players
People from Warren, Pennsylvania
Canadian emigrants to the United States

Joe Brown (utility player)


Peter Gutmann (born August 3, 1949 in New York City) is an American journalist and attorney.  He graduated from Wesleyan University, cum laude, with a B.A. in 1971, and attended the University of North Carolina, where he earned a M.A. in Communications in 1974. He earned a J.D. from George Washington University in 1978.

Journalist
Gutmann writes extensively on classical music for publication in newspapers and magazines.  His work as earned him several awards: most recently, a 2006 Dateline Award for Excellence in Local Journalism for Weekly Newspaper Arts Criticism from the Washington Chapter of the Society of Professional Journalists.  He also won Dateline Awards in 2002, 2003 and 2004 from the Washington, DC chapter of the Society of Professional Journalists.  Gutmann has two long-standing, regular columns:

 "Classical Notes", Goldmine magazine, 1998–present
 "After Hours", Legal Times, 2000–present

Attorney
Gutmann practices law in the Washington, D.C. office of Womble Carlyle Sandridge & Rice, PLLC, where he provides legal and practical advice on all aspects of broadcasting.

References

External links
Classical Notes – Gutmann's site
Peter Gutmann at Womble Carlyle Sandridge & Rice

Feature articles by Gutmann
Leonard Bernstein: A Total Embrace of Music
Wilhelm Furtwängler: Genius Forged in the Cauldron of War

Virginia lawyers
American male journalists
1949 births
Living people
Wesleyan University alumni

Peter Gutmann (journalist)


Johann Friedrich (5 May 1836 – 19 August 1917) was a German theologian.  He was prominent as a leader of the Old Catholics.

Biography
He was born at Poxdorf in Upper Franconia, and was educated at Bamberg and at the University of Munich.  He was ordained a Catholic priest in 1859. In 1865, he was appointed extraordinary professor of theology.  In 1867, he was appointed to the Academy of Sciences.  He was a pupil of Ignaz von Döllinger.

In 1869 he went to the Vatican Council as secretary to Cardinal Hohenlohe, and took an active part in opposing the dogma of papal infallibility, notably by supplying the opposition bishops with historical and theological material. He left Rome before the council closed.
"No German ecclesiastic of his age appears to have won for himself so unusual a repute as a theologian and to have held so important a position, as the trusted counsellor of the leading German cardinal at the Vatican Council. The path was fairly open before him to the highest advancement in the Church of Rome, yet he deliberately sacrificed all such hopes and placed himself in the van of a hard and doubtful struggle" (The Guardian, 1872, p. 1004).

A sentence of excommunication was passed on Friedrich in April 1871, but he refused to acknowledge it and was upheld by the Bavarian government. He continued to perform ecclesiastical functions and maintained his academic position, becoming an ordinary professor in 1872. In 1874, he inaugurated the Old Catholic theological faculty at the University of Bern and lectured there for a year. In Bavaria, in 1882, the Minister of Public Worship, yielding to ultramontane pressure, transferred him from his chair in theology to the philosophical faculty as professor of history. By this time he had to some extent withdrawn from the advanced position which he at first occupied in organizing the Old Catholic Church, for he was not in agreement with its abolition of enforced celibacy. He died in Munich.

Works
Friedrich was a prolific writer; among his chief works are:
Johann Wessel: Ein Bild aus der Kirchengeschichte des XV. Jahrhunderts (1862) – Wessel Gansfort; a portrait of church history in the 15th century.
Die Lehre des Johann Hus (1862) – The teachings of John Hus.
Kirchengeschichte Deutschlands (2 volumes, 1867–69) – German church history. Download
Tagebuch während des Vaticanischen Concils geführt (1871) – Journal of the Vatican Council. Download
 Documenta ad Illustrandum Concilium Vaticanum; (1871).
Beiträge zur Kirchengeschichte des 18. Jahrhunderts (1876) – Contribution to church history of the 18th century.
Der Mechanismus der vatikanischen Religion (1876) – The mechanism of the Vatican religion.
Geschichte des Vatikanischen Konzils (2 volumes, 1877–86) – History of the Vatican Council.
Das Papsttum (1892) – The papacy.
Johann Adam Möhler, der Symboliker (1894) – On Johann Adam Möhler.
Ignaz von Döllinger: Sein Leben auf Grund seines schriftlichen Nachlasses (3 volumes, 1899–1901) – Ignaz von Dollinger; his life on the basis of his literary estate.

Notes

References

1836 births
1917 deaths
People excommunicated by the Catholic Church
People from Forchheim (district)
German Old Catholics
German Old Catholic theologians
Academic staff of the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich
Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich alumni
19th-century German theologians
19th-century German male writers
19th-century German writers
20th-century German theologians
20th-century German writers
German male non-fiction writers

Johann Friedrich (theologian)


Eragrostis is a large and widespread genus of plants in the grass family, found in many countries on all inhabited continents and many islands.

Eragrostis is commonly known as lovegrass or canegrass. The name of the genus is derived from the Greek words ἔρως (eros), meaning "love", and ἄγρωστις (agrostis), meaning "grass".

Lovegrass is commonly used as livestock fodder. The seeds appear to be of high nutritional value for some animals, but they are also very tiny and collecting them for human food is cumbersome and hence uncommon. A notable exception is teff (E. tef), which is used to make traditional breads on the Horn of Africa, such as Ethiopian injera and Somalian laxoox. It is a crop of commercial importance. E. clelandii and E. tremula are recorded as famine foods in Australia and Chad, respectively.

Other species, such as E. amabilis, are used as ornamental plants. E. cynosuroides is used in the pūjā rites in the Hindu temple at Karighatta. Bahia lovegrass (E. bahiensis) is known as a hyperaccumulator of caesium-137 and can be grown to remove the highly toxic radioactive atoms from the environment. Weeping lovegrass (E. curvula) has been planted extensively to prevent soil erosion.

Seed dispersal is often done by passing animals; the grains' hooks latch on to fur or hair, or to clothes. Others are wind or gravity dispersed. Several herbivores feed on lovegrass, including invertebrates such as the caterpillars of the Zabulon skipper (Poanes zabulon) and vertebrates. The extinct bluebuck (Hippotragus leucophaeus) was known to graze these grasses. The dense bunches also provide cover for small animals such as the rare Botteri's sparrow (Aimophila botterii). Lovegrasses may be important groundcover on oceanic islands like Laysan, where other plants are rare.

Taxonomy

Eragrostis is the type genus of the tribe Eragrostideae.

Formerly included
Many species now considered better suited to other genera, including Cladoraphis Coelachyrum Desmazeria Diplachne Ectrosia Festuca Harpachne Poa etc.

References

External links

  Interactive Key to Eragrostis of North America

Poaceae genera
Grasses of Africa
Grasses of Asia
Grasses of Europe
Grasses of North America
Grasses of Oceania
Grasses of South America

Eragrostis


Drut (द्रुत; also called drut laya) is the concluding section, in fast tempo (or laya), between 160 and 320 beats per minute, of the performance of a vocal raga in Hindustani classical music.

See also

Khyal
Vilambit
Madhyalaya
Hindustani classical music

Hindustani music terminology

Drut


Gary Adler is an American composer and musical director based in New York. He received two 2005 Drama Desk nominations (along with Michael Patrick Walker) for his music and lyrics for the off-Broadway show Altar Boyz, which had its premiere in the New York Musical Theatre Festival the year before. As a composer, Adler has written songs for Disney Channel's Johnny and the Sprites and Dance Dance Revolution, which was presented by Les Freres Corbusier in December 2008. Mr. Adler is a graduate of the University of Michigan where he studied under William Bolcom

Gary has served as the musical director for numerous shows, most notably Avenue Q. His other NYC conducting credits include Chita Rivera: The Dancer's Life, Urinetown, The Fantasticks and Nunsense.

Notes

American male composers
21st-century American composers
Music directors
Living people
University of Michigan School of Music, Theatre & Dance alumni
21st-century American male musicians
Year of birth missing (living people)

Gary Adler


The 1625 to 1630 Anglo–Spanish War was fought by England, in alliance with the Dutch Republic, and Spain. A related conflict of the Eighty Years' War between the Dutch and Spanish, most of the fighting took place at sea, and was largely indecisive.

Background
European policy in this period was dominated by the outbreak of the Thirty Years War within the Holy Roman Empire in 1618, and renewal of the Eighty Years' War between Spain and the Dutch Republic in 1622. Despite popular enthusiasm for the Protestant Dutch, and concern at the success of the Catholic Counter-Reformation, English involvement had been limited to financial support, and provision of volunteers. This was largely due to differences between the English Crown and Parliament over the nature of the problem, and how to resolve it.

The Thirty Years War began when the Protestant Frederick V of the Palatinate accepted the Crown of Bohemia, replacing Ferdinand II, Catholic heir to the Holy Roman Emperor. In 1619, Frederick was ousted from Bohemia, while Spanish troops occupied his hereditary lands of the Electoral Palatinate, in preparation for renewing their war with the Dutch. Since Frederick was the son-in-law of James VI and I, king of Scotland and England

War
The 1624 Parliament voted three subsidies and three fifteenths, around £300,000 for the prosecution of the war, with the conditions that it be spent on a naval war. James, ever the pacifist, refused to declare war, and in fact never did. His successor, Charles I, was the one to declare war in 1625.

