Kingdom of Marwar, also known as the Jodhpur State under the British, was a kingdom in the Marwar region from 1243 to 1818 and a princely state under British rule from 1818 to 1947. It was established in Pali by Rao Siha, possibly a migrant Gahadavala noble, in 1243. His successors continued to struggle against regional powers for domination and 9 out of 15 rulers till 1438 died in combat. In 1395, its capital was changed to Mandore by Rao Chunda and to Jodhpur in 1459 by Rao Jodha.

Marwar struggled and resisted against the Mughals under the rule of Rao Ganga and Maldeo Rathore who is known to be one of the greatest warriors of the time. The kingdom remained independent until it was annexed by the Mughal Empire in 1581 after the death of Chandrasen Rathore. It remained under direct Mughal control until Udai Singh was restored to the throne as a vassal and given the title of Raja in 1583. During the late 17th century it was under the strict control of the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb, but the ruling house of Rathore was allowed to remain semi-autonomous in their territory.

Marwar came into a long period of dispute and war with the Mughals when Raja Jaswant Singh died in 1678 and was supposed to be succeeded by his posthumous-born son Ajit Singh but Ajit was not appointed the ruler by Aurangzeb. During this time Durgadas Rathore struggled to preserve the Rathore dynasty and freed Marwar from the Mughal Empire after 31 years of war. In the late 18th and early 19th centuries the kingdom was overrun by the Maratha hordes of Scindia and Holkar. Marwar was financially bankrupt due to heavy tributes exacted by the Marathas and its once renowned army had now thinned down because of internal wars and rebellions by its nobles, forcing its rulers to ask the British for aid.

The British had no role in the state's affairs until 6 January 1818, when the Raja at that time, Man Singh, entered into a subsidiary alliance, after which the Rajas of Marwar (or Jodhpur) continued as rulers of a princely state. During the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the Rajput Nobles under Thakur Kushal Singh of Auwa led a rebellion against Maharaja Takht Singh and the British, however the rebellion was put to an end by the British armies under Colonel Holmes after a siege of the Thakur's fort in Auwa. The armies of Jodhpur State fought in World War I for the British. They actively fought in Afghanistan and the Middle-east and scored a series of victories for the British empire. The Jodhpur lancers with the support of the Mysore lancers defeated a large host of Turks and Germans in the Battle of Haifa (1918). Some of the other battles they participated in were the battles of Suez, Gaza, Jordan Valley, Abu Tellul and Megiddo.

Following Indian independence in 1947 Maharaja Hanwant Singh, the last ruler of Jodhpur state signed the Instrument of Accession on 11 Aug, 1947 and merged his state in Union of India.

Geography
Covering an area of , Jodhpur State was the largest state under the Rajputana Agency and the third largest state in British India after Jammu and Kashmir State and Hyderabad State. The average revenue of the state was Rs.56,00,000 in 1901. the Maharaja's of Jodhpur originally had a gun salute of 19 guns with 21 personal. However the gun salute was reduced to 17 guns and 21 personal in 1870 due to a quarrel with the Maharana of Udaipur.

History

Origin

Recent genealogists believe that the Rathores are connected to the Gahadavala dynasty of Kannauj. A connection is often established between Rajput ruler Jaichand and the Rathores. Jaichand was later defeated by Muhammad of Ghor in the Battle of Chandawar. The one branch of the defeated rulers of Kannauj migrated westwards into Rajputana and were invited to settle in Pali. Siha is regarded as the first emigrant in the region to establish his kingdom in Pali in 1243 when he helped the locals drive away the Meds and Meenas and assumed the title of Rao. He died fighting an invading Muslim force in 1273. In this invasion large amounts of Brahmins in the region were massacred.
Siha's son Rao Asthana captured Khed from the Guhilas and Idar from the Bhils. He died fighting a force of Jalaluddin Khilji in 1291 and was succeeded by his son Dhuhar. Dhuhar captured Mandore from the Pariharas but lost it later.

Dhuhar's son Raipal (r.1309-1313) and grandson Karanpal followed by Karanpal's son Bhim who continued to fight the Paramaras and the Turkic invaders. Karanpal's son Jhalansi defeated the Sodha Rajputs, and the ruler of Multan but died fighting the Turks in 1328. His son Chhada defeated the Sodha's, the ruler of Jaisalmer, Nagaur and Jalore. He died fighting the Songaras in 1344. Chhada's son Rao Tida avenged his father's death by defeating the Songara's. Tida was succeeded by his son Tribhuvan and his grandson Mallinath. Mallinath fought with the Songaras, Deoras, Bhatis and the Tughluqs.

Rao Chunda
In 1384, Mallinath's nephew Chunda gained the title of Rao and became the ruler. Chunda married in a Parihar Rajput clan from which he received the city of Mandore as Dowry. He shifted his capital to that city in 1395. In 1396, Zaffar Khan of Gujarat laid siege to Mandore but was repelled by Chunda. Chunda and Zaffar entered into a tribute with Zaffar but Chunda later counter-attacked Zaffar and captured Sambhar and Ajmer. Chunda's aggressive policy earned him enmity with his neignbours, namely Bhati Rao of Pugal, the Sankhlas of Janglu and the governor of Multan, Khidar Khan. These collectively invaded Nagaur. Chunda died defending Nagaur in 1428.

Ranmal
Towards the end of his life, he promised his throne to his younger son Kanha which angered his eldest son Ranmal who sought refuge in Mewar. Ranmals sister Hansa Bai had been married to Rana Lakha of Mewar so he was able to become a powerful member of the Mewar court. Karan died soon in the same year and Ranmal was able to gain the throne of Marwar. Ranmal attacked Bhati, Pugal and Jalore chiefs in his 10 year reign. Ranmal was called to help rule Mewar in 1433 when his sister Hansa Bai's son Mokal was assassinated. He helped rule the kingdom but his power was not received well by the Sisodia clan. Rana Kumbha, son of Mokal, got him assassinated in 1438.

Rao Jodha

After Ranmal's assassination, Mewar and Marwar's relations had gotten bitter and Ranmal's son Rao Jodha escaped Mewar and reached its borders. From there he started building his own power. He recollected allies and defeated his enemies one by one and consolidated power and by 1453, he was able to regain Mandore. To end this enmity, Kumbha and Jodha reached settlements and matrimonial alliance was established by marrying Jodha's daughter Shringar Devi to Kumbha's son Raimal in 1459. It was after this that Marwar was able to become a prosperous kingdom under the rule of Rao Jodha. Out of the 15 rulers that preceded Jodha, nine died on the battlefield, six of them against foreign armies. Jodha's son himself died after a battle in which he saved 140 women from Afghan raiders.

After restoring peace, Jodha constructed a new capital fort on a hilltop 6 miles south of Mandore named Mehrangarh. The city came to be known by his name. Thus the city of Jodhpur was settled. Soon, he expanded his territory greatly. One of his sons, Bika captured Janglu which he named Bikaner after himself and became its Rao.

He died in 1489 and was succeeded by his son Rao Satal who died in 1492 who was succeeded by Jodha's second son, Rao Suja. Suja's younger brother Bika laid siege to Jodhpur, demanding a separate kingdom in Bikaner, and in the ensuing negotiations, Bikaner was given to Bika as his independent kingdom. Suja outlived his eldest son Bagha and died in 1515 and was succeeded by his grandson Rao Ganga in 1515.

During the rule of Jodha's sons, many chiefs asserted their independence. This led to formations of factions which favored different candidates for succession. When Rao Ganga ascended to the throne, this factionalism led to a civil war like situation because the succession was disputed by another candidate called Biram Deo. Soon after Ganga's accession, Biram was expelled from Jodhpur. To avenge this, Biram started looting Jodhpur. Eventually, with the help of his son Maldeo, Ganga was able to defeat Biram.

Maldeo Rathore

Seeing Rana Sanga's success, Ganga decided to align Marwar with Mewar and assisted Sanga in war against Sultan of Gujarat in 1517, his siege of Bayana in 1527 and the Battle of Khanwa in 1527 against Babur. His son Maldeo Rathore participated in the battle and later escorted an unconscious Rana Sanga from the battleground after defeat. After Sanga's death, Maldeo wanted to fill the vacuum of power in Rajputana and felt that his regnant father couldn't fill it. Ganga mysteriously died in 1531 after falling from his balcony. This fall could've been an accident but is believed that was an assassination by Maldeo.

Expansion
Under Maldeo Rathore, Marwar rose to great power. He was regarded as a great and fearless warrior. According to Ferishta, He was the most potent prince of Hindustan. In 1531, when Bahadur Shah of Gujarat invaded Mewar, Maldeo assisted Rana Vikramaditya. In 1534-35, Maldeo was able to capture Ajmer and Nagaur.

During Maldeo's territorial expansion, Raja of Jaisalmer sued for peace and offered his daughter Umade for marriage. He attacked Jalore in 1538 and took it. Its ruler was imprisoned where he died a few years later. During his rule, Marwar captured a large part of western Rajputana.

He continued his father's policy towards the Kingdom of Mewar by helping its legitimate heir Udai Singh II in taking the throne back from the usurper Banvir. He invaded Bikaner, ruled by a branch of the same family and annexed it in 1542.

Humayun and Sher Shah Suri
In 1540, Maldeo helped Mughal Emperor Humayun against Sher Shah Suri by providing him 20,000 troops at Bhakkar. There are many reasons about why he provided this assistance including increasing the sphere of influence or avenging shelter given to fugitives in Sher Shah's court. Eventually, an expelled Humayun reached Phalodi, in Marwar, to seek assistance from Maldeo but couldn't secure much help from the Raja. Following a half hearted welcome for Humayun by Maldeo, Sher Shah marched down to Phalodi and asked Maldeo for handing over Humayun, who escaped to Amarkot.

Following Humayun's escape, Sher Shah returned to Delhi and consolidated power. He later planned to invade Maldeo because he was very ambitious. When Sher Shah reached Marwar, he devised a deceptive plan. He dropped several letters addressed to Marwari soldiers asking them to defect to Delhi. This made Maldeo suspect them and order them to retreat. A few thousand soldiers still held frontier who met Sher Shah Suri at the Battle of Sammel. Sher Shah won the battle and further pursued Marwar. Jodhpur was occupied for several months, but was retaken by Maldeo in 1545.

Continued expansion
In 1550, Maldeo invaded Pokhran and Phalodi and took it over from its chiefs.In 1556, Haji Khan, an ally of Rana Udai Singh of Mewar, sought help from Maldeo to invade Mewar after differences arose between Udai and Haji. In the Battle of Harmada in 1557, Udai Singh was defeated and the territory of Merta was captured by Maldeo.

