An automatic rifle is a type of autoloading rifle that is capable of fully automatic fire. Automatic rifles are generally select-fire weapons capable of firing in semi-automatic and automatic firing modes (some automatic rifles are capable of burst-fire as well). Automatic rifles are distinguished from semi-automatic rifles in their ability to fire more than one shot in succession once the trigger is pulled. Most automatic rifles are further subcategorized as battle rifles or assault rifles.

History

Maxim
In June 1883 Hiram Maxim filed his first patent to do with automatic firearms covering semi-automatic and fully automatic Winchester and Martini-Henry rifles as well as an original automatic rifle and blowback- and recoil-operated machine guns, both single and multi-barrelled.

Mannlicher

In 1885 Ferdinand Mannlicher made an experimental self-loader based on work begun in 1883 in both semi-automatic and fully automatic modes. It was an impractical failure due to fouling by its black powder ammunition, but it influenced later designs. Furthermore, Mannlicher produced smokeless powder automatic rifles from the early 1890s onwards until his death in 1904.

Cei-Rigotti

One of the world's first automatic rifles was the Italian Cei-Rigotti. This rifle started out as an 1886 gas-operated conversion of the Vetterli rifle, which received positive approval and was even adopted after further refinements in 1895 for the Royal Italian Navy but although up to 2000 rifles were ordered for as yet unknown reasons the order never came through. Another version of the Cei-Rigotti was presented in 1900, these 6.5mm Carcano or 7.65×53mm gas-operated, selective-fire carbines attracted considerable attention at the time. They used 10-, 20- and 50-round box magazines. The Cei-Rigotti had several failings, including frequent jams and erratic shooting. In the end, no Army took an interest in the design and the rifle was abandoned before it could be further developed. Although the rifle was never officially adopted by any military, aside from the 1895 variant which never came through, it was tested extensively by the Italian Army during the lead-up to the First World War.

Chauchat

The Chauchat, designed in 1907, was one of the first automatic rifles to be adopted by a military. Its official design was the Fusil Mitrailleur Modele 1915 CSRG. It was placed into French Infantry in 1916, and was used by the French army in the First World War. The Chauchat in 8mm Lebel was also extensively used in 1917–18 by the American Expeditionary Forces (A.E.F.), where it was officially designated as the "Automatic Rifle, Model 1915 (Chauchat)".

Lewis Gun

The Lewis Gun was invented in 1911 by Isaac Newton Lewis and first mass-produced in Belgium in 1913 for the .303 British cartridge, and widely used by the British army in the First World War, both by infantry and fitted to aircraft.  Pan magazines are secured above the breech, holding either 47 or 97 rounds.  Cooling fins surround the barrel.  The weapon is gas operated and fires automatically at 500-600 rounds per minute.

More than 50,000 Lewis guns were produced during WW1, becoming the most common automatic weapon used by British and American troops. Although superseded by the Bren gun by 1939, nearly 60,000 Lewis guns were refurbished and reissued to British forces after the Dunkirk evacuation of 1940.

Fedorov Avtomat

The Fedorov Avtomat (also anglicized as Federov, Russian: Автомат Фёдорова) or FA was a select-fire, crew-served automatic rifle and was one of the first practical automatic rifles, designed by Vladimir Grigoryevich Fyodorov in 1915 and produced in the Russian Empire and later in the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic. A total of 3,200 Fedorov rifles were manufactured between 1915 and 1924 in the city of Kovrov; the vast majority of them were made after 1920. The weapon saw limited combat in World War I, but was used more substantially in the Russian Civil War and in the Winter War. In 1916, the Weapons Committee of the Russian Army made a decision to order no less than 25,000 Fedorov automatic rifles. In the summer of 1916, a company from the 189th Izmail Regiment was equipped with 8 Fedorov Avtomats. Trained in tactics with the new weapon, they concluded that the Fedorov worked best as a crew served weapon. The gunner armed with the Fedorov and an ammo bearer armed with an Arisaka rifle. As both weapons used the same ammo and same 5 round stripper clips, this allowed for the greatest flexibility. It also allowed for the ammo bearer to fire defensively, while the gunner reloaded. It was also recommended that the primary mode of fire be in semi-automatic, as the Fedorov's would rapidly overheat in full-auto. Some consider it to be an "early predecessor" or "ancestor" to the modern assault rifle, while others believe that the Fedorov Avtomat was the world's first assault rifle.

Browning Automatic Rifle

The Browning Automatic Rifle (BAR) was one of the first practical automatic rifles. The BAR made its successful combat debut in World War I, and approximately 50,000 were made before the war came to an end. The BAR arose from the concept of "walking fire", an idea urged upon the Americans by the French who used the Chauchat light machine gun to fulfill that role. The BAR never entirely lived up to the designer's hopes; being neither a rifle nor a machinegun. "For its day, though, it was a brilliant design produced in record time by John Browning, and it was bought and used by many countries around the world. It was the standard squad light automatic of the U.S. infantry during World War II and saw use in every theater of war." The BAR was praised for its reliability and stopping power. "The US forces abandoned the BAR in the middle 1950s, though it was retained in reserve stocks for several years; it survived in smaller countries until the late 1970s."

AVS-36

The AVS-36 (from Avtomaticheskaya Vintovka Simonova 1936 model;  (АВС-36)) was a Soviet automatic rifle which saw service in the early years of World War II. It was among the early selective fire infantry rifles (capable of both single and full-automatic fire) formally adopted for military service. The designer, Sergei Simonov, began his work with a gas-operated self-loading rifle in 1930. The first prototype was ready in 1931 and appeared promising, and three years later a trial batch of an improved design was made. In 1935, a competition between Simonov's design and a rifle made by Fedor Tokarev was held. The Simonov rifle emerged as a winner and was accepted into service as the AVS-36. The AVS-36 was first seen in public in the 1938 May Day parade in Moscow, when it was displayed by the marching 1st Rifle Division. The American public became aware when it was covered in an August 1942 issue of the American Infantry Journal, in an article by John Garrett Underhill Jr. Simonov would later design an anti-tank rifle, the PTRS-41, and the SKS carbine, which employed simpler tilting bolt operation.

FG 42

The FG 42 is a selective fire automatic rifle or battle rifle produced in Germany during World War II. The weapon was developed specifically for the use of the Fallschirmjäger airborne infantry in 1942 and was used in limited numbers until the end of the war. It served as a squad automatic rifle in much the same role as the Browning BAR. It combined the firepower of a light machine gun in a lightweight package no larger than the standard-issue Kar 98k bolt-action rifle. It was considered one of the most advanced weapon designs of World War II. The FG 42 influenced post-war small arms development and most of its design was copied by the US Army when they developed the M60 machine gun.

Sturmgewehr 44

The Germans were the first to pioneer the assault rifle concept, during World War II, based upon research that showed that most firefights happen within 400 meters and that contemporary rifles were over-powered for most small arms combat. The Germans sought to develop a select-fire intermediate powered rifle combining the firepower of a submachine gun with the accuracy and range of a rifle. This was done by shortening the standard 7.92×57mm cartridge to 7.92×33mm and giving it a lighter 125-grain bullet, that limited range but allowed for more controllable automatic fire. The result was the Sturmgewehr 44.

AK-47

Like the Germans, the Soviets were influenced by experience showing most combat happens within 400 meters and that their soldiers were consistently outgunned by heavily armed German troops, especially those armed with the Sturmgewehr 44 assault rifles. The Soviets were so impressed with the Sturmgewehr 44, that after World War II, they held a design competition to develop an assault rifle of their own. The winner was the AK-47. It was finalized, adopted and entered widespread service in the Soviet army in the early 1950s. Its firepower, ease of use, low production costs, and reliability was perfectly suited for the Red Army's new mobile warfare doctrines. The AK-47 was widely supplied or sold to nations allied with the USSR and the blueprints were shared with several friendly nations (the People's Republic of China standing out among these with the Type 56). The AK-47 and AKM type rifles are the most produced firearms in history.

M14 rifle (battle rifle)

The U.S. Army was influenced by combat experience with semi-automatic weapons such as the M1 Garand and M1 carbine, which enjoyed a significant advantage over enemies armed primarily with bolt-action rifles. Although U.S. Army studies of World War II combat accounts had very similar results to that of the Germans and Soviets, the U.S. Army maintained its traditional views and preference for high-powered semi-automatic rifles.

After World War II, the United States military started looking for a single automatic rifle to replace the M1 Garand, M1/M2 Carbines, M1918 Browning Automatic Rifle, M3 "Grease Gun" and Thompson submachine gun. However, early experiments with select-fire versions of the M1 Garand proved disappointing. During the Korean War, the select-fire M2 Carbine largely replaced submachine guns in US service. However, combat experience suggested that the .30 Carbine round was underpowered. American weapons designers reached the same conclusion as the Germans and Soviets: an intermediate round was necessary, and recommended a small caliber, high velocity-cartridge.

However, senior American commanders, having faced fanatical enemies and experienced major logistical problems during World War II and the Korean War, insisted that a single powerful .30 caliber cartridge be developed, that could not only be used by the new automatic rifle, but by the new general purpose machine gun (GPMG) in concurrent development. This culminated in the development of the 7.62×51mm NATO cartridge and the M14 rifle which was basically an improved select-fire M1 Garand with a 20-round magazine. The U.S. also adopted the M60 GPMG. Its NATO partners adopted the FN FAL and HK G3 rifles, as well as the FN MAG and Rheinmetall MG3 GPMGs.

FN FAL

The FN FAL is a 7.62×51mm NATO, selective fire, automatic rifle produced by the Belgian armaments manufacturer Fabrique Nationale de Herstal (FN). During the Cold War, it was adopted by many North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) countries, most notably with the British Commonwealth as the L1A1. It is one of the most widely used rifles in history, having been used by more than 90 countries. The FAL was predominantly chambered for the 7.62mm NATO round, and because of its prevalence and widespread use among the armed forces of many western nations during the Cold War it was nicknamed "The right arm of the Free World".

H&K G3

The H&K G3 is a 7.62×51mm NATO, selective fire, automatic rifle produced by the German armament manufacturer Heckler & Koch GmbH (H&K) in collaboration with the Spanish state-owned design and development agency CETME (Centro de Estudios Técnicos de Materiales Especiales). The rifle proved successful in the export market, being adopted by the armed forces of over 60 countries. After World War II, German technicians involved in developing the Sturmgewehr 45, continued their research in France at CEAM. The StG45 mechanism was modified by Ludwig Vorgrimler and Theodor Löffler at the Mulhouse facility between 1946 and 1949. Vorgrimler later went to work at CETME in Spain and developed the line of CETME automatic rifles based on his improved Stg45 design. Germany eventually purchased the license for the CETME design and manufactured the Heckler & Koch G3 as well as an entire line of weapons built on the same system, one of the most famous being the MP5 SMG.

