East New Market is a town located in Dorchester County, Maryland, United States. The population was 400 at the 2010 census. The ZIP code is 21631.

Geography
East New Market is located at  (38.596219, -75.923613).

According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of , all land.

The town is located approximately six miles northeast of Cambridge, the seat for its home County of Dorchester. It is intersected by state highway routes 14 and 16; and may be found along the hypotenuse of a triangle running from Cambridge to Easton and from Easton to Salisbury, putting East New Market some 22 and 26 miles from those county seats of Talbot and Wicomico counties respectively. It also sits somewhat south of Denton, the county seat of Caroline County. [See any standard Md. issue Highway map for verification.]. This puts the town within relatively easy reach of four county seats in the rural areas where these counties join or are close by.

Demographics

2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 400 people, 169 households, and 99 families residing in the town. The population density was . There were 197 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the town was 80.5% White and 19.5% African American. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.0% of the population.

There were 169 households, of which 30.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 42.0% were married couples living together, 12.4% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.1% had a male householder with no wife present, and 41.4% were non-families. 37.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 23.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.37 and the average family size was 3.13.

The median age in the town was 39.6 years. 22.5% of residents were under the age of 18; 7.4% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 28.4% were from 25 to 44; 22.7% were from 45 to 64; and 19.5% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the town was 49.5% male and 50.5% female.

2000 census
As of the 2000 census, there were 167 people, 75 households, and 44 families residing in the town. The population density was . There were 97 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the town was 96.41% White, 2.40% African American, 1.20% from other races.  Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.40% of the population.

There were 75 households, out of which 16.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 48.0% were married couples living together, 9.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 41.3% were non-families. 33.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 18.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.23 and the average family size was 2.93.

In the town, the population was spread out, with 16.2% under the age of 18, 8.4% from 18 to 24, 26.9% from 25 to 44, 30.5% from 45 to 64, and 18.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 44 years. For every 100 females, there were 101.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.4 males.

The median income for a household in the town was $50,417, and the median income for a family was $56,429. Males had a median income of $36,250 versus $21,389 for females. The per capita income for the town was $22,374. None of the families and 2.3% of the population were living below the poverty line, including no under eighteens and 7.1% of those over 64.

History

18th century
Long referred to as Newmarket, the town arose from its beginnings in the late 17th and early 18th centuries to be a social and commercial center serving the northern hinterland region of Dorchester County, Maryland into the early 20th century. It was an early locale for education. During the Great Awakening, Methodist preachers generated interest and created a majority of Methodist members in the region. They worked to convince slaveholders to free their slaves, and some did in this region. Changes in agriculture reduced the need for laborers. As a result, this area had one of the state's largest free-black populations per capita. Before the war, Methodists in the North and South split over the issue of slavery. Southern Methodists had come to accept it and believed that Christianity could be applied to a system with paternal values of protection. The church split before the war, as Northern Methodists opposed slavery.

The town was active during the American Revolutionary War, the War of 1812, and the American Civil War. The granaries of Col. James Sulivane (commissary officer during the American Revolutionary War) and a regiment of militia known as the "New Market Blues" were integral to the County's as well as the colony's/State's efforts in the revolution.

The town is notable for an unusually broad span of architectural styles, most dating from the late 18th century through the early 20th century. The town's history spans a period from the pre-Columbian to the modern.

Much of the Native American Indian remains are thought to be lost. The town was developed along the Nanticoke Indian path from the Choptank Indian "Fort". It became a center of commercial crossroads of the Eastern Shore of Maryland, located on the main north-south route. The town had boarding houses, hotels and other such facilities to serve travelers and residents. The "Bramble House," the "Old Brick Hotel," and "The Chesadale" are three that served travelers for more than a century. Construction of a rail line increased travelers to the town, who got off at the depot on the east side.

The construction of the "Governor Emerson C. Harrington Bridge", linking Easton to Cambridge and on to Salisbury, made the routes through East New Market secondary to the main flow of traffic. The opening of the bridge was attended by President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, who dedicated the structure.

Originally settled by colonists at what had become the juncture of several plantation, the town was named as "New Market", as recorded in a land patent and resurvey granted by patent from the Lord proprietor's land office to James Sulivane in May 1776, just prior to the issuance of the American Declaration of Independence. Some of the older grant names were "York," "Bath," "Westward," "Buckland," "Buckland Regulated," "Debate Enlarged," "Melvill's Meadow," "Sulivane's Meadow," "Hooper's Outlet," and "Anderton's Desire." At this point several of the more prominent families and their homes were located in the midst of what is now the town. Sulivane gained control of some early land grants by purchase, marriage and inheritance over a number of years. With these various parcels, Sulivane created a single tract for which the new survey or re-survey was granted.

In one section of the new resurvey, Sulivane changed the course of the road that constitutes the southern portion of the main street from its current intersection (Md. routes 14 and 16 ) to a subsequent bend and now fork in that road. On either side of this section, he platted a series of numbered lots and sold them off as building lots. The vacant lots ran from just south of what is now the intersection of Md. Routes 16 and 14 to a bend of the main street leading out of town and toward Cambridge. The oldest extant structure of European origins may date to the 1690s; it was added on to in the 1790s and became known as "Temperance House", "The Old Brick Hotel", "Mitchell-Daffin House", or "House of the Hinges".

"Friendship Hall" and "Buckland" have been dated to the mid-18th century. Early histories have erroneously ascribed all of the great early homes to the Sulivane family.

Such works as Jones's History of Dorchester County and "The Laskowski Papers" have errors of attribution.

The greater area was the home of Civil War-era and Union-sympathizer Maryland Governor Thomas Holliday Hicks. Hicks served in several different elected offices before being elected Governor of Maryland. He was one of the last nationally prominent Whig office holders. Later, he became a member of the American Nativist Party (sometimes known as the "Know-Nothing Party"), and served as governor and as a United States Senator during the last years of his life. He is considered integral to Maryland's refusal to secede from the Union.

The town was established as early as 1783, when the State Legislature authorized the payment for a road "... from the main road from Newmarket to Vienna to the grist-mill of Michael Hall Bonwill, and thence till it intersect the main road from Cambridge to Vienna." (Hanson's Laws of Maryland 1763-1784, Volume 203, Page 361, 1783, CHAP. XIV). (By analogy, Dorchester County marks the year of its organization as 1668, not from a formal creation but from the date on a writ to sheriff of the County of Dorset.)

19th century
An 1803 state statute authorizes Newmarket to control certain ranging livestock. While this is not granting a town charter, the wording suggests there was a body of incorporated municipal leadership.

In 1805, the state legislature authorized the Levy Court for Dorchester County to appoint a bailiff for "New-Market", specifying qualifications for the office and enumerating powers and jurisdiction.

In 1832, the first formal charter incorporating the town is found, incorporated under the name of "East New Market". This by no means that this was the first incorporation but rather the first that can be found. Boundaries for the town were set at ½ mile as measured from an intersection of what was called LeCompte's Tavern. Later, a reincorporation in 1860 reduced the limits to ⅓ of a mile but still measured from "...the tavern house known as " James Lecompte's" or the " frame tavern" each way;..."

The idea of tracing the town's incorporation date is not dissimilar from Dorchester County itself, which traces its establishment from 1668 and the issuance of a writ from the Governor's council to the Sheriff of Dorsett. The formal setting-aside of the county has been lost.

The appellation "East" had been added in 1803 with the establishment of a post office. The change was made by the United States Postal Service to distinguish it from the town of New Market in Frederick County, and areas of Baltimore, Kent, and Talbot Counties Maryland as well as from several other areas up and down the Atlantic seaboard. Among most longtime residents, the emphasis upon the pronunciation of the town's name is on the word New, perhaps reflecting the pronunciation of the original name.

A committed forward-thinking leadership remained active over the expanse of time. By the outbreak of World War I, the town already had its first bank, electric company, water company, and fire brigade. It had its own sanitary sewer system by the 1930s.

With a congregation dating back to the period prior to the "Christmas Conference of 1784", what is currently believed to have been the first Methodist meeting house in the town was established in 1810 and known as "Union Chapel". Francis Asbury, 1st Bishop of the American Methodist (Episcopal) Church, held quarterly conferences there and noted in his journal enemy activity locally during the War of 1812. The chapel was built with an adjoining graveyard. A Greek revival structure was built circa 1848 at new location in the town and named "Trinity" replacing "Union Chapel" and with a separate cemetery on the town's outskirts established which some have come to believe was inspired by the "Cemetery Movement" of the period.

Members of the Methodist movement had, from early on met in various places ranging from the homes of members to meeting houses provided for their use. From such a congregation, meeting in the home of one "Brother Ayers," the congregation gave rise to the seat of the Dorchester Circuit when it was formally created in 1804. From that circuit various circuits were later carved but records, as was customary church practice, always remained with the church that sat as the seat of the circuit. In this case seat of The Dorchester Circuit was with the congregation in New Market with its place of worship at Union Chapel and its later successor Trinity. Thus it is in effect the "mother circuit" to all others set off from the Dorchester Circuit.

Union Chapel is the first known structure of the Methodist congregation in East New Market being built around 1810. It is believed to have been a frame structure with an attendant burial ground and sat on what is known in the 20th century as School or Academy Street, i.e. Md. State Rt. 14 and Creamery Road. This structure served the congregation in the 1840s when a series of events marked a major shift in the church's and the local congregation's status.

In 1844, the split within the Methodist Church in the United States took place over the issue over the issue of slavery at its General Conference. Between 1845 and 1848 land was donated by the Hicks family for a new church which resulted in the construction  of what became known as Trinity Church (cornerstone bearing date 1848). Trinity Church is a rectangular structure in a modest Greek revival style featuring a prominent oversized corner pilasters and a central pavilion from which a shingled steeple sharply rises. The older "Union Chapel" structure was sold to the existing Episcopalian congregation of what became known as St. Stephan's Church as verified by both the land records of Dorchester County and the short history of St. Stephan's written by one of its rectors Father Robert English.