Siege of Breda

In August 1624, the Spanish general Don Ambrosio Spinola ordered his forces to lay siege to the Dutch city of Breda. The city was heavily fortified and defended by a garrison of 7,000 Dutch soldiers. Spinola rapidly gathered his defences and drove off a Dutch relief army under Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange, who was attempting to cut off his supplies. In February 1625, another relief force, consisting of 7,000 English soldiers under Sir Horace Vere and Ernst von Mansfeld, was also defeated.

Finally, Justin of Nassau surrendered Breda to the Spaniards in June 1625 after an eleven-month siege.

Cádiz Expedition

By October 1625, approximately 100 ships and a total of 15,000 seamen and soldiers were readied for the Cádiz Expedition. An alliance with the Dutch had also been forged, and the new allies agreed to dispatch an additional 15 warships commanded by William of Nassau, to assist in guarding the English Channel in the absence of the English main fleet. Sir Edward Cecil, a battle-hardened veteran of combat in service with the Dutch, was appointed commander of the expedition by the Duke of Buckingham, a choice that proved to be ill-considered. Cecil was a good soldier, but he had little knowledge of nautical matters.

The planned expedition involved several elements: overtaking Spanish treasure ships returning from the Americas loaded with valuables; and assaulting Spanish towns, with the intention of assailing the Spanish economy by weakening the Spanish supply chain and consequently relieving the military pressure on the Electorate of the Palatinate.

The entire expedition descended into farce. The English forces wasted time in capturing an old  fort of little importance, giving Cádiz the time to fully mobilise behind its defences and allowing merchant ships in the bay to make good their escape. The city's modernised defences, a vast improvement on those of Tudor times, proved effective. Meanwhile, a body of English forces landed further down the coast to march on the city also became side-tracked because of poor discipline. Eventually, Sir Edward Cecil, the commander of the English forces, faced with dwindling supplies, decided there was no alternative but to return to England, having captured few goods and having had no impact on Spain. And thus in December, a battered fleet returned home.

Charles I, to protect his own dignity and Buckingham, who had failed to ensure the invasion fleet was well supplied, made no effort to inquire as to the cause of the failure of the Cádiz Expedition. Charles turned a blind eye to the debacle, instead preoccupying himself with the plight of the French Huguenots of La Rochelle. But the House of Commons proved less forgiving. The parliament of 1626 initiated the process of impeachment against the Duke of Buckingham, prompting Charles I to choose to dissolve parliament rather than risk a successful impeachment.

The failure of the attack had severe consequences for England. In addition to the economic and human loss, it damaged the reputation of the English Crown, creating a serious political and financial crisis in the country.

1627–1628
The Duke of Buckingham then negotiated with the French regent, Cardinal Richelieu, for English ships to aid Richelieu in his fight against the French Huguenots, in exchange for French aid against the Spanish occupying the Electorate of the Palatinate, but the Parliament of England was disgusted and horrified at the thought of English Protestants fighting French Protestants. The plan only fuelled their fears of crypto-Catholicism at court. Buckingham himself, believing that the failure of his enterprise was the result of treachery by Richelieu, formulated an alliance among Cardinal Richelieu's many enemies, a policy that included support for the very Huguenots whom he had recently attacked.

The English force, commanded by the Duke of Buckingham, was defeated by the French Royal troops at the Siege of Saint-Martin-de-Ré and at the Siege of La Rochelle. In this campaign the English lost more than 4,000 men of a force of 7,000 men. On 23 August, while organising a second campaign in Portsmouth, England in 1628, Buckingham was stabbed to death at the Greyhound Pub by John Felton, an army officer who had been wounded at the Siege of La Rochelle.

Dutch Revolt of 1626–1629

After the surrender of Breda, the States gave orders for recruiting their army which consisted of 61,670 infantry and 5,853 cavalry; nearly 20,000 of whom were English and Scottish. Of these four were English regiments that King Charles had raised and sent to Holland. A part of this force was sent to the Spanish held city of Oldenzaal which was captured after a ten-day bombardment in the summer of 1626. The following year the English were under the command of Edward Cecil and contributed to the siege of the city of Groenlo. A Spanish relief force led by Hendrik van den Bergh failed to get through and as a result the city surrendered to the Dutch commander Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange. In 1629, the important Spanish stronghold of 's-Hertogenbosch was besieged and captured by Frederick Henry's army of 28,000 men which included a number of English and Scottish regiments all commanded by Horace Vere.

St. Kitts and Nevis
In 1629, a Spanish naval expedition, commanded by Admiral Don Fadrique de Toledo, was sent to deal with the recently established Anglo-French colonies on the Caribbean islands of Saint Kitts and Nevis. The territories were regarded by the Spanish Empire as its own since the islands were discovered by the Spanish in 1498 and the English and French colonies had grown sufficiently to be considered a threat to the Spanish West Indies. In the Battle of St. Kitts, the heavily armed settlements on both islands were destroyed and the Spanish seized the islands.

Aftermath
England altered its involvement in the Thirty Years War by negotiating a peace treaty with France in 1629. Thereafter expeditions were undertaken by the Duke of Hamilton and Earl of Craven to the Holy Roman Empire in support of the thousands of Scottish and English mercenaries already serving under the King of Sweden in that conflict. Hamilton's levy was raised despite the end of the Anglo-Spanish War. In addition English troops would constitute a large part of the States army but in their pay after 1630. In the following years under Frederick Henry and Horace Vere the cities of Maastricht and Rheinberg were recaptured. Breda was recaptured in 1637, with English troops led by Colonel Charles Morgan.

With the advent of the War of the Mantuan Succession Spain sought peace with England in 1629 and so arranged a suspension of arms and an exchange of ambassadors. On 15 November the Treaty of Madrid was signed which ended the war and thus restored the 'Status quo'. It had proven a costly fiasco for England, whose merchants lost the profitable Flemish cloth markets to heavy custom duties after the war. The unsuccessful and unpopular outcome of the conflict fuelled the disputes between the Monarchy and Parliament that began before the English Civil War, to the point that the first charge against Charles I in the Grand Remonstrance was about the costs and mismanagement of the 1625 war with Spain.

Notes

References

Sources

Further reading

 Robert L. Brenner. Merchants and Revolution: Commercial Change, Political Conflict, and London's Overseas Traders, 1550-1653, Verso (2003)
 John H. Elliot. Empires of the Atlantic World: Britain and Spain in America 1492-1830 Yale University Press
 Robert F. Marx. Shipwrecks in the Americas, New York (1971)
 Robert L. Paquette and Stanley L. Engerman. The Lesser Antilles in the Age of European Expansion, University Press of Florida (1996),
 Richard B. Sheridan. Sugar and Slavery; An Economic History Of The British West Indies, 1623-1775 The Johns Hopkins University Press (April 1, 1974)
 Timothy R. Walton. The Spanish Treasure Fleets by Pineapple Press, (1994)
 David Marley. Wars of the Americas: a chronology of armed conflict in the New World, 1492 to the present, ABC-CLIO (1998),
 Roger Lockyer. Buckingham, the Life and Political Career of George Villiers, First Duke of Buckingham, 1592–1628 (Longman, 1981).
 Paul Bloomfield. Uncommon People. A Study of England's Elite (London: Hamilton, 1955).

External links
 European Treaties Bearing on the History of the United ..., Issue 254,Volume 2, Frances Gardiner Davenport

Wars involving the states and peoples of Europe
Wars involving Spain
Wars involving England
Wars involving the Dutch Republic
17th-century conflicts
17th-century military history of the Kingdom of England
1620s in Europe
1630 in Europe
Spain–United Kingdom military relations
England–Spain relations

Anglo-Spanish War (1625–1630)


The Wisconsin Football Coaches Association is an association of American football coaches on all levels within the state of Wisconsin. An annual clinic of members is held in Madison, Wisconsin to promote the sport, primarily at the high school level. The organization also selects a high school all-state team following each season and selects players and coaches who take part in the state all-star game each summer. This game is played at Titan Stadium, on the campus of the University of Wisconsin-Oshkosh each July.

Objectives
The organization was created for the purpose of making its member coaches aware of the latest techniques of teaching the game of football and form a network of communication between the coaches in the state of Wisconsin.  The organization has also been invaluable in giving the coaches a voice to communicate with the sports governing bodies such as the Wisconsin Interscholastic Athletic Association (WIAA) and the National Federation of State High School Associations (NFHS). The organization also promotes the idea of professionalism within the coaching ranks and is a source of comradery and fraternity for its members.