M16 rifle

The first confrontations between the AK-47 and the M14 (assault rifle vs battle rifle) came in the early part of the Vietnam War. Battlefield reports indicated that the M14 was uncontrollable in automatic mode and that soldiers could not carry enough ammo to maintain fire superiority over the AK-47. A replacement was needed: A medium between the traditional preference for high-powered rifles such as the M14, and the lightweight firepower of the M2 Carbine.

As a result, the Army was forced to reconsider a 1957 request by General Willard G. Wyman, commander of the U.S. Continental Army Command (CONARC) to develop a .223 caliber (5.56 mm) select-fire rifle weighing 6 lbs (2.7 kg) when loaded with a 20-round magazine. The 5.56mm round had to penetrate a standard U.S. helmet at 500 yards (460 meters) and retain a velocity in excess of the speed of sound while matching or exceeding the wounding ability of the .30 Carbine cartridge.

This request ultimately resulted in the development of a scaled-down version of the ArmaLite AR-10, called ArmaLite AR-15 rifle. However, despite overwhelming evidence that the AR-15 could bring more firepower to bear than the M14, the Army opposed the adoption of the new rifle. In January 1963, Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara concluded that the AR-15 was the superior weapon system and ordered a halt to M14 production. At the time, the AR-15 was the only rifle available that could fulfill the requirement of a universal infantry weapon for issue to all services. After modifications (Most notably: the charging handle was re-located from under the carrying handle like AR-10 to the rear of the receiver), the new redesigned rifle was subsequently adopted as the M16.

The M16 entered U.S. service in the mid-1960s and was much lighter than the M14 it replaced, allowing soldiers to carry more ammunition. Despite its early failures, the M16 proved to be a revolutionary design and stands as the longest continuously serving rifle in American military history. It is a benchmark against which other assault rifles are judged, and used by 15 NATO countries, and more
than 80 countries worldwide

HK33

During the 1960s, other countries would follow the Americans lead and begin to develop 5.56×45mm assault rifles, most notably Germany with the Heckler & Koch HK33. The HK33 was essentially a smaller 5.56mm version of the 7.62×51mm Heckler & Koch G3 rifle. As one of the first 5.56mm assault rifles on the market, it would go on to become one of the most widely distributed assault rifles. The HK33 featured a modular design with a wide range of accessories (telescoping butt-stocks, optics, bipods, etc.) that could be easily removed and arranged in a various configurations.

5.56mm NATO

The adoption of the M16, the H&K33, and the 5.56×45mm cartridge inspired an international trend towards relatively small-sized, lightweight, high-velocity military service cartridges that allow a soldier to carry more ammunition for the same weight compared to the larger and heavier 7.62×51mm NATO cartridge. The 5.56mm cartridge is also much easier to shoot. In 1961 marksmanship testing, the U.S. Army found that 43% of ArmaLite AR-15 shooters achieved Expert, while only 22% of M-14 rifle shooters did so. Also, a lower recoil impulse allows for more controllable automatic weapons fire.

Therefore, in March 1970, the U.S. recommended that all NATO forces adopt the 5.56×45mm cartridge. This shift represented a change in the philosophy of the military's long-held position about caliber size. By the middle of the 1970s, other armies were looking at assault rifle type weapons. A NATO standardization effort soon started and tests of various rounds were carried out starting in 1977. The U.S. offered the 5.56×45mm M193 round, but there were concerns about its penetration in the face of the wider introduction of body armor. In the end, the Belgian 5.56×45mm SS109 round was chosen (STANAG 4172) in October 1980. The SS109 round was based on the U.S. cartridge but included a new stronger, heavier, 62 grain bullet design, with better long range performance and improved penetration (specifically, to consistently penetrate the side of a steel helmet at 600 meters).

During the 1970s, the USSR developed the AK-74 and the 5.45×39mm cartridge, which has similar physical characteristics to the U.S. 5.56×45mm cartridge. Also during the 1970s, Finland, Israel, South Africa and Sweden introduced AK type rifles in 5.56×45mm. During the 1990s, the Russians developed the AK-101 in 5.56×45mm NATO for the world export market. In addition, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland and former countries of Yugoslavia have also rechambered their locally produced assault rifle variants to 5.56mm NATO. The adoption the 5.56mm NATO and 5.45×39mm cemented the worldwide trend toward small caliber, high-velocity cartridges.

Steyr AUG (bullpup rifle)

In 1977, Austria introduced the 5.56×45mm Steyr AUG bullpup rifle, often cited as the first successful bullpup rifle,  finding service with the armed forces of over twenty countries. It was highly advanced for the 1970s, combining in the same weapon the bullpup configuration, a polymer housing, dual vertical grips, an optical sight as standard, and a modular design. Highly reliable, light, and accurate, the Steyr AUG showed clearly the potential of the bullpup layout. In 1978, France introduced the 5.56×45mm FAMAS bullpup rifle. In 1985, the British introduced the 5.56×45mm L85 bullpup rifle. In the late 1990s, Israel introduced the Tavor TAR-21 and China's People's Liberation Army's adopted QBZ-95. By the turn of the century, the bullpup design had achieved world-wide acceptance.

See also
Other weapons:
 Madsen machine gun
 Chauchat
 Fedorov Avtomat
 Farquhar-Hill rifle
 Leichtes Maschinengewehr Modell 1925 "Lmg 25"
 Huot Automatic Rifle
 Mors submachine gun
 Knötgen automatic rifle
 Sieg automatic rifle
 Colt Automatic Rifle
 M27 Infantry Automatic Rifle
 Howell Automatic Rifle
 Rieder Automatic Rifle
 SIG SG 510

Other related articles:
 Semi-automatic rifle
 Assault rifle
 Battle rifle
 Marksman rifle
 Sniper rifle
 Light machine gun
 Squad automatic weapon
 List of firearms

References

Light machine guns

Automatic rifle


The Indian subcontinent has a history of devastating earthquakes. The major reason for the high frequency and intensity of the earthquakes is that the Indian plate is driving into Asia at a rate of approximately 47 mm/year. Geographical statistics of India show that almost 58% of the land is vulnerable to earthquakes. A World Bank and United Nations report shows estimates that around 200 million city dwellers in India will be exposed to storms and earthquakes by 2050. The latest version of seismic zoning map of India given in the earthquake resistant design code of India [IS 1893 (Part 1) 2002] assigns four levels of seismicity for India in terms of zone factors. In other words, the earthquake zoning map of India divides India into 4 seismic zones (Zone 2, 3, 4 and 5) unlike its previous version, which consisted of five or six zones for the country. According to the present zoning map, Zone 5 expects the highest level of seismicity whereas Zone 2 is associated with the lowest level of seismicity.

National Center for Seismology
The National Center for Seismology Ministry of Earth Sciences is a nodal agency of the Government of India dealing with various activities in the fields of seismology and allied disciplines. The major activities currently being pursued by the National Center for Seismology include a) earthquake monitoring on a 24/7 basis, including real time seismic monitoring for early warning of tsunamis, b) operation and maintenance of national seismological network and local networks, c) seismological data centre and information services, d) seismic hazard and risk related studies, e) field studies for aftershock/swarm monitoring and site response studies and f) earthquake processes and modelling.

The MSK (Medvedev-Sponheuer-Karnik) intensity broadly associated with the various seismic zones is VI (or less), VII, VIII and IX (and above) for Zones 2, 3, 4 and 5, respectively, corresponding to Maximum Considered Earthquake (MCE). The IS code follows a dual design philosophy: (a) under low probability or extreme earthquake events (MCE) the structure damage should not result in total collapse, and (b) under more frequently occurring earthquake events, the structure should suffer only minor or moderate structural damage. The specifications given in the design code (IS 1893: 2002) are not based on detailed assessment of maximum ground acceleration in each zone using a deterministic or probabilistic approach. Instead, each zone factor represents the effective period peak ground accelerations that may be generated during the maximum considered earthquake ground motion in that zone.

Each zone indicates the effects of an earthquake at a particular place based on the observations of the affected areas and can also be described using a descriptive scale like the Modified Mercalli intensity scale or the Medvedev–Sponheuer–Karnik scale.

Zone 5
Zone 5 covers the areas with the highest risk of suffering earthquakes of intensity MSK IX or more significantly. The IS code assigns a zone factor of 0.36 for Zone 5. Structural designers use this factor for the earthquake-resistant design of structures in Zone 5. The zone factor of 0.36 (the maximum horizontal acceleration that a structure can experience) is indicative of effective (zero period) level earthquakes in this zone. It is referred to as the Very High Damage Risk Zone. The regions of Kashmir, the Western and Central Himalayas, North and Middle Bihar, the North-East Indian region, the Rann of Kutch and the Andaman and Nicobar group of islands fall in this zone.Generally, the areas having trap rock or basaltic rock are prone to earthquakes.

Zone 4
This zone is called the High Damage Risk Zone and covers areas liable to MSK VIII. The IS code assigns a zone factor of 0.24 for Zone 4. Jammu and Kashmir, Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, parts of the Indo-Gangetic plains (North Punjab, Chandigarh, Western Uttar Pradesh, Terai, a major portion of Bihar, North Bengal, the Sundarbans) and the capital of the country Delhi fall in Zone 4.
In Maharashtra, the Patan area (Koynanagar) is also in Zone 4.

Zone 3
This zone is classified as a Moderate Damage Risk Zone which is liable to MSK VII. The IS code assigns a zone factor of 0.16 for Zone 3. Several megacities like Chennai, Mumbai, Kolkata and Bhubaneshwar, Jamshedpur, Ahmedabad, Pune, Surat, Lucknow, Vadodara, Mangalore, Vijayawada and the entire state of Kerala lie in this zone.

Zone 2
This region is liable to MSK VI or lower and is classified as the Low Damage Risk Zone. The IS code assigns a zone factor of 0.10 for Zone 2. It is the zone with low chances of having earthquakes. Cities like Bangalore, Hyderabad, Visakhapatnam, Nagapur, Raipur, Gwalior, Jaipur, Tiruchirappalli, Madhurai are in this zone.

Zone 1
Since the current division of India into earthquake hazard zones does not use Zone 1 no area of India is classified as Zone 1.

See also
List of earthquakes in India
Geology of India

Notes

Further reading
 Saikia, Arupjyoti. "Earthquakes and the Environmental Transformation of a Floodplain Landscape: The Brahmaputra Valley and the Earthquakes of 1897 and 1950." Environment and History 26.1 (2020): 51–77.

External links
 India Meteorological Department

 Zoning
Geology of India
Emergency management in India
Geographic areas of seismological interest
Seismology
Seismic zones by country

Earthquake zones of India


Tomier and Palaizi (or Palazi) were two knights and troubadours from Tarascon, possibly brothers, and frequent comrades and co-composers (fl. 1199–1226).