Within the same time frame land was donated to the Trustees of Trinity for the construction of a parsonage. that parcel and subsequent structure were located on the east side of the main street near its southern end remained the parsonage until the early 1960s when a new brick structure adjacent to the church replace it. The original parsonage from the 1840s is still standing as of this writing. At the time of the construction of the new parsonage a dilemma arose over the disposal of the older structure and lot as it was subject to a reversionary clause in its granting deed requiring that the gifted land always be used for the purpose of a parsonage but to revert to the original grantors, their heirs or assignees if the land ceased to be used for that purpose. A lawsuit was required to resolve the issue as no heirs of the original grantors could be found.

A third development in the same time period occurred when land for a new cemetery was conveyed to the Trustees of Trinity Methodist Church.  The new location was just outside the official town boundaries to the southwest on the main road of what is now known as Maryland Rt. 16. This parcel was part of a farm and was conveyed to the trustees by Thomas K. Smith. Thus the continued use of the older burial ground of their former location at "Union Chapel" was no longer needed; it coincides with a more general trend known the rise of the cemetery movement (for a general discussion of the topic of the cemetery movement see the book Lincoln at Gettysburg by historian Garry Wills)

The Greek revival structure was, by oral tradition, greatly altered on the interior when a major wing was added ca. 1912. Supposedly a balcony was removed, new stained glass windows and a wing known as the "Sunday School" wing was added, and coal oil lamps replaced. A pressed tin ceiling and wall covering above beaded tongue and groove wainscoting installed, and a split chancel rail floor plan adopted and choir box added. The original exterior design remained fundamentally unaltered and the new wing continued the Greek revival look of the original. A series of vastly oversized folding panel doors separated the wing from the main sanctuary. However, over time, due to the lack of a solid foundation footing, the great weight of the doors and the settling of the area where the original sanctuary and south wall of the wing met, the doors ceased to be able to open or retract and resulted in their being removed, leaving a large squared arch opening between the sanctuary and the wing.

In addition to the Methodist denomination, an Anglican Chapel was known to have been built in 1791 under the auspices of James Sulivane. The original chapel and graveyard established by the Methodist congregation continued to be used by the local Episcopal congregation as its second location until the building of its third and current church, St. Stephen's Church, in 1893 on the northern end of the town's main street. The 'Methodist Protestant Church,' 'Baptist Church' 'German Evangelical and Reformed Church, and 'Lutheran Church, have also served in the community.

Various types of schools and academies serve the community and a far wider reach than might be imagined for a town whose core population remained relatively stable for close to two centuries. The earliest school was chartered by the state in 1818, and others, public and private, male and female, white and black followed. The two main schools came about in 1878-80 and in 1912.

On February 6, 1819, the New-Market Academy was incorporated. Five days later, the law providing for the free public school system in Dorchester County was passed and naming the commissioners for the same. In 1829, the state legislature provided for an annual payment of $200 to the academy, and the academy was reincorporated in 1830. An additional statute made it clear that the annual allocation for the New Market Academy was not to be considered as part of the funding for the free school system. These respective acts were passed under the governorships of Charles Goldsborough, native to Dorchester County, and Thomas King Carroll, who had strong family ties with the county. In 1850, the Newmarket Academy and the county free schools were joined by the East New Market Female Seminary.

In a series of articles published in the weekly newspaper Democrat and News (D. & N.), the basic origins of the third school built in East New Market can be followed. The articles are in effect the minutes of the Dorchester County School Board that were published subsequent to the board's meetings and appear to be reprinted in whole without comment or editing by the newspaper itself.

20th century
At the February 14, 1912 meeting of the board (as reported in the minutes published on the 16th in the "D. & N."), two residents of the town identified in the minutes only as Messers Demott and Clifton appeared complaining of sanitary conditions. They urged the construction of a new school for the "accommodation and comfort" of the community.

It appears that at the time the board appointed from the respective communities members of the local citizenry to positions that oversaw the schools within the community in the event there were needs or problems. These appointees were referred to as trustees and reported to the members of the board. It is not entirely clear whether Messers and Demott and Clifton were in fact the referenced trustees. As the Secretary to the board was instructed to interview the trustees and report back, it seems reasonable to infer that they were not. At the same meeting, it is made clear that should a new school be in fact needed that a bond would have to be authorized by the state legislature as the board itself had no independent funds for such an undertaking.

By the April 23, 1912 meeting, the state legislature had in fact passed the authorization for a $10,000 bond but the Board had not issued them. "A delegation composed of Messers William E. Johnson, Frederick Wright, Charles Meyers, Samuel J. T. Smith, and Otis Bramble from East New Market was present and requested the Board take action..." which they the proceed to do per the May 3 issue of the "D. & N." in that very session. The 21 May was set for the deadline for bids.

Six bids were received and opened by the building committee as reported in the June 14 issue in the "D. & N." with bids ranging from a high bid of $12,990.oo from Daniel Harding, Baltimore to a low of $9,996.oo from A. O. German, of Hurlock. The building committee did not award the contracts deciding instead to consult with the project architect one Mr. Charles G. Fisher of Milford, Delaware.

Two items appear in the D.& N.'s July 19th report of the July 16 meeting. First, the final award of the contract was announced apparently after some negotiating to A. O. German, the successful bid being some $526.00 less than the original bid reported in the June 14 issue. Second, the school board approved the payment to S. J. T. Smith [Samuel J. T. Smith]' of $150.00 for having Mr. LeRoy Lankford move the old East New Market School. Payment of $150.oo to W. E. Johnson, president of the building committee, to the order of the project architect was also ordered. The late O.W. "Bill Hubbard" recalled in a conversation with local historian Kirk L. Hurley that he had seen a frame structure hauled on a jacked up flatbed with wheels across what was then and remains an open field to the location of what is now St. Stephen Episcopal Church. Hubbard was and remained until death a communicant of that church.

A point of confusion arises here per a conversation with the late Reuben Clauser from the 1960s. In that conversation also with Hurley, Mr. Clauser recalled being chased around the old school building in a game of tag during which he ran into the scaffolding surrounding the new brick structure. The question arises as to whether there was a delay in the moving of the school or some other explanation. It remains unanswered at this point but seems likely as the need for a school, pending completion of new construction, would remain.

The last public high school in the town ceased operation when it was merged in 1954 with the school population of two other rural high schools (Hurlock High School, and Vienna High School) to form North Dorchester High School under its first Principal, Charles F. Hurley, Sr. The elementary school was merged in the late 1970s with that of the adjoining town of Secretary in that town.

It is immediately evident from these recitations that this community was one of prosperity with a forward thinking population. Among the most progressive of these was C. Edwin Bell (Cyrus Edwin Bell) who, after the "great fire" of 1914, persuaded the town to build its own water system. Fresh potable water was and is drawn from aquifers and delivered to each home and business. A system of fire hydrants was also installed. The efforts at the last quarter of the 20th century to revamp the system saw that the pipes had been placed at a death that even modern the road reconstruction of the early 1960s and subsequent traffic had not disturbed them and that provision had been made at the initial installation of the system, off of each major line, for expansion of the system concomitant to the hoped for and expected town's growth in population when it came.

The supposition that the retention of such a major number of old buildings in whole or in part dating in some cases as far back as the latter part of the seventeenth century was due wholly or significantly to the lack of financial resources and economic prospects of the community is correct only due to many factors such as the severe and lasting effect of the economic collapse suffered by the United States in general during the Great Depression. The failure of the steam ship lines (which had by the 1920s and 1930s been acquired by the railroads) came at a time when there were insufficient resources, public or private, to maintain them). Subsequently, the decline and loss of profitability by the railroads marked a period in which the entire region of the Eastern Shore of Maryland fell into decline and obscurity. For such a small town to have achieved and maintained so much is truly remarkable. Only the county seat of Cambridge with a population vastly larger by comparison could boast so many municipal achievements so early for so long.

In 1880, four years after the nation's centennial, the town's population stood at 242 with no comparable data from the 1870 census. With East New Market and Cambridge as the only two communities set out in the census report, the picture of a rural agrarian and aqua-cultural county is complete. The report notes that the election district had a total population of 2498. This represented an increase in the districts' total population by 151. This is remarkable when noting that a significant portion of the district was lost prior to the census due to the creation of the 14th or Linkwood Election District.

Population counts for the town showed 1,267 in 1900 (all statistics per U.S. Census Bureau as reported by minor civil division per respective census.). By comparison the population of the village of Secretary was 410. There were 721 persons in the East New Market election district living outside the town limits. The village of Hurlock, which had by 1900 been made part of the new 15th election district subsequent to the 1890 census, had a population of 280. In 1910 the election district's total population was 2,068 with the town proper showing a decrease in population to 880 and Secretary's at 409. Hurlock had grown to 516. In 1920, the total for the district had reached 2008 without breaking down the totals for the town of East New Market nor the Village of Secretary. By 1930, the entire East New Market Election district had a total population of 1,800 of which 940 are noted as rural farm population. No separate town figures are shown.

21st century
This decline in population over the past century reflects the national trends as shown the same respective census reports of declines in family sizes and the shift of the population to a more urbanized society with its concomitant economic offerings and social advantages. That in combination with the effects of a World War, the economic devastation and the resulting isolation of what had been a thriving economic community and other factors saw the decline ensue. The Town of East New Market's total was 153 at the 1990 census, and 167 at the 2000 census.

The 2005 population estimate is 245. This estimate is based on the projected relocation of retirees from the northeastern and other sections of the United States for purposes of retirement. In 2007 and 2008, a period of economic decline for the nation and region in general, construction has outstripped any total that has occurred in the combined near half century in total.

Historic preservation

The town center is included in the East New Market Historic District, listed on the National Register of Historic Places.