Origins
The WFCA had its beginning in the Spring of 1975 at a football clinic sponsored by the Wisconsin Coaches Association. Burt Hable of Madison West High School, chaired a meeting during which a steering committee was selected to facilitate the forming of a football coaches ONLY association. This committee that met at the WIAA offices in Stevens Point, Wisconsin on May 2, 1975. A constitution for the association was written and plans were made to contact every head football coach of a public school. Each coach received a copy of the proposed constitution along with a letter explaining the Wisconsin High School Football Coaches Association (WHSFCA) and requesting names of coaches to serve as representatives. On December 1, 1975, at the WIAA offices, the steering committee decided that in order to facilitate the existence of the WHSFCA for 1975-76 the acting officers for the Association for the first year should be selected from the membership of the steering committee and the Board of Directors, would then be selected from a vote of head football coaches within the membership. The following were selected:
 President - Ira Rebella - Merrill High School
 Vice President (Northern at Large) - Pete Adler - Durand High School
 Vice President (Southern at Large) - John Brodie - Homestead High School
 Secretary/Treasurer - Cal Callaway - Oregon High School

External links
 Official site

High school sports in Wisconsin
Football Wis
American football in Wisconsin
American football organizations
Sports organizations established in 1975
1975 establishments in Wisconsin

Wisconsin Football Coaches Association


The following is a list of notable judgments of the European Court of Justice.

Principles of Union Law

Direct effect

Treaties, Regulations and Decisions

 Van Gend en Loos 26/62 [1963] ECR 1
"The [European Economic] Community constitutes a new legal order of international law for the benefit of which the [Member] States have limited their sovereign rights".

"The Court ... has the jurisdiction to answer ... questions referred that ... relate to the interpretation of the treaty."

 Franz Grad 9/70 [1970] ECR-825
 Commission v Italy 39/72 [1973] ECR 101
 Reyners 2/74 [1974] ECR 631
 Defrenne II [1976] ECR 455
 Amsterdam Bulb 50/76 [1977] ECR 137

States can provide in national legislation for appropriate sanctions which are not provided for in the regulation, and can continue to regulate various related issues which are not covered in the regulation

 Zaera 126/86 [1987] ECR 3697
 Azienda Agricola C-403/98 [2001] ECR I-103
Steinberg T-17/10 [2012] 625
Sharif University T-181/13 [2014] 607

Directives

 Van Duyn v Home Office 41/74 [1974] ECR 1337
 Ratti 148/78 [1979] ECR 1629

Member States are precluded by their failure to implement a directive properly from refusing to recognise its binding effect in cases where it is pleaded against them, thus they cannot rely on their failure to implement the directive in time.

 Becker 8/81 [1982] ECR 53
 von Colson 14/83 [1984] ECR 1891
 Kolpinghuis Nijmegen 80/86 [1987] ECR 3969

There is no obligation of harmonious interpretation where the national measure, interpreted in the light of the directive, would impose criminal liability.

 Fratelli Costanzo 103/88 [1989] ECR 1839
 Foster C-188/89 [1990] ECR I-3313
 Marshall v Southampton and South-West Hampshire Area Health Authority Case 152/84 [1986] ECR I-4367
 Faccini Dori C-91/92 [1994] ECR I-3325
 CIA Security C-194/94 [1996] ECR I-2201
 Arcaro C-168/95 [1996] ECR I-4705

Notwithstanding the Kolpinghuis ruling, the creation of any other kind of legal disadvantage of detriment, save for criminal liability, is very well possible.

 Unilever Italia C-443/98 [2000] ECR I-7535
Commission v Spain, case C-417/99, 13 September 2001: failure to designate the competent authorities and bodies responsible for implementing Directive 96/62/EC on ambient air quality. Directives are to be transposed into national law "with precision, clarity and transparency".

Primacy
 Costa v ENEL 6/64 [1964] ECR 585
Community law takes precedence over the Member States' own domestic law.

Simmenthal II 106/77 [1978] ECR 629
Duty to set aside provisions of national law which are incompatible with Community law. The Court ruled that:

Marleasing C-106/89 ECR I-7321
National law must be interpreted and applied, insofar as possible, so as to avoid a conflict with a Community rule.

Factortame I C-213/89 [1990] ECR I-2433
Duty on national courts to secure the full effectiveness of Community law, even where it is necessary to create a national remedy where none had previously existed.

Enforcement of EU law
EU law has not established its own system for its enforcement or for aggrieved parties to seek remedies for breach of EU law. In the absence of such a system,
Joined Cases C-430/93 and C-431/93 Van Schijndel and van Veen introduced the principles of equivalence and effectiveness
Joined Cases C-222/05 to C-225/05, van der Weerd et al, a series of Dutch cases involving the Ministry of Agriculture, Nature and Food Quality: Community law does not require a national court ... to raise of its own motion a plea alleging infringement of the provisions of Community legislation, since neither the principle of equivalence nor the principle of effectiveness require it to do so.

Rejection of the reciprocity principles of general international law
Commission v. Luxembourg and Belgium, joined cases 90 and 91/63 [1964] ECR 625
"[I]n [the defendants'] view, … international law allows a party, injured by the failure of another party to perform its obligations, to withhold performance of its own … However, this relationship between the obligations of parties cannot be recognized under Community law ... The treaty is not limited to creating reciprocal obligations ... but establishes a new legal order ... [T]he basic concept of the treaty requires that the Member States not take the law into their own hands."

Fundamental rights

Stauder 29/69 [1969] ECR 419
"Fundamental rights [are] enshrined in the general principles of Community law and protected by the Court."

Internationale Handelsgesellschaft 11/70 [1970] ECR 1125
Fundamental rights are an integral part of the general principles of law the observance of which the Court ensures.

 Nold 4/73 [1974] ECR 491, §13
When protecting fundamental rights, "the Court is bound to draw inspiration from constitutional traditions common to the Member States, and it cannot therefore uphold measures which are incompatible with fundamental rights recognised and protected by the Constitutions of those States." The Court can also draw on international human rights treaties to which Member States have collaborated or are signatories.

 Carpenter C-60/00 [2002] ECR I-6279
Fundamental rights affect the scope and application of Community law. In Carpenter, the Court weaved principles of respect for family and private life from Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights into its analysis of the rights of Union citizens. It concluded that the right of a minor child to reside in a Member State under Community law brought with it a corollary right for his mother to reside there as well.

 Test Achats vs Council of Ministers
The legislative organs of the union cannot make laws which allow private sector organisations to discriminate on the grounds of gender even if such discrimination is based on relevant and accurate actuarial and statistical data.

Minister voor Immigratie en Asiel C-199/12 [2013] 720

Law of the institutions

Acts

Mandelli 3/67 [1968] ECR 25
Acts of the European institutions must be supported by sufficient reasoning, the validity of which shall be examined by the Court.

Legislative process

 Variola 34/73 [1973] ECR 981
 Roquette Frères v Council 138/79 [1980] ECR 3333
 Germany v Commission 24/62 [1963] ECR 131
 Tariff Preferences case 45/86 [1987] ECR 1493
 Beus 5/67 [1968] ECR 83
 Tobacco Advertising case C-376/98 [2000] ECR I-8419
 Opinion 2/94 [1996] ECR I-1759
The European Community does not have the power under the treaties to accede to the European Convention on Human Rights.

 Parliament v Council C-65/93 [1995] ECR I-643

Liability

 Plaumann v Commission 25/62 [1963] ECR 199

The Plaumann test sets out the criteria for non-privileged applicants to prove individual concern: 'Applicants must show that the decision affects them by reason of certain attributes which are peculiar to them or by reason of circumstances in which they are differentiated from all other persons and by virtue of these factors distinguishes them individually just as in the case of the person addressed.'

 Codorníu v Council C-309/89 [1994] ECR I-1853

In this case the court took a more liberal approach than the restrictive Plaumann test for establishing individual concern, which was, however, not followed in judgements thereafter.

Interim orders
Article 186 of the Treaty of Rome stated that the Court "may, in any cases referred to it, make any necessary interim order". Article 39 of the Treaty of Nice's Protocol on the Statute of the Court of Justice (2001) states that "the President of the Court may, by way of summary procedure ... prescribe interim measures in pursuance of Article 243 of the EC Treaty or Article 158 of the EAEC Treaty".

In Commission of the European Communities v Kingdom of Belgium (1994), the president dismissed an application for interim measures submitted by the commission on 11 March 1994 because the commission had "not displayed the diligence to be expected". The commission had been aware of an alleged breach of the procurement directives in October 1993, and had referred on 8 February 1994 to its "intention" to seek the suspension of a public supplies contract, but did not apply for an interim order until 11 March 1994.

Competition
Leading cases on competition law include Consten & Grundig v Commission and United Brands v Commission.