Palaizi and Tomier were involved in the Albigensian Crusade. In the sirventes De chantar farai, written probably during Louis VIII's siege of Avignon in 1226, they criticised the Albigensian Crusaders and the Papacy — "those who have turned the crusade" — for diverting "succour and valour" (aid and military support) from the "Sepulchre" (the Holy Land), which was "disbelief", i.e. "a sin against the faith":
Al Sepolcr'an tout
socors e valenza
cil q'an la croz vout,
et es decredenza.
The Albigensian Crusade was described as a falsa croisada and the song had a rhyming refrain which must have been intended to arouse Provenç passions for the fight against the French: Segur estem, seignors, / E ferm de ric socors! ("Lords, we are certain and confident of mighty aid"). Tomier and Palaizi blamed the church leadership, especially the legate Romano of Sant'Angelo, for avarice. In an earlier, and less violent sirventes, Si col flacs molins torneja (c. 1216), the two troubadours explain that the Albiensian venture ruins the roads and ports that lead to Acre, where the true Crusade is being waged. To them, the Crusaders pauc a en Deu d'esperanssa (have little hope in God). In the end Tomier and Palaizi attacked the Church for heresy and thus marked themselves out as heretics from the Church of Rome.

Sources

Graham-Leigh, Elaine. The Southern French Nobility and the Albigensian Crusade. Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, 2005.
Throop, Palmer A. "Criticism of Papal Crusade Policy in Old French and Provençal." Speculum, Vol. 13, No. 4. (Oct., 1938), pp 379–412.
Puckett, Jaye. "'Reconmenciez novele estoire': The Troubadours and the Rhetoric of the Later Crusades." MLN, Vol. 116, No. 4, French Issue. (Sep., 2001), pp 844–889.

Notes

13th-century French troubadours
Writing duos
People from Tarascon
Albigensian Crusade

Tomier and Palaizi


John Roderick MacArthur (December 21, 1920 – December 15, 1984) was a U.S. businessman and philanthropist in Chicago. The J. Roderick MacArthur Foundation, a philanthropic organization supporting civil rights in the United States, was established in his name.

The foundation established the MacArthur Justice Center, a public interest law firm that formed an alliance in 2006 at the Northwestern University School of Law, and litigates for civil rights. In addition, MacArthur Justice centers have been opened in Louisiana (2013), Mississippi, in an association with the law school at University of Mississippi (2014); Missouri (2016); and Washington, D.C. (2017).

He is the son of John D. MacArthur, who established the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation in his will. It has funded the MacArthur fellowships, grants to authors, artists and scientists.

Biography
J. Roderick MacArthur, known as Rod MacArthur, was born December 21, 1920 to the former Louise Ingalls and John D. MacArthur.  The couple also had a daughter, Virginia MacArthur.  In 1926 John D. MacArthur traveled to Mexico to obtain a divorce. Two years later he married Catherine T. Hyland.

Rod MacArthur attended Rollins College in Florida and worked as a stringer for the Associated Press in Mexico. During World War II, he joined the American Field Service, serving with the French Army in the ambulance corps, and he participated in the campaign that liberated France.

He worked for his father in the insurance industry before they became estranged. In 1973, while working with a company that sold ceramic collectible plates, MacArthur noticed that the ceramic-collectible market was chaotic. He started the Bradford Exchange, and by the time of his death, it sold about 90 percent of all the collectible plates in the world. Often credited with becoming "a self-made millionaire," MacArthur did have some financial backing from his father, but the concept, business plan and effort behind the Bradford Exchange were Rod MacArthur's own.

In 1975, once the business had become successful, MacArthur's father claimed that the Bradford Exchange was his business, seizing its customer lists and putting the on-hand inventory under lock and key. Rod MacArthur then organized a group of employees to enter his father's warehouse in Northbrook, Illinois, and hustle the inventory into a waiting fleet of trucks. He reestablished the business away from his father.

Personal life

Rod MacArthur married Christiane L'Entendart in Paris in 1947. They had a daughter, Solange, and two sons. John Roderick "Rick" MacArthur later became the publisher and president of Harper's Magazine.

Death
Rod MacArthur died December 15, 1984 from pancreatic cancer six days before his 64th birthday. He is buried in Graceland Cemetery in Chicago. His epitaph, written in English using Greek letters, is ονε φοοτ ιν φαιριελανδ ("one foot in fairieland").

Philanthropic endeavors
MacArthur reconciled with his father before John D. MacArthur died on January 6, 1978 (of pancreatic cancer). He named MacArthur to the board of his foundation, which was founded according to his will. At that point, John D. MacArthur was worth in excess of $1 billion and was reportedly one of the three richest men in the United States.

John D. MacArthur bequeathed ninety-two percent of his estate to begin the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation. The Foundation's first Board of Directors, per John D. MacArthur's will, included J. Roderick MacArthur, Catherine T. MacArthur (his second wife), his attorney William T. Kirby, two officers of Bankers Life and Casualty, and radio commentator Paul Harvey.

Rod MacArthur's son, John Roderick "Rick" MacArthur, has charged publicly:
"The idea behind the foundation was as a tax dodge that he thought would allow his business executives to run his company forever. He clearly didn't understand the tax laws."

In any event, Rod MacArthur quickly clashed with the board of his father's foundation. The Bankers Life executives and Paul Harvey held conservative views regarding the structure and size of the board, its purpose, and issues related to the sale of the business.

Largely due to Rod MacArthur's efforts, the board was expanded to thirteen members in 1979. The new members had backgrounds from academia, science, government, and business. This board now argued over the grants that were made to favorite board member causes, often trading votes among themselves. Even though there was support for each board member's causes, an extremely bitter and public argument erupted between Rod MacArthur and former U.S. Treasury Secretary William E. Simon over board grants to a number of conservative causes. Eventually Simon resigned from the board.

Rod MacArthur filed two lawsuits in an effort to redirect the board and foundation. In February 1984 he sued fellow board members, charging that they were acting as executives of Bankers Life and were looking out for their own best interest and not the needs of the foundation. He alleged that the foundation was not managing its assets properly. MacArthur said that high fees were being paid to board members for their foundation work, and he believed that Bankers Life was not being managed well and had lost value. He requested that either the foundation be dissolved or that the court appoint a receiver to manage and sell Bankers Life.

After MacArthur blocked the sale of Bankers Life at $268 million, the board found a buyer that was willing to pay $384 million for the company. This sale removed the Bankers Life issue from the suit. MacArthur's allegations that board members and key foundation executives were profiting at the expense of the foundation were still open.

While still on the board of the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation, MacArthur pushed the Board to offer the MacArthur fellowships, also called "Genius Grants".

Second, in 1980 at the urging of his son John R. "Rick" MacArthur, then 23, the senior MacArthur persuaded the Board to partner in creating and funding a Harper's Magazine Foundation, in order to acquire and operate Harper's Magazine, which had been struggling financially. This new entity acquired Harper's Magazine (which was then losing nearly $2 million per year and was on the verge of ceasing publication) for $250,000. Rick (now called Roderick) MacArthur eventually took over the foundation that owned Harper's.

In 1976 Rod MacArthur had used his substantial fortune from the Bradford Exchange to form his own foundation, the J. Roderick MacArthur Foundation. As of 2004, the J. Roderick MacArthur Foundation had $22 million in assets. It has supported causes of civil rights and civil liberties, including the Death Penalty Information Center in Washington, D.C., and the Roderick & Solange MacArthur Justice Center, a public interest law firm in Chicago that is named and managed by two of his children.

In 2006 the MacArthur Justice Center formed an association with the Northwestern University School of Law and has a clinic there. It has opened additional centers since then: in New Orleans (2013), in Oxford, Mississippi, in an association with the law school at University of Mississippi (2014); and in Saint Louis, Missouri (2016).

References

External links
 John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation Website noting J. Roderick' MacArthur's role in the Genius Grant's
Independent Article about the founding of the Genius Grants, Winston Brill
letter to the Editor of the New York Times by MacArthur's Lawyer regarding the Law suits
Website of the Roderick & Solange MacArthur Justice Center
The John D. and Catherine MacArthur Foundation and J. Roderick MacArthur's early role., Chicago Sun, 2004

1920 births
1984 deaths
20th-century American businesspeople
20th-century American philanthropists
American Field Service personnel of World War II
Burials at Graceland Cemetery (Chicago)
Deaths from cancer in Illinois
Deaths from pancreatic cancer
Businesspeople from Chicago
Rollins College alumni
Philanthropists from Illinois

J. Roderick MacArthur


Gian Girolamo Albani (1509–1591) was an Italian Roman Catholic cardinal of Albanian descent.

Biography

A member of the Albani family, Gian Girolamo Albani was born in Bergamo on 3 January 1509, the son of Count Francesco Albani. He studied grammar and rhetoric under Giovita Rapicio da Chiari at the University of Padua; he later received a doctorate in civil law from the university in 1529.

After university, he returned to Bergamo.  There, Andrea Gritti, Doge of Venice gave him the honor cavaliere aurato.  He went on to serve as collaterale generale in the army of the Republic of Venice.  He then became podestà of Bergamo.  In 1550, he became magistrate in Bergamo; during this period he made the acquaintance of Michele Ghislieri (the future Pope Pius V).

The Albani family had long engaged in a feud with the Brembati family.  This climaxed in 1563, when the sons of the Albani murdered Count Achille Brembati in Santa Maria Maggiore, Bergamo.  The Council of Ten sentenced Albani and his brothers to five years exile on the island of Lesina.  Albani's wife died while he was serving this sentence.

After completing his sentence, Albani accepted an invitation from Pope Pius V to come to Rome.  The pope soon named him a protonotary apostolic.  He served as governor of the March of Ancona from 3 February 1569 until May 1570.

Pope Pius V made him a cardinal priest in the consistory of 17 May 1570.  He received the red hat and the titular church of San Giovanni a Porta Latina on 20 November 1570.

He participated in the papal conclave of 1572 that elected Pope Gregory XIII.  The new pope sent him on a number of diplomatic missions, including one to form an alliance of Christian princes against the Ottoman Empire.  He was a participant in the papal conclave of 1585 that elected Pope Sixtus V.  From 1585 to his death, he was the governor of Bagnoregio.  In 1586, his son, Giovanni Battista Albani, became Titular Patriarch of Alexandria.  He participated in both the papal conclave of September 1590 that elected Pope Urban VII and the papal conclave of October–December 1590 that elected Pope Gregory XIV.

He died in Rome on 25 April 1591.  He was buried in Santa Maria del Popolo.