Akbar
Akbar succeeded Humayun in 1556, many Rajput chiefs mustered around him with their grievances against the Rathore Chief of Jodhpur. Akbar used this as a casus belli against Maldeo. The Mughals conquered Ajmer and Nagaur in 1557 and soon after Akbar captured Jaitaran and Parbatsar. However the Mughals failed to capture the core territories of Marwar. Maldeo before his death held the districts of Jodhpur, Sojat, Jaitaran, Phalodi, Siwana, Pokhran, Jalore, Sanchore, Merta, Barmer, Kotra and some parts of Jaisalmer. These territories were later captured by Akbar due to the succession war between Maldeo's sons.

Maldeo Rathore died on 7 November 1562.

Rao Chandrasen

After the death of Maldeo, according to his will, his third son Chandrasen Rathore was crowned the Rao. But is first and second son Ram and Udai started a war of succession for the throne. They were defeated by Chandrasen by 1563. After the war of succession, Chadrasen did not accept the suzerainty of Akbar and hence Mughal army invaded Jodhpur and occupied it because of which Chandrasen shifted his capital to Bhadrajun.

While Chandrasen continued to defend his kingdom from the Mughal invasions, his neighbor Rana Pratap of Mewar was defeated in the Battle of Haldighati in 1576. After the battle of Haldighati, Mughals turned their attention to Marwar and invaded in the same year. Chandrasen was dislodged from Bhadrajun and became a wanderer for the next 5 years with no capital, throne or shelter. He made several attempts to regain his kingdom, which included several raids on the imperial forces. Although his efforts went in vain and he died in 1581.

As a Mughal state

In 1583, Akbar formally recognized Chandrasen's rival brother Udai Singh as the ruler of Marwar as a Mughal state. This new ruler of Marwar recognized Akbar's supremacy readily as he was under him since 1570. Udai also contributed to Akbar's imperial force in the invasions of Sirohi. A matrimonial alliance was established between Mughals and Marwar in 1586 when Udai Singh's daughter Manvati bai was married to Jahangir. In 1592, Akbar tasked Udai to take care of the administrative affairs of his capital Lahore while he led conquest in Kashmir. Udai Singh died in Lahore in 1595.

Udai was succeeded by his son Sur Singh in 1595. Because of his military abilities, he was given the title Sawai Raja. In 1596, he was also given the control of Gujarat. In 1599, he was sent to assist Daniyal Mirza in the conquest of the Deccan for Emperor Akbar. In 1604 on the request of Daniyal Mirza, he was allowed to return to Jodhpur and was granted Jaitaran and western half of Merta pargana. During Udai and his son Sur's rule, their pradhan (prima minister) Govind Das Bhati reformed the Marwari administrative system and made it similar to the Mughal system. In 1613, he was deputed by the Mughal emperor along with Prince Khurram to undertake the expedition of Mewar. Sur Singh died in 1619 and was succeeded by his son Gaj Singh.
The Mughal emperor was impressed by the military capabilities of Gaj Singh and Gaj helped the Mughal empire subdue Malik Ambar, Nizam ul Mulk and Khan i Jahan Lodhi. Gaj also helped Jahangir quell the rebellion led by his rebellious son Prince Khurram who would later become Shah Jahan. He died in 1638 and the throne passed to his second son, Jaswant.
Jaswant was just 12 years old when he ascended to the throne and his decisions were heavily influenced by Shah Jahan. Jaswant accompanied Shah Jahan and his son Aurangzeb on many of his expeditions. He was able to get rid of the Bhatis of Jaisalmer in 1650.

War of succession of Shah Jahan

In 1657, when Shah Jahan fell ill and his sons Aurangzeb and Murad started a war of succession, Jaswant Singh led a united Mughal front against the two princes.
The two forces met at the Battle of Dharmat in April 1658. During this battle, the Mughal commander Qasim Khan betrayed Jaswant Singh and did not participate in the battle completely causing Rajput casualties. The battle was lost and an injured Jaswant had to retreat.
Following the defeat of Dara Shikoh at the Battle of Samugarh, Aurangzeb was crowned as the Mughal Emperor after which he pardoned Jaswant Singh for siding with Dara.
In 1661, Aurangzeb ordered Jaswant to help his uncle Shaista Khan to fight against the Maratha leader Shivaji. In 1663, Jaswant captured the fort Kondana, weakening Shivaji. Jaswant died in 1678.

Succession crisis of Jaswant Singh
At the time of his death, Jaswant Singh had no living heirs, but soon, his wife gave birth to his son posthumously in February 1679. One of these heirs died but the second, Ajit Singh survived. Jaswant's family was moved to Delhi and Aurangzeb converted Marwar into a crown territory to govern it while it did not have a ruler. Aurangzeb didn't immediately crown Ajit Singh as the ruler and demanded him to be a grown adult first. Instead, a grand-nephew of Jaswant, Inder Singh Rathore was crowned by Aurangzeb. One of the ministers of Marwar, Durgadas Rathore along with a Rathore delegation rescued Ajit Singh and the Ranis in June 1679 and took them back to Sirohi where Ajit grew up in anonymity. Over the next few decades, the Mughals and Marwar kept engaging in guerilla warfare.

Durgadas and Ajit Rathore's struggle against Aurangzeb

Marwar and Mewar joined hands to oppose Aurangzeb together but were defeated in the Battle of Debari in 1680.
Aurangzeb sent his son Muhammad Akbar to capture Ajit but Akbar ended up rebelling against his father in 1681. Aurangzeb tried to prevent an alliance between the Rajputs and Akbar by planting fake letters between him and Akbar stating that the rebellion is a plot to lure the Rajputs. This worked and no major alliance formed between Marwar and Akbar. Later, to help Akbar, Durgadas took him to the court of Sambhaji. Durgadas was successfully able to distract Aurangzeb and from 1681–87, he was able to recapture vast expanses of the Marwar territory back.

After 1687, Marwar and the Mughals got into negotiations to end the struggle. Ajit was married to the niece of Maharana Jai Singh to eliminate any doubt in the mind of Aurangzeb that Ajit could be an imposter and not the real son of Jaswant Singh. Truce did not last long and after Prince Azam took over in Gujarat he broke the conciliatory policies of his predecessor in 1702. Because of this, Ajit Singh couldn't return to Jodhpur till the death of Aurangzeb in 1707 after which they captured Jodhpur. Ajit Singh captured large parts of Marwar while Prince Muazzam ascended to the Mughal throne as Bahadur Shah I.
Bahadur Shah invaded Marwar in 1708, defeated Ajit in the battle of Merta and took control of Marwar in February.
In 1708, Ajit Singh of Marwar, Sawai Jai Singh and Maharana Amar Singh came signed a pact of alliance against Mughals and thus began the Rajput Rebellion of 1708.
Ajit exiled Durgadas Rathore from Marwar to take complete control of Marwar and Durgadas died in Mewar in 1718.

The Rajput Rebellion

Together, Maharana Amar Singh, Ajit Singh and Sawai Jai Singh marched upon Jodhpur in 1708 and expelled Mehrab Khan and placed Ajit Singh on the throne. Later the same year, the alliance marched on Amber and met the forces of Bahadur Shah I at Sambhar. The battle was won by the alliance and by October 1708, Jai Singh II was restored to his throne at Amber. Eventually Bahadur Shah accepted the demands of Ajit and jai Singh and recognized them as the rulers of Jodhpur and Amber respectively in 1710 ending the rebellion.

After the war, Ajit Singh built good relations with the new Mughal Emperor Jahandar Shah who gave him higher privileges. When Farrukhsiyar ascended to the Mughal Throne, he sent Sayyid Husain Ali Khan to invade Marwar in 1714 for not accepting the position of governor of Thatta in Sindh. Ajit negotiated with Hussain and struck a peace deal according to which, his son and heir Abhay Singh will attend the Mughal court and his daughter will be married to Farrukhsiyar. Ajit Singh took his revenge in 1719. Ajit Singh besieged the Red Fort, entered the palace grounds, stabbed Qutb-ul-Mulk and arrested Farrukhsiyar. The emperor was dragged to a small room in Tripoliya gate, where he was tortured and blinded with a needle. On 2 March 1719, Rafi-Ud-Darjat was placed on the throne by Ajit Singh and Jai Singh.

Post rebellion
After Rafi-ud-Darjat's abdication and Rafi-ud-Daulah's premature death in the same year, Muhammad Shah ascended to the throne. Ajit had enough influence on him to get the privileges of subedar of Ajmer and governorship of Gujarat. Muhammad Shah didn't let himself be influenced by Ajit Singh, he deposed the Sayyid brothers in 1720 and then canceled the appointments of Ajit to Gujarat and Ajmer. When Ajit tried to rebel against this, he was defeated by Hyder Quli Khan. More than a dozen parganas were taken away from Ajit and he had to return to Jodhpur in 1723.
Ajit's son, Abhay remained under the influence of Jai Singh II who hadn't lost his prominence in the court after the deposition of the Sayyid brothers. Jai Singh instigated Abhay to get rid of Ajit who ordered his younger brother Bakhat Singh to assassinate Ajit. On 23 June 1724, Bakhat Singh entered the palace of his father and murdered him. Ajit Singh died at the age of 45 and his son Abhay was enthroned as Maharaja Abhay Singh. More than sixty women committed Sati on the funeral pyre of Ajit Singh.

Maratha influence
Abhay Singh marched against Sarbaland Khan, the previous subedar of Gujarat after he refused to hand over the subedari to Abhay when he was appointed subedar in 1730 by Muhammad Shah. Abhay also attacked and captured Baroda and Jambusar from Marathas in 1732 while they were distracted because of the strife between Baji Rao I and Trimbak Rao Dabhade. He remained the subedar of Gujarat till 1737.
In 1734, Maharana Jagat Singh convened a conference at Hurda in order to oppose the Marathas and Abhay Singh was a fore-front signatory of this convention. An alliance launched an attack on the Marathas the same year, but lost and had to give up Chauth of the Malwa region.

After Mughal decline
During the 1730s, while other Rajput rulers were appeasing the Marathas, Jodhpur remained against the Marathas and rallied in favor of supporting the Mughals and opposing Maratha influence. Because of this Marathas invaded Marwar in 1736. In 1739, Abhay decided to invade Bikaner, but his brother Bakhat Singh decided to side with the Bikaneri Maharaja Zorawar Singh. Bakhat Singh requested for support from Sawai Jai Singh, who marched for his cause in 1740. Eventually, the Rana of Mewar had to intervene and get a treaty signed between the two states which also included a clause of war reparations to Jaipur. In 1739, Nader Shah invaded the Mughal empire and sacked Delhi. Not a single Rajput ruler came to the defense of Muhammad Shah and his calls for mobilisation were ignored.