Case C-185/95: Baustahlgewebe v. Commission. In 1989 the European Commission had adopted a determination that 14 producers of welded steel mesh had engaged in unlawful restrictions of competition. German company Baustahlgewebe GmbH appealed against the decision on 20 October 1989 but the Court of First Instance did not rule on the case until 6 April 1995, five years and six months later. The Court of Justice held that the case had not been determined within a reasonable time and reduced the ECU 3 million fine by ECU 50,000 (a reduction of 1.67%).
Case C-231/03: Coname v Comune di Cingia de' Botti in Italy (competition and free movement of persons). The court established that transparency obligations apply to the award of a concession for the management of the public gas distribution service.
Case C-501/06 P: GlaxoSmithKline Services and Others v Commission and Others, joined with cases C-513/06 P, C-515/06 P and C‑519/06 P: four appeals brought under Article 56 of the Statute of the Court of Justice, 2006, regarding Article 81 of the Treaty of Rome.
Prezes Urzędu Ochrony Konkurencji i Konsumentów v Tele2 Polska sp. z o.o. (now Netia SA): the Polish national competition authority determined that Telekomunikacja Polska SA was not abusing a dominant position on the market. The ECJ ruled that only the European Commission has competence to make such a decision.
Simba Toys T-450/09 [2014] 983
C-68/12 - Slovenská sporiteľňa et al. - three banks colluded against a non-banking financial institution which was alleged to be  operating illegally in the Slovak Republic. The court ruled that the allegation of illegal operation was irrelevant to determining whether the banks' collusion interfered with the structure of the market and in particular with  the interests of competition itself.
Anti-competitive behaviour and concerted practices in the international air freight forwarding services market:
Case C-261/16: P Kuhne + Nagel International and others v European Commission, regarding a cartel agreeing surcharges on export declarations, referred to as the "new export system" cartel
Case C-263/16: P Schenker v Commission
Case C-264/16: P Deutsche Bahn and others v Commission
Case C-271/16: P Panalpina World Transport (Holding) and others v Commission
- judgments issued collectively on 1 February 2018. The other cartels referred to in the judgment were those known as the "advanced manifest system" cartel, the "peak season surcharge" cartel and the "currency adjustment factor" cartel.

Data protection
Case C-362/14 – Maximillian Schrems v Data Protection Commissioner, reference for a preliminary ruling from the High Court of Ireland made on 25 July 2014, published 6 October 2015.

Employment

Case C-186/83: Arie Botzen and others v Rotterdamsche Droogdok Maatschappij BV, leading case on the meaning of "assignment" in relation to the part of an undertaking or business to which [employees] are "assigned" to carry out [their] duties for purposes of the TUPE directive.
Case C-24/85, Spijkers v Gebroeders Benedik Abattoir CV

External relations

Commission v Council relating to the European Road Transport Agreement (ERTA), [1971] ECR 263

External trade
Portugal v Council, case C-149/96: application made by the government of Portugal for the annulment of Council Decision 96/386/EC of 26 February 1996 concerning the conclusion of Memoranda of Understanding between the European Community and the Islamic Republic of Pakistan (signed 31 December 1994) and between the European Community and the Republic of India (signed 15 October 1994) on arrangements in the area of market access for textile products. Among other concerns, the Portuguese government argued that the principle of transparency had been breached, because the contested decision approved Memoranda of Understanding which were "not adequately structured and are drafted in obscure terms which prevent a normal reader from immediately grasping all their implications, in particular as regards their retroactive application". In support of this plea, Portugal relied on a European Council resolution of 8 June 1993 on the quality of drafting of Community legislation. In this respect, the Court ruled that the 1993 resolution had no binding effect and that in any case, "the decision appears to be clear in every aspect".

Intellectual property rights
Joined cases C-446/09 and C-495/09 concerned the interpretation of EU legislation governing action by customs authorities against possible infringements of intellectual property rights when suspected goods were within the EU for "external transit" purposes.
In SAS Institute Inc v World Programming Ltd. (C-406/10), the court ruled that copyright protection does not extend to software functionality, the programming language used, or the format of the data files used by a software program.

Internal market

Free movement of goods

Definition of "goods"
 Commission v Italy ("Italian Art") 7/68 [1968] ECR 423
'Goods' are "products which can be valued in money and which are capable, as such, of forming the subject of commercial transactions".

 Commission v Belgium C-2/90 [1992] ECR I-4431
"Waste, whether recyclable or not, is to be regarded as 'goods'."

Customs duties and equivalent charges

Articles 23 and 25 EC prohibit as between Member States all "customs duties on imports and exports and of all charges having equivalent effect". The prohibition in Article 25 also applies to customs duties of a fiscal nature.

 Commission v Italy ('Italian statistical data') 24/68 [1969] ECR 193
Customs charges are prohibited because "any pecuniary charge, however small, imposed on goods by reason of the fact that they cross a frontier constitutes an obstacle to the movement of such goods."

 Diamantarbeiders 2/69 and 3/69 [1969] ECR 211
A charge having equivalent effect to a customs duty is "any pecuniary charge however small and whatever its designation and mode of application which is imposed unilaterally on domestic or foreign goods by reason of the fact that they cross a frontier and which is not a customs duty in the strict sense." This is the case "even if it is not imposed for the benefit of the State [and] is not discriminatory or protective in effect, or if the product on which the charge is imposed is not in competition with any domestic product."

 Bresciani 87/75 [1976] ECR 129
Charges imposed for a public health inspection carried out on the entry of goods to a Member State can be a charge having equivalent effect to a customs duty. It was not important that the charges were proportionate to the costs of the inspection, nor that such inspections were in the public interest.

 Commission v Germany 18/87 [1988] ECR 5427
A charge for a service will not be regarded as a customs duty where it: (a) does not exceed the cost of the service, (b) that service is obligatory and applied uniformly for all the goods concerned, (c) the service fulfills obligations prescribed by Community law, and (d) the service promotes the free movement of goods in particular by neutralising obstacles which may arise from unilateral measures of inspection.

Indirect taxation

Article 110 EC prevents any Member State from imposing, "directly or indirectly, on the products of other Member States any internal taxation of any kind in excess of that imposed directly or indirectly on similar domestic products". This prohibition also extends to "internal taxation of such a nature as to afford indirect protection to other products".

 Humblot 112/84 [1985] ECR 1367

Quantitative restrictions

Article 34 EC bans "quantitative restrictions on imports and all measures having equivalent effect shall be prohibited between Member States", the same provision in respect of exports is found in Article 35 EC.

 Geddo v Ente 2/73 [1973] ECR 865
Quantitative restrictions are "measures which amount to a total or partial restraint of, according to the circumstances, imports, exports or goods in transit."

Measures having Equivalent effect to a Quantitative Restriction (MEQRs)

Procureur du Roi v Dassonville 8/74 [1974] ECR 837
The following are prohibited as Measures having Equivalent effect to a Quantitative Restriction (MEQRs): "all trading rules enacted by Member States which are capable of hindering, directly or indirectly, actually or potentially, intra-Community trade."

 Commission v Ireland 249/81 [1982] ECR 4005
 Commission v UK 207/83 [1985] ECR 1201

Justification

Article 36 EC exempts quantitative restrictions which are justified on grounds of "public morality, public policy or public security; the protection of health and life of humans, animals or plants; the protection of national treasures possessing artistic, historic or archaeological value; or the protection of industrial and commercial property". The restrictions must not, in any case, "constitute a means of arbitrary discrimination or a disguised restriction on trade between Member States".

Cassis de Dijon 120/78 [1979] ECR 649
 Henn and Darby 34/79 [1979] ECR 3795
Keck and Mithouard C-267/91 and C-268/91 [1993] ECR I-6097
 Torfaen Borough Council C-145/88 [1989] ECR 3851

Product liability
The Product Liability Directive aims to ensure undistorted competition between economic operators, to facilitate the free movement of goods and to avoid differences in levels of consumer protection.
Case-495/10 - Centre hospitalier universitaire de Besançon v Thomas Dutrueux, Caisse primaire d'assurance maladie du Jura, 21 December 2011: The directive is not intended "exhaustively to harmonise the sphere of liability for defective products beyond its own area of application", which concerns producer and importer liability for defective products. A French healthcare law which also imposes a form of no-fault liability on public hospitals is therefore not incompatible with the directive.

Free movement of persons

Workers
 Hoekstra 75/63 [1964] ECR 347
 Sotgiu 152/73 [1974] ECR 153
 Van Duyn 41/74 [1974] ECR 1337
 Levin 53/81 [1982] ECR 1035
 Lawrie-Blum 66/85 [1986] ECR 2121
Union nationale des entraîneurs et cadres techniques professionnels du football (Unectef) v Georges Heylens and others, C-222/86, judgment dated 15 October 1987, ruled that it must be possible for a worker to challenge a refusal to recognise the equivalence of a diploma. George Heylens in this case was a Belgian footballer. French rules at the time required a foorball trainer working in France to have a French qualification.
 Bettray 344/87 [1989] ECR 1621
 Groener C-379/87 [1989] ECR 3967
 Antonissen C-292/89 [1991] ECR I-745
 Bosman C-415/93[1995] ECR I-4921
 Angonese C-281/98 [2000] ECR I-4139
  Trojani C-456/02 [2004] ECR I-07573

Citizenship
 Grzelczyk C-184/99 [2001] ECR I-6193
 Garcia Avello C-148/02 [2003] ECR I-11613
 Collins C-138/02 [2004] ECR I-2703
 Zhu and Chen C-200/02 [2004] ECR I-9925
 Metock and Others C-127/08 [2008] ECR I-6241
Libert et al v Gouvernement flamand (Flemish Government), Case C-197/11, found that a decree of the Flemish Region dated 27 March 2009 on land and real estate, which restricted transfer of certain land to persons with a "sufficient connection" with the local community, breached the Citizens' Rights Directive, 2004/38/EC. The case was joined with case C-203/11.