Works by Gian Girolamo Albani

De donatione Constantini (Cologne, 1535)
De cardinalatu (Rome, 1541)
De immunitate ecclesiarum (Rome, 1553)
De potestate papæ et concilii (Lyon, 1558)

See also
Catholic Church in Italy

References

1509 births
1591 deaths
16th-century Italian cardinals
Cardinals created by Pope Pius V

Gian Girolamo Albani


The Calico Print was a newspaper, established in 1882 and published during the heyday of the silver mining camp of Calico, California prior to 1902. The Calico Print was also the name of a monthly, later bi-monthly, periodical of the mid-20th century, and contained "Tales and trails of the desert West."

Revival history

1930s
The Calico Print revival was established by Grail Fuller and Lucille Coke in the 1930s as a monthly tabloid, reprinting articles from the original newspaper as well as original material. It was sold primarily for visitors to Walter Knott's rebuilt Calico Ghost Town.

1950s
With the November, 1950, issue of Calico Print, Harold and Lucile Weight, former staff editors at Desert Magazine, became the principal editors. They produced 17 monthly issues in the tabloid form. But the Weights had slipped back into the same deadline-driven routine that drove them from Desert Magazine, forcing them to neglect their efforts to record the stories and history of rapidly disappearing desert pioneers.

To cope with that, periodicity of Calico Print was changed to one every two months and the format was changed to that of a slick illustrated digest size magazine. Nine issues of Calico Print in magazine form were issued from June 1952 through November 1953 by the Weight's Calico Press in Twentynine Palms, California. These nine issues, packed with detailed desert history, are now highly prized by desert enthusiasts. In addition to articles authored by the Weights, there are contributions from other noted writers – Adelaide Arnold, L. Burr Belden, Ed Rochester, Edmund C. Jaeger, Jerry Laudermilk, Charles F. Lummis, Arthur Woodward, Senator Charles Brown, Harry Oliver, Ruth Kirk, and more.

In the nine-issue run of Calico Print, in its magazine format, a so-called "Folio" section is included in several of the issues. Of special interest among these Folios is the one devoted to an exhaustive study of Wm. B. Rood, of Death Valley pioneer fame, published in the Aug–Sept 1952. Other such Folios covered the Comstock Lode (June 1952); Belmont, Nevada (Oct–Nov 1952); Greenwater, California (January 1953); The Great Survey (March 1953); the Kofa Mountains and King Mine of Arizona (May 1953); New Almaden, California's Oldest Mine (July 1953); and the legends of the Lost Ship of the Desert (November 1953).

The Calico Print was discontinued at the end of 1953, and the Weights concentrated on their occasional Southwest Panomama series of books on desert history.

See also
 The Tombstone Epitaph
 Desert Rat Scrap Book
 Overland Monthly
 Lost Ship of the Desert
 Ghost town

References

Defunct magazines published in the United States
History of the Mojave Desert region
Defunct newspapers published in California
History of the American West
History of Nevada
History of Arizona
Newspapers established in 1882
Magazines disestablished in 1953
1882 establishments in California

Calico Print


The violet is a genus of flowering plants. The common blue violet (Viola sororia) is the state flower of the U.S. state of Illinois. There is also a famous poem that refers to violets. It goes "Roses are red, violets are blue", and then the poet adds his or her own lines to it. It is also February's birth flower.

Some Viola species are perennial plants, some are annual plants, and a few are small shrubs. Many species, varieties and cultivars are grown in gardens for their flowers.

In horticulture, the term pansy is  used for the multi-coloured cultivars often used in bedding by professional gardeners. The terms 'viola' and 'violet' are normally used for small-flowered annuals or perennials, and the wild species.

Flowers

Violet (plant)


Card Warp is a card illusion that was created by magician Roy Walton. Card Warp has many variations in presentation and effect.

Card Warp starts out with the illusionist showing two cards. He then folds one card horizontally and the other one vertically. He slides the horizontal card into the vertical card so the horizontal card is inside of the vertical card. The illusionist then flips the cards over so that the vertical card is inside of the horizontal card. He slides the vertical card back and forth, and the card seemingly changes from front to back in the horizontal card. Both cards are then ripped down the middle and shown to be normal.

It is published by Michael Close in "Workers 1" as "Dr Strangetrick" subtitled "Or How I Stopped Worrying and Learned to Love Card Warp" and by Michael Ammar in "Easy To Master Card Miracles Volume Two".   Michael Close refers to the variation "Star Warp" published by Bob McCallister and Howie Schwartzman in "Apocalypse Volume 3 Number 7" which uses an American dollar bill. Ammar shows how two normal-sized playing cards can appear to be partially twisted. A performance is published by Eugene Burger in "Magical Voyages 3" in an effect called "The Inquisition" which uses large-sized playing cards.

Card magic

Card warp


The Ilisos or Ilisus (, ) is a river in Athens, Greece. Originally a tributary of the Kifisos, it has been rechanneled to the sea.  It is now largely channeled underground, though as of June 2019 there are plans to unearth the river. Together with the neighbouring river Kifisos, it drains a catchment area of .

Etymology
Its name is in all probability Pre-Greek: it features the ending -sós/-ssós/-ttós, which it shares with many other toponyms in Attica and other rivers in Greece, all of which are considered linguistic substratum survivals.

Ancient Athens
During antiquity, the river flowed outside the city walls of Athens: Plato wrote in Critias that the river was one of the borders of the ancient walls.  Its banks—in the busy intersection that presently features the Hilton Hotel and the National Gallery—were grassy and shaded by plane trees, and were considered idyllic in antiquity; they were the favored haunts of Socrates for his walks and teaching.  The temple of , a local hero, was located there, giving its name to the modern suburb of Pagkrati.  Ilisos was also considered a demi-god, the son of Poseidon and Demetra, and was worshipped in a sanctuary on the Ardittos Hill, next to the current Panathinaiko Stadium.  This area was named Cynosarges in antiquity and the spring of  was located there.

Modern route

The stream drains the western slopes of Mount Hymettus, and originates from multiple converging seasonal creeks.  As urban Athens expanded during the 19th and early 20th centuries, the river became a source of pollution and was converted gradually into a rainwater runoff conduit, covered with streets that track its original, twisting route along the lay of the land.  Its bed proper flows under Mesogeion Avenue at the Old Gendarmerie Academy, flows under Michalakopoulou (the modern-day Ilisia suburb) and Vasileos Konstantinou Avenues, and passes in front of the Panathinaiko Stadium, where it was bridged during the 19th century.  It then flows to the southeastern flank of the ruined Columns of Olympian Zeus, where it is still visible amidst reed beds, next to the Byzantine chapel of Saint Photeine "of the Ilisos". In older times the river at this point expanded into shallow marshland, termed  (; lit. "Frog Island") in the vicinity of the ancient spring of , now submerged under Avenue Kallirois. As is the case for many Christian churches in Greece, the church of Aghia Foteini, established in 1872, is built on the ruins of an ancient temple, dedicated to Hecate. Archaeological finds of 2014 identified the ruins of yet another temple, of the 4th Century B.C., dedicated to Zeus, "", in the vicinity of that of the 5th C. B.C. Ionic temple of Artemis (Diana) Agrotera, slightly higher up on the same slope of the hill, which is thought to have been called "Agrai". It was here that the goddess was celebrated every year on the anniversary of the Battle of Marathon. The archon in charge would offer goats for sacrifice and the tithe of the sale of war prisoners, while the Athenian youth passed in procession. The importance of this hill was due to the Lesser Mysteries, celebrated every year during the month of Anthesterion (February–March) as a form of initiation of the Great Eleusinian Mysteries. The Hill of Agrai extends as far as the Stadion and is known by the name of Ardettos or Helicon.

Here there is also the Shrine of the God Pan. This rocky outcrop with a small natural cave and two perpendicular faces was found to have a relief of the god Pan. This deity of wild nature was worshiped regularly in caves and rocky terrain. Pan is depicted striding to the right with the "pipes of Pan" in his right hand and a stick for hunting hares on the left. Others believe that this is the Shrine of the Nymphs and the river god Acheloos, with a spring of cold water, a plane tree and a willow, where, as Plato writes, Socrates and Phaedros sat during their philosophical chats.  It then flows under Theseos Avenue, in the suburb of Kallithea, its original course turning sharply northwest to join the Kifissos River, of which it was once a tributary.  The Ilisos is now routed straight to sea, coming to surface and flowing into the Saronic Gulf in the middle of Phaleron Bay.

References

External links

Ancient Greek geography
Rivers of Greece
Former rivers
Landforms of South Athens (regional unit)
Rivers of Attica
Drainage basins of the Aegean Sea

Ilisos


Jacksonville College is a private junior college in Jacksonville, Texas.  It is the only accredited junior college in Texas that is privately owned and operated, owned by the Baptist Missionary Association of America, with additional financial support provided by Southern Baptists of Texas, the conservative state convention affiliated with the Southern Baptist Convention.

The college's current president is Dr. David Erickson, who has served in that capacity since 2023.

The college is known for its singing groups - a main choir, a smaller group called The Singers, a women's trio, and a men's quartet.

Jacksonville College, the oldest junior college in the state of Texas, opened in 1899 and has operated continuously since that time, though before 1918 it operated as a four-year institution.

The college believes in the importance of each student making a personal commitment to Christianity, make behavioral changes in Christian applications to 21st century personal, family, community, and global issues, endorse lifelong Christian learning for their vocation, and broaden Biblical literacy.

External links
 Official website

References

Baptist Christianity in Texas
Universities and colleges affiliated with the Southern Baptist Convention
Private universities and colleges in Texas
Universities and colleges established in 1899
Universities and colleges accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools
Two-year colleges in the United States
1899 establishments in Texas
NJCAA athletics

Jacksonville College


The Ronald Reagan Freedom Award is the highest civilian honor by the Ronald Reagan Presidential Foundation. The award is given to "those who have made monumental and lasting contributions to the cause of freedom worldwide."

Today, the award is given by Former First Lady Nancy Reagan on behalf of her husband, who died in June 2004. The award was first given in 1992, by President Ronald Reagan himself, as well as in 1993, but in 1994 Mrs. Reagan presented the award instead of her husband due to his poor health.

In order to receive this honor, the recipient must "have made monumental and lasting contributions to the cause of freedom worldwide," as well as "embody President Reagan's lifelong belief that one man or woman truly can make a difference."