After the treaty, Abhay and Bakhat Singh united again and this time led a front against Jaipur in June 1741. The forces of Marwar and Amber met at the Battle of Gangwana. This battle was fought with heavy casualties on both sides but eventually Bakhat Singh had to retreat because he was heavily wounded with a bullet and an Arrow. The Mughal emperor granted Idar to Abhay who gave it to his rebellious brother Anand Singh. Before dying in 1749, Abhay made an unsuccessful attempt at invading Bikaner and established good relations with the Holkars.

Maratha Interference

Succession crisis of Abhay Singh

Abhay was succeeded by his son Ram Singh but soon, his position was disputed by his uncle Bakhat Singh. This dispute attracted external parties to intervene. Gaj Singh of Bikaner sided with Bakhat while Ishwari Singh of Jaipur sided with Ram Singh. In 1751, Ram Singh was defeated by Bakhat Singh at the Battle of Luniawas and Bakhat was crowned the maharaja. Ram Singh sought help from the Marathas and Jayappa Scindia soon came to help him. They encamped in Ajmer but soon Bakhat Singh launched an army towards Ajmer so it was abandoned. Before any tangible result could play out, Bakhat Singh died in 1752. His son Bijay Singh could only remain on the throne for a year and was deposed by Ram Singh assisted by Jayappa Scindia. In 1755, Bijay Singh got Jayappa assassinated in Nagaur who was succeeded by Jankoji Rao Scindia.

Jankoji partitioned the kingdom giving the Jodhpur portion to Bijay Singh and the Jalore portion to Ram Singh. Marwar remained neutral during the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761 and Bijay was able to use the distracted Marathas to expel Ram Singh from the Jalore portion of Marwar and was able to gain full control. Ram Singh ran away to Jaipur where he died in 1772.

After Ram Singh's death, Marwar saw a period of revival under Bijay Singh. Bijay Singh became the first Rathore ruler to mint his own currency with the permission of the Mughal ruler Shah Alam II in 1781. In 1787, Mahadji Scindia marched against Jaipur and Jaipur joined forced with Jodhpur to fight the Battle of Lalsot in the town of Tunga. The professionalism of the Scindia forces under French commander Benoit de Boigne couldn't match the valor of the Rajput troops who forced them to retreat and Bijay captured Ajmer. de Boigne came back to Marwar and this time, Bijay's army faced two heavy defeats at the Battle of Patan and Mertia in 1790 and Marwar had to cede a lot of territory to the Marathas. In 1793, Bijay Singh died and his eldest grandson Bhim Singh took over the throne. Other contenders to the throne were either expelled, blinded or killed except Man Singh. Dhananajaya Singh describes his succession as an orgy of murder. Throughout his reign, Bhim tried to capture his cousin Man Singh but failed multiple times. He died before he could capture his cousin in 1803 and Man Singh was the only remaining heir, so he was crowned the Raja in 1804.

War over Krishna Kumari
Bhim Singh had been engaged to the Mewar princess Krishna Kumari since an early age but died before he could married her. So Maharana Bhim Singh decided to marry her to Sawai Jagat Singh of Jaipur. Successor of Bhim Singh of Marwar, Man Singh insisted that Krishna be married to him and got Daulat Rao Scindia to mediate the issue. Eventually, Daulat Rao pulled out and the Rajputana broke into war over Krishna Kumari. Jagat Singh laid siege to Mehrangarh fort in 1807 but found no success and had to retreat back to Jaipur because his own kingdom was being invaded by the Scindias. Amir Khan sided with Man Singh and suggested that either Krishna Kumari be married to Man Singh or be killed. He also attacked Udaipur and burned several villages. Bhim Singh of Mewar eventually decided that Krishna will be poisoned and she died of poisoning on 21 July 1810.

Spoils of Amir Khan Pindari
In 1808, Man Singh dispatched Indra Singh Sanghvi against Bikaner who defeated one force in Udasar but failed to take the Bikaner fort. A second force dispatched was also defeated and captured. Eventually, Maharaja of Bikaner reached a settlement with Marwar. Meanwhile, Amir Khan Pindari's raids into Jaipur territory forced Jagat Singh to reach settlement with Marwar as well, establishing another matrimonial alliance.

After the war over Krishna Kumari, Amir Khan became increasingly demanding and wanted to extract booty from Marwar for the help in the war. Ministers and other nobles in the Marwari court, worried of the influential position held by minister Indra Raj Sanghvi, convinced Amir Khan that his dues were pending due to Sanghvi who was assassinated by the Pindaris in 1815. Khan took advantage of a weak Marwar and extracted lakhs of rupees as bounty. The murder of Indra Raj Sanghvi led to a power struggle between his rival Mehta Akhey Chand and his brother Sanghvi Gul Raj. This eventually led to the murder of Gul Raj and Mehta Akhey convinced Man Singh to abdicate in favor is his heir Chattar Singh.

Under the British Empire

Treaty of 1818

The British East India Company made the first contacts with the Rajputana in 1803 when it defeated the Marathas in the Second Anglo-Maratha War. It had gained the control of the Maratha territory upto the Yamuna river and had also reached the doorstep of Rajputana and requested the Rajput rulers to be cooperative. They understood the importance of travel routes to Delhi, Agra and Mau which all went through the Rajput lands. After the EIC defeated Bharatpur in 1805, many Rajput states started looking up to the British as an entity that could take the place of the Mughals and provide protection.

During the Third Anglo-Maratha War, the British defeated Amir Khan at the Pindari war in 1817 and gave the possession of Tonk to him and made him its Nawab. Having dealt with Amir Khan, Man Singh signed a treaty with the British in 1818 with the following clause.

 The British will protect the principality and territory of Jodhpur.
 Man Singh will act in subordinate cooperation.
 Marwar will not inter into any negotiations with any chief or state without the knowledge and sanction of the British Government.
 To pay a tribute of 108,000 which was being paid to the Scindias.
 and that Rathores were the absolute rulers of Marwar.

including other articles of the treaty. After the untimely death of Chattar Singh in 1818, Man Singh came out of his abdication and took control of his state affairs.

Invasion of 1839

Man Singh's first affair in office this time was to round up the faction which caused the power struggle in the court during his inactivity, who invited Amir Khan Pindari and led to the assassination of Indra Raj Sanghvi. Mehta Akhey Chand was executed along with other members of the faction in 1820. Man Singh did not act subordinate in the next one decade committing acts like sheltering absconding rulers from the British and attacking neighboring states in violation of the British treaty and ignoring the Governor-General's requests. After being defeated at the Third Anglo-Maratha war, Mudhoji II Bhonsle asked for shelter in Marwar which was granted where he lived the rest of his life and died in 1840.

Man Singh also refused to attend Lord William Bentinck's durbar at Ajmer in 1832, considered a more serious violation. Having had enough from Man Singh, the British decided to move against him in 1839, they invaded Marwar and captured Mehrangarh fort. Captain Ludlow was appointed as the Company's political agent to Marwar and the clause of the 1818 treaty stating the Maharaja being the absolute ruler was demolished and the British established permanent presence in Marwar. Man Singh retired from the job and died in 1843.

Man Singh's sons had predeceased him and on advice of his widows and other senior Rathores, the second cousin of the Raja of Idar and great-great-grandson of Maharaja Ajit Singh, Takht Singh was elected the successor of Man Singh and was invited to be crowned.

Over the next decades the seat of power in Marwar shifted from the Maharaja to the British Resident. By the end of the 19th century, he enjoyed executive, financial and judicial power. Several attempts of modernisation were made in this era. Diwani and Faujdari courts were established and judicial officers were brought in from other residencies. Infanticide and child trafficking was criminalised. Roads and an Astronomical observatory was constructed.

Revolt of 1857

Rulers of Marwar
The Rathore dynasty of Jodhpur are Rajputs claimed to be descendants of Rastrakuta dynasty On the fall of the Rashtrakuta dynasty they migrated north and formed their kingdom in Kannauj as Gahadavala dynasty and after the death of last emperor Jaichand in Battle of Chandwar his descendants migrated to Marwar and established Rathore dynasty

Rulers 1226–1438 CE (From Pali and Mandore)

Rulers 1438–1949 CE (From Jodhpur)

See also
 Political integration of India
 Marwar region
 Kingdom of Mewar
 Naubat Khan
 Rajputana
 Maratha Empire

References

Bibliography

Further reading
 Jodhpur, Published by [s.l.], 1933.
 Maharaja Man Singh of Jodhpur and His Times (1803–1843 A.D.), by Padmaja Sharma. Published by Shiva Lal Agarwala, 1972.
 The Administration of Jodhpur State, 1800–1947 A.D., by Nirmala M. Upadhyaya. International Publishers, 1973.
 Marwar under Jaswant Singh, (1658–1678): Jodhpur hukumat ri bahi, by Satish Chandra, Raghubir Sinh, Ghanshyam Datt Sharma. Published by Meenakshi Prakashan, 1976.
 Jodhpur, Bikaner, Jaisalmer: Desert Kingdoms, by Kishore Singh, Karoki Lewis. Lustre Press Ltd. 1992.
 Modern Indian Kingship: Tradition, Legitimacy & Power in Jodhpur, by Marzia Balzani. Published by James Currey Limited, 2003. .
 Jodhpur and the Later Mughals, AD 1707–1752, by R. S. Sangwan. Published by Pragati Publications, 2006.
 Jodhpur's Umaid Bhawan: The Maharaja of Palaces, by Aman Nath. Published by India Book House, 2008.

External links

 Official website

History of Rajasthan
Princely states of India
Marwar
Rajputana Agency
Rathores
1226 establishments in Asia
13th-century establishments in India
1949 disestablishments in India
Gun salute princely states
Princely states of Rajasthan

Kingdom of Marwar


Entergy Louisiana, Inc. v. Louisiana Public Service Commission, 539 U.S. 39 (2003), is a Supreme Court of the United States case holding that a federal administrative agency approved public utility tariff preempted a state public utilities commission rate order under the filed rate doctrine.