Freedom of establishment and to provide services

Establishment

 Reyners 2/74 [1974] ECR 631
 Thieffry 71/76 [1977] ECR 765
 Factortame II C-221/89 [1991] ECR I-3905
 Vlassopoulou 340/89 [1991] ECR 2357
Centros C-212/97 [1999] ECR I-1459
Überseering C-208/00 [2002] ECR I-9919
Joined cases C-186/11 and C-209/11 Stanleybet et al. v. Organismos prognostikon agonon podosfairou AE (OPAP) regarding OPAP's monopoly betting licence under Greek national law.

Services

 van Binsbergen 33/74 [1974] ECR 1299
 Cowan 186/87 [1989] ECR 195
Rush Portuguesa C-113/89 [1990] ECR I-1417
 Gebhard C-55/94 [1995] ECR I-4165
 Bosman C-415/93[1995] ECR I-4921
Case C-393/05, Commission v Austria, concerning the Austrian requirement that every inspection body in the field of organic agriculture with a registered office outside Austria must also maintain an office inside Austria. The Court held that this requirement was a disproportionate restriction on freedom to provide services.
Case C-434/15, Asociación Profesional Elite Taxi v Uber Systems Spain SL: the service provided by Uber connecting individuals with vehicle drivers is to be classified as a service in the field of transport.

Jurisdiction and the recognition and enforcement of judgments
Marco Gambazzi v DaimlerChrysler Canada Inc. and CIBC Mellon Trust Company, Case C–394/07, concerned implementation of the public policy clause of the Brussels Convention (now the Brussels I Regulation). In this case, the court ruled that the Italian courts (and potentially other courts of member states) could decline to enforce a default judgment entered against Mr Gambazzi in the UK courts if, following a "comprehensive assessment of the proceedings", the court considered that the default judgment in the absence of the defendant "constituted a manifest and disproportionate infringement of [his] right to be heard".
Car Trim GmbH v KeySafety Systems SrL (case C-381/08) and Electrosteel Europe sa v Edil Centro SpA, (case C-87/10): two linked cases regarding the place of "performance" of a contractual obligation, which may be used to determine the national court with jurisdiction in a civil or commercial matter. This will in general be the place of delivery in relation to a contract for the sale of goods. These cases looked at situations where goods were made available for delivery to a purchaser in another member state. The terms of the contract should first be considered to determine where "delivery" is to take place, but if this is not possible (not knowing which member state's substantive contract law is to apply), the place where goods are physically handed over to the purchaser or their agent will determine the place of performance.
Pammer v. Karl Schlütter GmbH & Co. KG (case C-585/08) and Hotel Alpenhof v. Mr. Heller (case C-144/09), 2010: see Pammer and Alpenhof cases

Procurement

Procurement procedures of entities operating in the water, energy, transport and postal services sectors
Case C-513/99 - Concordia Bus Finland Oy Ab, formerly Stagecoach Finland Oy Ab v Helsingin kaupunki and HKL-Bussiliikenne, also a public procurement ruling, delivered 17 September 2002. The City of Helsinki began progressively tendering for the operation of bus services across the whole city network in 1997. Concordia Bus Finland challenged the inclusion of environmental factors in the evaluation criteria. One of the objections of Concordia Bus was that the criteria were discriminatory because the Community's own bus company HKL was the only company with gas-powered vehicles that could comply with the emission levels set. The court ruled that the fact that one of a set of various award criteria imposed by the  contracting authority could only be met by a small number of companies did not in itself make this discriminatory.
Case C-394-02: Commission of the European Communities v Hellenic Republic. Circumstances following an environmental impact assessment with a deadline for implementation did not qualify as "extreme urgency" for the purposes of justifying a negotiated contract being agreed without advertising an opportunity for other companies to express interest. See Public Power Corporation#Legal issues.
Case C-206/08: Wasser- und Abwasserzweckverband Gotha und Landkreisgemeinden (WAZV Gotha) v Eurawasser Aufbereitungs- und Entsorgungsgesellschaft mbH. Ruled in relation to a contract for the supply of services, that "the fact that the supplier does not receive consideration directly from the contracting authority, but is entitled to collect payment under private law from third parties, is sufficient for the contract in question to be categorised as a 'service concession' within the meaning of Article 1(3)(b) of Directive 2004/17/EC of the European Parliament and of the council of 31 March 2004".