Recipients
1992 – Mikhail Gorbachev, former General Secretary of the Soviet Union
1993 – General Colin Powell, former National Security Advisor to President Reagan
1994 – Yitzhak Rabin, former Prime Minister of Israel
1995 – King Hussein I, then King of Jordan
1997 – Bob Hope, former entertainer.
1998 – Margaret Thatcher, former Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
2000 – The Reverend Billy Graham, evangelical minister
2002 – Rudy Giuliani, former mayor of New York
2007 – George H. W. Bush, former President of the United States, served under Reagan as Vice President of the United States
2008 – Natan Sharansky, former KGB prisoner, human rights activist, Israeli politician.
2011 – Lech Walesa, former Solidarity leader and former president of Poland

References

American awards
Things named after Ronald Reagan

Ronald Reagan Freedom Award


Martin Krippner (23 September 1817, Mantov – 31 January 1894) was a Bohemian-born Austrian Captain who led the settlement of Puhoi, New Zealand by German-speaking Bohemians from Stod in 1863.

Career
Martin Krippner was the eldest son of Johannes Krippner, a blacksmith, and his wife, Anna Pallier. Martin received a better education than many of his social contemporaries and studied law at Prague University. In 1842 he obtained a commission in the Habsburg army and rose to the rank of captain. Whilst stationed at Frankfurt in Germany he met Emily Longdill, a well-educated Englishwoman. They married on 12 May 1851 and had four children. Martin resigned his military commission in 1859.

Emily Krippner's brother, Pynson Wilmot Longdill, had settled in New Zealand and it is believed that he encouraged the Krippners to emigrate there. The Krippner family arrived in Auckland on 22 March 1860 with Martin's brother Johannes (Hans) Krippner (and his future wife, Elizabeth Turnwald); and also the Pankratz and Scheidler families, also from Habsburg Bohemia.

Martin Krippner was naturalised a British citizen on 10 April 1860 and initially settled at Orewa, where he was postmaster from August 1861 until October 1863. Krippner was not a successful farmer himself but he was very keen about New Zealand's prospects and was on good terms with Governor-General of New Zealand Sir George Grey. Krippner soon thought up a project to help landless peasants back home in Bohemia and obtained permission from the Auckland provincial government to arrange a Bohemian colony at Puhoi. He then wrote to his brothers, still in Bohemia, promising  of free land for each adult immigrant with a further  for each child over five years of age.

The concept appealed immediately to entrepreneurial peasants from Krippner's native Mantau region. On 27 June 1863, 83 immigrants, including Martin's brother Michael Krippner, arrived at Auckland. They were transported to the mouth of the Puhoi River and taken upstream in Māori canoes to the site chosen by Krippner. The central European immigrants were initially appalled by the primitive state of the entirely undeveloped land, thick with native bush. Plots were allocated and the peasants started clearing the bush.

Krippner served as translator for the community for a long time and as such exercised quite a lot of influence. Soon after their arrival Krippner persuaded some of the men to join the Third Regiment of the Waikato Militia. Krippner was himself offered a commission as captain if he could get 50 men to enlist and the commission was granted on 17 October 1863. In 1864 Krippner and his Bohemian men guarded Māori prisoners being held in Auckland and at the conclusion of the war, some of the Bohemians accepted grants of land at Ohaupo in the Waikato Region. Krippner also received a land grant there but did not settle on it.

Krippner encouraged further Bohemian immigration in the hope that the colonial regime would reward him. Consequently, in 1866 a second group of Bohemians arrived and in 1873 a third and final bunch. Although Krippner lived at Orewa he kept a strong proprietorial interest in Puhoi and utilised his government contacts to secure money for roadworks in the area: this helped provide employment and immediate cash for the newcomers. Krippner often thought up additional economic sources of income: at his suggestion the Puhoi colonists gathered tanekaha (celery pine) bark for tanning and fungus for the Chinese export market.

In 1869 Emily Krippner started a school at Puhoi and by 1873 the Puhoi Educational District was legally constituted. Due to his fluency in both English and the German Egerlander dialect of the Bohemian settlers, Martin Krippner was appointed headmaster and Emily Krippner was made assistant teacher. Martin Krippner was postmaster at Silverdale from 1 July 1873 until 31 December 1874 and whilst in Puhoi held various offices. He was chairman of the Puhoi Highway District Board in 1874, and in 1877 and 1878 served on the Rodney County Council. A post office had been established at Puhoi in 1870 and Krippner was postmaster from 1 August 1875 until 30 June 1884.

By the early 1880s the Puhoi settlement was securely established and the confident settlers were more able to communicate their criticisms of Krippner's leadership. It became obvious that the Krippners, both in their 60s, were no longer capable of adequately performing their teaching duties and in 1884 the school committee petitioned to have them removed.

Retirement and death

The Puhoi Bohemians showed their gratitude to Krippner by building a new house for him at Warkworth. Emily Krippner died there on 15 December 1890; Martin Krippner on 31 January 1894.

References
 Biography of Martin Krippner
 Biography of Martin Krippner
 Settlement of Puhoi
 Mooney, K., From the heart of Europe to the land of the Southern Cross (Puhoi, 1963)
 'The Puhoi settlement' in the New Zealand Herald (5 July 1888)
 Silk, D. V., A history of Puhoi (Dunedin, 1923)

1817 births
1894 deaths
People from Plzeň-South District
Settlers of New Zealand
German emigrants to New Zealand

Martin Krippner


The Oliver G. Traphagen House, also known as Redstone, is a historic residential building in Duluth, Minnesota, United States.  Built in 1892 as a duplex, it was designed and inhabited by architect Oliver G. Traphagen (1854–1932).  The building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1975 for its local significance in the theme of architecture.  It was nominated for its association with Traphagen, recognized together with his business partner Francis W. Fitzpatrick as Duluth's leading architects of the late 19th century.

In 2014 the house was heavily damaged by arson.

Description

The Traphagen House is a three-story Victorian mansion.  The main façade is built of local red sandstone and features ornate carving and window dressing, along with towers and unusual dormers.  The three other faces of the building are clad in red brick.  The unornamented side elevations indicate that other buildings pressed close to the house when it was originally constructed.

Built on a narrow city lot, the house is  wide and  long, with a minimal front yard and no side yards.  A wraparound front porch spans the width of the ground floor, with stone balustrades marking the corners over the two entrances.  The Traphagen House was originally designed as a duplex with two separate entrances and very similar floor plans on either side, with the exception of the front windows.  The west side has curved windows while the east side has straight windows with wood wainscoting underneath.  The interior totals more than .    Both units contained a parlor, sitting room, library, dining room, and kitchen on the ground floor and bedrooms on the two upper floors.  Every major room had its own fireplace.  The house has 10 fireplaces total, all but one of which retain their original tile.  The house also has antique light fixtures in most of the rooms.  These fixtures operated on either gas or electricity, because at the time interior electric wiring was still new and not yet proven.

History
When he completed this house in 1892, Oliver G. Traphagen was already considered Duluth's preeminent architect.  He'd moved to the city in the early 1880s with his brothers George and Walter, after a childhood in New York and a few years in Saint Paul, Minnesota, where he'd worked as a carpenter.  Duluth was booming and Traphagen rose swiftly from carpenter to contractor to architect.  By 1890 his credits included Duluth City Hall, 20 commercial buildings, and 50 residences.  Partnering with Francis W. Fitzpatrick brought additional renown, as their firm produced designs for several prominent buildings in Duluth.

In the midst of his success, Traphagen designed this house for himself and his family.  In 1896 he and Fitzpatrick dissolved their business partnership and Traphagen worked independently for almost a year.  However one of his children fell ill and the Traphagens decided to move to the more healthful climate of Honolulu, Hawaii.

Oliver Traphagen sold the house to mining magnate Chester Congdon, who lived there with his family from 1897 until their mansion Glensheen was completed in 1908.  The Congdons, who still owned the house, subdivided it into nine small apartments in 1919.  It continued to serve as an apartment building for the next 67 years, under a succession of owners and increasing decrepitude.  In 1986 local businessman Howard Klatzky fell in love with the building and purchased it to be the headquarters for his advertising firm.  "I bought it from a slumlord who'd owned it four different times," Klatzky noted.  He conducted extensive renovations and furnished the building with period antiques.  With the building rezoned for commercial use, H.T. Klatzky and Associates had fully moved in by spring 1987.  Klatzky retired in 2012 and sold the company to two longtime business partners, who renamed it HTK Marketing Communications.  By then another firm, Ledingham Promotional Advertising, also had offices in the Traphagen House. The house was converted into apartment units in 2019.

Arson
Shortly after midnight on August 18, 2014, a fire broke out on the first floor of the west unit and spread up a staircase into the second floor.  Duluth firefighters extinguished the blaze, but what owner Howard Klatzky described as "the fanciest part of the whole building" was profoundly damaged, and the exterior was blackened on that side.

In the morning the owner of a business across the street found a Molotov cocktail that had been thrown through his basement window but failed to ignite.  Officials stated that the incidents were likely related, and opened an arson investigation.

The fire in the Traphagen House struck just as the tenant businesses were about to relocate to more modern facilities in the DeWitt–Seitz Building in Duluth's Canal Park.  The planned move meant that Klatzky had retained ownership of the building, and earlier that summer had put it on the market for $750,000.  He had also arranged to sell his antique furnishings at auction.  About three-quarters of the antiques in the house were salvaged, though many of their values were reduced by soot and smoke damage.

In November 2014 the vacant and fire-damaged house was burglarized, with thieves extracting piping, plumbing, and wiring for their metal.

The Traphagen House remained structurally sound, and Klatzky aspired to save the building.  In April 2015 he sold it to private developers for $1,000.  A spokesman stated that the new ownership group "believes it is an intrinsically valuable property and they wanted it even not knowing what the restoration costs are going to be."  He cautioned however that demolition was a possibility if the building proved economically infeasible to restore.

See also
 National Register of Historic Places listings in St. Louis County, Minnesota

References

1892 establishments in Minnesota
Arson in Minnesota
Buildings and structures in the United States destroyed by arson
Buildings and structures in Duluth, Minnesota
Burned houses in the United States
Houses completed in 1892
Houses in St. Louis County, Minnesota
Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in Minnesota
National Register of Historic Places in St. Louis County, Minnesota

Oliver G. Traphagen House


Shoot and protect is a technique used in video and film production, in which the material is shot in such a way that the areas of interest within a frame lie within a rectangular "protected area" within the frame, with margins at top and bottom and both sides. The action safe and caption safe areas then lie within this protected area. This allows the resulting material to be cropped to any of a wide range of aspect ratios, whether wider or narrower than the shooting format, without losing the most important features of each shot or having to resort to pan and scan or letterboxing. A 14:9 safe area is often chosen as a compromise between 4:3 and 16:9 frame formats.

See also
Open matte

References

Film production

Shoot and protect


Sweden and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) have a close relationship and regularly carry out joint exercises, cooperate in peacekeeping operations, and share information. Sweden is one of five members of the European Union that are not members of NATO. Sweden joined the Partnership for Peace on 9 May 1994.

