Alfonso XIII (Spanish: Alfonso León Fernando María Jaime Isidro Pascual Antonio de Borbón y Habsburgo-Lorena; French: Alphonse Léon Ferdinand Marie Jacques Isidore Pascal Antoine de Bourbon; 17 May 1886 – 28 February 1941), also known as El Africano or the African due to his Africanist views, was King of Spain from his birth until 14 April 1931, when the Second Spanish Republic was proclaimed. He was a monarch from birth as his father, Alfonso XII, had died the previous year. Alfonso's mother, Maria Christina of Austria, served as regent until he assumed full powers on his sixteenth birthday in 1902.

Alfonso XIII's upbringing and public image were closely linked to the military estate, often presenting himself as a soldier-king. His effective reign started four years after the so-called 1898 Disaster, with various social factions projecting their expectations of national regeneration upon him. Similarly to other European monarchs of his time, he played an important political role, entailing a highly controversial use of his constitutional executive powers. His wedding with Victoria Eugenie of Battenberg in 1906 was marked by a regicide attempt, from which he escaped unharmed.

With a divided opinion of the public eye on World War I, and moreover a split between the pro-German and pro-Entente sympathizers, Alfonso XIII leveraged his family relations to every major European royal family to help preserve the stance of neutrality espoused by the government. Several factors led to undermine the monarch's constitutional legitimacy: the rupture of the  system, the further deepening of the Restoration system crisis in the 1910s, a trio of crises in 1917, the spiral of violence in Morocco, and the lead up to the installment of the dictatorship of Miguel Primo de Rivera through a 1923 military coup d'état that won the acquiescence from Alfonso XIII.

Upon the political failure of the dictatorship, Alfonso XIII removed support from Primo de Rivera (who was thereby forced to resign in 1930) and favoured (during the so-called dictablanda) a return to the pre-1923 state of affairs. Nevertheless, he had lost most of his political capital along the way. He left Spain voluntarily after the municipal elections of April 1931 – which was understood as a plebiscite on maintaining the monarchy or declaring a republic – the result of which led to the proclamation of the Second Spanish Republic on 14 April 1931.

His efforts with the European War Office during World War I earned him a nomination on the Nobel Peace Prize in 1917, which was ultimately won by the Red Cross. To date, he remains the only monarch known to have been nominated for a Nobel Prize.

Reign

Early life and education

Alfonso XIII was born at Royal Palace of Madrid on 17 May 1886. He was the posthumous son of Alfonso XII of Spain, who had died in November 1885, and became king upon his birth. Just after he was born, he was carried naked to the prime minister Práxedes Mateo Sagasta on a silver tray.

Five days later, he was carried in a solemn court procession with a Golden Fleece around his neck and was baptised with water specially brought from the River Jordan in Palestine. The French newspaper  described the young king in 1889 as "the happiest and best-loved of all the rulers of the earth". His mother, Maria Christina of Austria, served as his regent until his sixteenth birthday. During the regency, in 1898, Spain lost its colonial rule over Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam and the Philippines to the United States as a result of the Spanish–American War.

Alfonso became seriously ill during the 1889–1890 pandemic. His health deteriorated around 10 January 1890, and doctors reported his condition as the flu attacked his nervous system leaving the young king in a state of indolence. He eventually recovered.

When Alfonso came of age in May 1902, the week of his majority was marked by festivities, bullfights, balls and receptions throughout Spain. He took his oath to the constitution before members of the Cortes on 17 May.

Alfonso received, to a large extent, a military education that imbued him with "a Spanish nationalism strengthened by his military vocation". Besides the clique of military tutors, Alfonso also received political teachings from a liberal, , and moral precepts from an integrist, José Fernández de la Montaña.

Engagement and marriage

By 1905, Alfonso was looking for a suitable consort. On a state visit to the United Kingdom, he stayed in London at Buckingham Palace with King Edward VII. There he met Princess Victoria Eugenie of Battenberg, the daughter of Edward's youngest sister Princess Beatrice, and a granddaughter of Queen Victoria. He found her attractive, and she returned his interest. There were obstacles to the marriage. Victoria was a Protestant, and would have to become a Catholic. Victoria's brother, Leopold, was a haemophiliac, so there was a 50 percent chance that Victoria was a carrier of the trait. Finally, Alfonso's mother Maria Christina wanted him to marry a member of her family, the House of Habsburg-Lorraine, or some other Catholic princess, as she considered the Battenbergs to be non-dynastic.

Victoria was willing to change her religion, and her being a haemophilia carrier was only a possibility. Maria Christina was eventually persuaded to drop her opposition. In January 1906 she wrote an official letter to Princess Beatrice proposing the match. Victoria met Maria Christina and Alfonso in Biarritz, France, later that month, and converted to Catholicism in San Sebastián in March.

In May, diplomats of both kingdoms officially executed the agreement of marriage. Alfonso and Victoria were married at the Royal Monastery of San Jerónimo in Madrid on 31 May 1906, with British royalty in attendance, including Victoria's cousins the Prince and Princess of Wales (later King George V and Queen Mary). The wedding was marked by an assassination attempt on Alfonso and Victoria by Catalan anarchist Mateu Morral. As the wedding procession returned to the palace, he threw a bomb from a window which killed 30 bystanders and members of the procession, while 100 others were wounded.

On 10 May 1907, the couple's first child, Alfonso, Prince of Asturias, was born. Victoria was in fact a haemophilia carrier, and Alfonso inherited the condition.

Neither of the two daughters born to the King and Queen were haemophilia carriers, but another of their sons, Gonzalo (1914–1934), had the condition. Alfonso distanced himself from his wife for transmitting the condition to their sons. From 1914 on, he had several mistresses, and fathered five illegitimate children. A sixth illegitimate child had been born before his marriage.

World War I

During World War I, because of his family connections with both sides and the division of popular opinion, Spain remained neutral. The King established an office for assistance to prisoners of war on all sides. This office used the Spanish diplomatic and military network abroad to intercede for thousands of POWs – transmitting and receiving letters for them, and other services. The office was located in the Royal Palace.

Alfonso attempted to save the Russian Tsar Nicholas II and his family from the Bolsheviks who captured them, sending two telegrams offering the Russian royal family refuge in Spain. He later learned of the execution of the Romanov family, but was mistaken in believing that only Nicholas II and his son Alexei had been killed. As such, he continued to push for the Tsarina Alexandra and her four daughters to be brought to Spain, not having realized that they had also been murdered.

Alfonso became gravely ill during the 1918 flu pandemic. Spain was neutral and thus under no wartime censorship restrictions, so his illness and subsequent recovery were reported to the world, while flu outbreaks in the belligerent countries were concealed. This gave the misleading impression that Spain was the most affected area and led to the pandemic being dubbed "the Spanish Flu".

Cracking of the system and dictatorship

Following World War I, Spain entered the lengthy yet victorious Rif War (1920–1926) to preserve its colonial rule over northern Morocco. Critics of the monarchy thought the war was an unforgivable loss of money and lives, and nicknamed Alfonso el Africano ("the African"). Alfonso had not acted as a strict constitutional monarch, and supported the Africanists who wanted to conquer for Spain a new empire in Africa to compensate for the lost empire in the Americas and elsewhere. The Rif War had starkly polarized Spanish society between the Africanists who wanted to conquer an empire in Africa vs. the abandonistas who wanted to abandon Morocco as not worth the blood and treasure. Alfonso liked to play favourites with his generals, and one of his most favoured generals was Manuel Fernández Silvestre. In 1921, when Silvestre advanced up into the Rif mountains of Morocco, Alfonso sent him a telegram whose first line read "Hurrah for real men!", urging Silvestre not to retreat at a time when Silvestre was experiencing major difficulties. Silvestre stayed the course, leading his men into the Battle of Annual, one of Spain's worst defeats. Alfonso, who was on holiday in the south of France at the time, was informed of the "Disaster of the Annual" while he was playing golf. Reportedly, Alfonso's response to the news was to shrug his shoulders and say "Chicken meat is cheap", before resuming his game. Alfonso remained in France and did not return to Spain to comfort the families of the soldiers lost in the battle, which many people at the time saw as a callous and cold act, a sign that the King was indifferent over the lives of his soldiers. In 1922, the Cortes started an investigation into the responsibility for the Annual disaster and soon discovered evidence that the King had been one of the main supporters of Silvestre's advance into the Rif mountains.

After the "Disaster of the Annual", Spain's war in the Rif went from bad to worse, and as the Spanish were barely hanging on to Morocco, support for the abandonistas grew as many people could see no point to the war. In August 1923, Spanish soldiers embarking for Morocco mutinied, other soldiers in Málaga simply refused to board the ships that were to take them to Morocco, while in Barcelona huge crowds of left-wingers had staged anti-war protests at which Spanish flags were burned while the flag of the Rif Republic was waved about. With the Africanists comprising only a minority, it was clear that it was only a matter of time before the abandonistas forced the Spanish to give up on the Rif, which was part of the reason for the military coup d'état later in 1923.

On 13 September 1923, Miguel Primo de Rivera, Captain General of Catalonia, staged a military coup with the collaboration from a quad of Africanist generals based in Madrid who were associated to the innermost military clique of Alfonso XIII and who wanted to prevent investigations about Annual from tarnishing the monarch (José Cavalcanti, Federico Berenguer, Leopoldo Saro and Antonio Dabán), even if Primo de Rivera had embraced Abandonista positions prior to that point. Primo de Rivera ruled as a dictator with the king's support until January 1930.