Government

Town Council

Elected by Voters to 4-year terms (May):
 Caroline S. Cline, Mayor (chosen by Council, 2-year term), 2007 - Second woman ever elected to the town council and first woman ever to be selected as Mayor. The first woman to serve on the council was Rebecca "Becky" Moony Blake)
 David Tolley
 Marva S. Sampson, 2007 - Third woman ever elected to the town council and the first ever of African-American descent.
 Shirley Saterfield
 David Carrier

A partial list of prior mayors include in reverse chronological order (with gaps) were:
Gordon B. Heck,
Charles Francis Hurley, Sr.,
Dr. Donald McWilliams, M.D.,
Alpheus Tolley, Jr.,
T. Hamil Smith, Sr.,
Lawrence Adshead,
Dr. George Perry Jones, M.D.

Administration

 Patty Kiss, clerk/treasurer
Prior clerk treasurers include (in no particular order) Evelyn Davidson, Frances Roche, James Hubble, Gary Blackstock, and Howard W. "Butch" Simmons.

Notable people
 William Grason, former Maryland governor
 Samuel Green, African-American slave jailed in 1857 for possessing a copy of the novel Uncle Tom's Cabin'' by Harriet Beecher Stowe
 Thomas Holliday Hicks, former Maryland governor
 James Sulivane, Continental Army captain in the American Revolutionary War

References

 Archives of Maryland, Historical List, House of Delegates, Dorchester County (1790–1974) Source: Edward C. Papenfuse, et al., Archives of Maryland, Historical List, new series, Vol. 1. Annapolis, MD: Maryland State Archives, 1990

External links
 East New Market, Maryland
 East New Market: A Comprehensive History Online

Towns in Maryland
Towns in Dorchester County, Maryland

East New Market, Maryland


The flag of City of Kutaisi, Georgia, is rectangular in proportion 2/3. Field of a flag is divided and crossed 1/4 part a field green, 2/3 - dark blue. In center of a flag is represented heraldry a cross in corners four by small crosses.  The designer of flag of Kutaisi is Mamuka Gongadze.

Color description
Gold - Symbol of nobleness and magnificence.
Green - Symbol of freedom and hope.
Dark Blue - Symbol of advantage and greatness.

References
The State Council of Heraldry at the Parliament of Georgia

Kutaisi
Kutaisi
Kutaisi
Kutaisi

Flag of Kutaisi


Alberto Martín-Artajo Álvarez (2 October 1905, in Madrid – 31 August 1979, in Madrid) was a legal technocrat for the Nationalist government during the Spanish Civil War and for the succeeding reign of caudillo Francisco Franco, and a Spanish Minister of Foreign Affairs. He served as the Foreign Minister from 1945 to 1957. Ideologically, he was not a Falangist (a member of the original Falange Española, the fascist-like party, before it absorbed the other anti-Republican parties), but a monarchist and a leader of the dynamic and powerful Catholic movement within the Francoist coalition. During the time of the Second Spanish Republic, he had been a member of the Spanish Confederation of the Autonomous Right (CEDA, existed 1933–1937).

He received his secondary education at Our Lady of Remembrance College, Madrid. Martín-Artajo earned a law degree from the University of Madrid. He became a staff attorney of the Council of State in 1931. During the Republic, Martín-Artajo worked closely with Ángel Herrera Oria, the director of the Catholic newspaper El Debate and belonged to the lay "National Catholic Association of Propagators of the Faith" (propagandistas). With the start of the Spanish Civil War, Martín-Artajo went over to the insurgent Nationalists. He was a legal adviser to the Nationalist government's Junta Técnica del Estado (State Technical Council), Franco's cabinet, and to the Nationalist government's Labor Ministry. In 1940, Generalissimo Franco appointed him president of the mass movement, Catholic Action.

In 1945, Martín-Artajo participated in the drafting of the quasiconstitutional "Fuero of the Spanish People", a list of rights, freedoms, and responsibilities.

In July 1945, fresh after the defeat of the Third Reich, Franco wanted to present the Spanish government as "Catholic" rather than a profascist, in the face of ostracism from other Western countries. Franco wanted to appoint Martín-Artajo Minister of Foreign Affairs. After consulting with the Primate of Spain, Cardinal Enrique Pla y Deniel, he accepted the portfolio of Foreign Affairs and resigned from his position at Catholic Action. His diplomatic efforts succeeded in breaking Spain's isolation. On 8 March 1953, Martìn-Artajo received the Ancient Order of Sikatuna for his "exceptional and meritorious services to the Republic of the Philippines", becoming the first person to be given the honor after its creation. He effectuated the signing of the Concordat with the Holy See in August 1953, the bilateral Pact of Madrid with the United States the following September, and Spain's entry into the United Nations in 1955.

After retiring from the Foreign Ministry, he worked on the Council of State and at the publisher, Editorial Católica.

Notes

References

Sources

Further reading
Tusell, Javier. 2007. Spain: From Dictatorship to Democracy: 1939 to the Present. Blackwell.

1905 births
1979 deaths
Foreign ministers of Spain
Grand Crosses 1st class of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Politicians from Madrid
Foreign relations of Spain during the Francoist dictatorship
Government ministers during the Francoist dictatorship

Alberto Martín-Artajo


"Fèy" is a traditional Vodou folk song in Haiti. In Haitian Creole, "fèy" means  "leaf", and the lyrics of the song describe a leaf falling from a tree.  Like many traditional songs in Vodou folklore, the lyrics of "Fèy" can hold many meanings, both religious and political.  At least two mizik rasin bands in the 1990s sang adaptations of the traditional song. A version first performed by RAM in 1992 was banned throughout Haiti during the remaining years of the Raoul Cédras military junta.

In 1991, a military junta headed by Raoul Cédras seized power in a coup d'etat, overthrowing the elected president, Jean-Bertrand Aristide.  RAM, a rasin band in Port-au-Prince, which had run © of military authorities before, first performed "Fèy" at the 1992 Carnival in Port-au-Prince, and then began to perform the song during their weekly concerts at the Hotel Oloffson.  Despite no overt references to the political situation, a recording of the song was widely played on the radio and immediately taken up throughout the country as an unofficial anthem of support for Aristied.  Playing or singing the song was soon banned under military authority, and RAM's leader, Richard A. Morse, was subjected to death threats from the regime.  In September, 1994, U.S. military troops arrived to oust the Cédras regime and restore Aristide to his presidency.  "Fèy" was released on RAM's first album, Aïbobo, in 1996.

Lyrics

"Fèy" is a traditional Haitian vodou folklore song, and as such the lyrics are in the public domain. The Creole lyrics are as printed in the liner notes of RAM's first album, Aïbobo, and the English language translation is by Bob Shacochis.

Haitian Creole

 Fèy yo gade mwen nan branch mwem,
 yon move tan pase li voye'm jete.
 Fèy yo gade mwen nan branch mwem,
 yon move tan pase li voye'm jete.
 Jou ou wè'm tonbe a, se pa jou a m'koule,
 jou ou wè'm tonbe a, se pa jou a m'koule.
 papa, le ya bezwen mwen
 kote ya jwenn mwen.
 Papa Bondye wo St. Nikola we,
 Papa Bondye wo St. Nikola we,
 yon sèl pitit gason m nan
 yo fè'l kite peyi a l'ale...

English

 I'm a leaf.
 Look at me on my branch.
 A terrible storm came and knocked me off.
 The day you see me fall is not the day I die.
 And when they need me, where are they going to find me?
 The good Lord, and St. Nicola,
 I only have one son
 And they made him leave the country.
]

Audio samples

References
Cited References

Haitian folk songs
Censorship

Fèy


The valleys of the Alps have been inhabited since prehistoric times. The Alpine culture, which developed there, centers on transhumance.

Currently the Alps are divided among eight countries: France, Monaco, Italy, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Austria, Germany and Slovenia. In 1991 the Alpine Convention was established to regulate this transnational area, whose area measures about .

Early history (before 1200)
The Wildkirchli caves in the Appenzell Alps show traces of Neanderthal habitation (about 40,000 BCE). During the Würm glaciation (up to c. 11700 BP), the entire Alps were covered in ice.
Anatomically modern humans reach the Alpine region by c. 30,000 years ago. MtDNA Haplogroup K (believed to have originated in the mid-Upper Paleolithic, between about 30,000 and 22,000 years ago, with an estimated age here of c. 12,000 years BP), is a genetic marker associated with southeastern Alpine region.

Traces of transhumance appear in the neolithic. In the Bronze Age, the Alps formed the boundary of the Urnfield and Terramare cultures.
The mummy found on the Ötztal Alps, known as "Ötzi the Iceman", lived c. 3200 BC. At that stage the population in its majority had already changed from an economy based on hunting and gathering to one based on agriculture and animal husbandry. It is still an open question whether forms of pastoral mobility, such as transhumance (alpiculture), already existed in prehistory.

The earliest historical accounts date to the Roman period, mostly due to Greco-Roman ethnography, with some epigraphic evidence due to the Raetians, Lepontii and Gauls, with Ligurians and Venetii occupying the fringes in the south-west and south-east, respectively (Cisalpine Gaul) during the 4th and 3rd centuries BC.
The Rock Drawings in Valcamonica date to this period.  A few details have come down to modern scholars of the conquest of many of the Alpine tribes by Augustus, as well as Hannibal's battles across the Alps.
Most of the local Gallic tribes allied themselves with the Carthaginians in the Second Punic War, for the duration of which Rome lost control over most of Northern Italy. The Roman conquest of Italy was only complete after the Roman victory over Carthage, by the 190s BC.

Between 35 and 6 BC, the Alpine region was gradually integrated into the expanding Roman Empire. The contemporary monument Tropaeum Alpium in La Turbie celebrates the victory won by the Romans over 46 tribes in these mountains. The subsequent construction of roads over the Alpine passes first permitted southern and northern Roman settlements in the Alps to be connected, and eventually integrated the inhabitants of the Alps into the culture of the Empire. The upper Rhône Valley or Vallis Poenina fell to the Romans after a battle at Octodurus (Martigny) in 57 BC. Aosta was founded in 25 BC as Augusta Praetoria Salassorum in the former territory of the Salassi. Raetia was conquered in 15 BC.