Public procurement
Case 31/87 Gebroeders Beentjes BV v State of the Netherlands on the interpretation of Council Directive 71/305/EEC of 26 July 1971 concerning the coordination of procedures for the award of public works contracts: a "social consideration" such as a condition relating to the employment of long-term unemployed persons is compatible with the public works directive if it has no direct or indirect discriminatory effect on tenderers from other Member States of the Community.
Case C-107/92 Commission v Italian Republic – an urgent need had arisen to construct an avalanche barrier in the Alpe Gallina region near Colle Isarco and Brenner in the South Tyrol, following publication of a geological report in June 1988 recommending in advance of the 1988-89 winter. The Italian government appointed a contractor without advertising in the Official Journal of the European Communities on the grounds of urgency, but the European Commission argued, and the Court agreed, that there was sufficient time to advertise the works opportunity under the accelerated procedure as defined in section 15 of the Directive on Public Works Contracts (Directive 71/305/EEC).
Case C-97/94 Commission v Belgium: contracting authorities have "a degree of choice" as to which procurement procedure they follow for each procurement exercise, but "once they have issued an invitation to tender under one particular procedure, they are required to observe the rules applicable to it until the contract has been finally awarded". In this case, brought by the Commission of the European Communities against the Kingdom of Belgium, the Belgian government argued that although this tender for the supply of buses for public transport in the Walloon region had been issued using the "Open Procedure", the "negotiated procedure" could have been used instead. The court stated that subsequently changing the procedure in order to negotiate (or accept further post-tender information) was not permitted.
Case C-225/98 Commission v French Republic – ruled that the Nord-Pas-de-Calais region and the Département du Nord had failed to fulfil their legal obligations through the use of employment criteria in the technical specification used when contracting for the construction and maintenance of school buildings. However, the court ruled that where a contracting authority had to assess two or more economically equivalent bids, they could adopt employment opportunities as an "accessory" or "additional" criterion, as long as the use of this criterion was not discriminatory.
Case C-237/99 Commission v French Republic – ruled that the French public housing institutions, offices publics d'aménagement et de construction (OPAC, public development and construction entities) and societes anonymes habitations à loyer modéré (SA HTMs, low-rent housing corporations) met the criteria in the then-applicable public works contracts directive (Council Directive 93/37/EEC) for being treated as a "body governed by public law" according to article 1(b) of the directive:
a body established for the specific purpose of meeting needs in the general interest, not having an industrial or commercial character,
having legal personality, and
[either]
financed, for the most part, by the State, or regional or local authorities, or other bodies governed by public law, or
subject to management supervision by those bodies, or
having an administrative, managerial or supervisory board, more than half of whose members are appointed by the State, regional or local authorities or by other bodies governed by public law. Accordingly they were subject to the obligation to publish relevant above-threshold contracts in the Official Journal of the European Communities.
Case C-19/00 SIAC Construction Ltd. v  The County Council of the County of Mayo - the court ruled on the interpretation of Article 29 of Council Directive 71/305/EEC of 26 July 1971: see SIAC Construction Ltd v The County Council of the County of Mayo#Court of Justice of the European Union
Case C-488/01 Wienstrom case: the court ruled that in a tender for energy supply, a criterion relating solely to the amount of electricity produced from renewable sources in excess of the expected consumption of the contracting authority (which was the subject of the contract) could not be considered to be linked to the subject-matter of the contract. To establish such a link to the subject-matter of the contract, the criterion relating to the amount of electricity produced from renewable sources should have concerned only the electricity effectively supplied to the contracting authority, namely the Austrian federal government, in respect of its offices in the Land of Carinthia.
Case C-211/02 Tideland Signal Ltd v European Commission: supply case where the Commission rejected a tender in circumstances where the Court of First Instance held that a clarification should have been sought instead of the tender being rejected, giving rise to a proposition on the circumstances where a clarification should be sought, subsequently referred to as the "Tideland principles".
Joined cases C-226/04 and C-228/04: whether companies bidding for public service contracts who have failed to pay tax or social security contributions on time but have subsequently regularised their position may be included within a procurement procedure, where national harmonising legislation makes provision for such companies not to be considered.
Case C-444/06 Commission v Spain: the Spanish public procurement rules did not adequately transpose the requirements of Council Directive 89/665/EEC on the coordination of the laws, regulations and administrative provisions relating to the application of review procedures to the award of public supply and public works contracts, as amended by Council Directive 92/50/EEC of 18 June 1992. However, in regard to some provisions in Spanish law intended to preserve the effects of a contract subject to an administrative declaration of invalidity and to maintain continuity of public service provision, the Court found that the commission had not demonstrated that the legislation undermined the requirements of the review directive.
Case C‑450/06 Varec SA v Belgian State, 14 February 2008: a review body must ensure that confidentiality and business secrecy are respected. The review body itself is responsible for determining how this can best be done whilst also providing effective legal protection and respecting the rights of the parties to the dispute under review to conduct their defence.
Case C-532/06 Emm G Lianakis AE and others v Dimos Alexandrouplis and others, states that the "selection" and "award" stages of a procurement process are distinct processes with different purposes and should not be fused into one. The case establishes that a supplier's "experience" may be used as a selection criterion but cannot function as a evaluation criterion at the "award" stage.
Case T-258/06 Commission v Germany, a case in the General Court of the European Union: Germany unsuccessfully challenged the lawfulness of the Commission's Interpretative Communication on the Community law applicable to contract awards not or not fully subject to the provisions of the Public Procurement Directives, published in August 2006.
Case C‑538/07 Assitur Srl v Camera di Commercio, Industria, Artigianato e Agricoltura di Milano: addressed a referral from the Italian Tribunale Amministrativo Regionale per la Lombardia for advice on whether the list of criteria in the (old) procurement directive 92/50/EEC for excluding tenderers from a procurement process was to be treated as exhaustive. The ruling confirmed that in itself the list was not exhaustive, but parallel Italian legislation according to which "undertakings linked by a relationship of control or affiliated to one another" were not permitted to take part simultaneously in the same procurement procedure" was unlawful unless the businesses involved were given "an opportunity to demonstrate that [their] relationship did not influence their conduct in the course of that tendering procedure".
Case C-406/08, Uniplex (UK) Ltd. v NHS Business Services Authority: reviewed the provision in the UK's Public Contracts Regulations obliging an unsuccessful tenderer to submit a challenge to the contracting authority's decision "promptly, and in any event within three months". The court concluded that this national provision was contrary to EU law because this form of wording prevented claimants from knowing the exact time limit which would apply.
Case C-456/08 Commission v Ireland: Order 84A of the Rules of the Superior Courts in Ireland required procurement review actions to be brought "at the earliest opportunity and in any event within three months". The Court ruled that this wording left disappointed bidders "in uncertainty regarding their position when they consider making use of their Community law right to effective legal remedy against a decision of a contracting authority". A new Order 84A was issued by the Irish Government on 8 September 2010 which is now consistent with EU law. This requires that actions be brought within 30 calendar days of when the claimant "knew or ought to have known" of the alleged infringement".
Case C-599/10 SAG ELV Slovensko a.s. and others v Úrad pre verejné obstarávanie, referral from the Najvyšší súd Slovenskej republiky (Supreme Court of the Slovak Republic). In a case where a tender is imprecise or does not meet the technical requirements of the specification, there is no obligation to consult the tenderer or to ask for a clarification, and to do so would conflict with the principle of equal treatment of tenderers. There is a duty to request clarification of an abnormally low price and in this case the contracting authority "must set out clearly its request for clarification".
Case C-182/11 Econord SpA v Comune di Cagno et al., 29 November 2012: control "similar to the control which [a local authority] exercises over its own departments" is maintained where the authority holds capital in a public entity and also plays "a role in its managing bodies". Joined case with case C-183/11.
Case 94/12 Swm Contruzioni 2 SpA and Mannochi Luigino DI v. Provincia di Fermo ruled that Italian public works contracting rules which prevented a tenderer from relying on the capacities of more than one other business in each category covered by the business qualification system was inconsistent with the rules in the public procurement directive of 2004 allowing "entities" (plural), as a general rule, to be engaged in supporting the delivery of a contract or evidencing that the necessary capacity was available to the tendering organisation.
Case C-552/13 Grupo Hospitalario Quirón SA v Departamento de Sanidad del Gobierno Vasco and Instituto de Religiosas Siervas de Jesús de la Caridad, confirmed that the 2004 Directive on Public Procurement did not permit a tender for medical services to state as a requirement that the proposed services must be provided within the boundaries of a particular locality, in this case the municipality of Bilbao. A more general proximity requirement in the specification, more easily justifiable, was not criticised by the court.
Case T-4/13 - Communicaid Group Ltd. v European Commission, another EU General Court case. Communicaid, a London-based language-training company challenged a procurement award decision made by the Commission and requested that the proposed contract award be suspended. The challenge was dismissed as Communicaid had failed to establish why urgent measures were required.
Case C-413/17 – Roche Lietuva, related to the detailed formulation of technical specifications.

Social policy
Defrenne III C-149/77 [1978] ECR 1365: the scope of article 119 does not extend beyond equal pay, but the elimination of sex discrimination is a fundamental principle of Community law.
Bundesdruckerei v. Stadt Dortmund, Case C-549/13: the City of Dortmund could not require tenderers for a document digitalisation contract to commit to paying German minimum wage levels to the workforce when they were intending to sub-contract the performance of the contract to a firm based in Poland outside the scope of the German minimum wage law.

State liability

 Francovich and Bonifaci C-6/90 and C-9/90 [1991] ECR I-5357
 Brasserie du Pêcheur / Factortame III C-46/93 and C-48/93 [1996] ECR I-1029
 British Telecom C-392/93 [1996] ECR I-1631
 Faccini Dori C-91/92 [1994] ECR I-3325
 Köbler C-224/01 [2003] ECR I-10239
ClientEarth C-404/13 [2014] 2382
Elisabeta Dano and Florin Dano C-333/13 [2014] 2358

Taxation

Value added tax
C-97/90 – Lennartz v Finanzamt München III: reference for a preliminary ruling on VAT paid on the purchase of capital goods.
Axel Kittel & Recolta Recycling SPRL (cases C-439/04 and C-440/04, issued 6 July 2006) (known as Kittel), a missing trader fraud case. Under the Kittel ruling, "the right to claim input tax could be denied to anyone in the supply chain if the trader knew or should have known that their transactions were connected with VAT fraud".

VAT groups
Taxation barrister Philip Simpson refers to "the three main ECJ cases" on VAT groups as:
Case C-162/07, Ampliscientifica and Amplifin v. Ministero dell'Economia e delle Finanze, (2008, Italy) ECR I-4019: Italy had failed to consult the EU's VAT Committee in accordance with Article 11 of the Sixth VAT Directive
Case C-7/13 Skandia America Corp (USA) v. Skatteverket (the Swedish Tax Agency), 14 September 2014: according to HMRC's summary of this case,
Cases C-108/14 and C-109/14 (conjoined), Larentia + Minerva and Marenave, 16 July 2015.

A separate ruling is Case C-355/06, van der Steen (2007), a case which Simpson refers to as "not terribly clear".

Fifty-seven pre-accession cases
The following is the official list of fifty-seven cases that were translated in preparation for new member states who joined the European Union in 2004. The list below contains fifty case names, because some cases were joined.