On 28 January 1930, amid economic problems, general unpopularity and a putschist plot led by General Manuel Goded in motion, of which Alfonso XIII was most probably aware, Miguel Primo de Rivera was forced to resign, exiling to Paris, only to die a few weeks later of the complications from diabetes in combination with the effects of a flu. Alfonso XIII appointed General Dámaso Berenguer as the new prime minister. Back in 1926, Alfonso XIII had appointed Berenguer as Chief of Staff of the Military House of the King, a post conventionally fit for burned-out generals in order to move them away from the spotlight for a time in a show of affection. The new period was nicknamed as dictablanda. The King was so closely associated with the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera that it was difficult for him to distance himself from the regime that he had supported for almost seven years. The enforced changes relied on the incorrect assumption that Spaniards would accept the notion that nothing had happened after 1923 and that going back to the prior state of things was possible.

Dethronement and politics in exile

On 12 April, the Republican coalition, short of winning a majority of councillors overall, won a sweeping majority in major cities in the 1931 municipal elections, which were perceived as a plebiscite on monarchy. The results shocked the government, with foreign minister Romanones admitting to the press an "absolute monarchist defeat" and Civil Guard honcho José Sanjurjo reportedly telling government ministers that, given circumstances, the Armed Forces could not be "absolutely" relied upon for the sustainment of the monarchy. Alfonso XIII fled the country and the Second Spanish Republic was peacefully proclaimed on 14 April 1931.

In November 1931, the Constituent Republican Cortes held an impassionate debate about the political responsibilities of the former monarch. Some of the grievances against the action of Alfonso XIII as a king included interference in the institutions to reinforce his personal power, bargaining personal support from the military clique with rewards and merits, his abuse of the power to dissolve the legislature, rendering the co-sovereignty between the Nation and the Crown a total fiction; that he had disproportionately fostered the Armed forces (often to contain internal protest), had used the armed forces abroad with imperialist aims alien to the interests of the nation but his own, that he had personally devised the military operation of Annual behind the back of the Council of Ministers, and that following the massacre of Annual that "cost the lives of thousands of Spanish lads", he had decided to launch a coup with the help of a few generals rather than facing scrutiny in the legislature. Other than Romanones, who exculpated the actions of the monarch, disconformity towards the Primo de Rivera dictatorship notwithstanding, no other legislator intervened in his favour, with the debate focusing on whether labelling the monarch's actions as a military rebellion, lèse-majesté, high treason, or even condemning "a delinquent personality" or "a wholly punishable life". The debate ended with an eloquent speech by Prime Minister Manuel Azaña pleading for the unanimity of the house "to condemn and exclude D. Alfonso de Borbón from the law, proclaiming the majesty of our republic, the unbreakable will of our civism and the permanence of the Spanish glories framed by the institutions freely given by the Nation". The house passed the act brought forward by the Commission of Responsibilities, summarizing Alfonso de Borbón's responsibilities as being guilty of high treason.

Involved in anti-Republican plots from his exile, and keen to draw support from the Carlists in the context of the uneasy and competing relations between the Carlist and Alfonsist factions within the radicalised monarchist camp, in the aftermath of so-called Pact of Territet he issued a statement dated 23 January 1932 endorsing the manifesto launched by Carlist claimant Alfonso Carlos (in which the latter hinted at the cession of dynastic rights should the former king accept "those fundamental principles which in our traditional regime have been demanded of all Kings with precedence of personal rights"), with the dethroned king likewise accusing in the document the reformist Republic to be "inspired and sponsored by communism, freemasonry and judaism".

In 1933, his two eldest sons, Alfonso and Jaime, renounced their claims to the defunct throne on the same day, and in 1934 his youngest son Gonzalo died. This left his third son Juan his only male heir.

After the July 1936 attempted coup d'état against the democratically elected Republican government a war broke out in Spain. On 30 July 1936, Alfonso's son Juan took the initiative of leaving Cannes to go to Spain to join the rebel faction, with the former king (then in a hunting trip in Czechoslovakia) reportedly giving consent, so Juan de Borbón crossed the border set to join the front in Somosierra dressed in a blue jumpsuit and red beret under the fake name "Juan López". However, rebel general Emilio Mola, mastermind behind the putschist plot, was warned of the move and had Juan returned. The former king made it clear he favoured the rebel faction against the Republican government. In September 1936, the general who had emerged as leader of the rebel faction, Francisco Franco, declared that he would not restore Alfonso as king.

Death

On 15 January 1941, Alfonso XIII renounced his rights to the defunct Spanish throne in favour of Juan. He died of a heart attack in Rome on 28 February that year.

In Spain, dictator Francisco Franco ordered three days of national mourning. The ex-king's funeral was held in Rome in the Church of Santa Maria degli Angeli e dei Martiri. He was buried in the Church of Santa Maria in Monserrato degli Spagnoli, the Spanish national church in Rome, immediately below the tombs of Popes Callixtus III and Alexander VI. In January 1980 his remains were transferred to El Escorial in Spain.

Legacy
Alfonso was a promoter of tourism in Spain. The need for the lodging of his wedding guests prompted the construction of the luxurious Hotel Palace in Madrid. He also supported the creation of a network of state-run lodges, Paradores, in historic buildings of Spain. His fondness for the sport of football led to the patronage of several "royal" ("real" in Spanish) football clubs, the first being Real Club Deportivo de La Coruña in 1907. Selected others include Real Madrid, Real Sociedad, Real Betis, Real Unión, Espanyol, Real Zaragoza and Real Racing Club.

An avenue in the northern Madrid neighbourhood of Chamartín, Avenida de Alfonso XIII, is named after him. A plaza or town centre in Iloilo City, Philippines (now Plaza Libertad) was named in his honour called Plaza Alfonso XIII. A street in Merthyr Tydfil, in Wales, was built especially to house Spanish immigrants in the mining industry and named Alphonso Street after Alfonso XIII.

Ratoncito Pérez first appeared as the Spanish equivalent to the Tooth Fairy in a 1894 tale written by Luis Coloma for King Alfonso XIII, who had just lost a milk tooth at the age of eight, with the King appearing in the tale as "King Buby". The tale has been adapted into further literary works and movies since then, with the character of King Buby appearing in some. The tradition of Ratoncito Pérez replacing the lost milk teeth with a small payment or gift while the child sleeps is almost universally followed today in Spain and Hispanic America. Alfonso XIII is also mentioned on the plaque that the City Council of Madrid dedicated in 2003 to Ratoncito Pérez on the second floor of number eight of , where the mouse was said to have lived.

Personal life

Legitimate and illegitimate children

Alfonso and his wife Princess Victoria Eugenie of Battenberg (Ena) had seven children:
Alfonso, Prince of Asturias (1907–1938);
Infante Jaime, Duke of Segovia (1908–1975);
Infanta Beatriz (1909–2002);
Infante Fernando (stillborn 1910);
Infanta María Cristina (1911–1996);
Infante Juan, Count of Barcelona (1913–1993);
Infante Gonzalo (1914–1934).

Alfonso also had a number of reported illegitimate children that are known, including:
 (1905–1980; by French aristocrat Mélanie de Gaufridy de Dortan, married to Philippe de Vilmorin);
Juana Alfonsa Milán y Quiñones de León (1916–2005; by Alfonso's governess Béatrice Noon);
Anna María Teresa Ruiz y Moragas (1925–1965; by Spanish actress Carmen Ruiz Moragas)
 (1929–2016; by Spanish actress Carmen Ruiz Moragas);
Carmen Gravina (1926–2006; by Carmen de Navascués).

Attitude towards Jews
Alfonso was known for his friendly attitude towards Jews and publicly praised them. He took several actions to offer them protection. In 1917, Alfonso instructed the Spanish consul in Jerusalem, Antonio de la Cierva y Lewita, Count of Ballobar, to help protect Palestinian Jews. On another occasion, after a high official in Tetuan had committed onslaughts against Jews, a delegation composed of Catholics, Jews, and Muslims appealed to Alfonso. The King then removed the Tetuan official from power, in spite of the fact that the official possessed the support of the Spanish Minister of Foreign Affairs. According to the Jewish Professor Abraham S.E. Yahuda, Alfonso told Yahuda in private conversations that he would issue no policies of discrimination towards Jews, believing all of his Spanish subjects to be entitled to equal rights and protection.

Pornographic cinema
Alfonso is occasionally referred to as "the playboy king", due in part to his promotion and collection of Spanish pornographic films, as well as his extramarital affairs. As King, Alfonso commissioned pornographic films through the Barcelona production company Royal Films, with the Count of Romanones acting as an intermediary figure between him and the company. Between forty and seventy pornographic films are said to have been shot in total (three of which have been preserved) and were screened in Barcelona's Chinatown, as well as during Alfonso's private screenings. The films, while silent and in black and white, were nonetheless very explicit for the time, showing full nudity and sex scenes. These films featured content considered immoral and degenerate, including sexual relationships involving Catholic priests, lesbianism, and "women with enormous breasts" (the last of which is said to have been Alfonso's passion). Most of these films were later destroyed during Franco's regime.

This has led some to speculate that Alfonso may have possessed a sex addiction.