Background
Entergy, a multistate holding company, allocated the costs of its electric generating capacity, including capacity held in extended reserve shutdown, among its five public utilities that it owned pursuant to a tariff schedule MSS-1 approved by the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC). The tariff delegated discretion to Entergy to determine the specific cost allocations. The resulting costs, which changed monthly, were then assigned under the Entergy System Operating Agreement to each of the five public utilities under an automatic adjustment clause in the tariff, so FERC review and approval of a specific cost allocation was not required.

In May 1997 Entergy Louisiana, Inc., one of the five public utilities, filed its annual retail electric rate case with the Louisiana Public Service Commission (PSC). The PSC issued an order disallowing the costs associated with the electric generating units in extended shutdown reserve from being recovered in rates. The PSC concluded that since FERC had never determined that the allocation of costs as determined by Entergy was consistent with the Entergy System Operating Agreement, it could make this prudency decision without violating the Supremacy Clause of the United States Constitution. As a result of this decision, Entergy Louisiana was required to pay the allocated costs of the extended shutdown reserve generation but could not recover these costs in its retail electric rates.

Entergy Louisiana appealed the PSC order to the Supreme Court of Louisiana. The state court upheld the PSC order as not being barred by federal preemption because the PSC was not attempting to regulate interstate wholesale electric rates. The court also noted that FERC never ruled on the issue of whether Entergy Louisiana's decision to include the extended shutdown reserve generating units was a prudent one or whether to include these costs in rates was mandatory.

Opinion of the Court
The U.S. Supreme Court stated that it granted certiorari to determine whether its filed rate doctrine holdings in Nantahala Power and Light Co. v. Thornburg, 476 U.S. 953 (1986), and Mississippi Power and Light Co. v. Mississippi ex rel. Moore, 487 U.S. 354 (1988), would lead to federal preemption of the Louisiana PSC order. The filed rate doctrine is an American administrative law rule that a court should not permit a collateral attack on a tariffed rate of a public utility that was determined by an agency, and that any litigation regarding the validity of that rate must be conducted before that agency. With the Supremacy Clause, any tariffed rate approved by a federal agency must be given effect by a state public utility commission that regulates a public utility and sets intrastate rates.

Nantahala held that cost allocations related to a FERC approved power agreement must be followed by state agencies in setting public utility rates. In Mississippi Power, FERC had allocated the costs of the Grand Gulf Nuclear Generating Station among various public utility companies. The Supreme Court of Mississippi ruled that the state PSC could consider the prudence of the Grand Gulf costs allocated to a public utility since FERC had never ruled on the prudency of these costs. The U.S. Supreme Court disagreed, stating that FERC orders must be given preemptive effect regardless of whether a particular matter had been litigated and decided by FERC.

Applying the Nantahala and Mississippi Power holdings to the Louisiana case, the Court noted that the PSC order impermissibly had the effect of trapping generation costs with the public utility by excluding them from recovery in rates. Although the Entergy System Operating Agreement differed from the tariffs in the Nantahala and Mississippi Power cases in that it left the classification of reserve generating units to an operating committee, this delegated discretion did not allow the PSC room for a finding of imprudence where a FERC mandated cost allocation would not. As Congress had permitted the use of automatic adjustment clauses in the Federal Power Act, the Court decided the MSS-1 schedule constituted such a clause. The Court then determined that there was no reason to create an exception to the filed rate doctrine for tariffs using this type of clause.

The U.S. Supreme Court also stated that the Louisiana Supreme Court ruling regarding the ability of the PSC to conduct prudency reviews was the same erroneous reasoning advanced by the Mississippi Supreme Court in the Mississippi Power case. The Court explained that it did not matter whether FERC had specifically ruled on the reserve generating units, but only whether the FERC approved tariff dictated how and by whom that classification should be made. For these reasons, the decision of the state court was reversed.

See also
 List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 539
 Entergy Corp. v. Riverkeeper Inc.
 United States v. Enmons

References

External links

2003 in United States case law
United States Supreme Court cases
United States Supreme Court cases of the Rehnquist Court
United States energy case law
Entergy


Alexander Yevgenievich Lebedev (; born 16 December 1959) is a Russian businessman, and has been referred to as one of the Russian oligarchs. Until 1992, he was an officer in the First Chief Directorate (Foreign Intelligence) of the Soviet Union′s KGB and later one of the KGB's successor-agencies, Russia's Foreign Intelligence Service (SVR).

In early 2008, he was listed as the 39th richest Russian, and worth an estimated US$3.1 billion by Forbes magazine, but by October 2008 he was worth $300 million. In March 2012, Forbes estimated his fortune at US$1.1 billion. His fortune has since declined, and he is no longer considered to be a billionaire. He is part owner of the Russian newspaper Novaya Gazeta and owner of two UK newspapers with his son Evgeny Lebedev: the Evening Standard and The Independent.

In May 2022 Lebedev was put on Canada's sanctions list following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. He was separately reported to have met Vyacheslav Dukhin, a senior Russian government official, weeks before the invasion.

Early life and education
Lebedev was born in Moscow. His parents were part of the Moscow intelligentsia. His father, Yevgeny Nikolaevich Lebedev, was an elite athlete: a member of the Soviet national water polo team, and later a professor at the Bauman Moscow State Technical University, Moscow's highest technical school. After graduating from Moscow Pedagogic Institute, Lebedev's mother, Maria Sergeyevna, worked in a rural Sakhalin school and later taught English in a Moscow tertiary school.

In 1977, Lebedev entered the Department of Economics at Moscow State Institute of International Relations. After he graduated in 1982, Lebedev began working at the Institute of Economics of the World Socialist System doing research for his Kandidat (between master's degree and doctorate) dissertation, The problems of debt and the challenges of globalization.

Career in the intelligence services
Lebedev transferred to the First Chief Directorate (Foreign Intelligence) of the  KGB. According to The Sunday Times, as a KGB spy, he was based at the Soviet embassy in London from 1988, bringing his son, Evgeny Lebedev, with him. At the embassy, he worked on economic issues with Andrey Kostin who was also at the embassy until 1990. He worked for the KGB's successor, the Foreign Intelligence Service, until 1992.

According to a report presented by the Italian External Intelligence and Security Agency to the parliamentary oversight committee (Copasir), Lebedev's resignation from the FSB might have been fictitious and he "continued to participate in annual KGB meetings". Moreover, "He would have started his business activity while still in the service of the KGB and using the funds he had acquired as an agent", the report noted.

Business career

Upon leaving the Russian intelligence community, Lebedev set up his first company, the Russian Investment-Finance Company. In 1995 this bought the National Reserve Bank, a small Russian bank which was in trouble at the time. The bank subsequently grew rapidly to become one of Russia's largest banks. Among the bank's assets were:
 11% of the main Russian national airline Aeroflot
 44% of the Ilyushin Finance Co, that owns a significant share of Russian aircraft-building industry
 significant parts of Sberbank, Gazprom, RAO UES
The bank is the core of the group of companies holding National Reserve Corporation, that according to Lebedev's personal site owns around US$2 billion of assets. In March 2006, Forbes estimates Lebedev's fortune as high as US$3.5 billion, but as of July 2013 he dropped out of the billionaires list and is no longer a billionaire.

The National Reserve Corporation included the National Land Company (the biggest potato producer in Russia), National Housing Corporation (construction of affordable houses), National Mortgage Company (Национальная Ипотечная Компания), as well as interests in textiles, telecommunications, trams and trolleybuses, electrical power, chemical and tourist industries owning a large hotel network in Crimea and plan to create the National Reserve Park that would manage diverse tourist enterprises in Russia, Ukraine and France.

Lebedev used to own the Moskovski Korrespondent, but according to Channel 4's Dispatches programme, Lebedev closed it down for publishing an article about Vladimir Putin having an affair with Alina Kabayeva.

On 21 January 2009, Lebedev and his company Evening Press Corporation, part of Lebedev Holdings, bought approximately a 75.1% of share in the Evening Standard newspaper for £1. The previous owners, the Daily Mail and General Trust, continue to hold 24.9% in the company in the new firm, named Evening Standard Ltd. Lebedev promised not to interfere with the editorial running of the paper. Lebedev commented that during his time as a spy in London, he used the Evening Standard to find information. Paul Dacre, the editor-in-chief of the Evening Standard at the time of the sale said: "It's a very sad day for the paper, it's a very sad day for the Rothermeres. We are very sorry that it leaked out, we had no control over that. Everyone's been working very hard and there's a lot of hope for the future of the Evening Standard."

In 2009, he entered into exclusive negotiations with Independent News & Media to buy the company's British national newspapers, The Independent and The Independent on Sunday. Before the purchase was completed, his representatives offered the editorship of The Independent to Rod Liddle. The offer was withdrawn after Liddle's putative appointment was opposed by the newspaper's staff and by an online campaign. On 25 March 2010, Lebedev bought The Independent and Independent on Sunday for £1.

In 2012, National Reserve Bank (NRB) faced difficulties: corporate deposits decreased by 2.2 billion rubles, retail deposits by 1.2 billion rubles. 20% of the bank's liabilities had run off by the end of January 2012. In March 2012, two top managers left the bank.

On 5 November 2012, Lebedev announced he would close all the regional offices of the National Reserve Bank and sell off the real estate as well as 75% of the bank's loan portfolio, worth 16.8 billion rubles (US$542 million). Also in November 2012, Lebedev announced that he was selling off his assets in Russia.

In 2019, Lebedev invested in the Emperium shipbuilding project, which produces electric-powered passenger ships. The first vessel, the Ekovolt catamaran, was launched in Saint Petersburg in June 2020.

In 2021, Lebedev launched a project in the industry of decentralized finance, a cryptocurrency platform branded "Independent Decentralized Finance SmartBank & Ecosystem" (InDeFi SmartBank).

Legal

In September 2011, while appearing on a Russian television programme, he punched a fellow guest, billionaire property developer Sergei Polonsky. Lebedev said afterwards that he had reacted to Polonsky's threat of violence towards him. Lebedev was later charged with disorderly conduct and sentenced to community service for that incident.

Political career

In 2003, Lebedev stood as a candidate for elections to the Mayoralty of Moscow and the State Duma. He received 13% in the Mayoral elections, losing to Yuriy Luzhkov, but won a seat in the State Duma on the Rodina party list (he was actually number one on the Moscow regional list of the party). He remained in the Duma until 2007, when new elections were held. In the Duma, he initially moved from nationalist Rodina to the pro-Government United Russia faction, but after Rodina was merged into the larger social-democratic coalition Fair Russia, he made his return.

Lebedev was formerly the Vice Chairman of Duma's committee on the Commonwealth of Independent States, the coordinator of Duma's group on interactions with Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine, and the coordinator of the State Duma group dealing with the city.