With the division of the Roman Empire and the collapse of its Western part in the fourth and fifth centuries, power relations in the Alpine region reverted to their local dimensions. Often dioceses became important centres. While in Italy and Southern France, dioceses in the Western Alps were established early (beginning in the fourth century) and resulted in numerous small sees, in the Eastern Alps such foundations continued into the thirteenth century and the dioceses were usually larger. New monasteries in the mountain valleys also promoted the Christianisation of the population. In that period the core area of supra-regional political powers was mainly situated north of the Alps, first in the Carolingian Empire and later, after its division, in France and the Holy Roman Empire. The German emperors, who received the imperial investiture from the Pope in Rome between the ninth and the fifteenth centuries, had to cross the Alps along with their entourages.

In the 7th century, much of the Eastern Alps were settled by Slavs. Between the 7th and 9th century, the Slavic principality of Carantania existed as one of the few non-Germanic polities in the Alps. The Alpine Slavs, who inhabited the majority of present-day Austria and Slovenia, were gradually Germanized from the 9th to the 14th century. The modern Slovenes are their southernmost descendants.

The successive emigration and occupation of the Alpine region by the Alemanni from the 6th to the 8th centuries are, too, known only in outline. For "mainstream" history, the Frankish and later the Habsburg empire, the Alps had strategic importance as an obstacle, not as a landscape, and the Alpine passes have consequently had great significance militarily.

Between 889 and 973, a community of Muslim raiders operating from their base of Fraxinetum, on the coast of Provence, blocked the Alpine passes to Christian travellers until their expulsion by Christian forces led by Arduin Glaber in 973, at which point transalpine trade was able to resume.

Not until the final breakup of the Carolingian Empire in the 10th and 11th centuries is it possible to trace out the local history of different parts of the Alps, notably with the High Medieval Walser migrations.

Later Medieval to Early Modern Era  (1200 to 1900)
The French historian Fernand Braudel, in his famous volume on Mediterranean civilisation, describes the Alps as "an exceptional range of mountains from the point of view of resources, collective disciplines, the quality of its human population and the number of good roads." This remarkable human presence in the Alpine region came into being with the population growth and agrarian expansion of the High Middle Ages. At first a mixed form of agriculture and animal husbandry dominated the economy. Then, from the Late Middle Ages onwards, cattle tended to replace sheep as the dominant animals. In a few regions of the northern slope of the Alps, cattle farming became increasingly oriented toward long-range markets and substituted agriculture completely. At the same time other types of interregional and transalpine exchange were growing in significance. The most important pass was the Brenner, which could accommodate cart traffic beginning in the fifteenth century. In the Western and Central Alps, the passes were practicable only by pack animals up to the period around 1800.

The process of state formation in the Alps was driven by the proximity to focal areas of European conflicts such as in the Italian wars of 1494–1559. In that period the socio-political structures of Alpine regions drifted apart. One can identify three different developmental models: one of princely centralization (Western Alps), a local-communal one (Switzerland) and an intermediate one, characterised by a powerful nobility (Eastern Alps).

Until the late nineteenth century many Alpine valleys remained mainly shaped by agrarian and pastoral activities. Population growth favoured the intensification of land use and the spread of corn, potato and cheese production. The shorter growing season at higher altitudes did not seem to be an impediment until around 1700. Later, however, it became a major obstacle to the further intensification of agriculture, especially in comparison to the surrounding lowlands where land productivity increased rapidly. Inside the Alpine region there was a striking difference between the western and central parts, which were dominated by small farming establishments, and the eastern part, which were characterised by medium or big farms. Migration to the urbanised zones of the surrounding areas was already apparent before 1500 and was often temporary. In the Alps themselves, urbanisation was slow.

Central Alps

In the Central Alps the chief event, on the northern side of the chain, is the gradual formation from 1291 to 1516 of the Swiss Confederacy, at least so far as regards the mountain cantons, and with especial reference to the independent confederations of the Grisons and the Valais, which only became full members of the Confederation in 1803 and 1815 respectively. The attraction of the south was too strong for both the Forest Cantons and the Grisons, so that both tried to secure, and actually did secure, various bits of the Milanese.

The Gotthard Pass was known in antiquity as Adula Mons, but it was not one of the important Alpine passes due to the impassability of the Schöllenen Gorge north of the pass. This changed dramatically with the construction of the so-called Devil's Bridge by the year 1230. Almost immediately, in 1231, the formerly unimportant valley of Uri was granted imperial immediacy and became the main route connecting Germany and Italy. Also in 1230, a hospice dedicated to Gotthard of Hildesheim was built on the pass to accommodate the pilgrims to Rome which now took this route. The sudden strategical importance for the European powers gained by what is now Central Switzerland was an important factor in the formation of the Old Swiss Confederacy beginning in the late 13th century.

In the 15th century, the Forest Cantons won the Valle Leventina as well as Bellinzona and the Valle di Blenio (though the Valle d'Ossola was held for a time only). Blenio was added to the Val Bregaglia (which had been given to the bishop of Coire in 960 by the emperor Otto I), along with the valleys of Valle Mesolcina and of Val Poschiavo.

Western Alps

In the case of the Western Alps (excluding the part from the chain of Mont Blanc to the Simplon Pass, which followed the fortunes of the Valais), a prolonged struggle for control took place between the feudal lords of Savoy, the Dauphiné and Provence.  In 1349 the Dauphiné fell to France, while in 1388 the county of Nice passed from Provence to the house of Savoy, which also then held Piedmont as well as other lands on the Italian side of the Alps.  The struggle henceforth was limited to France and the house of Savoy, but little by little France succeeded in pushing back the house of Savoy across the Alps, forcing it to become a purely Italian power.

One turning-point in the rivalry was the Treaty of Utrecht (1713), by which France ceded to Savoy the Alpine districts of Exilles, Bardonnèche (Bardonecchia), Oulx, Fenestrelles, and Châtean Dauphin, while Savoy handed over to France the valley of Barcelonnette, situated on the western slope of the Alps and forming part of the county of Nice. The final act in this long-continued struggle took place in 1860, when France obtained by cession the rest of the county of Nice and also Savoy, thus remaining sole ruler on the western slope of the Alps.

Eastern Alps
The Eastern Alps had been included in the Frankish Empire since the 9th century. From the High Middle Ages and throughout the Early Modern era, the political history of the Eastern Alps can be considered almost totally in terms of the advance or retreat of the house of Habsburg. The Habsburgers' original home was in the lower valley of the Aar, at Habsburg castle. They lost that district to the Swiss in 1415, as they had previously lost various other sections of what is now Switzerland.  But they built an impressive empire in the Eastern Alps, where they defeated numerous minor dynasties.  They won the duchy of Austria with Styria in 1282, Carinthia and Carniola in 1335, Tirol  in 1363, and the Vorarlberg in bits from 1375 to 1523, not to speak of minor "rectifications" of frontiers on the northern slope of the Alps.  But on the other slope their progress was slower, and finally less successful.
It is true that they won Primiero quite early (1373), as well as (1517) the Ampezzo Valley and several towns to the south of Trento.  In 1797 they obtained Venetia proper, in 1803 the secularized bishoprics of Trento and Brixen (as well as that of Salzburg, more to the north), besides the Valtellina region, and in 1815 the Bergamasque valleys, while the Milanese had belonged to them since 1535.  But in 1859 they lost to the house of Savoy both the Milanese and the Bergamasca, and in 1866 Venetia proper also, so that the Trentino was then their chief possession on the southern slope of the Alps.  The gain of the Milanese in 1859 by the future king of Italy (1861) meant that Italy then won the valley of Livigno (between the Upper Engadine and Bormio), which is the only important bit it holds on the non-Italian slope of the Alps, besides the county of Tenda (obtained in 1575, and not lost in 1860), with the heads of certain glens in the Maritime Alps, reserved in 1860 for reasons connected with hunting. Following World War I and the demise of Austria-Hungary, there were important territorial changes in the Eastern Alps.

Modern history (1900 to present)

Population
For the modern era it is possible to offer a quantitative estimate of the population of the Alpine region.  Within the area delimited by the Alpine Convention, there were about 3.1 million inhabitants in 1500, 5.8 in 1800, 8.5 in 1900 and 13.9 in 2000.

Sixteenth-century scholars, especially those from cities near the Alps, began to show a greater interest for the mountain phenomena. Their curiosity was also aroused by important questions of the genesis of the earth and the interpretation of the Bible. By the eighteenth century, a distinctive enthusiasm for nature and the Alps spread in European society. An example thereof is the famous multi-volume work "Voyages dans les Alpes" (1779–1796) by Horace-Bénédict de Saussure. In his work the naturalist from Geneva described, among other things, his 1787 ascent of Mont Blanc at 4800 metres above sea level. This new interest is also reflected in literature, most notably by Jean-Jacques Rousseau's best-selling romantic novel "Julie, ou la nouvelle Heloise" (1761). These cultural developments resulted in a growth of interest in the Alps as a travel destination and laid the foundation for modern tourism. As Europe was getting increasingly more urbanised, the Alps distinguished themselves as a place of nature. During the colonial expansion many mountains in Asia, Australia and America were now named after the Alps as well.

During the nineteenth and twentieth centuries several important changes occurred. First, the Alpine population was now characterised by a particular growth rate, which was increasingly differentiated from that of the more dynamic non-mountain areas. Second, the migratory fluxes became ever more important and ever more directed toward extra-European destinations. Beginning in the early twentieth century, several regions were affected by depopulation. This process amplified the imbalanced distribution of the population within the Alps, because the urban centres at lower altitudes experienced strong growth and clearly became the most important dynamic localities during the twentieth century.