Heraldry

Honours

Spanish honours
1,072nd Knight of the Golden Fleece, 1886
Grand Cross of the Order of Charles III, with Collar, 1886
Grand Cross of the Order of Isabella the Catholic, with Collar, 1927
Order of Santiago
Order of Calatrava
Order of Alcántara
Order of Montesa
Maestranza de caballería (Royal Cavalry Armory) of Ronda, Sevilla, Granada, Valencia and Zaragoza
Founder of the Civil Order of Alfonso XII, 23 May 1902
Founder of the Order of Civil Merit, 25 June 1926

Foreign honours

In the Royal Library of Madrid, there are books containing emblems of the Spanish monarch.

Ancestry
Alfonso XIII is a rare example of endogamy. In the eleventh generation he is assumed to only have 111 ancestors whereas in a standard situation one expects to identify 1024 of them. Here we are with a situation of implex of 89%.

See also
1902 Copa de la Coronación
List of covers of Time magazine (1920s), (1930s)

Notes

References

Bibliography

Churchill, Sir Winston. Great Contemporaries. London: T. Butterworth, 1937. Contains the most famous single account of Alfonso in the English language. The author, writing shortly after the Spanish Civil War began, retained considerable fondness for the ex-sovereign.
Collier, William Miller. At the Court of His Catholic Majesty. Chicago: McClurg, 1912. The author was American ambassador to Spain from 1905 to 1909.
Noel, Gerard. Ena: Spain's English Queen. London: Constable, 1984. Considerably more candid than Petrie about Alfonso, the private man, and about the miseries the royal family experienced because of their haemophiliac children.

Petrie, Sir Charles. King Alfonso XIII and His Age. London: Chapman & Hall, 1963. Written as it was during Queen Ena's lifetime, this book necessarily omits the King's extramarital affairs; but it remains a useful biography, not least because the author knew Alfonso quite well, interviewed him at considerable length, and relates him to the wider Spanish intellectual culture of his time.
Pilapil, Vicente R. Alfonso XIII. Twayne's rulers and statesmen of the world series 12. New York: Twayne, 1969.
Sencourt, Robert. King Alfonso: A Biography. London: Faber, 1942.

External links

Historiaantiqua. Alfonso XIII;  (2008)
Visit by Alphonso XIII to Deauville in 1922 (with images)

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Alfonso XIII


Guanqiu Jian and Wen Qin's Rebellion, or the Second Rebellion in Shouchun, was a punitive uprising led by Guanqiu Jian and Wen Qin, two generals from the state of Cao Wei, against the regent Sima Shi and his clan. This was the second of a series of three rebellions that all took place in Shouchun (壽春; present-day Shou County, Lu'an, Anhui) in the 250s during the Three Kingdoms period in Chinese history.

Background
In 249, the Wei regent Sima Yi seized power from his co-regent, Cao Shuang, at the Incident at Gaoping Tombs and completely controlled the Wei government. His eldest son, Sima Shi, who succeeded him, deposed the Wei emperor Cao Fang in 254 and replaced him with Cao Mao upon discovering Cao Fang's plot to return power back to the imperial family.
The generals Guanqiu Jian and Wen Qin, who were stationed in Shouchun, were disgruntled with the Simas and decided to rebel only months after the installment of Cao Mao to the Wei throne.

Planning
When Guanqiu Jian and Wen Qin rebelled, they decided to secretly obtain masses of troops without giving away that their intentions were to revolt. They sent a messenger to Zhuge Dan to recruit and levy heavy quantities from Yu Province. Finding that this was an unreasonable request, Zhuge Dan deduced that they were plotting a revolt and had the messenger executed.

Rebellion
News of the uprising quickly reached Wei's rival state, Eastern Wu, which had long desired Shouchun. The Wu emperor Sun Liang sent troops to aid Guanqiu Jian and Wen Qin to weaken the Wei forces. Sun Jun led the support forces with Liu Zan and Lü Ju. Sima Shi, Hu Zun, Deng Ai, and Zhuge Dan merged forces and marched upon the rebels. Wang Ji, the Inspector of Jing Province, was told to capture Nandun before Guanqiu Jian and Wen Qin could do so. The Wei army then halted and mobilised, successfully instilling fear in movements in the rebel army, which would ultimately end their uprising. The Huai River northern region was where the rebels' families were, which brought down the rebels' morale. Troops abandoned Guanqiu Jian and Wen Qin. When Sima Shi saw this, Deng Ai was ordered to take his forces into Yuejia garrison, with a mere number of troops. He then fooled Wen Qin into attacking it, with Wen Qin thinking that there was only a small force there. That night, Sima Shi was able to bring his main force to reinforce Luojia, without Wen Qin knowing, though a pontoon bridge. Wen Qin sent his son, Wen Yang, to attack the city in the night. As a result, Wen Yang threw himself against a massive force of more than 100,000 men and was completely unsuccessful.  When morning came, Wen Qin saw how large the army against him suddenly was and he fled. He ordered a retreat but was ultimately routed by Sima Ban. This caused a massive amount of Shouchun's population to flee to Wu in fear that they would be massacred. The rest of the rebels disbanded, and Guanqiu Jian was murdered in Shen County by Zhang Shu. Wen Qin immediately fled to Wu. By the time Wen Qin had reached Xiang county, Shouchun, and the rest of the Huai River region, was captured by Zhuge Dan. The Wu forces by this time had not yet arrived, so they quickly ordered a retreat from Dongxing. Zhuge Dan sent troops to attack the Wu forces, killing Liu Zan and many of their troops.

Aftermath
Wen Qin and his family successfully retreated to Wu, but was killed by Zhuge Dan when the latter rebelled a few years later. Sima Shi was young and had no heirs, so the regency was given to his second brother, Sima Zhao. Sima Zhao quelled a third rebellion in Shouchun led by Zhuge Dan a few years later, and later launched the conquest of Shu a few years later. Then Sima Zhao died and the regency was given to his son, Sima Yan. Sima Yan then quickly had Cao Huan abdicate the Wei throne to him, establishing the Jin dynasty. In 280, Wu fell to Jin and the Three Kingdoms period ended.

Order of battle

In popular culture
This stage, along with the other two rebellions, are all featured as playable stages during the Jin Story Mode in the Dynasty Warriors video game series. It made its first appearance in 7.

See also
 Three Rebellions in Shouchun
 Punitive war
 Conquest of Shu by Wei
 Guanqiu Jian
 Wen Qin

Notes

References

 Chen, Shou (3rd century). Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi).
 Fang, Xuanling (648). Book of Jin (Jin Shu).
 Pei, Songzhi (5th century). Annotations to Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi zhu).

255
250s conflicts
3rd-century rebellions
Campaigns of the Three Kingdoms
Cao Wei
Rebellions in China
Three Rebellions in Shouchun

Guanqiu Jian and Wen Qin's Rebellion


Trinidad Anastasio de Sales Ruiz Bustamante y Oseguera (; 27 July 1780 – 6 February 1853) was a Mexican physician, general, and politician who served as the 4th President of Mexico three times from 1830 to 1832, 1837 to 1839, and 1839 to 1841. He also served as the 2nd Vice President of Mexico from 1829 to 1832 under Presidents Vicente Guerrero, José María Bocanegra, himself, and Melchor Múzquiz. He participated in the Mexican War of Independence initially as a royalist before siding with Agustín de Iturbide and supporting the Plan of Iguala.

Bustamante was a member of the Provisional Government Junta, the first governing body of Mexico. After the fall of the First Mexican Empire, his support for Emperor Iturbide was pardoned by President Guadalupe Victoria. The controversial 1828 general election sparked riots forcing the results to be nullified, as a result, Congress named him vice president while the liberal Vicente Guerrero was named president. Bustamante's command of a military reserve during the Barradas Expedition in 1829 allowed him to launch a coup d'état ousting Guerrero.

During his first term as president, he expelled U.S. Minister Joel Roberts Poinsett, issued a law prohibiting American immigration to Texas, and produced a budget surplus. His leading minister during this time was the conservative intellectual Lucas Alamán. Opponents of his regime proclaimed the Plan of Veracruz in 1832, leading to almost a year of civil war, ultimately forcing Bustamante into exile.

During his exile, the First Republic collapsed and was replaced by Santa Anna with the Centralist Republic of Mexico. Santa Anna's fall from power during the Texas Revolution in 1836 gave Bustamante the chance to return to Mexico and smoothly reassume the presidency in early 1837. Refusal to compensate French losses in Mexico resulted in the disastrous Pastry War in late 1838. Bustamante briefly stepped down in 1839 to suppress a rebellion led by José de Urrea. Relations with the United States were restored and treaties signed with European powers. Rebellions in favor of restoring the federal system and an ongoing financial crisis was leading to unrest all over the nation. The state of Yucatán broke away in 1839, and in 1840 Bustamante himself was taken hostage in the capital by federalist rebels who were ultimately defeated. A conservative revolt led by Mariano Paredes ultimately forced him into a second exile in 1841. Bustamante returned in 1845 and participated in the Mexican–American War. He spent his last years in San Miguel de Allende where he died in 1853.

Early life
Anastasio Bustamante was born on July 27, 1780, in Jiquilpan, Michoacán to Jose Ruiz Bustamante and Francisca Oseguera. His family did not have great wealth and his father was employed transporting snow to Guadalajara, nonetheless they provided the young Anastasio with a good education. At the age of fifteen he enrolled at the Seminary College of Guadalajara, sponsored by Marcelino Figueroa, curate of the village of Tuxpam. He then went to Mexico City to study medicine with Dr. Ligner professor of chemistry at the college of mining. After graduating he accepted an offer to work at San Luis Potosí and was made director of the hospital of San Juan de Dios.