Lebedev, together with the former President of the Soviet Union, Mikhail Gorbachev, was a co-owner of Novaya Gazeta, one of the most vocal newspapers critical of the current Russian Government.

Lebedev is a founder and the President of the National Investment Council, a non-political and non-government organization working to improve the investment sentiments in Russia, protecting interests of the Russian business abroad, and fighting the negative sentiments towards Russian business.

In September 2008, Russian politician Mikhail Gorbachev announced he was going to make a comeback to Russian politics along with Lebedev. Their party was called the Independent Democratic Party of Russia.

In March 2009, Lebedev announced that he would be running for mayor of Sochi, host of the 2014 Winter Olympics, but a court ruling declared his candidacy invalid on 13 April 2009. The court ruling was a result of a complaint by another candidate, Vladimir Turukhanovsky, that Lebedev's campaign received three donations from minors that is forbidden by Russian electoral law. According to the chief of Lebedev's electoral campaign, Artyom Artyomov, the three teenagers were led to Sberbank by a staff member of the Sochi council, given 500 rubles each (approximately $20), and told to donate the money to Lebedev's campaign. His campaigners sent the money back the same day it was received but still it was found sufficient to disqualify his candidacy. Lebedev said that he intended to appeal against the court's decision.

Lebedev publicly supported the 2014 Russian annexation of Crimea. In 2017 he held a media symposium in his hotel complex in Alushta, Crimea (so he said) "to correct an impression of Crimea put out by a biased western media".

In 2019, he published a book titled Hunt the Banker: The Confessions of a Russian Ex-Oligarch.

Lebedev was described by The New York Times as an oligarch as recently as 2020, when his son Evgeny was nominated for a life peerage by UK Prime Minister Boris Johnson.

Charity
Lebedev has a long history of supporting culture and charity, and created an organization named Charitable Reserve Fund (Благотворительный Резервный Фонд, BRF) to bring order to these activities. Among the organizations and projects he (or BRF) have sponsored are:
 Center for Children's Hematology and Transplantology, named after Raisa Gorbachyova in Saint Petersburg (general sponsor of the construction)
 Burdenko Military Hospital
 State Russian Museum
 Fomenko Theater
 Moscow Art Theatre
 Lesya Ukrainka National Academic Theater of Russian Drama in Kyiv
 Mikhail Bulgakov Museum in Kyiv
 Restoration of the monument to Alexander Suvorov in Swiss Alps
 Monument Sorrow (Скорбящая) in London by sculptor Sergey Shcherbakov commemorating Soviet soldiers who died during World War II.

Lebedev was awarded the Saint Innokenty of Moscow Order by the Russian Orthodox Church and the Dialogue of Cultures medal by UNESCO.

Personal life
Lebedev's first wife was Natalia Sokolova, daughter of the scientist Vladimir Sokolov, with whom he has one child, Evgeny Lebedev. They separated in 1998. Evgeny Lebedev has sat in the House of Lords as a crossbench life peer since 19 November, 2020

Since 2005, Lebedev's partner has been Elena Perminova, a former model; some sources report they are married while others say they are engaged. They have four children together, three sons and a daughter.

Lebedev holds lavish social events, with guests including Mick Jagger, Eddie Izzard, Ian McKellen, Keira Knightley, Joan Collins and Ralph Fiennes, and the Mayor of London, Sadiq Khan, former British Prime Minister Boris Johnson and Russian foreign ministry spokesperson Maria Zakharova.

Lebedev owns the Palazzo Terranova in Ronti and the nearby Castello di Santa Eurasia near Monte Tezio in the countryside of Città di Castello in Perugia. The residences are available to rent and the Lebedevs have hosted numerous celebrities and politicians at the two properties. The properties were monitored by Italian intelligence agencies over concerns that they have been used as for espionage purposes.

See also
Russian oligarchs

References

External links

The spy who loves media, Ian Cobain, The Guardian, 12 October 2009

 Personal website
Twitter
 Biography
 Interview to Radio Liberty
 Sponsorship page
 National Rezerve Bank

1959 births
Living people
Businesspeople from Moscow
Communist Party of the Soviet Union members
Fourth convocation members of the State Duma (Russian Federation)
KGB officers
Russian billionaires
Russian newspaper publishers (people)
Russian philanthropists
Aeroflot
The Independent people
Moscow State Institute of International Relations alumni
Russian businesspeople in the United Kingdom

Alexander Lebedev


Life at the Top is a 1965 British drama movie directed by Ted Kotcheff and was based on the novel of the same name by John Braine and is the sequel to the 1959 movie Room at the Top. It stars Laurence Harvey, Jean Simmons, Nigel Davenport, Honor Blackman, Michael Craig, Robert Morley, Allan Cuthbertson, Harry Fowler, Geoffrey Bayldon, David Oxley, Denis Quilley and was distributed by Columbia Pictures.

Other websites

1965 drama movies
British drama movies
Movies based on books
Movies directed by Ted Kotcheff

Life at the Top


Charlotte Forman (1715–1787) was a journalist, translator, political essayist and activist. Between 1756 and 1780, she wrote political essays and news from abroad for newspapers under pseudonyms (false names). The false name she used in the newspapers Gazetteer and The Public Ledger was "Probus".

She was not famous in her lifetime, but she has become more well known in recent years. This is because she was one of the few women at that time who wrote essays on politics and trade. Back then, people thought those were men's areas of interest. Because of sexism, most people thought Forman's essays were written by men.

Scholars say her essays show great knowledge and morality.

Early life
Forman's father was Irish Jacobite Charles Forman, and her mother was called Mary. Forman had five brothers and sisters.

Charles Forman was a clerk in the English war office. When James Francis Edward Stuart tried become king of England, Ireland and Scotland (and make royal House of Stuart the rulers of these countries) in the Jacobite rising of 1715, Forman was late in sending orders to the English general Charles Wills, who was fighting the Jacobites. Therefore, we do not know whether Charlotte was born in England or France, but she did later write that she had been "nursed in the palace of the Trianon" in France.

She lived in London for most of her life in poverty, and  went into debtors' prison for a short time in 1767.

Writing career
Forman wrote a many political essays for the Gazetteer and London Daily Advertiser between 1756 and 1760, then carried in in the Public Ledger in 1760. Both newspapers were for merchants, traders, and shopkeepers in London, and had information about to international trade, such as news about shipping and offers of wholesale and retail goods..

Forman's essays in the Gazetteer and the Public Ledger, all signed as Probus, were written in the before and during the Seven Years' War. About 200 surviving essays comment on  diplomatic news and general news reports, as well as looking into the interests of England, Prussia, France, Holland, Austria, Russia, Spain, Sweden, and Denmark. She always supported the English war effort, and kept telling readers that England could defeat France, as well as defending Frederick the Great and William Pitt from critics. She also argued against an early peace, as she thought it would give France too much leeway.

Letters written between her and with Radical satirist and politician John Wilkes have beensaid to give modern readers "graphic evidence of the struggles of an independent woman in the 18th century attempting to support herself by writing". She said she was a literary day labourer.

She is not known to have published anything under her own name, although there are many works published anonymously which now cannot be attributed.

References

1784 deaths
English journalists

Charlotte Forman


Saavik is a fictional character in the Star Trek universe. She first appeared in the film Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan (1982) played by Kirstie Alley. Robin Curtis took over the role for Star Trek III: The Search for Spock (1984) and Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home (1986).

Fictional biography
Saavik's background was never explored on screen. It has, however, been fleshed out in novels and comic books, though none of these sources is considered canon. According to the novels and comics, Saavik was born on Hellguard, an abandoned Romulan colony, and is half Vulcan and half Romulan.

A line of dialogue that would have revealed this in The Wrath of Khan was edited out prior to the film's release and never restored; as a result, the canonicity of this piece of information has been debated for more than two decades. Saavik's mixed parentage is referenced often in her appearances in Star Trek novels. However, if Saavik's mixed ancestry were to be made canon, it would violate the continuity created by the Star Trek: The Original Series episode "Balance of Terror" (which takes place after Saavik's birth) in which Starfleet learns for the first time that Romulans resemble Vulcans, a fact that appears to be unknown to Vulcans (or at least the extremely knowledgeable Mr. Spock) as well.

Some non-canon novels, however, hold that at least some Vulcans were fully aware of the Romulans' heritage, but deliberately concealed that knowledge from the Federation, considering it an embarrassing internal affair that should not be revealed to their allies. The TV series Star Trek: Enterprise established in canon that some factions of the Vulcan government were aware of the connection as early as the 22nd century. (There has also been some debate about whether Spock rescued the child Saavik before or after the events that occurred during "Balance of Terror". A rescue occurring after the episode would not be in conflict with the Vulcans' knowledge of Romulans.)

A few sources have her (non-canon) origin story aligned to original material found in the film's novelization, as follows: she was rescued from the colony, along with other children, by Spock, and she was cared for by his parents Ambassador Sarek and Amanda Grayson. Following in the footsteps of her mentor, Spock, she entered Starfleet Academy.

In the non-canon 1990 novel The Pandora Principle, written by Carolyn Clowes, it is established that four Vulcan research ships were captured by Romulans. Their Vulcan crews were abducted by Romulan scientists and their fertility was manipulated to produce half-Romulan, half-Vulcan children such as Saavik to use in mind control experiments. Vulcan scientists learned of the experiments and mounted a secret rescue of Saavik and other child survivors on Hellguard. Spock threatened to reveal the story to Federation authorities and along with it the secret of the Vulcan mating cycle pon farr if the survivors were denied Vulcan citizenship. Other members of the party wanted to educate them elsewhere and send the children to live on worlds other than Vulcan. Clowes writes that Saavik's name is of Romulan origin and translates as "little cat". In The Pandora Principle, Saavik, unlike the other half-Vulcan, half-Romulan child survivors, refuses a DNA test that would identify her Vulcan relatives. Instead, Spock, who has established a bond with her, takes a year of personal leave to "civilize" and educate the 9- or 10-year-old Saavik. She then lives off Vulcan with foster families or at boarding schools chosen by Spock until she is accepted into the Starfleet Academy as a teenager. This agrees with the Star Trek III: The Search for Spock novelization which said Saavik has never been to Vulcan until then. After graduating, as a fresh Lieutenant Saavik was on her cadet cruise on the USS Enterprise with Admiral James T. Kirk and Captain Spock when Kirk's old enemy Khan Noonien Singh sought revenge for the failure of the Ceti Alpha V colony and the death of his wife, Marla McGivers, and attacked the Enterprise.