Economy
The economy showed many signs of change too. First of all, the agriculture sector started to lose importance, and sought to survive by introducing specialised crops in valley bottoms and reinforcing cattle-raising at higher altitudes. This profound transformation was obviously due to the spread of industrialisation in Europe during the nineteenth century, which had its impact on the Alps, directly or indirectly. On the one hand, activities such as iron manufacturing, which had become prominent during the early modern era, reached their limits due to transportation costs and the increasing scale of business operations. On the other hand, at the turn of the twentieth century, new opportunities emerged for the manufacturing sector, due largely to electric power, one among the main innovations of the second industrial revolution. Abundant water and steep slopes made the Alps an ideal environment for the production of hydroelectric power. Hence many industrial sites appeared there.

However, it was undoubtedly the service sector that experienced the most important new development within the Alpine economy: the rapid rise of tourism. The first phase was dominated by summertime visits and, by about 1850, the expansion of Alpine health resorts and spas. Later, tourism started to shift to the winter season, particularly after the introduction of ski-lifts in early twentieth century. For a long time, transit traffic and trade had been an essential part of the service sector in the Alps. The traditional routes and activities began to face strong competition from the construction of railway lines and tunnels such as the Semmering (1854), the Brenner (1867), the Fréjus/Mont-Cenis (1871), the Gotthard (1882), the Simplon (1906) and the Tauern (1909). In 2016 opened the 57 km long Gotthard Base Tunnel. With a maximum elevation of only 549 metres above sea level, it is the first flat direct route through the Alpine barrier.

In general, it is noteworthy that even if modern industry – tourism, the railway and later the highway system – represented opportunities for the Alps, complementing its traditional openness to new challenges, it also produced negative consequences, such as the human impact on the environment.

Political history
Like other parts of Europe, the Alpine region was affected by the formation of the nation states that produced tensions between various groups and had consequences for border areas. In these regions, the coercive power of the state was felt much more strongly that it had been before. Borders lost their permeability and now bisected areas formerly characterised by a shared sense of community and ongoing exchanges. During World War I the eastern Alpine region was one of the epicentres of the conflict.

After World War II, the Alps entered a new phase. At one and the same time, regional identities were reinforced and a common Alpine identity was constructed. A remarkable step was made in 1991 with the signing of the Alpine Convention between all Alpine countries and the European Union. This process was strengthened by the appearance of a new set of cultural values for the Alps. In the nineteenth century, there had been a tension between the romantic advocates of the "sacredness" of the Alpine peaks (such as John Ruskin), and modern mountain climbers (such as Leslie Stephen), who promoted the notion of the Alps as the "playground of Europe". In the twentieth century, the mountains acquired a clearly positive, iconic, status as places unsullied by undesirable urban influences such as pollution, noise and so on.

Tourism and alpinism

The fascination that the Alps exerted on the British has to be related to the general increase in charm and appeal of this mountain range during the eighteenth century. Yet British particularities were involved as well. Traditionally, many Englishmen felt the attraction of the Mediterranean, which was associated with the practice of the Grand Tour, and thus had to cross Europe and the Alps to reach it. From a place of transit, the Alps turned into a tourist destination as the flow of people and means of transport increased. Moreover, with the invention of new sports the Alps became an area of experimental training. The Alps offered many mountain climbers a degree of difficulty that fit their expectations.

The convergence of these phenomena granted to Alpine tourism a central position. It intensified from the middle of the nineteenth century onwards and, in spite of fluctuations, would never lose its importance. Railway companies, travel guides, travelogues and travel agents joined forces to make the Alps a prestigious tourist destination. With Thomas Cook in particular, the Alps appeared, as early as 1861, in the catalog of tourist offers and were instrumental in the establishment of a "truly international industry" of tourism. This industry developed the infrastructure: railway lines, hotels and other services such as casinos, promenades, improvements, and funiculars.

The conquest of the Alps by British tourists was achieved along with their domestication and with the passionate participation of local, regional and national élites, be they political, economic or cultural. Leslie Stephen, in a best-selling book first published in 1871, defined the Alps as "the Playground of Europe". The book highlights the incredible success of the mountains but it also reflects the tensions that emerged among their visitors. There was a clash between the "real enthusiasts", sensitive to beauty, and the "flock of ordinary tourists" sticking to their customs and comforts.

During the twentieth century, then, the Alps were involved in the globalisation of tourism, a process that caused the multiplication of its destinations. However, in the British population these mountains retained an undeniable attraction. In fact, the British continued to view winter sports in particular (such as skiing, skating, bobsleigh, curling) as significant grounds for justifying their travel and their perpetuation of a unique culture. The personalities of Gavin de Beer and Arnold Lunn represent this attitude through a prolific interpretation of this mountain range from every possible perspective. Indeed, the British  have never ceased to love and be attracted to the Alps. This is not likely to end soon, if the advertisements and presentations of the major Alpine resorts that intersperse the Sunday editions of the major newspapers are any indicator.

Linguistic history

The Alps are at the crossroads of the French, Italian, German and South Slavic linguistic sprachraums. They also act as a linguistic refugium, preserving archaic dialects such as Romansh, Walser German or Romance Lombardic. Extinct languages known to have been spoken in the Alpine region include Rhaetic, Lepontic, Ligurian and Langobardic.

As a result of the complicated history of the Alpine region, the native language and the national feelings of the inhabitants do not always correspond to the current international borders. The Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol region, which was annexed by Italy after World War I, has a German-speaking majority in the northern province of South Tyrol. There are Walser German speakers to found in northern Italy near the Swiss border. There are some French and Franco-Provencal-speaking districts in the Italian Aosta Valley, while there are clusters of Slovene-speakers in the Italian portion of the Julian Alps, in the Resia Valley (where the archaic Resian dialect of Slovene is still spoken) and in the mountain district known as Venetian Slovenia.

See also

Tauredunum event

References

Bibliography
John W. Cole, Eric R. Wolf: The hidden frontier: ecology and ethnicity in an alpine valley, University of California Press (1999), .
 Histoire des Alpes – Storia delle Alpi – Geschichte der Alpen: annual journal of the International Society for Alpine History with French, Italian and German articles and English abstracts, Chronos Verlag, Zurich, from 1996, ISSN 1660-8070; online access on http://www.arc.usi.ch/labisalp or http://retro.seals.ch.
 Marco Bellabarba, Hannes Obermair, Hitomi Sato (eds): Communities and Conflicts in the Alps from the Late Middle Ages to Early Modernity. Il mulino – Duncker & Humblot, Bologna-Berlin 2015. , and .
 Bergier, Jean-François: Pour une histoire des Alpes, Moyen Âge et Temps modernes. Ashgate, Aldershot UK 1997, .
 Braudel, Fernand: The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II, 2. vols. University of California Press, Berkeley 1995 (first French edition 1949/66).
 Cuaz, Marco: Le Alpi. Il mulino, Bologna 2005, .
 Dictionnaire encyclopédique des Alpes, 2 vols. Glénat, Grenoble 2006,  and 2-7234-5073-2.
 Fontaine, Laurence: Pouvoir, identités et migrations dans les hautes vallées des Alpes occidentales (XVIIe-XVIIIe siècle). Presses Universitaires de Grenoble, Grenoble 2003. .
 Guichonnet, Paul (ed.): Histoire et Civilisation des Alpes, 2 vols. Editions Privat Toulouse and Payot Lausanne 1980, .
 Leonardi, Andrea; Hans Heiss (eds.): Tourismus und Entwicklung im Alpenraum, 18.-20. Jahrhundert. Studien-Verlag, Innsbruck 2003. .
 Lorenzetti, Luigi; Raul Merzario: Il fuoco acceso. Famiglie e migrazioni alpine nell'Italia d'età moderna. Donzelli editore, Rome 2005. .
 Mathieu, Jon, The Alpine Region, EGO - European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2017, retrieved: March 8, 2021 (pdf).
 Mathieu, Jon: History of the Alps 1500–1900. Environment, Development, and Society. Translated by Matthew Vester. West Virginia University Press, Morgantown 2009 (first German edition 1998), .
 Mathieu, Jon; Simona Boscani Leoni (eds.): Die Alpen! Zur europäischen Wahrnehmungsgeschichte seit der Renaissance. Peter Lang, Berne 2005, .
 Reichler, Claude: La découverte des Alpes et la question du paysage. Georg Editeur, Geneva, .
 Tschofen, Bernhard: Berg, Kultur, Moderne. Volkskundliches aus den Alpen. Sonderzahl-Verlag, Vienna 1999. .
 Viazzo, Pier Paolo: Upland communities. Environment, population and social structure in the Alps since the sixteenth century. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1989, .
 Katharina Winckler: Die Alpen im Frühmittelalter: Die Geschichte eines Raumes in den Jahren 500 bis 800. Böhlau, Wien 2012, ; online access ont http://www.oapen.org/home

External links
 International Society for Alpine History
 International Scientific Committee on Research in the Alps
 Commission Internationale pour la Protection des Alpes CIPRA
 Alpine Convention

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History of the Alps


The Club of Rome is a nonprofit, informal organization of intellectuals and business leaders whose goal is a critical discussion of pressing global issues. The Club of Rome was founded in 1968 at Accademia dei Lincei in Rome, Italy. It consists of one hundred full members selected from current and former heads of state and government, UN administrators, high-level politicians and government officials, diplomats, scientists, economists, and business leaders from around the globe. It stimulated considerable public attention in 1972 with the first report to the Club of Rome, The Limits to Growth. Since 1 July 2008, the organization has been based in Winterthur, Switzerland.

History

Origins
In 1965, an Italian industrialist named Aurelio Peccei gave a speech about the dramatic scientific and technological changes happening in the world. The speech was noticed by Alexander King, a British scientist who had advised the British government, and who was currently serving as Director-General for Scientific Affairs at the OECD. King arranged a meeting with Peccei. The pair shared a lack of confidence that the problems faced by the world could be solved by development and technological progress.

In April 1968, Peccei and King convened a small international group of people from the fields of academia, civil society, diplomacy, and industry met at Villa Farnesina in Rome. The background paper to set the tone of the meeting was entitled "A tentative framework for initiating system wide planning of world scope", by Austrian OECD consultant Erich Jantsch. However, the meeting was described as a "monumental flop", with discussions becoming bogged down in technical and semantic debates.