Ever since his college years, Bustamante had also shown an intention of joining the military and after the upheavals suffered by Spain in 1808 as a consequence of the Peninsular War a corp of cavalry was formed in San Luis Potosí made up of the leading families and Bustamante was named a member, but he did not leave his profession as a physician until the Mexican War of Independence broke out in September 1810, at which Bustmante found himself fighting as a Spanish loyalist under the command of Felix Calleja.

Military career

War of Independence
He was promoted to captain in 1812 and found himself at the Siege of Cuautla in which he was commissioned by Calleja to break the siege. He then found himself seeing action in the Valley of Apam where he was wounded in action. He was recruited to the regiments of Pascual Liñán and sent to repulse the invasion started at Galveston by Javier Mina.

He captured the Fort of Remedios where he took the batteries in spite of being wounded and pursued the fleeing insurgents with cavalry. He helped pacify the entire province of Guanajuato culminating in the battle at the Hacienda de Guanimaro in which he routed the forces of Torres and the American filibuster Gregorio Wolf.

Towards the end of the war Bustamante found himself at the Hacienda de Pantoja in charge of operations at the Valle of Santiago when Captain Quintanilla on behalf of Agustín de Iturbide attempting to recruit him to join the Plan of Iguala to which Bustamante aquieced.

The viceroy had given orders to the commandant general of the province Antonio Linares that Bustamante be withdrawn from his command, but Bustamante intercepted the message, and he proclaimed his support for independence on March 19, 1821. He traveled to Celaya where he offered to Linares the command post which he rejected, he entered Guanajuato without meeting any resistance, and he removed from the Alhondiga the bodies of the insurgents who had been executed for fighting for independence at the start of the war, moving them rather to the cemetery of San Sebastián.

Iturbide designated Bustamante second in command in regards to the revolution, and he accompanied him to a conference with General Cruz at the Hacienda of San Antonio. Bustamante was then declared head of all cavalry, defeating the forces of Bracho and San Julian who marched to the relief of Querétaro.

Iturbide meanwhile travelled to Puebla and Bustamante advanced through Arroyazarco to the outskirts of the capital to prepare the siege and fought at Azcapotzalco. Before occupying Mexico City he was named by Iturbide to the Governmental Junta and after the Regency Field Marshall and captain general of the internal provinces of the West and the East when the territory of the First Mexican Empire was divided into five military districts.

At Huchi he defeated the Ordenes Regiment, a Spanish expeditionary force for which he was recommended to be a part of the Regency. At the capital he was in charge of urgent matters related to the internal provinces of the country.

First Republic
After the First Mexican Empire fell he joined Luis de Quintanar at Guadalajara in proclaiming a revolution in favor of the federal system, hoping that in the resulting upheaval Iturbide could find a way back to power. However the uprising was defeated and Bustamante and Quintanar surrendered before General Nicolas Bravo and the pair were banished to South America, a punishment which was never carried out due to the political upheavals afflicting Mexico at the time.

During the early years of the First Republic as politics in Mexico became a struggle between the liberal, federalist Yorkino party and the conservative, centralist Escoses party Bustamante sided with the former due to being offput by the hatred for Iturbide found in the Escoses party. President Victoria gave Bustamante command of the internal provinces, and he began his duties with the rank of Division General. He set out to suppress raids and protect the frontier.

First Presidency

Overthrow of Guerrero
In the elections of 1828, Bustamante was chosen to be vice-president under the Yorkino Vicente Guerrero, and he was placed in charge of the reserve forces of Xalapa. President Guerrero had been granted emergency powers in 1829 due to a Spanish Invasion, and did not resign them, which became a point of contention among the opposition. A conspiracy began to brew against the president and it succeeded in gaining the adherence of Bustamante. He was influenced by Jose Antonio Facio, a great opponent of Guerrero, and some Yorkinos disillusioned with the president. On December 4, 1829, Bustamante proclaimed the Plan of Jalapa against the government on the pretext of restoring constitutional order against the president's alleged dictatorial tendencies. Guerrero gathered troops and left the capital to face the rebels, only for the insurrection to flare up in the capital itself, and the government surrendered on December 22 while Guerrero escaped to the south of the country.

Bustamante appoints a new government

Bustamante officially began his presidency on January 1, 1830. He named Lucas Alamán: Minister of Interior and Exterior Relations, Rafael Mangino: Minister of Finance, Colonel Jose Antonio Facio: Minister of War and Marine, and Minister of Justice: José Ignacio Espinosa. Congress ratified the Plan of Jalapa, but it did not annul the results of the election of 1828. It rather declared Guerrero unfit to rule, and as a consequence vice-president Bustamante was now president.

The new government, notably Alaman and Facio regretted the expulsion of the Spaniards which had been carried out under previous administrations, but did not attempt to undue such measures due to popular anti-Spanish feeling.

Uprisings against Bustamante
Meanwhile, Guerrero remained at large in the south of the country, and the commanders who had previously all fought the Spaniards now found themselves on opposing sides of a civil conflict. On the side of Guerrero were Juan Álvarez, Francisco Mongoy, Gordiano Guzmán, and Isidoro Montes de Oca. On the side of Bustamante were Nicolas Bravo, Manuel de Mier y Terán, and Melchor Múzquiz. The conflict flared up in other parts of the country but was suppressed. A brother of the ex-president Guadalupe Victoria was executed for taking arms against the government.

The problem of Texas

On April 6, 1830, the government took action against the crisis that was developing in the state of Coahuila y Tejas. The region had been increasingly settled by American immigrants since the last days of Spanish rule, and the amount of settlers now threatened Mexico's ability to administer the region. Minister Alaman passed a law prohibiting further colonization of Texas by foreigners from countries contiguous to Mexico, and enforcing customs along the frontier. General Teran was ordered to establish a string of forts along the Texas frontier. The colonists who up until this point had been living in virtual independence, to the point of openly owning slaves, which was illegal in Mexico, found the law highly irritating.

Guerrero captured and executed
For the first time in Mexican history, official independence day celebrations also occurred on September 27 in addition to September 16 in order to commemorate the entrance of Agustín de Iturbide's Trigarantine Army into Mexico City in addition to the usual commemorations of the Grito de Dolores. On January 1, 1831, General Nicolas Bravo struck a decisive blow against the remaining forces of Vicente Guerrero. The latter attempted to flee aboard the ship Colombo departing from the port of Acapulco, but Captain Picaluga instead docked at Huatulco and turned Guerrero over to the authorities. Guerrero was court martialed and condemned to death, being executed by firing squad on February 14. The execution of one of the heroes of independence, reminiscent of Agustín de Iturbide's death only seven years earlier, shocked the nation and rumors that the government had paid Picaluga were widespread.

After the end of Guerrero's struggle in the south there was relative peace throughout the nation. Taxes and customs were increasing, and the nation's credit began to improve. At the opening of congress on January 1, 1832, Bustamante reported that the states all now had considerable surplus funds, and that the treasury had enough funds to pay six months interest on the foreign debt.

Beneath the increasing prosperity however lay unease over the governments increasingly autocratic measures. Freedom of speech was abolished, and the legislature and judiciary grew increasingly subservient to the executive.

Plan of Veracruz

On January 2, 1832, the garrison at Vera Cruz pronounced against the government, accusing the ministers of acting autocratically and demanding their dismissal. Santa Anna at this point had a reputation for being liberal, he had proclaimed for a republic when Emperor Agustín de Iturbide's was becoming increasingly autocratic, and had been a supporter of Vicente Guerrero. The opposition had gathered around him hoping that he would lead a movement to overthrow Bustamante. Santa Anna agreed to join the movement and on January 4, he addressed himself to President Bustamante offering to mediate between the rebels and the president in order to prevent bloodshed.

The government failed to defeat Santa Anna, and the revolution spread to Tamaulipas, where the rebels routed the forces of Manuel de Mier y Terán at Tampico. Mier y Terán would commit suicide in the aftermath. Now the revolution was joined by more states, who now began to demand not only the dismissal of the ministers but the replacement of Bustamante himself with Manuel Gomez Pedraza who had won the elections of 1828 before fleeing the country in the aftermath of Vicente Guerrero's revolt against him. Meanwhile, the states of San Luis Potosí, Michoacán, Chihuahua, Mexico, Puebla, and Tabasco remained loyal to Bustamante, but the revolution continued to advance.

The government was shaken by the news that the hereunto loyal city of San Luis Potosí was captured by the General José Esteban Moctezuma on August 6, and President Bustamante assumed personal command of the troops in order to lead an expedition against him. Bustamante stepped down as president and the deputies elected General Melchor Muzquiz to assume the role of interim president on August 14.

Bustamante routed the forces of Moctezuma on September 18, and occupied the city on September 30. Unfortunately for the government General Gabriel Valencia then proclaimed his support for the revolution in the state of Mexico, putting him in a position to threaten the capital. Bustamante advanced back towards Mexico City and reached Peñón Blanco where he obtained a promise from Governor Garcia of supporting the government, a promise which was later broken. Meanwhile, in Veracruz after a six-month stalemate, Santa Anna succeeded in defeating the government forces led by José Antonio Facio, allowing his army to leave Veracruz and advance upon the capital reaching Tacubaya on October 6.