Spock died while saving the Enterprise during the events of Wrath of Khan, but before his death transferred his katra to Dr. Leonard McCoy. His coffin was fired from the Enterprise in orbit around the Genesis Planet and was believed to have been destroyed in the atmosphere. A rare expression of emotion by a Vulcan is displayed when Saavik is seen shedding a tear during the eulogy for Spock by Kirk. Saavik and David Marcus (son of Admiral James T. Kirk), subsequently were assigned to the research vessel USS Grissom to study the newly formed Genesis Planet. During this mission, Saavik discovered that Spock had somehow been regenerated, and was rapidly aging. As the new Spock entered his teenage years, he began experiencing the mating drive known as pon farr, and Saavik helped Spock through this difficult time. When the Klingon commander Kruge and his men captured the landing party the next day, David sacrificed his life to save Saavik from being executed. Saavik helped Admiral Kirk return Spock to Vulcan, where his body and katra were reunited. Afterwards, she remained on Vulcan with Spock's family for reasons never explained on screen; the film's writers intended that this was because she was pregnant with Spock's child as a result of the pon farr, but no references to her pregnancy made it into the finished movie and it was never followed up, thereby once again placing this development into a grey area in terms of canon. Before the Enterprise crew departed Vulcan, Saavik told Captain Kirk how his son had died bravely, sacrificing himself to save both Spock and herself.

Unrealized concepts
The role of Saavik in Star Trek III went to Robin Curtis.

Saavik was at one point to appear in the Star Trek: The Next Generation episode, "Cause and Effect" in a scene in which the Enterprise-D encounters a starship that had been trapped in a time anomaly for some 80 years. The idea was dropped when Kirstie Alley insisted on being paid more for a nonspeaking cameo part than the episode budget could supply. (Saavik was to have been shown standing alongside a character played by Kelsey Grammer, Alley's Cheers co-star.)

The character of Saavik was originally intended to appear in Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country, which would have revealed her as a traitor to the Federation. The idea of using an established character was dropped and instead a new character, Valeris, was created, whom Douglas Brode described as "a dark doppelgänger of the heroic Saavik". According to director Nicholas Meyer, writing in his autobiography, The View from the Bridge, Saavik was dropped from the film and Valeris created when Kirstie Alley proved unwilling to reprise the role and Meyer didn't like Curtis's portrayal of the character, while Leonard Nimoy, in his autobiography I Am Spock, said there were also second thoughts about casting a popular, established character as a villain. Saavik, however, does appear in the novelization of the film, as a recruiting officer who inspires Valeris to join Starfleet, and offers some insights on how to deal with a dual heritage.

Other appearances and Next Generation continuity
In the novel Vulcan's Heart, which takes place some years after Undiscovered Country, an older Saavik marries Spock. Saavik appears again in the Vulcan's Soul trilogy of novels published from 2004. In this continuity, the character has risen to the rank of captain. In the Titan novel, Taking Wing, it is clearly stated that Spock and Saavik are married, as she sends greetings through Tuvok. Star Trek books are not considered part of the established canon.

In the "Mirror Universe Saga" trilogy of novels written by William Shatner, it is revealed that the Mirror Universe's Intendant Spock had a daughter named T'Val with Mirror Saavik.

Kirstie Alley did play Saavik one other time, in a play that was set between The Wrath of Khan and The Search for Spock, "The Machiavellian Principle" written by Walter Koenig for the ambitious "Ultimate Fantasy" convention. It also starred James Doohan, Mark Lenard (not as Sarek), Walter Koenig, Nichelle Nichols and George Takei, with a walk-on role by William Shatner as "the Admiral". The short script was eventually published by Creation Conventions in a booklet about Koenig's career, called "Through the Looking Glass". It misspells the name in the cast list as "Savik".

Early reference
Samuel A. Peeples' unused script, Worlds That Never Were, for the second Star Trek film, had a male character called "Doctor Savik", who eventually was morphed into the female Lieutenant Saavik.

Reception
Her character has been discussed by a number of scholars in the context of changing the representation of women characters in the Star Trek franchise. Mary Ann Tetreault noted how her story has marked the change in the style of how females are portrayed in Star Trek, noting that "she is not conventionally pretty", nor is she "subordinate to the men in the story", and that she "is shown to be much more capable" than many of them. Anne Cranny-Francis, discussing her character's background as revealed in a 1990 novel, The Pandora Principle, by Carolyn Clowes, described her as one of the "strong and courageous" women in early Star Trek stories. Likewise, Gary Westfahl called her "a strong and independent character", also noting that Saavik's character was "effectively destroyed when the producers refused to meet Alley's salary demands and recast the role in the next two films with a spectacularly untalented and vacuous actress, Robyn Curtis, transforming Saavik from a woman warrior to a wallflower". Sociologist Bärbel Schomers similarly characterized Saavik as an important character and strong female role, and listed her among several such figures that were conspicuously removed from the Star Trek franchise shortly after their introduction.

Donald E. Palumbo stated that the Star Trek movies closely conform to the structure of the monomyth as described by Joseph Campbell. In this view, Saavik provides the "supernatural aid" to Kirk in The Wrath of Khan. She is also the "navigator" in this and the following two films. In The Search for Spock, "the reborn Spock appears to have at least a mystical marriage on Genesis with Saavik", who here takes the role of "the goddess as 'good mother' who helps him survive pon farr".

References

External links

Fictional lieutenants
Fictional commanders
Fictional military captains
Fictional female soldiers and warriors
Fictional characters from the 23rd century
Fictional sole survivors
Vulcans
Romulans
Star Trek (film franchise) characters
Star Trek hybrids
Starfleet officers
Starfleet lieutenants
Film characters introduced in 1982

Saavik


The Golden Retriever is a Scottish breed of retriever dog of medium size. It is characterised by a gentle and affectionate nature and a striking golden coat. It is commonly kept as a pet and is among the most frequently registered breeds in several Western countries. It is a frequent competitor in dog shows and obedience trials; it is also used as a gundog, and may be trained for use as a guide dog.

The breed was created by Sir Dudley Marjoribanks at his Scottish estate Guisachan in the late nineteenth century. He cross-bred Flat-coated Retrievers with Tweed Water Spaniels, with some further infusions of Red Setter, Labrador Retriever and Bloodhound. The breed was recognised by the Kennel Club in 1913, and during the interwar period spread to many parts of the world.

History

The Golden Retriever was developed in Scotland in the nineteenth century by Sir Dudley Marjoribanks (later to become Baron Tweedmouth) from Flat-coated Retrievers judiciously crossed with Tweed Water Spaniels and some other British dog breeds. Prior to the 1952 publication of the very detailed stud book which had been meticulously maintained by Marjoribanks, a number of romantic tales were published about the origins of the breed.

In the 1860s Marjoribanks set out to create what to his mind was the ultimate breed of retriever at his Scottish estate Guisachan. He started by acquiring a yellow-coloured Flat-coated Retriever dog called Nous; Nous had been whelped in June 1864 and was the only yellow pup in an otherwise all black-coloured litter. Whilst uncommon, occasionally liver, brown, golden or yellow-coloured purebred Flat-coated Retriever pups are whelped to matings of two black parents. It is the pedigree of Nous that was the source for the romantic tales of the heritage of the Golden Retriever. One early account claimed Nous was purchased from a Russian circus trainer in Brighton, another claimed he was bought from a cobbler, and yet another claimed a gypsy. The stud book states that Nous was a Flat-coated Retriever bred by Lord Chichester on his Stanmer Park estate near Brighton.

In 1868 Nous was mated to a Tweed Water Spaniel bitch named Belle, who is recorded in the stud book as being whelped in 1863 and being of "Ladykirk breeding". The litter from this mating consisted of four yellow pups, Primrose, Ada, Cowslip and Crocus. The best bitch from this litter, Cowslip, was mated to a Tweed Water Spaniel called Tweed with the mating producing a bitch pup called Topsy. Cowslip was subsequently mated to a Red Setter called Sampson; that mating produced a dog pup called Jack. Topsy was mated with a black Flat-coated Retriever called Sambo and a bitch pup from that litter, Zoe, was mated back to Jack and two pups from that mating were retained, a dog called Nous II and a bitch called Gill. Gill was mated to a black Labrador Retriever called Tracer, and a bitch pup from that mating, Queenie, was mated back to Nous II; all Golden Retrievers descend from this mating. The progeny from these various matings varied in colour from pure black to light cream, but it was the golden-coloured ones that were retained and mated to each other, forming the foundation stock of the Golden Retriever breed. Marjoribanks is also known to have used a sandy-coloured Bloodhound and another Labrador in subsequent years of the breeding programme.

|-
|
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|

 FCR = Flat-coated Retriever
 TWS = Tweed Water Spaniel
 RS = Red Setter
 Lab = Labrador Retriever

In 1952 Marjoribanks's great-nephew, Giles Fox-Strangways, 6th Earl of Ilchester, teamed up with Elma Stonex and together they studied Marjoribanks's stud book. In 1960 their research was published, presenting all of the evidence required to counter all tales of Russian ancestry. The stud book, which covers the period from 1868 to 1890, is preserved in the library of the Kennel Club in London.

In the early days Golden Retrievers were called the 'Flat-coated Retriever, Golden', Initially the Golden Retriever was considered a colour variety of the former breed. In 1903 the Kennel Club recorded the first examples, listing them in the same register as Flat-coats. In 1904 a Golden Retriever won a field trial and in 1908 the first examples were exhibited at conformation shows. In 1911 a breed club was formed for the breed in England, the Golden Retriever Club, and they were given a new name, the 'Yellow or Golden Retriever'; from this point they were increasingly seen as a separate breed from the Flat-coated Retriever. It was not until 1913 that the Kennel Club began recording them on a separate breed register from the Flat-coated Retriever and in 1920 the 'Yellow or' was dropped from the breed name and they were officially called the 'Golden Retriever'.

One early twentieth century enthusiast of the breed, Winifred Charlesworth, was instrumental in the establishment of the breed club as well as its separate Kennel Club recognition. It was she who drew up the first breed standard, which was adopted by the Kennel Club and with only minor amendments and remains largely unchanged. She bred and exhibited the first Golden Retriever Show Champion, was a strong advocate for maintaining the working instincts of the breed, and she is credited with popularising it at field trials and introducing it to shooting sportsmen.

In the years after the First World War its popularity increased markedly and in the 1920s and 1930s it spread through much of the Western world. The Canadian Kennel Club recognised the breed in 1927, the American Kennel Club in 1932; the first examples were registered in France in 1934 and Australia in 1937. The worldwide popularity of the breed meant it did not suffer the misfortunes many British dog breeds did during the Second World War due to British wartime restrictions on the breeding of larger dogs, with ample quality breeding stock available globally to ensure none of its characteristics were lost.