After the meeting, Peccei, King, Jantsch and Hugo Thiemann decided to form the Club of Rome, named for the city of their meeting.

First steps
Central to the formation of the club was Peccei's concept of the problematic. It was his opinion that viewing the problems of humankind—environmental deterioration, poverty, endemic ill-health, urban blight, criminality—individually, in isolation or as "problems capable of being solved in their own terms", was doomed to failure. All are interrelated. "It is this generalized meta-problem (or meta-system of problems) which we have called and shall continue to call the 'problematic' that inheres in our situation."

In October 1968, the OECD held a symposium in Bellagio, in collaboration with the Rockefeller Foundation, at which several new members joined the Club. The symposium focused on the dangers of exponential growth—which by its nature cannot continue forever—and ended with participants signing "The Bellagio Declaration on Planning", which emphasized the need to overcome global problems through coordination.

For a brief moment, the Club's ideas held sway within the OECD, thanks to King's efforts in promoting the group's work. When Secretary General Thorkil Kristensen formed a group of ten science and economic experts in 1969 to study problems for modern societies, four of the ten were members of the Club of Rome.

In 1970, Peccei's vision was laid out in a document written by Hasan Özbekhan, Erich Jantsch, and Alexander Christakis. Entitled, The Predicament of Mankind; Quest for Structured Responses to Growing Worldwide Complexities and Uncertainties: A PROPOSAL. The document would serve as the roadmap for the Limits to Growth project.

The Limits to Growth
The Club of Rome stimulated considerable public attention with the first report to the club, The Limits to Growth. Published in 1972, its computer simulations suggested that economic growth could not continue indefinitely because of resource depletion. The 1973 oil crisis increased public concern about this problem. The report went on to sell 30 million copies in more than 30 languages, making it the best-selling environmental book in history.

Though the Club of Rome had enjoyed some influence at the OECD, their questioning of the value of growth "deepened the internal fractures within the OECD and provoked hostile reactions, leading to a revitalization of the strong pro-growth position." A 1973 booklet on the OECD's approach to environmental issues stated that the role of governments in "an acceptable human environment must now be developed in the framework of policies for economic growth". The OECD had given up on the Club of Rome, and set its course on a trajectory of unfettered growth.

1974–present
Even before The Limits to Growth was published, Eduard Pestel and Mihajlo Mesarovic of Case Western Reserve University had begun work on a far more elaborate model (it distinguished ten world regions and involved 200,000 equations compared with 1,000 in the Meadows model). The research had the full support of the club and its final publication, Mankind at the Turning Point, was accepted as the official "second report" to the Club of Rome in 1974. In addition to providing a more refined regional breakdown, Pestel and Mesarovic had succeeded in integrating social as well as technical data. The second report revised the scenarios of the original Limits to Growth and gave a more optimistic prognosis for the future of the environment, noting that many of the factors involved were within human control and therefore that environmental and economic catastrophe were preventable or avoidable.

In 1991, the club published The First Global Revolution. It analyses the problems of humanity, calling these collectively or in essence the "problematique". It notes that, historically, social or political unity has commonly been motivated by enemies in common:

In searching for a common enemy against whom we can unite, we came up with the idea that pollution, the threat of global warming, water shortages, famine and the like, would fit the bill. In their totality and their interactions these phenomena do constitute a common threat which must be confronted by everyone together. But in designating these dangers as the enemy, we fall into the trap, which we have already warned readers about, namely mistaking symptoms for causes. All these dangers are caused by human intervention in natural processes, and it is only through changed attitudes and behaviour that they can be overcome. The real enemy then is humanity itself.

In 2001 the Club of Rome established a think tank, called tt30, consisting of about 30 men and women, ages 25–35. It aimed to identify and solve problems in the world, from the perspective of youth.

In 2008, the club moved its headquarters from Hamburg to Winterthur in Switzerland.

Organization
According to its website, the Club of Rome is composed of "scientists, economists, businessmen, international high civil servants, heads of state and former heads of state from all five continents who are convinced that the future of humankind is not determined once and for all and that each human being can contribute to the improvement of our societies."

The Club of Rome is a membership organization and has different membership categories. Full members engage in the research activities, projects, and contribute to decision-making processes during the club's annual general assembly. Of the full members, 12 are elected to form the executive committee, which sets the general direction and the agenda. Of the executive committee, two are elected as co-presidents and two as vice-presidents. The secretary-general is elected from the members of the executive committee. The secretary-general is responsible for the day-to-day operation of the club from its headquarters in Winterthur, Switzerland. Aside from full members there are associate members, who participate in research and projects, but have no vote in the general assembly. The club has a satellite office in Brussels.

The club also has honorary members. Notable honorary members include Princess Beatrix of the Netherlands, Orio Giarini, Fernando Henrique Cardoso, Mikhail Gorbachev, King Juan Carlos I of Spain, Horst Köhler, and Manmohan Singh.

The annual general assembly of 2016 took place in Berlin on 10–11 November. Among the guest speakers were former German President Christian Wulff, German Minister for Economic Cooperation and Development Gerd Müller, as well as Nobel Laureate Muhammad Yunus.

National associations
The club has national associations in 35 countries and territories. The mission of the national associations is to spread the ideas and vision in their respective countries, to offer solutions and to lobby for a more sustainable and just economy in their nations, and to support the international secretariat of the club with the organization of events, such as the annual general assembly.

Current activities
 there have been 43 reports to the club. These are internally reviewed studies commissioned by the executive committee, or suggested by a member or group of members, or by outside individuals and institutions. The most recent as of 2018 is Come On! Capitalism, Short-termism, Population and the Destruction of the Planet.

In 2016, the club initiated a new youth project called "Reclaim Economics". With this project they support students, activists, intellectuals, artists, video-makers, teachers, professors and others to "shift the teaching of economics away from the mathematical pseudo-science it has become."

On 14 March 2019, the Club of Rome issued an official statement in support of Greta Thunberg and the school strikes for climate, urging governments across the world to respond to this call for action and cut global carbon emissions.

In 2020, the Earth4All initiative was launched at the UNFCCC Race-to-Zero Dialogues session on Transformational Leadership to explore potential transformational political and economic solutions for the 21st century. Led by the Club of Rome, the BI Norwegian Business School and the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research, a group of researchers and policymakers assessed global risks and identified five pathways to catalyze transformation and systemic change towards sustainability: energy, food, poverty, inequality and population (including health and education). The results are published in the book "Earth for All" in 2022 alongside the 50th anniversary of the first Earth Summit in Stockholm and the initial publication of the Limits to Growth in 1972.

Critics

From the 1970s, the Club of Rome attracted substantial criticism. Economist Robert Solow, recipient of a Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences, criticized The Limits to Growth (LTG) as having "simplistic" scenarios. He has also been a vocal critic of the Club of Rome. In 2002 he said that "the one thing that really annoys me is amateurs making absurd statements about economics, and I thought that the Club of Rome was nonsense. Not because natural resources or environmental necessities might not at some time pose a limit, not on growth, but on the level of economic activity—I didn't think that was a nonsensical idea—but because the Club of Rome was doing amateur dynamics without a license, without a proper qualification. And they were doing it badly, so I got steamed up about that." However, in 2009, Solow suggested that "Thirty years later, the situation may have changed. It is possible that real demands on natural resources, and therefore on the natural environment, will be dramatically different in a world in which India and China, and other countries, too, grow at 8 or 10 percent a year, and need to pass through the material-goods-intensive phase of growth before they arrive at the service economy... it will probably be more important in the future to deal intellectually, quantitatively, as well as practically, with the mutual interdependence of economic growth, natural resource availability, and environmental constraints."

An analysis of the world model used for The Limits to Growth in 1976 by mathematicians Vermeulen and De Jongh has shown it to be "very sensitive to small parameter variations" and having "dubious assumptions and approximations".

An interdisciplinary team at Sussex University's Science Policy Research Unit reviewed the structure and assumptions of the models used and published its finding in Models of Doom; finding that the forecasts of the world's future are very sensitive to a few unduly pessimistic key assumptions. The Sussex scientists also claim that the Dennis Meadows et al. methods, data, and predictions are faulty, that their world models (and their Malthusian bias) do not accurately reflect reality.

Thomas Sowell in his 1995 book The Vision of the Anointed writes that economist John Kenneth Galbraith was amongst other things a notable "teflon prophet" alongside American biologist Paul R. Ehrlich, the Club of Rome and Worldwatch Institute; they were utterly certain in their predictions, yet completely disproven empirically, though their reputations remained perfectly undamaged. With this collection of the "anointed", as promoters of a worldview concocted out of fantasy, impervious to any real-world considerations.

The Club of Rome garnered "serious criticism" in 2016 after promoting the idea of a one-child policy for industrialized countries, in its pamphlet titled "Reinventing Prosperity". With PhD Reiner Klingholz, stating of the Club's pamphlet, "this is pure nonsense", as acting chairman of the Berlin Institute for Population and Development, an institute focused on sustainable development, citing the stable replacement rate of 2.1 not being met in Europe, at that time standing "already as low as 1.5".

Support
In contrast, John Scales Avery, a member of Nobel Peace Prize (1995) winning group associated with the Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs, supported the basic thesis of The Limits to Growth by stating, "Although the specific predictions of resource availability in [The] Limits to Growth lacked accuracy, its basic thesis that unlimited economic growth on a finite planet is impossible was indisputably correct."

In 1980, United States president Jimmy Carter commissioned the Global 2000 Report to the President, which undertook a long-term global economic modelling exercise similar to the Club of Rome's research. The report arrived at similar conclusions regarding expected global resource scarcity, and the need for multilateral coordination to prepare for this situation.