However Santa Anna turned back on November 6 to face the approaching army of Bustamante at the city of Puebla, where he eventually defeated him on November 16. At this point, the government had effectively lost control over the rest of the nation, retaining the loyalty of only Oaxaca and Chihuahua. Bustamante gave up the military struggle and opened negotiations at which it was agreed to enter into an armistice until congress could approve a peace treaty between parties. Congress refused to surrender, but Bustamante disobeyed them to avert further bloodshed and proceeded to negotiate a peace that was ratified on December 23, 1832, through the Treaty of Zavaleta. In accordance with the treaty, the presidency now passed on to Manuel Gomez Pedraza.
Bustamante was banished to Europe two years later in 1833.

Life in Europe
Bustamante spend his exile travelling the nations of Europe, touring military establishments, and while in Paris, attending lectures at the Atheneum, including those of the Astronomer François Arago. In keeping with his background as a physician, he visited the anatomical collections of Montpellier and of Vienna. He learned to speak fluent French albeit with a heavy accent, and his standing as the former president of Mexico gave him access to prominent individuals.

In 1833, the liberal government of Valentín Gómez Farías, which had succeeded Bustamante was overthrown by Santa Anna who had now switched sides to the conservatives and helped rewrite the constitution, establishing the Centralist Republic of Mexico, which stripped the provinces of their autonomy in favor of a strong central government. Revolts against the new constitution flared up all over the nation, and Santa Anna set out to suppress them. With the conservatives in power, Bustamante was no longer prohibited from returning to the nation. He remained in Europe for the time being, but he was heavily affected by news of the Battle of San Jacinto in 1836, through which Mexico lost Texas. The government invited him back into the country, and the newly arrived Bustamante offered his services to the nation in the war against Texas.

Second presidency

With the fall of Santa Anna however, Bustamante was now the most high-profile conservative in the nation, and after the disastrous presidency of Jose Justo Corro, which had been unable to prevent the loss of Texas, congress voted to offer Bustamante the presidency which he accepted on April 12, 1837. He accepted, and published a proclamation explaining that he had left his peaceful retirement in Europe to offer his services to the nation in their struggle against the rebellious province of Texas. He lamented that there was a lack of funds to pursue this end, and promised to pursue impartial justice, and the good of the country.

He chose Joaquin Lebrija as the minister of the treasury, José Mariano Michelena as minister of war, Manuel de la Peña y Peña as minister of the interior and Luis Gonzaga Cuevas, known to be an associate of Bustamante's previous minister Lucas Alamán, as minister of relations.

Shortly after the inauguration, news arrived that the Spanish government had recognized Mexican independence, in a treaty concluded at Madrid with the Mexican plenipotentiary, Miguel Santa Maria on December 28, 1836. The treaty was ratified by the Mexican congress on May, 1837.

Minor revolts against the government broke out at San Luis Potosí, but were suppressed. Esteban Moctezuma who had played a key role in Bustamante's first overthrow, was killed during the government's reprisals.

Pastry War

Months of blockade and the military occupation of the Port of Veracruz would now follow stemming from French financial claims. France had long been attempting to negotiate settlements of damages experienced by its citizens during Mexican conflicts. The claims of a French baker based in Mexico City would end up giving the subsequent conflict its name.

Diplomatic talks over the matter broke down on January, 1838, and French warships arrived in Veracruz on March. A French ultimatum was rejected and France declared that it would now blockade the Mexican ports. Another round of negotiations broke down and the French began to bombard Veracruz on November 27. The Fortress of San Juan de Ulúa could not withstand the French artillery and surrendered the following day, and the Mexican government responded by declaring war. Santa Anna, who had been disgraced after recognizing Texan independence, emerged from his private life at Manga de Clavo to lead troops against the French, being given a command by the Mexican government.

On December 5, three French divisions were sent to land at Veracruz to capture the forts of Santiago, Concepcion, and to arrest Santa Anna. The forts were captured, but the division tasked with finding Santa Anna was fought off at the barracks of La Merced. Santa Anna lost a leg in the fighting which gained him much public sympathy after the disgrace he suffered for losing in Texas. Nonetheless the French had effective control of Veracruz and the results of the war so far led to Bustamante's cabinet to resign.

Great Britain which also had interests in Mexico had been feeling the effects of the French blockade,  and had anchored thirteen vessels in Veracruz as a show of force. France, who did not wish either to enter a conflict with England or to further invade Mexico once again entered into negotiations. An agreement was reached in April, 1838 which resulted in a French departure and a Mexican agreement to pay damages to France

Tampico revolt

In October 1838, another rebellion against the government broke out at Tampico, which soon placed itself under the command of General José de Urrea. The revolt spread into San Luis Potosí and Nuevo León, and the government sent Valentin Canalizo with troops that had been raised for the Pastry War. Canalizo was repulsed but not before killing the original instigator of the revolt Montenegro. Government reinforcements were sent under Garay and Lemus only to switch sides and join in the rebel siege of Matamoros. The rebels now succeeded in overthrowing the governors of Monterey and Nuevo León and in March, 1839 government reinforcements under General Cos were routed by Mejia.

Bustamante stepped down from the presidency and assumed command of the armed forces himself and marched to San Luis Potosí. The presidency in the meantime was held by Santa Anna. The rebels under Urrea and Mejia now made an incursion into Puebla, and Santa Anna headed out from the capital to meet them. Government forces under General Valencia defeated the rebels at the Battle of Acajete on May 3, 1839, and captured General Mejia who was summarily executed. Urrea however escaped and retreated into Tampico which fell to government forces on June 11 with Urrea being exiled.

The remainder of the rebels were concentrated in the northeast, received aid from Texas, and plotted to separate the northern Mexican provinces into an independent republic. The rebels however, now experienced a series of defeats at the hands of Mariano Arista before finally surrendering to the government on November 1, 1839

Third presidency

Bustamante returned to the capital on July 19, 1839, and faced criticism for his campaign which upon reaching San Luis Potosí had largely remained idle, and Bustamante defended his conduct by reminding his opponents about how he had directed the final and decisive campaigns of Arista.

Loss of Yucatán
Bustamante would now go on to face the most serious separatist crisis the country had experienced since the Texas Revolution. Years of irritation at excise taxes, levies, conscription, and increase of custom duties culminated in Iman raising the standard of revolt at Tizimin on May, 1839. Valladolid was captured in February, 1840 and joined by Mérida. The entire north-east of the Yucatán Peninsula declared itself independent until Mexico should restore the federal system. Campeche was captured on June 6, and now the entire peninsula was in the hands of the rebels, who proceeded to elect a legislature and form an alliance with Texas.

Federalist Revolt of 1840
Bustamante was not able to suppress the Yucatán movement and its success inspired the federalists to renew their struggle. General Urrea had been arrested but continued to conspire with his associates and on July 15, 1840, he was broken out of prison. With a group of select men, Urrea broke into the National Palace, snuck past sleeping palace guards, overpowered Bustamante's private bodyguard, and surprised the president in his bedchambers. As Bustamante reached for his sword, Urrea announced his presence, to which the president replied with an insult. The soldiers aimed their muskets at Bustamante, but were restrained by their officer who reminded them that Bustamante had once been Iturbide's second in command. The president was assured that his person would be respected, but was now a prisoner of the rebels. Almonte, the minister of war had meanwhile escaped to organize a rescue.

Valentín Gómez Farías, the former liberal president whose overthrow in 1833 had led to the end of the First Republic, and the creation of the Centralist Republic had now arrived in the country to take command of the revolt. Government and federalist forces now converged at the capital. Federalists occupied the entire vicinity of the National Palace while government forces prepared their positions for an attack. Skirmishes broke out the entire afternoon, sometimes involving artillery. A cannonball crashed through the dining room where the captive president was having dinner, covering his table with debris. Shortly afterwards the officer charged with watching over him was hit by another cannonball. This was the same officer who had earlier restrained the rebels from shooting Bustamante, and the president, with his background as a physician tended to his wounds.

The conflict appeared to be reaching a stalemate, and the president was released in order to try and reach a negotiation. Negotiations broke down and the capital had to face twelve days of warfare, which resulted in property damage, civilian loss of life, and a large exodus of refugees out of the city. Now news was received that government reinforcements were on the way under the command of Santa Anna. Rather than face a protracted conflict that would destroy the capital, negotiations were started again and an agreement was reached whereby there would be a ceasefire, and the rebels would be granted amnesty.

The revolt among other national disorders inspired José María Gutiérrez Estrada in October to publish an essay addressed to President Bustamante advocating the establishment of a Mexican monarchy with a European prince as the remedy for the nation's ills, his indignity over witnessing the National Palace being besieged forming a notable theme throughout the essay. President Bustamante was not sympathetic to calls for importing a foreign monarch. The resulting outrage to Estrada's monarchist plan, from both the Liberal Party and the Conservative Party was so severe that the publisher of the pamphlet was arrested, and Estrada went into hiding, subsequently fleeing the country.

Bustamante's final overthrow

After the Gomez Farias revolt, the government still had to face a seemingly insurmountable series of challenges. Tabasco was now trying to secede, the north was facing Indian raids, and a nascent Texas navy was now on the offensive against Mexico. The ever-present financial crisis had also obliged the government to raise taxes.