Since the 1940s its popularity has continued to grow, and it has become one of the most recognised and most frequently registered dog breeds in the Western world.

Description

Appearance
The Golden Retriever is a powerfully built, medium-sized breed of dog; according to the Kennel Club breed standard, dogs stand from  and bitches from . Healthy adult examples typically weigh between .

The Golden Retriever has a broad head with a well-defined stop, with dark eyes set well apart, a wide and powerful muzzle, a large black nose, dark-pigmented and slightly drooping flews, and ears of moderate size set high and hanging with a slight fold. The neck is muscular and fairly long with loose-fitting skin, the shoulders well laid-back and long-bladed, and the body deep through the chest with well-sprung ribs. The back is usually level from withers to croup and the long, straight tail is usually carried flat, roughly in line with the back. The forelegs are straight with good bone, the hind legs are powerful with well bent stifles and muscular thighs, and the feet are cat-like.

The double coat is a recognisable and striking feature: the outer coat is long, flat or wavy and has good feathering on the forelegs, while the undercoat is dense and provides weather resistance. The coat can be any shade of cream, yellow or gold; the coat typically becomes paler with age. The Kennel Club breed standard prohibits red or mahogany-coloured coats, but a few white hairs on the chest are permitted. Originally only yellow or golden coloured examples were permitted, this excluded many outstanding cream coloured dogs; to overcome this in 1936 the Kennel Club's standard was amended to include the cream colour. The cream colour, which in more modern times can be almost white, has become the dominant colour and is particularly favoured by conformation show exhibitors. Golden Retrievers that are bred for conformation shows tend to have longer and finer coats than those bred for working as gundogs.

The Kennel Club breed standard is accepted by every kennel club in the world except those of Canada and the United States. Breed standards in North America call for a slightly taller dog and the cream colour is not permitted.

Temperament
The Golden Retriever is considered an intelligent, gentle natured and very affectionate breed of dog. As is typical with retriever breeds, the breed is generally calm and biddable, being very easy to train and extremely keen to please their master. The breed is known to make excellent pets and family dogs, being generally extremely tolerant of children and keen to accompany any member of the family in a range of activities. Due to their affable natures, the breed is often completely devoid of guarding instincts. However, there have also been reports of some very aggressive Golden Retrievers in certain lineages. It has been suggested that these variations in aggression are partially caused by genetic factors.

The breed usually retains many of their gundog traits and instincts including an excellent sense of smell and a strong instinct to retrieve; even among those not trained as gundogs it is typical for Golden Retrievers to present their owners with toys or other objects. Compared to other retriever breeds the Golden Retriever is typically quite slow to mature.

Popularity and uses

The Golden Retriever is one of the most commonly kept breeds of companion dog in the Western world, and is often among the top ten dog breeds by number of registrations in the United Kingdom, the United States, Australia and Canada. It is a frequent competitor at dog shows; separate show lines of the breed have been developed. The dogs can be trained as guide dogs and therapy dogs, and may compete in obedience trials and other dog sports.

The Golden Retriever is still used as a gundog by sportsmen, both as a hunting companion in the field and for competing in field trials.  It is used more for retrieval of land-based gamebirds such as grouse and partridge than for wildfowl hunting. Those used as gundogs are usually from working lines specifically bred for field use; dogs from pet or show lines are rarely suitable. A Golden Retriever with a traditional dense double coat is well suited to working in cold and wet conditions, as the coat provides water resistance and insulation. Compared to other retriever breeds, the Golden Retriever is not a strong swimmer; its long coat causes it to sit low in the water when swimming.

The Golden Retriever is much less commonly used by sportsmen as a hunting companion than the Labrador Retriever. One reason is that the breed is generally quite slow to mature, particularly compared to the Labrador; often when a Golden Retriever is still in basic training a Labrador of the same age has already completed a season of hunting. Another is its long coat, which requires more maintenance and grooming than that of the Labrador, particularly after working in muddy conditions or close cover, as their long hair is more prone to picking up dirt and burrs. More Golden Retrievers are bred as pets or for the show ring than for hunting, so it can be hard for sportsmen to find pups bred from proven working lines.

Health
Golden Retrievers are a generally healthy breed; they have an average lifespan of 12 to 13 years. Irresponsible breeding to meet high demand has led to the prevalence of inherited health problems in some breed lines, including allergic skin conditions, eye problems and sometimes snappiness. These problems are rarely encountered in dogs bred from responsible breeders.

The breed is unusually prone to cancer, with one United States study finding cancer to be the cause of death in approximately 50% of the population, the second highest in the study. Several European studies found a much lower prevalence (20–39%), which may reflect the significant genetic divergence between the American and European populations.  They are especially prone to hemangiosarcoma and lymphoma, with an estimated lifetime risk of one in five for the former and one in eight for the latter. The high prevalence of cancer deaths among Golden Retrievers may partly represent a lack of other congenital diseases.

Notable Golden Retrievers

 Liberty, presidential pet of President Gerald R. Ford.
 Bailey, pet of US presidential candidate Elizabeth Warren.
 Orca, PDSA Gold Medal recipient for bravery.
 Mayor Max, elected Mayor of Idyllwild, California.

See also
 Dogs portal

Explanatory notes

References

Further reading

 Bérengère Wambergue (2007). Le Golden retriever: étude de la race et de ses prédispositions pathologiques (Doctoral thesis, in French). Toulouse: Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire de Toulouse.

External links

Dog breeds originating in Scotland
FCI breeds
Gundogs
Lifesaving
Retrievers

Golden Retriever


HubSpot is an American developer and marketer of software products for inbound marketing, sales, and customer service. HubSpot was founded by Brian Halligan and Dharmesh Shah in 2006.

Its products and services aim to provide tools for customer relationship management, social media marketing, content management, lead generation, web analytics, search engine optimization, live chat, and customer support.

History
HubSpot was founded by Brian Halligan and Dharmesh Shah at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 2006.

The company grew from $255,000 in revenues in 2007, to $15.6 million in 2010.  Later that year, HubSpot acquired Oneforty, the Twitter app store founded by Laura Fitton. The company also introduced new software for personalizing websites for each visitor. According to Forbes, HubSpot started out targeting small companies but "moved steadily upmarket to serve larger businesses of up to 1000 employees." HubSpot filed for an initial public offering with the Securities and Exchange Commission on August 25, 2014, requesting to be listed on the New York Stock Exchange under the ticker symbol HUBS. They raised more than $140 million by selling shares for $25 which then peaked at $840 in November 2021. In July 2017, HubSpot acquired Kemvi, which applies artificial intelligence and machine learning to help sales teams. The company reported revenues of $1 billion in 2021.

In February 2021, Axios reported that HubSpot would be acquiring The Hustle, a content and email newsletter company focused on small business owners and entrepreneurs.

In September 2021, HubSpot announced Yamini Rangan as their new CEO, while Brian Halligan stepped out of the role and became an Executive Chairman at the company.

On January 31, 2023, HubSpot announced the first layoffs in the company's history. Affecting ~500 employees, this layoff eliminated ~7% of its total workforce. On the same day, HubSpot also announced plans to restructure its Cambridge campus, centralizing operations within a nearby office the company had already been leasing.

Software and services
HubSpot Marketing Software provides tools for social media marketing, content management, web analytics, landing pages, customer support, and search engine optimization.

HubSpot has integration features for salesforce.com, SugarCRM, NetSuite, Microsoft Dynamics CRM, and others.  There are also third-party services such as templates, and extensions. Additionally, HubSpot offers consulting services and an online resource academy for learning inbound marketing tactics. It also hosts user group conferences and inbound marketing and certification programs.  HubSpot promotes their inbound marketing concepts through their own marketing, and has been called "a prolific creator of content" such as blogs, social media, webinars and white papers.

In 2010, an article in the Harvard Business Review said that HubSpot's most effective inbound marketing feature was its free online tools. One such tool, the Marketing Grader, assessed and scored website performance. The company introduced a Twitter tracking feature in 2011.

In November 2016, HubSpot launched HubSpot Academy, an online training platform that provides various digital marketing training programs and free certifications upon completion.

In 2018, HubSpot integrated Taboola on the dashboard, a global pay-per-click native ad network.

In November 2019, HubSpot acquired PieSync, a customer data synchronization platform.

In August 2021, HubSpot partnered with Envato to launch hundreds of high-quality CMS Hub templates.

HubSpot CRM Free
The company launched HubSpot CRM Free in 2014. The CRM product tracks and manages interactions between a company and its customers and prospects. It enables companies to forecast revenue, measure sales team productivity, and report on revenue sources. The software as a service product is free and integrates with Gmail, G Suite, Microsoft Office for Windows, and other software.

Marketing Hub
HubSpot Marketing Hub integrates customer relationship and social media management, campaign automation, and email marketing. Usability features were added to the marketing tool in 2020. As of 2021, there are four service tiers (Free, Starter, Professional, and Enterprise). Starter offers basic analytics, and Professional enables additional marketing automation options, custom workflows, A/B testing, more inboxes, and support for more currencies. The Enterprise version allows access to more contacts, revenue reporting, custom event automation, and campaign reporting.

Operations Hub
HubSpot launched Operations Hub in 2021 as an extension of the customer relationship management tool. Available in multiple service tiers, Operations Hub helps customers use data in the CRM.

Service Hub
HubSpot's customer service tool, Service Hub (previously known as Customer Hub) was announced in 2017, moved out of beta testing in 2018, and received a "refresh" in 2022. The contact center platform provides self-service automation, Twilio telephony, as well as "sentiment analysis and churn forecasting" and testimonial capturing, according to The Irish Times. TechCrunch says Service Hub also includes a "universal inbox" for all customer communications, tools for developing a "company knowledge base" and surveys, and a dashboard for team tracking.

HubSpot Academy
HubSpot Academy is an online training program with free courses for content, email, inbound and social media marketing, as well as graphic design, web development, and search engine optimization. Some of the courses offer certifications. In 2022, Avi Stern of The Jerusalem Post and Christian Rigg of TechRadar described the Academy as "one of the nation's leading digital marketing sources for businesses" and "an industry-leading learning center for all things CRM", respectively.