Historically, a minority of the Swedish population has been in favor of NATO membership, but the question of membership rose in popularity following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, and Sweden applied to join the organization on 18 May 2022. On 5 July 2022, NATO signed the accession protocol for Sweden to join the alliance, which was quickly ratified by almost all states by September. While it has not yet received the requisite complete ratification to be an official member, it has been described as since woven into the alliance in all but name. NATO Secretary-General Jens Stoltenberg said in March 2023 it was "inconceivable" NATO would not assist Sweden if the latter's security were threatened. Votes on the final two ratifications are required before Sweden's NATO accession bid is approved, from Hungary and Turkey, and are currently planned for late 2023.

History

Background: Swedish neutrality after the Napoleonic Wars

In the 19th century (1800s), Sweden adopted a policy of neutrality, largely as a result of Sweden's involvement in the Napoleonic Wars during which over a third of the country's territory was lost in the Finnish War (1808–1809), including the traumatic loss of Finland to Russia. From this point onwards, Finland remained a part of Russia until it gained independence in 1917. Resentment towards the Swedish king Gustav IV Adolf, who had consistently pursued an anti-Napoleonic policy and thereby caused the war, precipitated a coup d'état known as the Coup of 1809. The new regime deposed the king and introduced the Instrument of Government (1809), later formulating a new foreign policy, which became known as The Policy of 1812. Since the time of the Napoleonic Wars, Sweden has not initiated any direct armed conflict, and the country remained neutral even during World War I and World War II.

1949–1995: Continued Swedish neutrality during the Cold War
When NATO was founded in 1949, Sweden chose not to join. Instead, the country declared a security policy aiming for non-alignment in peace and neutrality in war. A modified version now qualifies non-alignment in peace for possible neutrality in war. Sweden maintained its policy of neutrality during the Cold War, despite substantial cooperation with the West. Former Prime Minister of Sweden Carl Bildt has noted that this policy was in response to fears that if Sweden were to join NATO the Soviet Union might respond by invading neighboring Finland, with which Sweden retained close relations. While nominally independent, Finland adopted a policy of neutrality on foreign affairs during the Cold War in deference to the neighbouring Soviet Union, which was commonly referred to as Finlandization.

1995–2022: Shift from non-alignment within the European Union

The accession of Sweden to the European Union in 1995 meant that neutrality as a principle was abolished. Upon accession, Sweden joined the EU's Common Foreign and Security Policy. Since the entry into force of the Treaty of Lisbon in 2009, the EU mutual solidarity clause has applied to Sweden along with other EU member states:

Article 42.2 specifies that NATO shall be the main forum for the implementation of collective self-defence for EU member states that are also NATO members. The other EU member states that are outside NATO and consequently resort to the EU's Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP, which has much smaller structures and capabilities than NATO's command structure) for the implementation of collective self-defence, are Austria, Cyprus, Ireland, Malta.

Since the 1990s, there has been an active debate in Sweden on the question of NATO membership in the post–Cold War era. These ideological divides were visible in November 2006, when Sweden could either buy two new transport planes or join NATO's plane pool, and in December 2006, when Sweden was invited to join the NATO Response Force. Sweden joined NATO's Partnership for Peace on 9 May 1994, and has been an active participant in NATO-led missions in Bosnia (IFOR and SFOR), Kosovo (KFOR), Afghanistan (ISAF), and Libya (Operation Unified Protector). Sweden signed in 2014 and ratified in 2016 a host country agreement with NATO, allowing NATO forces to conduct joint training exercises on Swedish soil and allowing NATO member states' forces to be deployed in Sweden in response to threats to Sweden's national security.

If the situation in and around the Baltic countries, Latvia, Estonia and Lithuania were to escalate, Swedish NATO membership, possibly together with Finland, would reduce barriers to NATO intervention in the region. NATO reported in 2015 that Russia simulated a nuclear attack on Sweden in 2013. Russian foreign minister Sergey Lavrov threatened in 2016 to "take necessary measures" to prevent Swedish NATO membership.  A government-sponsored report on the future of Sweden's NATO membership was released in September 2016.

2022–2023 accession process

On 17 May 2022, Ann Linde, Sweden's foreign minister, signed Sweden's application to join NATO, following Finland's earlier intention to join NATO. On 18 May 2022, both countries formally applied to join NATO.
The European Union announced its support for Finland and Sweden's NATO membership.
Croatia's president Zoran Milanović stated that his country should block ratification of Sweden's accession until electoral reform measures are implemented in neighbouring Bosnia and Herzegovina, though the Foreign Minister expressed the government's support for any application. In May 2022, the Portuguese government announced that they would fully support Finland and Sweden's NATO membership.
Turkish president Recep Tayyip Erdoğan voiced his opposition to Finland and Sweden joining NATO, saying that it would be "impossible" for Turkey to support their application while the two countries allow groups which Turkey classifies as terrorist organisations to operate on their territory, including the Kurdish militant groups Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK), Kurdistan Communities Union (KCK), Democratic Union Party (Syria) (PYD), and People's Defense Units (YPG) and the supporters of Fethullah Gülen, a US-based Muslim cleric accused by Turkey of orchestrating a failed 2016 Turkish coup d'état attempt. (The PKK is on the European Union's list of terrorist organisations and Sweden was the first country after Turkey to label them as such in 1984.). Turkey has requested the extradition of several members of the PKK from the Nordic countries. People whom Turkey has requested to be extradited include independent Member of the Swedish Parliament Amineh Kakabaveh for her support of Kurdish organisations, writer and poet Mehmet Sıraç Bilgin (who died in 2015), and the Turkish publisher and human rights activist Ragıp Zarakolu. In addition, the Turkish government has demanded that the arms embargo imposed by the Finnish and Swedish governments in response to its 2019 Turkish offensive into north-eastern Syria against the YPG be lifted, and the dismissal of defence minister Peter Hultqvist because he met in 2011 with members of the PKK. Turkey's demands for extradition of Kurdish and other political dissidents has been met with hostility by Kurdish activists and some human rights organisations, for Turkey's poor human rights record and suppression of the Kurdish minority in Turkey.

On 14 May 2022, Turkish Foreign Minister Mevlüt Çavuşoğlu said, "These two countries (Finland and Sweden) very openly support the PKK and YPG". On 17 May 2022, German Chancellor Olaf Scholz called on Turkey to approve Finland and Sweden's NATO membership. On 18 May 2022, Turkey quickly prevented Finland and Sweden from starting NATO membership negotiations. On 19 May Finland and Sweden announced that they could address Turkey's security concerns. On the same day, Finnish President Sauli Niinistö and Swedish then-Prime Minister Magdalena Andersson announced that they were always ready for talks with Turkey and always condemned terrorism. On 21 May 2022, Andersson, after a phone call with Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, told Swedish state television SVT that they were ready for dialogue with Turkey on Sweden's NATO membership and they always condemned terrorism. On 24 May 2022, Finland and Sweden decided to send a delegation to meet with Turkey. Jukka Salovaara from Finland, Oscar Stenström from Sweden, İbrahim Kalın and Sedat Önal from Turkey are serving in the memorandum negotiations.

Opposition parties CHP and HDP in Turkey announced that they support the membership of Finland and Sweden. The ruling parties in Turkey, the AKP and MHP have announced that they would not support the membership of Finland and Sweden. The position of the governing Social Democratic Party is complicated by the fact that it relies on the support of Kakabaveh, who is of Iranian Kurdish descent, to retain the confidence of the Riksdag for their minority government.  Kakabaveh was a member of the Kurdish guerilla Komala in Iran since her youth, and took refuge in Sweden at the age of nineteen.  In the 2021 Swedish government crisis, Kakabaveh only agreed to support the formation of a government headed by Magdalena Andersson after some political demands concerning support for Syrian Kurds were met. She is opposed to the NATO accession of Sweden, because of her own experiences of war, and is a defender of the Swedish policy of non-alignment. In May, she declared that she would no longer support the governing Swedish Social Democratic Party in important votes in the parliament since she considered parts of the previous agreement had not been followed.

İbrahim Kalın, spokesman for Erdoğan, said that approving Swedish membership was not being ruled out, but that the status of these groups was "a matter of national security for Turkey" and that negotiation would be required. However, after İbrahim Kalın's statement, Erdoğan reiterated his threat to block Finland's and Sweden's membership applications. NATO leadership and the United States have said they were confident Turkey would not hold up the two countries' accession process. Canadian Foreign Minister Mélanie Joly also held talks with Turkey to convince the Turkish government of the need for the two Nordic nations integration. On 20 May Ann Linde, Sweden's minister for foreign affairs, pushed back against Erdoğan's claim they support PKK calling it "disinformation", and pointing out Sweden listed PKK as a terrorist organisation in 1984, while the EU followed suit in 2002. Spokesperson İbrahim Kalın, who led the talks on behalf of Turkey, stated after the first meeting in Ankara that the process would not progress until Turkey's expectations were met and they did not feel any time pressure on them. After a delegation consisting of Swedish and Finnish diplomats held talks on the matter with their Turkish counterparts, Erdoğan repeated that he would not consent to their accession bid, since the same day the talks were held in Ankara, Salih Muslim, who is considered a terrorist by Erdoğan, appeared on Swedish television. Nationalist Movement Party leader Devlet Bahçeli suggested that a scenario in which Turkey would leave NATO should be considered an option, in which case a new military alliance could be founded. In late May 2022, opposition leader Kemal Kılıçdaroğlu argued that in case the accession row persisted and AKP and MHP decided to close the Incirlik Airbase, the CHP would support this.

To address Turkey's concerns, in June Sweden pointed to reforms to its anti-terrorism laws which were to come into force on 1 July (although delayed by human rights groups), and announced that it would review its policies on weapons exports to reflect its NATO membership.  Meanwhile, Finnish president Sauli Niinistö stated that his country would not move forward with their application without Sweden, and that the two countries would join NATO "hand in hand".