At the end of 1839, the tax on custom house duties was increased by fifteen percent, which offered little relief for the budget since most custom house receipts already went to cover debt. The budget of 1841 at the end of Bustamante's rule estimated the revenue at $12,874, 100, less $4,800,000 coming from customs, and the expenditures at $21,836,781, whereof $17,116,878, more than eighty percent went to the military, leaving a deficit of $13,762,681.

The increase on customs resulted in formal protests from Mexican businessmen at the capital and at Jalisco, and the commandant general of the latter, Mariano Paredes joined the protestors and formally presented their grievances to the governor. Governor Mariano Escobedo, decreed to lower taxes and imports within his own state, but the national congress nullified most of his relief measures.

Congress was pressed with a public desire for constitutional reform, but legislature stalled in the session from January to June 1841.

In response to the national crises, Mariano Paredes on August 8, 1841, published a manifesto to his fellow commander generals, calling for the creation of a new government. He gathered as many troops as he could, gathered more on the way and entered the city of Tacubaya where he was joined by Santa Anna. In September, Bustamante resigned the presidency once again to lead the troops personally and left the presidency to the finance minister Javier Echeverria. He attempted to proclaim support for the federal system in order to divide his enemies, but the ploy failed. The insurgents were triumphant and Bustamante officially surrendered power through the Estanzuela Accords on October 6, 1841. A military junta was formed which wrote the Bases of Tacubaya, a plan which swept away the entire structure of government, except the judiciary, and also called for elections for a new constituent congress meant to write a new constitution. Santa Anna then placed himself at the head of a provisional government.

Later years
As he did after his first overthrow, Bustamante went to Europe. When Santa Anna fell from power in 1844, he once again returned to offer his services to the nation in its increasing tensions with the United States.

Under president Paredes, Bustamante was made a senator for the national constitutional assembly that was to mee in June, 1846. Bustamante was wary of changing the constitution, but when the assembly met he was made president of the congress.

While offering his services, he did not see major action during the Mexican–American War. He was sent on an expedition to reinforce California, but never made it due to budget issues, and a diversion to control an uprising in Mazatlán. After the cease-fire, he was assigned to suppress another revolt carried out by Paredes, and he succeeded, pacifying Guanajuato, Aguascalientes, and the Sierra Gorda. This series of victories would be the last campaign of Bustamante's long military career. He was amongst those opposed to the Treaty of Guadalupe which lost the nation half of its territory, but as the final ratification was approaching and Manuel de la Peña y Peña asked him on the wisdom of continuing the war, Bustamante merely replied that he would obey the government regardless of what it decided upon.

After the war Bustamante retired from politics and made his residence at San Miguel de Allende. He spent his time talking with his friends and recounting his eventful political career or whatever had grabbed his attention during his trips. He died on February 6, 1853, at the age of seventy-two. He was buried at the Parish of San Miguel de Allende. His heart was buried next to the remains of Iturbide at the National Cathedral.

See also

List of heads of state of Mexico

References

Sources
 Andrews, Catherine. "The Political and Military Career of General Anastasio Bustamante, 1780–1853", PhD diss., University of Saint Andrews, UK, 2001 .
 "Bustamante, Anastasio", Enciclopedia de México, vol. 2. Mexico City, 1996, .
 García Puron, Manuel, México y sus gobernantes, v. 2. Mexico City: Joaquín Porrua, 1984.
 Orozco Linares, Fernando, Gobernantes de México. Mexico City: Panorama Editorial, 1985, .
 Macías-González, Víctor M. "Masculine friendships, sentiment, and homoerotics in nineteenth-century Mexico: the correspondence of Jose Maria Calderon y Tapia, 1820s–1850s". Journal of the History of Sexuality, vol. 16, 3 (September 2007): 416–35.

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Presidents of Mexico
Vice presidents of Mexico
Presidents of the Chamber of Deputies (Mexico)
Leaders who took power by coup
Mexican generals
1780 births
1853 deaths
19th-century Mexican people
19th-century presidents of Mexico
1830s in Mexico

People from Jiquilpan, Michoacán
Mexican Roman Catholics
19th-century Mexican military personnel
19th-century Mexican politicians
Mexican independence activists

Anastasio Bustamante


The water engine is a positive-displacement engine, often closely resembling a steam engine with similar pistons and valves, that is driven by water pressure. The supply of water was derived from a natural head of water, the water mains, or a specialised high-pressure water supply such as that provided by the London Hydraulic Power Company. Water mains in the 19th century often operated at pressures of 30 to 40 psi, while hydraulic power companies supplied higher pressure water at anything up to 800 psi.

The term water motor  () was more commonly applied to small Pelton wheel type turbines driven from a mains water tap (e.g. Whitney Water Motor), and mainly used for light loads, for example sewing machines.

In the nineteenth century, the terms hydraulic motor and hydraulic engine often implied reference to any motor driven by liquid pressure, including water motors and water engines used in hydropower, but today mentions of hydraulic motors, unless otherwise specified, usually refer more specifically to those that run on hydraulic fluid in the closed hydraulic circuits of hydraulic machinery.

Description
Because water is virtually incompressible, the valve gear of water engines is more complicated than that used in steam engines, and some water engines even had a small secondary engine solely to power the operation of their valves. Closing a valve too quickly can cause very large pressures to result, and pipework to explode (a phenomenon similar to water hammer), and in addition to valves designed to close slowly, many water engines used air chambers to provide some absorption of force by compressing the air in them.

History

It is unclear when or where water engines were invented, but it is possible that they were first used in the mines in central Germany; certainly such a device was described by Robert Fludd after he had visited Germany around 1600.

Applications
During the 19th century water engines were extensively used in the city of London, operating on high-pressure water supplied by the London Hydraulic Power Company via its extensive network of pipes. Even when practical electric motors entered use, water engines remained popular for some years as they possessed several advantages: they were quiet, reliable, cheap to run, compact, safe, and could be relied on to operate reliably in damp or waterlogged conditions unsuited to electrical apparatus, such as powering water pumps in mines, where their ability to continue operating even while completely submerged was a major advantage.

Other applications included usage by the railway companies, where they powered railway turntables, cranes, hoists, etc., revolving stages at the London Palladium and Coliseum Theatre, and powering pipe organs.

Water-column engines
The largest possible design of a water engine is the directly acting water-column engine or water column machine (German: Wassersäulenmaschine). Such devices had been in use for pumping purposes in different mining areas since the middle of the eighteenth century and one was used, for example, by Georg Friedrich von Reichenbach in 1810 to pump brine from Berchtesgaden to Reichenhall.

Similar to the function of a  hydraulic ram the water being admitted is transported by another medium. The differently-sized pistons of the water-column engine run on a single axle; its control loosely resembles that of a steam engine. Water-column engines were used in the transportation of brine, pumping it from one place to another.

Water engines in washing machines
The water engine was also successfully used in washing machines, e. g. from 1914 by the firm of Miele. These washing machines, which were very common especially in rural areas until the 1960s, comprised a wooden tub with a rotating cross built into the cover. This 'star handle' was rotated in regular, to and fro, movements by two pistons which were connected to the water mains. The washing effect was achieved by the constant movement of the washing in the washtub filled with soap suds (Lauge) and/or water.

The large amount of water used was less important because plenty of used water was often available and was very cheap. In addition, in thrifty rural households the water used to drive it was often used for other purposes as well.

A prerequisite for the correct function of the water engine was sufficient pressure in the water pipes. In times of high water consumption (before or after work) the water pressure was often insufficient. In hard winters, in which the water pipes often froze, the water engine could not be used. For these reasons the washing machines still had a device that enable them to be rotated by 'muscle power'.

With the invention of the modern washing machine these washtubs with their water engines disappeared from the market.

References

External links

 Water engines by Douglas Self
 The workings of a water-column engine (java applet)

Hydraulic actuators
Water power

Water engine


The Honolulu Sailor's Home is a non-profit lodge for international merchant seamen.  The home was incorporated in May 1855 with a lot obtained by a grant from the Kingdom of Hawaii.  Originally located on Bethel Street adjacent to the Port of Honolulu,  it is now located one block away at 707 Alakea Street

History
The original grant included a clause "that no intoxicating liquors shall be drank on the premises", and "no women of lewd character admitted".  Hawaiian King Kamehameha IV laid the cornerstone for the home with "appropriate ceremonies" on Restoration Day, July 31, 1855.  In October of that year, the Reading Room was opened for public use.  On September 11, 1856, the home was officially opened as lodging for merchant seaman.  The chairman of the Executive Committee was Rev. Samuel C. Damon, who published a newspaper called the Friend in the building.

Sailors who died on the island without family were buried in the Oahu Cemetery, in a plot purchased for that purpose.

References

External links
Official Website

Buildings and structures in Honolulu
1855 establishments in Hawaii
Buildings and structures completed in 1856

Honolulu Sailor's Home


Hermann (Ritter von) Lingg (22 January 1820 – 18 June 1905) was a German poet who also wrote plays and short stories. His cousin, Maximilian von Lingg, was Bishop of Augsburg.

He was born in Lindau. Lingg studied medicine at the universities of Munich, Freiburg, Berlin, and Prague, and became a doctor in the Bavarian Army. From 1839, he was a member of the Corps Suevia München. His battalion was used to quell revolutionary uprisings in Baden; forced to act against his convictions, he fell into severe depression, entered a mental hospital in 1851 and soon submitted his resignation. From that point on, he lived in Munich and devoted himself to historical and poetic studies, financially supported by King Maximilian II. His marriage to a forester's daughter in 1854 improved his mental stability, and a pension (with occasional financial support from friends, such as Max von Pettenkofer and Justus von Liebig, and the German Schiller Foundation) improved their living standards.