Tech industry reviews
HubSpot has been described as unique because it strives to provide its customers with an all-in-one approach. A 2012 review in CRM Search said HubSpot was not the best business solution in each category but that taken as a whole, it was the best "marketing solution" that combined many tools into one package. It identified HubSpot's "strengths" as the sophistication of its call to action (marketing) tool, its online ecosystem, and its "ease of use".  Its weakness was described as having "more breadth than depth." The review said the lack of customization and design tools could be limiting and that it was missing advanced features such as business process management (BPM) tools to manage workflow.

Conferences

HubSpot hosts an annual marketing conference for HubSpot users and partners called "INBOUND". The event is typically located in Boston. In 2019, HubSpot hosted its largest conference in the event's history, with a record of over 26,000 attendees from 110 countries. The first INBOUND conference took place in 2012. Since then, speakers such as Oprah Winfrey, Michelle Obama, Barack Obama, Tig Notaro, and Issa Rae have spoken at their events.

Controversy
In July 2015, HubSpot's CMO, Mike Volpe, was dismissed for violating HubSpot's code of business conduct. It was found that he tried to obtain a draft copy of the book Disrupted: My Misadventure in the Start Up Bubble, written by his former employee Daniel Lyons. According to an article in The Boston Globe, records obtained under the Freedom of Information Act indicated that HubSpot executives considered the book "a financial threat to HubSpot" and Volpe used "tactics such as email hacking and extortion" in the attempt to prevent the book from being published.

In April 2016, after his book was published, Lyons wrote in The New York Times that HubSpot had a "frat house" atmosphere. He also called the company a "digital sweatshop" in which workers had little job security. Later that month, HubSpot's founders gave an official response to the book, in which they addressed several, but not all, of Lyons' claims.

Reception
The Boston Business Journal named HubSpot a "Best Place to Work in 2012". In 2015, the company was named the best large company to work for in Massachusetts by The Boston Globe. In 2017, HubSpot was named seventh by CNBC as one of the best places to work. Glassdoor named HubSpot the best place to work in 2020 and the #2 best place to work in 2022.

References

Further reading

External links

Technology companies based in the Boston area
Companies based in Cambridge, Massachusetts
Marketing companies established in 2006
Digital marketing companies of the United States
Search engine optimization
Software companies based in Massachusetts
Web analytics
Marketing software
Companies listed on the New York Stock Exchange
2006 establishments in Massachusetts
Customer relationship management software companies
Software companies of the United States
2014 initial public offerings

HubSpot


James H. Austin is an American neurologist and author. He is the author of the book Zen and the Brain. It establishes links between the neurophysiology of the human brain and the practice of meditation, and won the Scientific and Medical Network Book Prize for 1998. He has written five sequels: Zen-Brain Reflections (2006), Selfless Insight (2009), Meditating Selflessly (2011), Zen-Brain Horizons (2014) and Living Zen Remindfully (2016).

Career
Austin has been an academic neurologist for most of his career, first at the University of Oregon Medical School, then as chairman of neurology at the University of Colorado School of Medicine. He is currently Emeritus  professor of neurology at the University of Colorado Medical School, Denver and visiting professor of neurology at the University of Florida College of Medicine. His publications number over 140 articles involving research in the areas of clinical neurology, neuropathology, neurochemistry and neuropharmacology.

Experience with Zen

Austin has been a practicing Zen Buddhist since 1974. He began in Kyoto at Daitoku-ji as a student of the Rinzai roshi Kobori Nanrei Sohaku.

After eight years of regular Zen meditation, Austin experienced the taste of what Zen practice calls kenshō. The chief characteristic of this experience was a loss of the sense of "self" which is so central to human identity, plus a feeling that "Just This" is the way all things really are in the world. While he was on a sabbatical in England, he was waiting for an Underground train when he suddenly entered a state of enlightenment unlike anything he had ever experienced. In Austin's words, "It strikes unexpectedly at 9 am on the surface platform of the London subway system. [Due to a mistake] ... I wind up at a station where I have never been before...The view includes the dingy interior of the station, some grimy buildings, a bit of open sky above and beyond. Instantly the entire view acquires three qualities: Absolute Reality, Intrinsic Rightness, Ultimate Perfection."

"With no transition, it is all complete....Yes, there is the paradox of this extraordinary viewing. But there is no viewer. The scene is utterly empty, stripped of every last extension of an I-Me-Mine [his name for ego-self]. Vanished in one split second is the familiar sensation that this person is viewing an ordinary city scene. The new viewing proceeds impersonally, not pausing to register the paradox that there is no human subject "doing" it. Three insights penetrate the experient, each conveying Total Understanding at depths far beyond simple knowledge: This is the eternal state of affairs. There is nothing more to do. There is nothing whatsoever to fear."

Austin writes that when his former subjective self was no longer there to form biased interpretations this experience conveyed the impression of "objective reality." As a neurologist, he interpreted this experience not as proof of a reality beyond the comprehension of our senses but as arising from the brain itself.  This and other experiences and research led him to write Zen and the Brain.

Bibliography
 AUSTIN James H., 2020 "Zen and the Brain: The James H. Austin Omnibus Edition,on Nook at https://www.barnesandnoble.com/w/zen-and-the-brain-james-h-austin-md/1129374916 (Meditating Selflessly, Zen-Brain Horizons, and Living Zen Remindfully published by MIT Press 8/02/2018).
 AUSTIN James H., 2019   Living Zen Remindfully audiobook. MIT Press.
AUSTIN James H., 2016   Living Zen Remindfully: Retraining Subconscious Awareness. MIT Press.
 AUSTIN James H., 2014   Zen-Brain Horizons: Toward a Living Zen. MIT Press.
 AUSTIN James H., 2011   Meditating Selflessly: Practical Neural Zen. MIT Press.
 AUSTIN James H., 2009   Selfless Insight: Zen and the Meditative Transformations of Consciousness. MIT Press.
 AUSTIN James H., 2006   Zen-Brain Reflections: Reviewing Recent Developments in Meditation and States of Consciousness.  MIT Press.
 AUSTIN James H., 1998   Zen and the Brain: Toward an Understanding of Meditation and Consciousness.  MIT Press.
 AUSTIN James H., 1978   Chase, Chance and Creativity: The Lucky Art of Novelty. The MIT Press, 2003, 245 pp., $18.95, paperback. .

Notes and references
 Journal of Neuropathology and Experimental Neurolog. Studies in Globoid (Krabbe) Leukodystrophy: III—Significance of Experimentally-Produced Globoid-Like Elements in Rat White Matter and Spleen https://academic.oup.com/jnen/article-abstract/24/2/265/2612255

External links
 Austin's website
 Interview with Austin by MIT Press
Michael Haederle. This is Your Brain on Zen. Tricycle 19 (1) 58-61; 113-214, Fall 2009.
Richard Boyle. Realizing Awakened Consciousness,2015. Appendix pages 293-302. Interview with Neuroscientist James Austin.

Book Review. Chase, Chance and Creativity: The Lucky Art of Novelty.https://academic.oup.com/clinchem/article/50/10/1885/5640115

American neuroscientists
 American Buddhists
Zen Buddhism writers
University of Oregon faculty
University of Colorado faculty
University of Florida faculty
Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
Neurotheology
American Zen Buddhists

James H. Austin


Johann Dubez (1828 – 27 October 1891) was an Austrian  composer and virtuoso of mandolin, guitar, harp and zither.

Life
Dubez was born and died in Vienna, Austria, of Italian extraction, according to J. Powrozniak . His father was a weaver and young Johann Dubez grew up in Neulerchenfeld, a suburb of Vienna. In 1846, he was engaged as violinist in the Josefstadt Theatre, Vienna, and formed there an acquaintance with the guitar virtuoso Giulio Regondi. Dubez, who frequently heard Regondi perform when the latter appeared in Vienna, was so fascinated that he adopted the guitar, too, and studied it under Regondi and Johann Kaspar Mertz in this city. His progress was very rapid for in 1847 he gave his first guitar concert in the old Vienna Academy of Music, playing Regondi's compositions and meeting with enormous success.

Dubez was a brilliant harpist, too, and under Giacomo Meyerbeer's baton he played the well-known harp solo in the opera Vielka. Some few years previous to his death he undertook a protracted concert tour, visiting Bucharest and Constantinople. In the former city he was commanded to perform before the Queen of Romania, and in the latter before the Sultan and Court, receiving the decoration of the Medjidia Order. Dubez was elected the first president of the Vienna Zither Society, founded in 1875, and also created honorary member of the Prague Zither Society.

Music
Dubez's guitar compositions are written in a similar style as those of his teacher, Mertz, but the majority remain in manuscript. He has also composed several harp solos, published by Spina, Bösendorfer, and Cranz of Hamburg, Germany. Dubez's portrait was published by the Vienna Zither Society's Journal in 1891. As a guitarist, he takes rank with Mertz and Regondi, and was one of the most celebrated of Austrian virtuosi.

Among his published compositions there are a Fantasia on Hungarian Melodies for guitar, issued by Diabelli and Co., Vienna. His opus numbers 11, 33, 34, 35 and 37 are harp solos, which were published by Cranz, Hamburg.

Works
Fantasia on Hungarian Themes
Da Himmel (arr.)
Neulerchenfelder Salon-Töne (1857)
Divertissement sur des motifs de l'opéra 'La Sonnambula''' Divertissement sur des motifs de l'opéra 'Ernani'Deux Chansons sans paroles'' op. 33 for harp

References

1828 births
1891 deaths
19th-century classical composers
19th-century male musicians
Austrian classical guitarists
Male guitarists
Austrian male classical composers
Austrian mandolinists
Austrian Romantic composers
Composers for harp
Composers for the classical guitar
19th-century guitarists

Johann Dubez


Broke Hall  is an English country house at Nacton, near Ipswich, Suffolk. It overlooks the River Orwell, opposite Pin Mill. The gardens were landscaped by Humphry Repton in 1794, and the house is Grade II* listed.

The site was purchased by Sir Richard Broke, who built a manor house there, during the reign of Henry VIII. The present house was built by James Wyatt for Philip Bowes Broke in 1792, but is probably a remodelling of an earlier house built in 1775 by Richard Norris.

Broke Hall was the birthplace of Admiral Philip Bowes Vere Broke.

The property remained in the Broke family until 1887, when on the death of Admiral Sir George Broke-Middleton, it was inherited by his niece, Lady de Saumarez, formerly Jane Anne Broke, the wife of James Saumarez, 4th Baron de Saumarez, thus passing into the Saumarez family.

A primary school in Ipswich is named after the hall.

References

Grade II* listed buildings in Suffolk
Houses in Suffolk
Nacton
Gardens by Humphry Repton

Broke Hall