At the 2022 Madrid summit, Andersson, Niinistö, and Erdoğan signed an agreement to address Turkey's security concerns, and Niinistö announced that Turkey had agreed to support membership of NATO for Finland and Sweden. While NATO members unanimously agreed to formally invite the countries to join the following day and the accession protocols for Sweden and Finland to join the alliance were signed on 5 July, Erdoğan reiterated his threat to veto their membership, stating that he expected the applicant countries to meet their obligations under the agreement before Turkish parliament would consider approving their accession protocol. Finland, Sweden, and Turkey held their first trilateral memorandum meeting on 26 August 2022 in Vantaa, Finland. In September, Sweden lifted its embargo on weapons exports to Turkey.  The second memorandum meeting between Finland, Sweden and Turkey was held on 25 November 2022 in Stockholm, Sweden.
The third part of the Finland, Sweden and Turkey tripartite memorandum meeting was held on 9 March 2023 in Brussels, the capital of Belgium.
Turkey announced that it would not approve NATO membership in the Turkish Grand National Assembly if Finland and Sweden do not fulfill their triple memorandum commitments.
Chief negotiator for Sweden's NATO membership, Oscar Stenström, announced that membership talks with Turkey would take a long time. The fourth meeting of the tripartite memorandum between Finland, Sweden and Turkey was held on 14 June 2023 in Ankara, the capital of Turkey.
By November, Sweden's NATO membership had been ratified by 28 out of 30 member states, with only Hungary and Turkey not having so far done so. During the process of application, Sweden held elections resulting in a center-right government that pledged to continue the NATO process, reaffirming a united front with Finland's application, and suggesting that they would be more able to meet Turkish requirements. On 24 November 2022 Hungary's Prime Minister Viktor Orbán announced he was backing Sweden and Finland's accession to NATO, promising Hungary would have ratified NATO membership in January. Later, on 13 December, Gergely Gulyás, Orbán's chief of staff, stated that the Hungarian legislature would start debating the ratification process of Sweden and Finland's NATO accession on 20 February 2023. On 8 January 2023, Swedish Prime Minister Ulf Kristersson stated that "Turkey both confirms that we have done what we said we would do, but they also say that they want things that we cannot or do not want to give them", with additional negotiations planned for later that month and sometime later in the spring of 2023.

In January 2023, and in view of the continued Turkish refusal to agree to Swedish NATO membership, Jimmie Åkesson of the Sweden Democrats reasoned that there were limits to how far Sweden would go to appease Turkey "because it is ultimately an anti-democratic system and a dictator we are dealing with".

On 23 January 2023, Turkish Defense Minister Hulusi Akar announced that Turkey fully fulfilled the Turkey–Finland–Sweden tripartite memorandum, while Finland and Sweden did not. In addition, Akar announced that they expect Finland and Sweden to fully comply with the triple memorandum.

Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan has announced that he will not look favorably on Sweden's NATO membership. In the meantime, Akar said the visit of the Swedish defence chief was cancelled due to the "provocative act, which is clearly a hate crime" citing the permission of burning the Quran.

Finland, Sweden and Turkey tripartite memorandum meetings were canceled indefinitely upon Turkey's request. The third meeting of the Finland, Sweden, Turkey tripartite memorandum was to be held in Brussels, Belgium in February. On 24 January 2023, Finnish Foreign Minister Pekka Haavisto announced that the trilateral memorandum talks with Finland, Sweden and Turkey would likely be suspended until after the parliamentary and presidential elections in Turkey.

On 28 January 2023, Swedish Foreign Minister Tobias Billström announced that he suspended the tripartite memorandum talks with Sweden, Finland and Turkey. On 1 February 2023, President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan announced that Turkey had a positive view of Finland's NATO membership but not Sweden's NATO membership, due to Sweden allowing a demonstration by far-right politician, Rasmus Paludan, wherein he burnt the Islamic holy book, the Quran.

In March 2023, Jens Stoltenberg pushed for Hungary and Turkey to finalize the accession of Finland and Sweden by the July summit. Hungary's Orbán stated in March that while he and his party Fidesz supported NATO membership for both Finland and Sweden, he objected to their support for the EU's freezing of funds for Hungary due to concerns about rule-of-law and corruption. Orbán said "it's not right for them to ask us to take them on board while they're spreading blatant lies about Hungary, about the rule of law in Hungary, about democracy, about life here".  A Hungarian delegation was sent to both countries to discuss the issue.  On 15 March, President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan and Turkish officials indicated that Finland's application would be approved in mid-April while Sweden's would be approved independently. On 22 March, the Swedish parliament approved the country's accession to NATO by a vote of 269–37 at the end of the debate.

While Finland's Prime Minister Marin originally stated that it was "very important for us, of course, that Finland and Sweden would join NATO hand in hand," with Turkey continuing to raise concerns with Sweden and an April election due in Finland the Finnish government decided to proceed independently if all NATO members approved their membership.

On 4 April 2023, the formal ceremony for Finland's accession to NATO was immediately followed by Foreign Minister of Finland Pekka Haavisto submitting Finland's ratification of Sweden's accession to the organisation.

The United States Congress has refused to approve a Turkish purchase of F-16 fighter jets because of the Swedish NATO membership issue. Analysts said that aid and financing required to respond to the 2023 Turkey–Syria earthquake increased the importance of good relations with Western countries. They noted agreement would be easier after a Swedish anti-terrorism law took effect on 1 June, and after Turkish elections in May.  On 4 July 2023, Hungary's Foreign Minister announced that they would approve Sweden's NATO membership once Turkey had decided to move forward with their approval.  Just prior to the NATO summit in Vilnius in July 2023, Erdoğan linked Sweden's accession to NATO membership to Turkey's application for EU membership. Turkey had applied for EU membership in 1999, but talks made little progress since 2016.

On 10 July 2023, NATO Secretary-General Jens Stoltenberg announced that Sweden had agreed to provide Turkey a roadmap to its full implementation of their 2022 agreement to fight terrorism, and would support Turkey's effort to restart EU membership negotiation, update of the EU-Turkey Customs Union and secure visa liberalisation.  In return, Turkey agreed to bring forward Sweden's accession into NATO to the Turkish parliament. However, Erdogan later said it would not be passed in October due to a parliamentary recess.  Once word was received that Turkey would be supporting Sweden, Hungarian Prime Minister, Viktor Orban, stated that Hungary would no longer block entry to Sweden and would support their membership.

However, by September 2023, Hungary and Turkey again expressed reluctance to ratify Sweden's membership. Hungarian politicians from the ruling Fidesz party raised objections to membership after some Swedish politicians criticized the Hungarian government for democratic backsliding while Turkish President Erdoğan said Turkey could not approve its membership so long as protests and Quran burnings by Kurdish groups in the country continued. Erdoğan objected to the US government making the sale of F-16 to Turkey conditional on approving Sweden's NATO accession, though later said that Turkey would approve the accession protocol if they received the fighter jets. However, on 23 October 2023, Erdoğan approved Sweden's pending NATO membership bid and sent the accession protocol to the Turkish Parliament for ratification. Two days later, Turkey's parliamentary speaker Numan Kurtulmuş sent a bill approving Sweden's NATO membership bid to parliament's foreign affairs commission.  The USA indicated that the fighter jets would be sent after Turkish approval and Sweden vowed to help Turkey's EU bid. This left only Hungary stalling Sweden's bid.

Political views
Then-Prime Minister Fredrik Reinfeldt stated on 18 September 2007 that Swedish membership in NATO would require a "very wide" majority in Parliament, including the Social Democrats, and coordination with Finland.

The Swedish left wing, including the Social Democratic Party, the Green Party and the Left Party, along with the nationalist Sweden Democrats, have historically favored neutrality and non-alignment, while the parties on the right wing have supported NATO membership, especially since the 2014 Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation.  The centre-right Moderate Party is the largest party by current parliamentary representation in favour of NATO membership, even making it their top election pledge in 2022, and (like the centre-right Liberal Party) has generally supported NATO membership since the end of the Cold War.  The centrist Centre Party was opposed to NATO membership until September 2015, when party leadership under Annie Lööf announced that they would motion to change the party policy to push for Sweden to join NATO at their next party conference. The conservative Christian Democrats, also previously opposed, likewise voted to support NATO membership at their October 2015 party meeting. When the nationalist Sweden Democrats adjusted their stance in December 2020 to allow for NATO membership if coordinated with neighboring Finland and ratified in a referendum, a majority of the members of the Swedish Riksdag for the first time belonged to parties that were open to NATO membership, and a motion to allow for future NATO membership passed the parliament that month by 204 votes to 145.

However, many political positions on NATO membership were reviewed since the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. The nationalist Sweden Democrats revised their stance in April 2022 and announced that they would support Swedish membership in NATO if Finland also joins.  Around the same time, the ruling Swedish Social Democratic Party announced that they would be conducting an internal dialogue on NATO membership, for a second time in 6 months. The first time, the party decided to oppose membership.  However, on 15 May 2022 they announced that they would now support an application to join the organisation. Of their coalition partners, the Green Party remain opposed, while the Left Party would like to hold a referendum on the subject, something Prime Minister Magdalena Andersson and the leading opposition Moderate party have opposed.

Polls
Support for NATO membership rose between 2012 and 2015, when the SOM Institute showed it growing from 17% to 31%. Events like the annexation of Crimea and reports of Russian submarine activity in 2014, as well as a 2013 report that Sweden could hold out for only a week if attacked, were credited with that rise in support.  In October 2014, an opinion poll found for the first time more Swedes in favor of NATO membership (37%) than opposed (36%).

Ipsos has conducted regular polling, and they have documented a decline in the opposition to membership from 56% in April 2015 to 35% in December 2020, when their poll showed a three-way split among Swedes, with 33% supporting NATO membership and 32% undecided on the issue. The decline largely corresponds to an increase in undecideds, as the percent of Swedes who support NATO membership has stayed mostly steady since 2014. According to a poll conducted by Sifo in June 2016, more Swedes were against a Swedish NATO membership than in favour, while a May 2017 poll by Pew also showed that 48% supported membership, and in November 2020, they showed that 65% of Swedes viewed NATO positively, the highest percent of any non-NATO member polled.

Since the Russian Invasion of Ukraine
A Novus poll conducted 24–25 February 2022 found 41% in favour of NATO membership and 35% opposed. On 4 March 2022, a poll was released that showed 51% support NATO membership, the first time a poll has shown a majority supporting this position, and support has grown to an overwhelming amount since as the war progressed.

Application
The ratification process began with the invitation of Finland and Sweden to become members at the NATO summit in Madrid on 29 June 2022. Member negotiations were held on 4 July, and the Accession Protocols were signed in Brussels on the 5th.

Finland–Sweden–Turkey memorandum meetings
1st Finland–Sweden–Turkey memorandum meeting: 26 August 2022 in Vantaa, Finland
2nd Finland–Sweden–Turkey memorandum meeting: 25 November 2022 in Stockholm, Sweden
3rd Finland–Sweden–Turkey memorandum meeting: 9 March 2023 in Brussels, Belgium
4th Finland–Sweden–Turkey memorandum meeting: 14 June 2023 in Ankara, Turkey
5th Finland–Sweden–Turkey memorandum meeting: 6 July 2023 in Brussels, Belgium

Ratification process

Note

Member state relations

  Albania
  Belgium
  Bulgaria
  Canada
  Croatia
  Czech Republic
  Denmark
  Estonia
  Finland
  France
  Germany
  Greece
  Hungary
  Iceland
  Italy
  Latvia
  Lithuania
  Luxembourg
  Montenegro
  Netherlands
  North Macedonia
  Norway
  Poland
  Portugal
  Romania
  Slovakia
  Slovenia
  Spain
  Turkey
  United Kingdom
  United States

See also

 Foreign relations of Sweden
 Foreign relations of NATO
 Swedish neutrality
 Enlargement of NATO
 Partnership for Peace
 European Union–NATO relations
 Human rights in Sweden
 Finland–Sweden relations
 Finland–NATO relations

References

Sweden–NATO relations
Foreign relations of Sweden
NATO relations

Sweden–NATO relations


Eliezer David Jaffe () (10 November 1933 – 25 May 2017) was an Israeli professor of social work specializing in philanthropy and non-profit management. He was Professor Emeritus at The Hebrew University's Paul Baerwald School of Social Work and Social Welfare.