Lingg first gained attention with a collection of poems introduced by Emanuel Geibel (Stuttgart 1853). His most famous work is Die Völkerwanderung ("The Great Migration", Stuttgart, 1866–68, 3 vols). He was ennobled in 1890.

His poem "Immer leiser wird mein Schlummer" was set by Johannes Brahms as No. 2 of his Fünf Lieder, Op. 105 and  Max Bruch's cantata Salamis is based on another of his poems. His manuscripts are now located in the Bavarian State Library. There are streets named after him in both Munich and Lindau.

Works
 Catilina, 1864
 Die Walküren, 1865
 Vaterländische Balladen und Gesänge, 1868
 Liebesblüten aus Deutschlands Dichterhain, lyrical collection, 1869
 Gedichte, 3rd book, 1870
 Zeitgedichte, 1870
 Wanderungen durch die internationale Kunstausstellung in München, 1870
 Violante, tragedy, 1871
 Dunkle Gewalten, epic poetry, 1872
 Die Besiegung der Cholera, play, 1873
 Der Doge Candiano, 1873
 Berthold Schwarz, 1874
 Die Sizilianische Vesper, 1876
 Macalda, tragedy, 1877
 Schlusssteine, poems, 1878
 Byzantinische Novellen, stories, 1881
 Von Wald und See, stories, 1883
 Clytia. Eine Szene aus Pompeji, 1883
 Skaldenklänge, collection of ballads by contemporary poets (with Gräfin Ballestrem), 1883
 Högnis letzte Heerfahrt. Nordische Szene, 1884
 Lyrisches, poems, 1885
 Die Bregenzer Klause, 1887
 Meine Lebensreise, autobiography, 1899

Bibliography
 Emil Pfaff: Hermann Lingg als epischer Dichter. Ebering, Berlin 1925.
 Frieda Port: Hermann Lingg. Eine Lebensgeschichte. Beck, München 1912.
 Walter Knote: Hermann Lingg und seine lyrische Dichtung. Mayr, Würzburg 1936.
 Arnulf Sonntag: Hermann Lingg als Lyriker. Lindauer, München 1908.
 Manfred Zschiesche: Hermann Lingg. Eine Erscheing des deutschen Spätklassizismus. Mit besonderer Berücksichtigung seiner Dramen. Korn, Breslau 1940.

References

External links

 Transkriptionen bei ngiyaw eBooks - sowie Digitalisate bei ngiyaw Sources
 "Über moderne Lyrik" von Hermann Lingg im Projekt "Lyriktheorie"
 Paul Heyse: Autobiographisches, Jugenderinnerungen und Bekenntnisse, 5. König Max und das alte München, Das Krokodil

1820 births
1905 deaths
German poets
Burials at the Alter Nordfriedhof (Munich)
German male poets
19th-century poets
German-language poets
19th-century German writers
19th-century German male writers

Hermann Lingg


A duty-free shop (or store) is a retail outlet whose goods are exempt from the payment of certain local or national taxes and duties, on the requirement that the goods sold will be sold to travelers who will take them out of the country, who will then pay duties and taxes in their destination country (depending on its personal exemption limits and tariff regime). Which products can be sold duty-free vary by jurisdiction, as well as how they can be sold, and the process of calculating the duty or refunding the duty component.

Tax Free World Association (TFWA) announced that in 2011 Asia-Pacific, with 35 percent of global duty-free and travel retail sales, has more duty free than Europe or the Americas, with these regions accounting for 34 percent and 23 percent respectively. 31 percent of sales came from the fragrances and cosmetics category, followed by the wine and spirit category with 17 percent and then comes tobacco products.

However, some countries impose duty on goods brought into the country, though they had been bought duty-free in another country, or when the value or quantity of such goods exceed an allowed limit. Duty-free shops are often found in the international zone of international airports, sea ports, and train stations  but goods can also be bought duty-free on board airplanes and passenger ships. They are not as commonly available for road or train travelers, although several border crossings between the United States and both Canada and Mexico have duty-free shops for car travelers. In some countries, any shop can participate in a reimbursement system, such as Global Blue and Premier Tax Free, wherein a sum equivalent to the tax is paid, but then the goods are presented to customs and the sum reimbursed on exit.

Duty-free are abolished for intra-EU (inside the EU tax union) travelers but are retained for travelers whose final destination is outside the EU. They also sell to intra-EU travelers but with appropriate taxes.

The world's largest airport by duty-free sales is South Korea's Incheon Airport, with US$1.85 billion in 2016, narrowly overtaking Dubai Duty Free with 2016 sales of $1.82 billion.

Haikou International Duty-Free City Shopping Complex is the world's biggest stand-alone duty-free store in terms of physical size. Located in Haikou, Hainan, China, the buildings have a total area of 280,000 square meters.

History

1947-1990: duty free establishment
Brendan O'Regan established the world's first duty-free shop at Shannon Airport in Ireland in 1947; it remains in operation today. Designed to provide a service for trans-Atlantic airline passengers typically travelling between Europe and North America whose flights stopped for refuelling on outbound and inbound legs of their journeys, it was an immediate success and has been copied worldwide. Thirteen years later, two American entrepreneurs, Charles Feeney and Robert Warren Miller, founded what is now Duty Free Shoppers (DFS) on 7 November 1960. DFS started operations in Hong Kong and spread to Europe and other places around the globe. Securing the exclusive concession for duty-free sales in Hawaii in the early-1960s was a commercial breakthrough for DFS, which enabled the company to focus on Japanese travelers. DFS continued to innovate, expanding into off-airport duty-free stores and into large downtown Galleria stores; it grew to become the world's largest travel retailer. In 1996 LVMH Moët Hennessy Louis Vuitton acquired the interests of Feeney and two other shareholders and  jointly owned DFS with Miller.

In this same period, several locales grew as duty-free shopping destinations. They are exemplified by Saint Martin and the US Virgin Islands in the Caribbean, Hong Kong and Singapore. Still others claim prices competitive to duty-free. Generally, goods are free of duty and tax levied on imports for sale anywhere in the shopping destination. Merchants may pay inventory/business or other taxes, but their customers usually pay none directly.

The mere absence of duty or other taxes on goods being sold does not assure that they are bargains. Costs of identical goods from different duty-free sources can vary widely. They often depend on the presence or absence of nearby competition, e.g., airport stores, especially if all at any airport are owned by a single firm such as Dufry. Also, prices can often be driven upward by the costs of buyer convenience, e.g., in-flight sales by airlines. Many airlines, such as Emirates, El Al, Singapore Airlines, Middle East Airlines, Ukraine International Airlines, Delta, and Avianca,
offer duty-free sales on their flights.

1991-2021: EU duty free changes
In 1991, the EU decided to keep some duty free for a transition period until 1999.

In 1999, after the creation of the European Union, the single market and the monetary union, these outlets were abolished for intra-EU travellers but are retained for travelers whose final destination is outside the EU. They also sell to intra-EU travelers but with appropriate taxes. Some special member state territories such as Åland, Livigno and the Canary Islands, are within the EU but outside the EU tax union, and thus still continue duty-free sales for all travelers.

In 2021, with Brexit duty free are reintroduced in three British nations: England, Wales and Scotland. This allows reduced taxes on wine, Champagne or Prosecco, beer and spirits as well as on cigarettes, cigarillos, cigars, or tobacco.

Duty-free shopping away from ports
Some duty-free shops operate in central business districts away from airports or other ports. In Japan, for example, any visitor whose passport indicates that they have been in the country for less than six months can buy items without paying consumption tax, so long as the total purchase value exceeds ¥5,000 and the items will not be consumed in Japan. Duty-free shops are a mainstay in the Akihabara electronic shopping district of Tokyo.

In Thailand, the King Power chain has shops where duty-free items are pre-purchased and delivered separately to the airport to be picked up on departure. For certain other purchases, a VAT refund may be claimed at the airport upon departure.

In the Philippines, there is one shopping mall called the Duty Free Philippines Fiestamall, which is located a few miles away from Ninoy Aquino International Airport as opposed to being at the airport itself. It is the only shopping mall of its kind in the world. The goods that are sold in this mall are often imported products which come from around the world (mainly from United States, Asia and Australasia) and are not found in any other shopping malls in the country, aside from duty-free malls. Tourists, visitors and returning citizens of Philippines often pay a visit to this mall shortly after their arrival (since only arriving passengers and their companions are allowed access). In order to gain entry, a passport is needed to be presented and registered at the Customer Registration Counter at the entrance of the mall. The customer will then be issued a shopping card; these shopping cards must be presented to the cashier for validation of purchases. Arriving customers are given a certain tax-free allowance on purchases and anything in excess will be subject to local and national taxes. In the past, the mall used to only accept US dollars and Philippine peso but in recent years, it had begun accepting other currencies such as Japanese yen, Brunei dollar, Australian dollar, British pound, Canadian dollar, Euro, Swiss franc, Saudi riyal, Bahraini dinar, and Thai baht. Currency exchange booths are also available inside the mall if a customer wishes to exchange currencies into Philippine pesos or US dollars. Credits cards can also be used for purchasing goods.