NV Algemene Transport- en Expeditie Onderneming van Gend & Loos v Nederlandse administratie der belastingen (1963) Case 26/62
Plaumann & Co. v Commission (1963) Case 25/62
Flaminio Costa v E.N.E.L. (1964) Case 6/64
Établissements Consten S.à.R.L. and Grundig-Verkaufs-GmbH v Commission (1966) Case 56-58/64
Commission v Council (1971) Case 22/70
Aktien-Zuckerfabrik Schöppenstedt v Council (1971) Case 5/71
Jean Reyners v Belgian State (1974) Case 2/74
Procureur du Roi v Benoît in Gustave Dassonville (1974) Case 8/74
Yvonne van Duyn v Home Office (1974) Case 41/74
Gabrielle Defrenne v Société anonyme belge de navigation aérienne Sabena (1976) Case 43/75
Amministrazione delle Finanze dello Stato v Simmenthal SpA (1978) Case 106/77
Rewe-Zentral AG v Bundesmonopolverwaltung für Branntwein (1979) Case 120/78
Liselotte Hauer v Land Rheinland-Pfalz (1979) Case 44/79
SA Roquette Frères v Council (1980) Case 138/79
Commission v Belgium (1980) Case 149/79
Ursula Becker v Finanzamt Münster-Innenstadt (1982) Case 8/81
France, Italy and United Kingdom v Commission (1982) Cases 188-190/80
Srl CILFIT et Lanificio di Gavardo SpA v Ministero della sanità (1982) Case 283/81
Sabine von Colson in Elisabeth Kamann v Land Nordrhein-Westfalen (1984) Case 14/83
Parti écologiste "Les Verts" v Parliament (1986) Case 294/83
Marguerite Johnston v Chief Constable of the Royal Ulster Constabulary (1986) Case 222/84
Commission v Germany (1987) Case 178/84
Commission v Council (1987) Case 45/86
Foto-Frost v Hauptzollamt Lübeck-Ost (1987) Case 314/85
Pascal Van Eycke v Société anonyme ASPA (1988) Case 267/86
Hoechst AG v Commission (1989) Cases 46/87 and 227/88
Parliament v Council (1990) Case C-70/88
R v Secretary of State for Transport, ex parte Factortame Ltd (1990) Case C-213/89
Zuckerfabrik Süderdithmarschen AG v Hauptzollamt Itzehoe and Zuckerfabrik Soest GmbH v Hauptzollamt Paderborn (1991) C-143/88 in C-92/89
Andrea Francovich in Danila Bonifaci v Italy (1991) C-6/90 in C-9/90
Opinion of the Court under article 288 (1991) Opinion 1/91
Telemarsicabruzzo SpA v Circostel in Ministero delle Poste e Telecomunicazioni in Ministero della Difesa (1993) C-320/90, C-321/90 in C-322/90
Bernard Keck and Daniel Mithouard (1993) C-267/91 and C-268/91
Paola Faccini Dori v Recreb Srl (1994) Case C-91/92
Competence of the Community to conclude international agreements concerning services and the protection of intellectual property (1994) Opinion 1/94
Alpine Investments BV v Minister van Financiën (1995) Case C-384/93
Reinhard Gebhard v Consiglio dell'Ordine degli Avvocati e Procuratori di Milano (1995) Case C-55/94
Union royale belge des sociétés de football association ASBL v Jean-Marc Bosman (1995) Case C-415/93
Brasserie du Pêcheur SA v Bundesrepublik Deutschland and R v Secretary of State for Transport, ex parte: Factortame Ltd (1996) C-46/93 and C-48/93
Community accession to the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (1996) Opinion 2/94
CIA Security International SA v Signalson SA and Securitel SPRL (1996) Case C-194/94
Hellmut Marschall v Land Nordrhein-Westfalen (1997) Case C-409/95
Commission v France (1997) Case C-265/95
Inter-Environnement Wallonie ASBL v Région wallonne (1997) Case C-129/96
María Martínez Sala v Freistaat Bayern (1998) Case C-85/96
A. Racke GmbH & Co. v Hauptzollamt Mainz (1998) Case C-162/96
Centros Ltd v Erhvervs- og Selskabsstyrelsen (1999) Case C-212/97
Albany International BV v Stichting Bedrijfspensioenfonds Textielindustrie (1999) Case C-67/96
Dieter Krombach v André Bamberski (2000) Case C-7/98
Germany v Parliament (2000) Case C-376/98

Notes

References

 Becht, Marco, Mayer, Colin and Wagner, Hannes F., "Where Do Firms Incorporate? Deregulation and the Cost of Entry" (August 2007). ECGI – Law Working Paper No. 70/2006 (documents effect of Centros and Überseering decisions on incorporation mobility of companies)

External links
Official list of 57 pre-2001 judgments and 79 2001-2004 judgments for Accession countries

Rulings

List of European Court of Justice rulings


Charles Tellier (29 June 1828 – 19 October 1913) was a French engineer, born in Amiens.  He early made a study of motors and compressed air.  In 1868, he began experiments in refrigeration, which resulted ultimately in the refrigerating plant, as used on ocean vessels, to preserve meats and other perishable food.  In 1911, Tellier was awarded the Joest prize by the French Institute and, in 1912, he was made Chevalier of the Legion of Honour.  He wrote Histoire d'une invention moderne, le frigorifique (1910).
Tellier died impoverished in Paris. Dimethyl ether was the first refrigerant, in 1876, Charles Tellier bought the ex-Elder-Dempster a 690 tons cargo ship Eboe and fitted a Methyl-ether refrigerating plant of his design. The ship was renamed Le Frigorifique and successfully imported a cargo of refrigerated meat from Argentina. However the machinery could be improved and in 1877 another refrigerated ship called Paraguay with a refrigerating plant improved by Ferdinand Carré was put into service on the South American run.

References

See also
Timeline of low-temperature technology
Francisco Lecocq

1828 births
1913 deaths
People from Amiens
French non-fiction writers
19th-century French engineers
19th-century French inventors
Writers from Hauts-de-France
French male non-fiction writers
Knights of the Legion of Honour

Charles Tellier


The year 1762 in architecture involved some significant events.

Events
King George III of the United Kingdom begins remodelling Buckingham Palace as his family's main London residence.
Construction of the Petit Trianon in the grounds of the Palace of Versailles in France to the design of Ange-Jacques Gabriel begins.
Construction of the Brick Market in Newport, Rhode Island, to the design of Peter Harrison begins (completed 1772).

Buildings and structures

Buildings

Milsom Street, Bath, England, is built by Thomas Lightholder.
Plymouth Synagogue in England, the oldest synagogue built by Ashkenazi Jews in the English-speaking world, is built, apparently without an architect.
St George's German Lutheran Church in London is built.
Old St. Thomas's Church, Dublin, Ireland, designed by John Smith after Palladio, is completed.
Old City Hall (Aalborg) in Denmark, built by Daniel Popp, is completed.
Old State House (Providence, Rhode Island) is substantially completed.
Faneuil Hall, Boston, Massachusetts, is rebuilt after a fire.
Richmond Place on the River Thames at Richmond, England, designed by Robert Taylor, is completed for Sir Charles Asgill.
Schuyler Mansion in Albany, New York, designed by John Gaborial, is completed.
Upton Scott House in Annapolis, Maryland, is built by William Brown.
Notre-Dame de Guebwiller is started (completed in 1785)

Publications
 James Stuart and Nicholas Revett's Antiquities of Athens.

Births
April 14 – Giuseppe Valadier, Italian architect and designer, urban planner and archeologist (died 1839)
September 20 – Pierre-François-Léonard Fontaine, French neoclassical architect, interior decorator and designer (died 1853)

Deaths
December 17? – Charles Labelye, Swiss civil engineer (born 1705)
date unknown – Rosario Gagliardi, Sicilian architect (born 1698)

References

Architecture
Years in architecture
18th-century architecture

1762 in architecture


The First Malayan Five-Year Plan (1956 – 1960) was the first economic development plan launched by the Malayan government just before independence in 1957. The colonial British government had concentrated available resources on fighting the Malayan communist insurgency instead of developing the rural areas of Malaya. The Five Year Plan allocated substantial resources to agricultural and rural improvement, and was administrated by the Prime Minister's department. A total of 24% of all public expenditure alone was allocated by the Plan to develop agriculture in Malaya, and substantial sums were also made available for infrastructure development.

Notes and references

Economic history of Malaysia
Five-year plans of Malaysia

First Malayan Five-Year Plan


Giancarlo Volpe is an Italian-born American animator, director, producer and comic creator.

Volpe directed, wrote, and storyboarded for the Disney Channel animated series Star vs. the Forces of Evil from 2015 to 2017.

On February 14, 2015, Volpe launched his webcomic God of Love via his giancarlovolpe.tumblr.com. The comic is 100% creator owned and features two elven lovers on the run when the goddess of love is replaced by an evil demon.

Graduating from the School of Visual Arts in 1997, Volpe began his career at Humongous Entertainment, animating on the children's computer games Pajama Sam 2: Thunder and Lightning Aren't so Frightening and Putt-Putt Enters the Race. In 1998, he began working at Film Roman to work on the Fox series King of the Hill, where he was a character layout artist and assistant director.

In 2005, Volpe went on to direct 19 episodes of the Nickelodeon series Avatar: The Last Airbender. He won an Annie award for the second season episode "The Drill".

In 2008, Volpe moved to Lucasfilm Animation as an episodic director on Star Wars: The Clone Wars where he worked directly with famed filmmaker George Lucas.

Volpe also produced the CG television show Green Lantern: The Animated Series, working with animation producer Bruce Timm. The series ran for 26 episodes and had a devout following, where its loyal fan base was dubbed "Fanterns".

In January 2014, Warner Bros. Animation released JLA Adventures: Trapped in Time, which was produced and directed by Volpe. JLAATIT is a 52-minute direct-to-video movie featuring the Justice League and received critical praise for its fun factor and kid friendly tone.

Volpe also spent 2014 working at Riot Games, where he helped create animated content based on wildly popular MOBA game League of Legends. The content was designed to expand upon the very fast world and character base of the game.

Volpe also helped to develop and direct the pilot for Mike Tyson Mysteries.

Filmography

References

External links
 MobyGames profile
 deviantART Profile
 Tumblr blog

American animators
American comics artists
American animated film directors
American television directors
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)

Giancarlo Volpe


Erik Tegner (29 October 1896 – 9 September 1965) was a Danish male tennis player. He competed in the singles event at the 1920 Summer Olympics and 1924 Summer Olympics, reaching the second round on both occasions. With compatriot Amory Hansen he reached the final of the mixed doubles event in 1920 in which they lost to eventual Olympic champions Suzanne Lenglen and Max Decugis. In the bronze medal match they lost to Milada Skrbková and Ladislav Žemla-Rázný.