Over the years, various studies have supported aspects of Club of Rome research. In 2008, a study by Graham Turner of the Australian research organisation CSIRO found that "30 years of historical data compare favorably with key features of a business-as-usual scenario called the "standard run" scenario, which results in collapse of the global system midway through the 21st century." In 2020, econometrician Gaya Herrington published a study in the Yale University's Journal of Industrial Ecology which concluded that all economic data since the 1970s was consistent with the World3 BAU scenario in Limits to Growth, which could mean that rapid degrowth would occur after 2040.

Notable members
 Alexander King (1909–2007), President of the Club of Rome 1984–1990, founding member
 Anders Wijkman, co-president, 2012–2018
 Ashok Khosla, co-president, 2006–2012
 Aurelio Peccei (1908–1984) founding member
 Bas de Leeuw
 Bohdan Hawrylyshyn (1926–2016) – economist, chairman International Management Institute – Kyiv (), Honorary Council of Ukraine
 Călin Georgescu (born 1962) – chairman of the board, European Support Centre for the Club of Rome, now European Research Center, Vienna and Konstanz (2010–)
 Daisaku Ikeda
 David Korten
 Dennis Meadows (born 1942)
 Dennis Gabor (b.1900 d.1979)
 Derrick de Kerckhove (born 1944), Director of the McLuhan Program in Culture and Technology (University of Toronto) 1983–2008
 Dzhermen Gvishiani, son in law of Alexei Kosygin
 Eberhard von Koerber, co-president, 2006–2012
 Elisabeth Mann-Borgese – first female member since 1970
 Erich Jantsch, author of Technological Forecasting (1929–1980)
 Ernst Ulrich von Weizsäcker, co-president, 2012–2018
Fernando Henrique Cardoso
 Fredrick Chien (born in 1935), former Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of China (Taiwan)
 Frederic Vester (1925–2003)
 Graeme Maxton
 Hans-Peter Dürr (1929–2014)
 Hugo Thiemann (1917–2012)
 Ivo Šlaus
 John R. Platt (1918–1992)
 Joseph Stiglitz (born 1943), Nobel prize-winning economist
 Jørgen Randers (born 1945), BI Norwegian Business School - Counsil for Astra Zeneca UK
 Kristín Vala Ragnarsdóttir
 Mahdi Elmandjra (1933–2014)
 Mamphela Ramphele, co-president since 2018
 Max Kohnstamm, former Secretary General of the ECSC (1914–2010)
 Michael K. Dorsey
 Mikhail Gorbachev (1931–2022), last leader of the Soviet Union
 Mihajlo D. Mesarovic
 Mohan Munasinghe
 Mugur Isărescu (born in 1949), the governor of the National Bank of Romania in Bucharest
 Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen (1906–1994), economist, author of The Entropy Law and the Economic Process
 Pierre Elliott Trudeau (1919–2000), former prime minister of Canada;
 Prince Hassan bin Talal, President of the Club of Rome 2000–2006
 Ricardo Díez Hochleitner, President, 1991–2000
 Robert Uffen (1923–2009), Chief Scientific Advisor to the Canadian government 1969–1971
 Sandrine Dixson-Declève, co-president since 2018
 Tomas Björkman, author of The World We Create
 Václav Havel (1936–2011), last president of Czechoslovakia, first president of the Czech Republic
 Victor Urquidi (1919–2014)
 Mauricio de María y Campos (1943–2021)

See also

 Club of Budapest
 Club of Madrid
 Club of Vienna
 Futures studies
 Global catastrophic risk
 Harlan Cleveland – DIKW
 Latin American World Model
 Olduvai Theory
 Peak oil
 Survivalism
 Doomer
 Ecofascism
 The Revenge of Gaia
 The First Global Revolution
 Pergamon Press

References

External links
 Last Call, documentary about The Limits to Growth (trailer)
 Club of Rome Reports and Bifurcations, a 40-year overview, 17 March 2010 (Draft)
 Analysis of Limits to Growth by the Australian Broadcasting Corporation from 1999
 Donella Meadows Institute
 Suter, Keith (July 1999). "The Club of Rome: The Global Conscience". Contemporary Review, Vol. 275, Issue 1602, pp. 1–5.

1968 establishments in Italy
20th century in Rome
Futures studies organizations
Globalism
International sustainability organizations
Oceanography
Organisations based in Switzerland
Political and economic think tanks based in Europe
Systems thinking
Think tanks based in Italy
Think tanks established in 1968
Winterthur

Club of Rome


Competitor for  Canada

Mildred Fizzell (June 12, 1915 – November 11, 1993) was a Canadian athlete who competed mainly in the 100 metres.  Mildred Fizzell is commonly listed erroneously as Mildred Frizzel in many record books.

Born in Toronto, Ontario, Fizzell competed for Canada in the 1932 Summer Olympics held in Los Angeles, United States in the 4 x 100 metres where she won the Silver medal with her teammates Lillian Palmer, Mary Frizzell and Hilda Strike.  Mildred's father drove the team to the Games in Los Angeles.

The team believed that they tied with the team from the United States.  However, with the lack of modern equipment to determine a tie, the United States team was awarded the win.  In many record books the two teams are listed with the same times.

Famous for her explosive start, Mildred Fizzell was sent to the 1932 Olympics in the 4x100 metre relay only.  She would have competed at the 1936 games in both relay and 100 metre sprint; however, before the 1934 British Empire Games (now known as the Commonwealth games) she tore a muscle after arriving in London and was unable to participate. She never completely recovered from this injury and was forced to retire from athletics soon thereafter.

She later married Alfred Walker and had 3 daughters and 10 grandchildren. She died in Toronto, Ontario.

1915 births
1993 deaths
Canadian female sprinters
Athletes from Toronto
Athletes (track and field) at the 1932 Summer Olympics
Olympic silver medalists for Canada
Olympic track and field athletes for Canada
Medalists at the 1932 Summer Olympics
Olympic silver medalists in athletics (track and field)
Olympic female sprinters

Mildred Fizzell


"You Can Call Me Al" is a song by Paul Simon. It was the first single from Simon's seventh studio album, Graceland (1986). It was released on Warner Bros. Records. It was written by Simon. The words are about a person in a midlife crisis. It was partly based on Simon's trip to South Africa and how he saw that country's culture.

1986 songs
Paul Simon songs

You Can Call Me Al


William Abraham (1840 – 2 August 1915) was an Irish Member of Parliament (MP) in the United Kingdom House of Commons. He was born in Limerick.

Although a Protestant in religion (a Congregationalist), he became active in Irish Nationalist politics. He was involved in the Irish Land League in 1881 and was at one stage imprisoned as a political suspect. He served as Chairman of Limerick Board of Guardians (who administered the Poor Law in their district) 1882–1883 and 1885–1886.

Abraham represented three constituencies at Westminster. He was elected unopposed as MP for West Limerick at the 1885 general election as a Nationalist supporter of the Irish Parliamentary Party, and served until he retired in 1892. In December 1890, he was the proposer of the vote of no confidence in Charles Stewart Parnell as leader in Committee Room 15, and he joined the Anti-Parnellite Irish National Federation. In 1893, he was elected unopposed as an Anti-Parnellite Nationalist at a by-election for North-East Cork, succeeding Michael Davitt, and sat until he was defeated in the January 1910 general election by the dissident Nationalist William O'Brien, by the wide margin of 2,984 votes to 1,510. He was unopposed at the by-election for Dublin Harbour in June 1910, and won comfortably against an O'Brienite Nationalist in the same seat in the general election of December 1910. He represented Dublin Harbour until his death in 1915.

According to the Irish Independent, he was assiduous in his duties at Westminster, and spoke at one time or another in every constituency in Great Britain, including Orkney and Shetland. He was a Treasurer of his party, and a prominent member of the Public Accounts Committee of the House of Commons. However, in Maume's view, his age and lack of local contacts made him ineffective in his final role as a Dublin MP.

References

Sources
 Irish Independent, 3 August 1915

  Who's Who of British Members of Parliament, Vol. II 1886-1918, edited by M. Stenton & S. Lees (The Harvester Press 1978)

 Parliamentary Election Results in Ireland 1801-1922, edited by Brian M. Walker (Dublin, Royal Irish Academy 1978)

External links

1840 births
1915 deaths
Anti-Parnellite MPs
Irish Congregationalists
Irish Parliamentary Party MPs
Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for County Limerick constituencies (1801–1922)
Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for County Cork constituencies (1801–1922)
Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for County Dublin constituencies (1801–1922)
Politicians from Limerick (city)
UK MPs 1885–1886
UK MPs 1886–1892
UK MPs 1892–1895
UK MPs 1895–1900
UK MPs 1900–1906
UK MPs 1906–1910
UK MPs 1910
UK MPs 1910–1918

William Abraham (Irish politician)


This is a list of golfers who have won 10 or more events on the Japan Golf Tour since it was established in 1973. The official Japan Golf Tour website lists winners beginning with the 1985 season. Individual player pages, however, list the total number of career wins under "Lifetime Record".

Many of the players on the list have won events on other tours and unofficial events.

This list is up to date as of 17 September 2023.

References

External links
Japan Golf Tour's official site

Japan

Japan Golf Tour

List of golfers with most Japan Golf Tour wins


Cancer cells are cells that divide continually, forming solid tumors or flooding the blood or lymph with abnormal cells. Cell division is a normal process used by the body for growth and repair. A parent cell divides to form two daughter cells, and these daughter cells are used to build new tissue or to replace cells that have died because of aging or damage. Healthy cells stop dividing when there is no longer a need for more daughter cells, but cancer cells continue to produce copies. They are also able to spread from one part of the body to another in a process known as metastasis.

Classification
There are different categories of cancer cell, defined according to the cell type from which they originate.

 Carcinoma, the majority of cancer cells are epithelial in origin, beginning in a tissue that lines the inner or outer surfaces of the body.
 Leukaemia, originate in the tissues responsible for producing new blood cells, most commonly in the bone marrow.
 Lymphoma and myeloma, derived from cells of the immune system.
 Sarcoma, originating in connective tissue, including fat, muscle and bone.
 Central nervous system, derived from cells of the brain and spinal cord.
 Mesothelioma, originating in the mesothelium; the lining of body cavities.