Biography
Eliezer Jaffe was  born in Cleveland Ohio. He came to Israel in 1957 as a volunteer, working in the ma'abarot (immigrant transit camps). He returned to the USA to complete his education, obtaining degrees in sociology, psychology, and criminology, and a doctorate in social work. Jaffe immigrated to Israel in 1960 and helped to found Israel's first academic school of social work, the Paul Baerwald School of Social Work at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. He has been a consultant to the Israel Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs and has served on several ministerial committees, including the Prime Minister's Committee on Children and Disadvantaged Youth (under Golda Meir), the Prime Minister's Council on Social Welfare Policy (under Shimon Peres and Yitzhak Shamir), the President's Committee on Outstanding Volunteers (under Chaim Herzog), and the Committee to Determine Israel's Poverty Line (under Menachem Begin). Between 1970 and 1972, at the request of Mayor Teddy Kollek, he headed the Jerusalem Municipal Department of Family and Community Services, introducing major administrative, conceptual and program reforms, all of which have since been adopted nationwide.

Academic career
Jaffe's research focused on social services to children and families, ethnic stereotypes, and on the nonprofit sector and philanthropy in Israel. He studies and teaches about inter-country adoptions, nonprofit organization management, fundraising, and private philanthropy in Israel, and has conducted research on culturally sensitive practice, ethnic stereotypes among Israelis and public access to information regarding nonprofit organizations in Israel. He helped promote and write the new Israeli law on inter-country adoptions.

Jaffe was the author of 14 books. He was a member of the editorial board of Israel's social work journal, Society and Welfare; served on the editorial board of the international journal Public Management; and was a member of the National Council on Social Work. He was a consultant to the Rothschild Foundation and other foundations and private philanthropists in Israel and abroad.

He was the first Centraid-L. Jacques Menard Professor for the Study of Nonprofit Organizations, Volunteering and Philanthropy at the Paul Baerwald School of Social Work of The Hebrew University of Jerusalem and  co-Chairman (with Ralph Goldman) of the Center for the Study of Philanthropy at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.

Social activism
Jaffe suggested the twinning concept in Project Renewal, whereby Jewish community federations worldwide and private philanthropists abroad link-up and twin directly in partnerships with specific disadvantaged neighborhoods in Israel. He was a co-founder of Zahavi - The Israel Association of Large Families, was a member of the Central Committee of the Israel Association of Social Workers, Chairman of the Israel Association of Academic Social Workers, advisor to social action groups of new immigrants and other disadvantaged Israelis. He was the first Chairman of the Israel Committee of the New Israel Fund (which he left when the organization became political), and Chairman of the Academic Council of the International Sephardi Education Fund (ISEF) and founding member of the Israel Association of Professional Fundraisers.

In 1990, he founded The Israel Free Loan Association (IFLA)  to provide interest free loans for new immigrants and other needy "working poor" Israelis, which he serves as honorary president. The association has thus far provided over $170 million in revolving interest free loans to over 49,000 individuals and struggling small businesses in Israel.

Published works
In 2000, Jaffe published a second edition of his book "Giving Wisely: The Israel Guide to Nonprofit and Volunteer Organizations". This was followed shortly after with his book "Sources of Funding: The Israel Foundation Directory". While working at the School of Social Work at The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, he conceptualized and created the website "Giving Wisely" that contained the content of both books and much additional material, in English and Hebrew. It contained nearly 30,000 full and partial profiles of Israeli nonprofit organizations and foundations. The site, Giving Wisely: The Internet Directory of Israeli Nonprofit and Philanthropic Organizations, was acclaimed by the Israeli and foreign press, donors and researchers in Israel and abroad, Israelis seeking services, and nonprofit organizations and foundations for contributing to the development and transparency of the Israeli nonprofit sector. The website closed in 2011 when its original goal was accomplished of getting government and private foundations to create a permanent "GuideStar -Israel" website, bringing transparency to the nonprofit Sector in Israel.

Awards and recognition
Jaffe received the President of Israel's Citation for Outstanding Volunteer Activity in 1996, the Sederot Conference award for contribution to Israeli society, and the Mayor of Jerusalem Award for Outstanding Nonprofit Association Leadership. He also received the Bernard Revel Memorial Award, presented annually to the most outstanding scholar and community leader among the alumni of Yeshiva University. In 2011 he received the Speaker of the Knesset Prize for improving the quality of life in Israel.
In 2012 he received the Yakir Yerushalayim Distinguished Citizen of Jerusalem award.
In 2017, shortly before  his death, Jaffe was one of the recipients of the Bonei Zion Prize awarded by Nefesh B'Nefesh to immigrants from English-speaking countries.

References

External links
Articles by Eliezer Jaffe on the Berman Jewish Policy Archive @ NYU Wagner
Video: Interview with Professor Jaffe at the University of Michigan-Dearborn, October 21, 2009

1933 births
2017 deaths
Israeli sociologists
American sociologists
Israeli scientists
Jewish American scientists
American emigrants to Israel
Israeli Jews
Bonei Zion Prize recipients
21st-century American Jews
Scientists from Cleveland
Academic staff of Paul Baerwald School of Social Work and Social Welfare
Burials at Har HaMenuchot

Eliezer Jaffe


Bishop Sophianos of Dryinoupolis (died 1711) was a Greek religious figure and Orthodox missionary in Ottoman Epirus around the turn of the 18th century.

Biography
He was probably born in the village of Polytsani, in the Pogon region.

At the time he became Bishop of Dryinoupolis (modern southwest Albania) the religious composition of the region was changing due to massive conversions to Islam.

In 1672 he founded a Greek school in the local monastery of Saint Athanasios. In recognition of the danger that Christian religion was shrinking, Sophianos resigned his bishopric and became a wandering missionary, preaching from village to village.

Sophianos' last days were spent in the monastery of Saint Athanasios in his hometown Polican (Pogon) where he taught religion and letters to the village children. Because of his pious character he was respected and honored by both Christians and Muslims. As a missionary, Sophianos is considered the forerunner of Cosmas of Aetolia in the region.

Bishop Sophianos died on 26 November 1711 AD. Although uncanonized, he is considered a saint in his village.

References

1711 deaths
18th-century people from the Ottoman Empire
Christian missionaries in Albania
Eastern Orthodox missionaries
Greek bishops
Year of birth unknown
18th-century Eastern Orthodox bishops
People from Dropull

Sophianos of Dryinoupolis


Zeche Carl (Carl Mine) is a cultural centre set up by Essen Council in a former coal mine.

History
The mine was founded by the Hercules Company in Altenessen in 1855. It should not be confused with the Hercules mine in central Essen. They sank a shaft equipped with a large-sized Malakow tower with two wings. The mine went operational in 1861. That same year Hercules was acquired by the Cologne Mining Association under Friedrich Grillo and  was renamed the Zeche Carl.

The mine was soon to develop as it produced high quality Anthracite suitable for producing coke. From 1883, it simply produced Carl Coke.  An additional ventilation shaft was drilled between 1885 and 1887.

In 1899 the Malakow tower was upgraded for double conveyance. The production was increased to 300,000 tonnes a year.

After the First World War, the Cologne Mining Association was taken over by Hoesch AG. Coal production was discontinued in 1929. The main shaft was dismantled and the ventilation shaft used for Zeche Emil Emscher. The ventilation shaft was in turn abandoned in 1955, and in 1970 all other colliery work at the site was brought to a close.

It is one of the sites included in the Ruhr Industrial Heritage Trail

Recent Use

In 1977, at the initiative of various citizens, youth and the local Protestant church Initiative Center Zeche Carl eV was established to run the former colliery as a Cultural Centre. The entire group of buildings are now being conserved.

The reconstructed building has developed as a pan-regional cultural centre offering a diverse programme of concerts, parties, classes, readings, exhibitions workshops etc. It also provides space for other community groups, including Offene Kanal Essen, a public television station.

As a Rock venue, Zeche Carl has hosted numerous bands.

Following the bankruptcy of the original association, Carl Gmbh was set up as nonprofit organisation, and is headed by Marcus Kalbitzer, who followed Kornelia Vossebein in 2020.

References

 Wilhelm Hermann, Gertrude Hermann: Die alten Zechen an der Ruhr 6. erweiterte und aktualisierte Auflage, Verlag Karl Robert Langewiesche, Nachfolger Hans Köster KG, Königstein i. Taunus, 2006,
Rheinische Bergbauroute: Kulturzentrum Zeche Carl, The Industrial Heritage Trail.

External links
 Zeche Carl - official site

Ruhr
Buildings and structures in Essen
Tourist attractions in North Rhine-Westphalia
Music venues in Germany
German Industrial Heritage Trail sites

Zeche Carl


Al Khalil (الخليل) is an old Arabic tribe who live in the village of Jammain, in the district of Nablus in the West Bank. A fraction of the family migrated and settled in Egypt. They belong to the mother tribe of Al Zeitawi. Al Zeitawi is an old Arabic tribe that arrived to Palestine after coming from Mecca. It is believed that the Zeitawi tribe are direct descendants of Muhammad.

Arab groups
Palestinian families

Al-Khalil family


Shorthair may refer to:
American Shorthair (ASH), a breed of cat believed to be descended from English domestic cats
Brazilian Shorthair, breed of cat
British Shorthair, domesticated cat whose features make it a popular breed in cat shows
Brown Shorthair Goat, from the Czech Republic, from crossing a native Czech breed with the German Brown Goat
Colorpoint Shorthair, pointed cats of Siamese ancestry and type in colors other than the four "traditional" Siamese colors
Domestic short-haired cat, cat of mixed ancestry—thus not belonging to any particular recognized cat breed—possessing a coat of short fur
European Shorthair (or Celtic shorthair), breed of short-haired cat originating in Ancient Rome
Exotic Shorthair, breed of cat developed to be a shorthaired version of the Persian
Oriental Shorthair, breed of cat combinining the Siamese body with a diversity of colorings and patterns

See also
Southern British Shorthair Cat Club, established in 1992 to represent British Shorthair Cats at all levels within the Cat Fancy

Shorthair