References

1896 births
1965 deaths
Danish male tennis players
Olympic tennis players for Denmark
Tennis players at the 1920 Summer Olympics
Tennis players at the 1924 Summer Olympics
Erik Tegner
20th-century Danish people

Erik Tegner


Alypius of Antioch was a geographer and a vicarius of Roman Britain, probably in the late 350s AD. He replaced Flavius Martinus after that vicarius' suicide. His rule is recorded is Ammianus XXIII 1, 3.

Life
He came from Antioch and served under Constantius II and was probably appointed to ensure that nobody with western associations was serving in Britain during a time of mistrust, rebellion and suppression symbolised by the brutal acts of the imperial notary Paulus Catena. He may have had to deal with the insurrection of the usurper named Carausius II.

Alypius was afterwards commissioned to rebuild the Temple in Jerusalem as part of Julian's systematic attempt to reverse the Christianization of the Roman Empire by restoring pagan and, in this case, Jewish practices. Among the letters of Julian are two (29 and 30) addressed to Alypius; one inviting him to Rome, the other thanking him for a geographical treatise, which no longer exists.

References

Sources
Todd, M., Roman Britain, Fontana, London 1985
Salway, P., Roman Britain, Oxford, 1986

Jews and Judaism in the Roman Empire
Ancient Romans in Britain
People from Antioch
Ancient Roman geographers
Roman governors of Britain
4th-century Romans
Late-Roman-era pagans
4th-century geographers

Alypius of Antioch


Firestarter is a 1984 American science fiction horror movie directed by Mark L. Lester and was based on the 1980 novel of the same name by Stephen King. It stars Drew Barrymore, David Keith, Freddie Jones, Heather Locklear, George C. Scott, Martin Sheen, Art Carney, Louise Fletcher and was distributed by Universal Pictures. It will be remade in 2022.

Other websites

1984 science fiction movies
1984 horror movies
1980s science fiction horror movies
1980s psychological movies
American science fiction horror movies
Movies based on books
Movies directed by Mark L. Lester
Universal Pictures movies
Movies set in Connecticut
Movies based on books by Stephen King

Firestarter


Etchemin was a language of the Algonquian language family, spoken in early colonial times on the coast of Maine. The word Etchemin is thought to be either French alteration of an Algonquian word for 'canoe' or a translation of Skidijn, the native word for people in use by the inhabitants of the St. John, Passamaquoddy and St. Croix Rivers.

The only known record of the Etchemin language is a list of the numbers from one to ten recorded by Marc Lescarbot in the early 17th century and published in his book The History of New France (1609). The numerals in the list match those of Malecite-Passamaquoddy, Eastern Abenaki, as well as languages of southern New England such as Wampanoag, but as a set they do not match any other Algonquian language. The Etchemin language disappeared not long after Lescarbot's visit, and it is unknown what became of the tribe. All other language records called 'Etchemin', under more detailed analysis, appear to be the neighboring Malecite-Passamaquoddy language.

References

External links
 Linguist List entry for Etchemin
 Native-languages.org
OLAC resources in and about the Etchemin language

Eastern Algonquian languages
Indigenous languages of the North American eastern woodlands
Languages of the United States
Extinct languages of North America
Languages attested from the 17th century
17th-century establishments in the Thirteen Colonies
Languages extinct in the 17th century
17th-century disestablishments in the Thirteen Colonies
Indigenous languages of North America

Etchemin language


Viktor Orbán (31 May 1963) is a Hungarian dictator who has served as the Prime Minister of Hungary for three non-consecutive terms since 1998. He is the founder and leader of the ruling right-wing party, Fidesz.

Orbán was born on May 31, 1963, in Székesfehérvár, Hungary. He studied law at Eötvös Loránd University in Budapest and became involved in politics in the 1980s, when he helped found Fidesz, a youth organization that later evolved into a political party.

Orbán first served as Prime Minister from 1998 to 2002, during which time he implemented a series of economic and social reforms that helped to stabilize Hungary's economy and modernize its infrastructure. He was reelected in 2010 and has since been reelected twice, in 2014 and 2018.

As Prime Minister, Orbán has pursued a populist, nationalist agenda that has been controversial both domestically and internationally. He has been criticized for his crackdown on civil society, media freedom, and academic independence, as well as his handling of the refugee crisis and his opposition to the European Union.

Orbán's government has been accused of corruption and of using its power to undermine democratic institutions and the rule of law. His efforts to centralize power and weaken the judiciary and the media have drawn criticism from the European Union and human rights organizations.

Despite these criticisms, Orbán remains popular among his supporters, who credit him with improving Hungary's economy and promoting its national interests. He has been successful in mobilizing a loyal base of supporters and has built a reputation as a strong, decisive leader.

Orbán's vision for Hungary is based on what he has described as "illiberal democracy," a model of governance that emphasizes national sovereignty, traditional values, and economic self-sufficiency. He has argued that this model is better suited to the challenges of the 21st century than traditional liberal democracy, which he sees as outdated and unsustainable.

Orbán's legacy as a leader is a matter of debate. While he has been credited with bringing stability and prosperity to Hungary, his authoritarian tendencies and controversial policies have raised concerns about the future of democracy and human rights in the country.

Early life
Viktor Orbán is a Hungarian politician who has been the country's Prime Minister since 2010. He was born on May 31, 1963, in Székesfehérvár, Hungary, and grew up in a middle-class family. Orbán showed an early interest in politics and was a member of various student organizations during his high school years. He went on to study law at Eötvös Loránd University in Budapest, where he became involved in anti-communist activism and co-founded the Federation of Young Democrats, a liberal youth organization. After graduation, Orbán began his political career and was first elected to parliament in 1990, following the fall of communism in Hungary.

Early career
Viktor Orbán's early political career was defined by his role in the Hungarian democratic opposition and his leadership of the Federation of Young Democrats. In 1988, he was a key figure in organizing a demonstration in Budapest that called for free elections and greater political freedoms. He was first elected to parliament in 1990 and quickly rose through the ranks of the Hungarian Democratic Forum, serving as the party's chairman from 1993 to 2000. Orbán became Prime Minister of Hungary in 1998, following a landslide victory for his conservative Fidesz party. During his first term in office, Orbán pursued a program of economic liberalization and introduced a series of reforms aimed at modernizing Hungary's political and economic institutions.

First premiership
During his first premiership from 1998 to 2002, Viktor Orbán pursued a pro-market economic policy, implemented tax cuts and privatization measures, and oversaw an increase in foreign investment in Hungary. However, his administration was criticized for its lack of transparency, and Orbán faced accusations of nepotism and corruption. Orbán also pursued a controversial media policy, introducing laws that restricted press freedom and gave the government more control over public media. His administration was also marked by tensions with neighboring countries, particularly Slovakia and Romania, over issues related to Hungarian minority rights. In the 2002 election, Orbán's party was defeated by the Hungarian Socialist Party, and he subsequently went into opposition.

Leader of the Opposition
Following his defeat in the 2002 election, Viktor Orbán became the leader of the opposition in the Hungarian parliament. During this period, he worked to reshape his party's image and ideology, moving it away from its previous liberal stance and towards a more conservative, nationalist platform. Orbán also focused on building a stronger party organization and cultivating ties with conservative and populist movements in Europe and the United States. His opposition to the Hungarian Socialist Party government and its austerity measures helped him to regain popularity with voters, and his party won a decisive victory in the 2010 election, returning him to the position of Prime Minister. During his time as opposition leader, Orbán continued to advocate for pro-market economic policies and criticized the government's handling of issues related to national identity and minority rights.

Second premiership
Viktor Orbán began his second term as Prime Minister of Hungary in 2010, following his party's landslide victory in the general election. During his second premiership, Orbán pursued a program of far-reaching constitutional and institutional reforms, which drew criticism from both domestic and international observers. His government implemented a new constitution, which was widely criticized for limiting the power of the judiciary, undermining the independence of the media, and restricting the rights of minorities. Orbán's government also introduced controversial laws regulating media ownership and limiting political advertising. Despite criticism from the European Union and other international bodies, Orbán's Fidesz party remained popular among Hungarian voters, winning a two-thirds majority in the 2014 parliamentary election.

Views, public image, international influence
Viktor Orbán is known for his populist and nationalist political views, which prioritize Hungarian interests and emphasize traditional values. His policies have been controversial both domestically and internationally, with critics accusing him of eroding democratic institutions and human rights. Orbán has also been criticized for his government's handling of the refugee crisis and for its perceived authoritarian tendencies. Nevertheless, Orbán remains popular among many Hungarians, who see him as a strong leader who is willing to stand up to foreign influence. His policies have also influenced other populist movements in Europe and beyond, making him a prominent figure on the international stage.

Personal life
Viktor Orbán was born on May 31, 1963, in Székesfehérvár, Hungary. He is married to lawyer and economist Anikó Lévai, and the couple has five children. Orbán is a devout Catholic and has been active in promoting traditional family values and Christian identity in Hungary. He is also a sports enthusiast, and he played basketball for the Hungarian national team in his youth. Orbán's personal life has been relatively private, and he has not spoken extensively about his hobbies or personal interests.

References

1963 births
Living people
Prime Ministers of Hungary
Current national leaders
Anti-communists

Viktor Orbán