Histology

Cancer cells have distinguishing histological features visible under the microscope. The nucleus is often large and irregular, and the cytoplasm may also display abnormalities.

Nucleus

The shape, size, protein composition, and texture of the nucleus are often altered in malignant cells. The nucleus may acquire grooves, folds or indentations, chromatin may aggregate or disperse, and the nucleolus can become enlarged. In normal cells, the nucleus is often round or solid in shape, but in cancer cells the outline is often irregular. Different combinations of abnormalities are characteristic of different cancer types, to the extent that nuclear appearance can be used as a marker in cancer diagnostics and staging.

Causes

Cancer cells are created when the genes responsible for regulating cell division are damaged. Carcinogenesis is caused by mutation and epimutation of the genetic material of normal cells, which upsets the normal balance between proliferation and cell death. This results in uncontrolled cell division in the body. The uncontrolled and often rapid proliferation of cells can lead to benign or malignant tumours (cancer). Benign tumors do not spread to other parts of the body or invade other tissues. Malignant tumors can invade other organs, spread to distant locations (metastasis) and become life-threatening.

More than one mutation is necessary for carcinogenesis. In fact, a series of several mutations to certain classes of genes is usually required before a normal cell will transform into a cancer cell.

Damage to DNA can be caused by exposure to radiation, chemicals, and other environmental sources, but mutations also accumulate naturally over time through uncorrected errors in DNA transcription, making age another risk factor. Oncoviruses can cause certain types of cancer, and genetics are also known to play a role.

Stem cell research suggests that excess SP2 protein may turn stem cells into cancer cells. However, a lack of particular co-stimulated molecules that aid in the way antigens react with lymphocytes can impair the natural killer cells' function, ultimately leading to cancer.

DNA repair and mutation

When a cell is deficient in the capacity to repair DNA damages, such damages tend to be retained within the cell at an increased level. These damages, upon replication of the cell's DNA, may cause replication errors, including mutations that lead to cancer.  Numerous inherited DNA repair disorders have been described that increase cancer risk (see Wikipedia article DNA repair-deficiency disorder).  In addition, particular DNA repair enzymes have been found to be deficient in multiple cancers.  For example, deficient expression of the DNA repair enzyme O-6-methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase is observed in several different kinds of cancer (see Wikipedia article O-6-methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase).  Although a DNA repair deficiency can predispose a cell lineage to develop cancer, increased (rather than decreased) expression of a repair capability may also emerge in the progression of cancer cell lineages, and this capability may be clinically important as reviewed by Lingg et al.  For instance, the DNA repair gene DMC1 encodes a protein that is normally expressed only in cells undergoing meiosis where it helps maintain an undamaged germ-line. However, DMC1 is also expressed in various cancer cell lines including cervical, breast, and lymphoma cancer cell lines.   Expression of meiotic DNA repair genes such as DMC1 may promote tumor cell growth by dealing with endogenous DNA damage within the tumor, and may also diminish the effectiveness of anticancer therapy, such as radiation therapy.

Pathology
Cells playing roles in the immune system, such as T-cells, are thought to use a dual receptor system when they determine whether or not to kill sick or damaged human cells. If a cell is under stress, turning into tumors, or infected, molecules including MIC-A and MIC-B are produced so that they can attach to the surface of the cell. These work to help macrophages detect and kill cancer cells.

Discovery
Early evidence of human cancer can be interpreted from Egyptian papers (1538 BCE) and mummified remains. In 2016, a 1.7 million year old osteosarcoma was reported by Edward John Odes (a doctoral student in Anatomical Sciences from Witwatersrand Medical School, South Africa) and colleagues, representing the oldest documented malignant hominin cancer.

The understanding of cancer was significantly advanced during the Renaissance period and in to the Age of Discovery. Sir Rudolf Virchow, a German biologist and politician, studied microscopic pathology, and linked his observations to illness. He is described as "the founder of cellular pathology". In 1845, Virchow and John Hughes Bennett independently observed abnormal increase in white blood cells in patients. Virchow correctly identified the condition as blood disease, and named it leukämie in 1847 (later anglicised to leukemia). In 1857, he was the first to describe a type of tumour called chordoma that originated from the clivus (at the base of the skull).

Telomerase
Cancer cells have unique features that make them "immortal" according to some researchers. The enzyme telomerase is used to extend the cancer cell's life span. While the telomeres of most cells shorten after each division, eventually causing the cell to die, telomerase extends the cell's telomeres. This is a major reason that cancer cells can accumulate over time, creating tumors.

Cancer stem cells and drug resistance

Scientists have discovered a molecule on the surface of tumors that appears to promote drug  resistance—by converting the tumor cells back into a stem cell-like state.

When the tumor cells began to exhibit drug resistance, the cells were simultaneously transforming into a stem cell-like state, which made them impervious to the drugs. It appeared that the treatment itself was driving this transformation by activating a specific molecular pathway. Luckily, several existing drugs, such as Bortezomib for example, can attack this pathway and reverse the cellular transformation, thus 're-sensitizing' the tumor to treatment.

Treatment
In February 2019, medical scientists announced that iridium attached to albumin, creating a photosensitized molecule, can penetrate cancer cells and, after being irradiated with light (a process called photodynamic therapy), destroy the cancer cells.

See also

Apoptosis
BRCA1
Carcinogen
Carcinogenesis
Epidemiology of cancer
Oncology
Tumour heterogeneity

References

Further reading

External links
The History of Cancer. Cancer.org. Retrieved on 2010-12-01

Carcinogenesis

Cancer cell


Angéline de Montbrun is a novel written by Laure Conan. It was first published in La Revue canadienne in segments from June 1881 to August 1882 and published as a novel in 1884. It is considered one of the first French Canadian novels written by a woman and the first French Canadian psychological book.

The book tells the story of Angéline, a woman living with her father and becoming betrothed to a man named Maurice. When her father dies, and her face is disfigured in an accident, she breaks off her engagement and enters a period of self-isolation. She contemplates her life decisions and resolves at the end of the novel to live happily.

The novel explores themes of French-Canadian identity after the British conquest of Quebec. The novel was positively received by critics at the time of its publication.

Plot

The plot concerns a woman named Angéline, who is raised by her father in an isolated village named Valriant. In the first part of the novel, Maurice negotiates a marriage contract with Charles, Angéline's father. In the second part of the novel, Charles dies in an accidental shooting accident and a fall disfigures Angéline's face. The engagement ends when Maurice's affection for Angéline decreases and Angéline renounces the world and enters a period of self-isolation. The third part of the novel concerns diary entries and letters in which Angéline recalls moments of her life with her father and Maurice. She expresses regret and agony over her decisions, processing her thoughts through writing. This contrasts with her friend, Mina, who is a worldly woman and becomes an Ursuline nun. Angéline visits her father's grave and burns her father's letters. She then writes a letter to Maurice, explaining that she will not be sad for the rest of her life.

Characters
Angéline de Montbrun: the main character who withdraws from society into a self-imposed isolation
Charles de Montrun: Angéline's father.
Maurice Darville: Angéline's fiancé
Mina Darville: Maurice's sister and Angéline's friend

Publication

The book was first published in La Revue canadienne as a serialised novel from June 1881-August 1882. Its positive reception caused Conan to seek someone who would publish the writings as a book. Abbé Paul Bruchési, one of her patrons, recommended that she contact Henri-Raymond Casgrain, who agreed to help promote the work. He praised the book in an article for the Quebec newspaper Le Courrier du Canada, asked his colleagues to write reviews of the work, and convinced Léger Brousseau to publish the book.

Casgrain wrote the preface to the novel and wanted to reveal Conan's real name in his writing. Conan refused, causing the two to cease contacting each other. The book was published in 1884.

The first English edition was published in 1974 and translated by Yves Brunelle. It was the first psychological novel written by a French Canadian and one of the first novels written by a French Canadian woman.

Themes

The novel concerns the influence of religion in the life of families in the nineteenth century. The first two parts of the novel talk about current events in the lives of the characters and their human concerns. Before his death, her father replaces the human with the divine by imploring Angéline to seek sympathy from God after his death, breaking the marriage contract which stated that Maurice would comfort Angéline after Charles's death. While Maurice is briefly able to console Angéline, these effects are temporary and Angéline falls into despair. The third section of the novel expresses Angéline's struggle to replace her temporary human concerns with permanent divine consolations, eventually succeeding in this goal.

Angéline rebels against the characteristics of the conventional romantic woman and tries to join the sociopolitical aspects with her identity as a French Canadian woman. She references several French Canadian people to connect their artistic and political achievements with the feminist and psychology of Angeline.

The book shows the importance of nationalism, a common characteristic of roman du terroir novels. It explores French-Canadian's loss of national identity after being conquered by the British and unsuccessful rebellion in 1837 and 1838. Angéline's self-reflection is the author's proposal to have a political, feminist rebellion to change the structure of Quebec society and identity. Conan does not propose what the identity should be but wants French Canadians to stop relying on their French heritage to support their national identity. Angéline's discomfort with the societal limitations caused by her identity and events in her life are an allegory to the French Canadian discomfort with their standing in Canada. Angéline's diary entries, contemplating her death and an afterlife with her father, are supposed to give the reader a reflection of a future Quebec whose culture is able to prosper after British rule has ended. Conan's open-ended narrative gives choice to the reader to either hope for this future or to resign themselves to Quebec's oppressed cultural identity.

The structure of the novel has been described as "an apparent incoherent" by scholar David A. Powell. The first section contains letters between Angéline, Maurice, and Mina, who talk about the problems and events in the characters' lives. The second section of the novel contains diary entries and letters concerning Angéline's spiritual concerns.

Reception
Critical reception at the time of its publication was positive.

References

1884 novels
1884 debut novels
19th-century Canadian novels
Canadian French-language novels

Angéline de Montbrun