In Australia, duty-free shops, once common, have all but disappeared since the introduction of GST in 2000. Retailer James Richardson operates several duty-free shops in major cities, but most duty-free shops are now located within international airports. Residents and tourists are allowed to purchase virtually any physical good within 60 days of departure, which needs to be taken on the outward flight, and claim the GST component back through the Tourist Refund Scheme when passing through customs. Consumers are now free to fully use their items prior to departure. This is in contrast prior to 2000, where all purchases had to be packed by the duty-free store in a sealed clear plastic bag, and could only be broken open by customs staff just prior to departure.

Duty-free outside EU ports

Any traveller living in a country outside the EU VAT area is entitled to shop tax-free at participating shops in the EU. Tax free shopping differs from duty-free shopping as the traveller pays the VAT on goods in the shop in the usual way, and can then request a refund when exporting the goods. There are a number of tax-free operators who can support both the stores and the traveler through this process. To qualify, the traveller must:

have residency in a non-EU country
have a maximum stay of six months within the EU
make purchases no more than three months prior to export
obtain a form from the shop where he or she makes the purchase (depending on the tax-free operator)
present the form, and in certain cases the goods, to a customs officer or DIVA machine when leaving the EU, where they will be stamped

Only goods meant for personal use are eligible for the refund. The stamped forms and receipts can then be sent back to the retailers, or their agents, for a refund.

In most cases, a minimum purchase applies to use the tax-free shopping scheme. The actual amount of VAT reclaimable depends on the VAT rate applicable in the particular country to the goods purchased, and may be subject to a deduction for administration fees.

Security considerations
Travelers on long-haul routes with at least one transit stop between their departure airport and destination airport should be careful to purchase their duty-free alcohol or perfume at the last transit port, as otherwise they may have it confiscated by security when they board at the transit port, as they will be exceeding the current limit on liquids in hand baggage. This does not apply to passengers transferring within the EU and Singapore on the same day, as long as the liquid item is sealed in a plastic security bag with the receipt showing in the bag. Arrivals duty-free shops are now becoming more common. Most of South and Central America, and the Caribbean have such shops, as does South East Asia and Oceania. Switzerland and Canada are looking to introduce them in 2010. This method of retail removes any security problems with the transit of liquids, as they are not carried on aircraft.

Several airlines do not allow sales of certain sharp objects in-flight due to security risk. Other objects that have sharp parts, such as model airplanes, may be bought in-flight but received at the passengers' home address for the same reason.

Boarding Pass / Passports
Proof of travel may be requested at the checkout point to prevent airport employees from making personal purchases.

Inbound duty-free
Some countries or districts, including Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Chile, China, Colombia, Iceland, Italy, Iran, India, Jamaica, Kenya, Lebanon, Malaysia, New Zealand, Norway, Panama, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Switzerland, Taiwan, Turkey, United Arab Emirates and Uzbekistan have inwards duty-free facilities, where arriving passengers can purchase duty-free items immediately before going through customs. This not only saves the inconvenience of having to carry these items around the world but also solves the security problem mentioned above. Other countries such as Canada and Sweden have been considering duty-free on arrival. The European Union does not permit arrivals duty-free stores; some EU airports sell goods on arrival in the baggage claim area described as "Tax-Free", but these goods are all tax-paid sales, the local sales tax is discounted. Normally, discounted liquors or tobacco products cannot be bought when arriving into an EU Member State as there is often a high local Excise Duty on these goods as well as the local sales tax (VAT/IVA/TVA) which is included in the price. In some EU Territories the tax on tobaccos and liquors is lower than in other EU countries, which is why the prices still seem competitive and look like duty-free prices. A good example is the difference in tobacco prices between the UK and Ireland, compared to Spain or Portugal.

Legal basis
It is a common feature of most tax systems that taxes are not raised on goods to be exported. To do so could place the goods at a disadvantage to those from other countries, for example if the tax rate in the territory of sale is higher than the tax rate in the territory of consumption. Either the tax system allows the goods to be exported without taxes (stored prior to export in a bonded warehouse), or taxes can be claimed back when they are exported (see VAT).

Such exemption also applies to goods supplied for use on ships and aircraft, because they are consumed outside the country. Businesses supplying such goods can do so tax- and duty-free.

Goods sold to passengers on board ships or aircraft are tax free. The passenger can either consume them on board, or import them tax-free into the country they are traveling to, so long as they are within the traveler's duty-free allowance. Most tax regimes also allow travelers entering a country to bring in a certain amount of goods for personal use without paying tax on them, the so-called "duty-free allowance"; because it is not economically justifiable to collect the small amounts of tax involved, and would be an inconvenience to the passengers.

A duty-free shop works under the same system. The goods must be exported intact (they cannot be consumed in the country of sale), and they are importing into the destination country under that country's own tax rules. In some countries, in order to ensure that goods are exported intact, they are hand-delivered in a closed bag to the passenger at the gate after their ticket is scanned. In the United States, duty-free shops are technically considered class 9 Bonded Warehouses with regard to the U.S. Customs & Border Protection:
 Class 9. Bonded warehouse, known as duty-free stores, used for selling, for use outside the Customs territory, conditionally duty-free merchandise owned or sold by the proprietor and delivered from the Class 9 warehouse to an airport or other exit point for exportation by, or on behalf of, individuals departing from the Customs territory for destinations other than foreign trade zones. Pursuant to 19 U.S.C. 1555(b)(8)(C), Customs territory, for purposes of duty-free stores, means the Customs territory of the U.S. as defined in 101.1(e) of this chapter, and foreign trade zones (see part 146 of this chapter). All distribution warehouses used exclusively to provide individual duty-free sales locations and storage cribs with conditionally duty-free merchandise are also Class 9 warehouses.

Moreover, in the U.S. some duty-free stores will sell their goods to domestic passengers with appropriate taxes included. Alcohol and tobacco products are restricted to international passengers only and subject to the age limitations of 18 and 21 respectively, even though the age one must be to import those items into other countries may be lower.

Visiting U.S. protectorates
U.S. citizens receive substantially higher duty exemptions than normal when they visit or transit these locales, e.g., Guam, U.S. Virgin Islands.

Competition

According to Autogrill / World Duty Free case, duty free is a market where competition is kept both in the EEA market and in the global market. Even with the 2008 merge of the two biggest duty free operators, Autogrill and World Duty Free, they together own less than 10% of the global market and less than 20% of the EEA market.

See also
 Fuel tax, jet fuel used in international flights is sold wholesale
 List of duty-free shops

References

External links

U.S. Customs and Border Protection Regulations for International Travel by U.S. Residents ("Know Before You Go")

Customs duties
Borders
Retail formats
Special economic zones
Tax avoidance
1947 introductions

Duty-free shop


Marinus Anton Donk (14 August 1908 – 2 September 1972) was a Dutch mycologist. He specialized in the taxonomy and nomenclature of mushrooms. Rolf Singer wrote in his obituary that he was "one of the most outstanding figures of contemporary mycology."

Early life
Donk was born in Situbondo, East Java in 1908, and completed secondary school in The Hague, Netherlands. He studied biology at the University of Utrecht, starting in 1927. As a graduate student in mycology he completed the work for his 1931 "Revisie van de Nederlandse Heterobasidiomyceteae" (Revision of the Dutch Heterobasidiomycetes). He completed his studies and attained a doctorate degree in 1933 with the second part of his work, Revisie van de Nederlandse Heterobasidiomyceteae II.  Afterwards he returned to Java, where he worked from 1934 to 1940 as a teacher, and, starting from 1941 as a curator in the herbarium of the Buitenzorg Botanical Garden. He was interned in a Japanese prison camp from 1942 to 1945. During his time there, he managed to culture yeast that grew in palm inflorescences in the camps; he used the yeast to ferment rice, which provided essential vitamins for the prisoners.

Career
Donk's main research area was on the taxonomy of the mushrooms, especially the Aphyllophorales and Heterobasidiomycetes. He was involved in the development of a modern system to classify the Aphyllophorales and influenced nomenclatural rules for mushrooms.

Donk became Head of the Herbarium Bogoriense from 1947 to 1955, and a Deputy Professor at the University of Indonesia in 1952. It was around this time when he became interested in nomenclature. After returning to Holland, he was the head of the Mycological Department at Rijksherbarium in Leiden from 1956 to 1972, and a member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences from 1954 to 1960. Donk was also the president of the Nomenclature Committee of the International Botanical Congresses, in the Committee for Fungi and Lichens. Together with his colleague Rudolph Arnold Maas Geesteranus, Donk founded the journal Persoonia in 1959.

He was honoured in 1973, when 2 botanist published Donkioporia, which is a genus of fungi in the family Fomitopsidaceae.

Selected publications
(1931) Revisie van de Nederlandse Heterobasidiomyceteae (uitgez. Uredinales en Ustilaginales) en Homobasidiomyceteae-Aphyllophraceae : I. (Revision of the Dutch Heterobasidiomycetes (except for the Uredinales and Ustilaginales) and Homobasidiomycetes: Aphyllophraceae) in Mededeelingen van de Nederlandsche Mycologische Vereeniging (Proceedings of the Dutch Mycological Association) 18:20 S. 67–200.
(1933) Revisie van de Nederlandse Heterobasidiomyceteae (uitgez. Uredinales en Ustilaginales) en Homobasidiomyceteae-Aphyllophraceae : II. in Mededeelingen van het Botanisch Museum en Herbarium van de Rijks Universiteit te Utrecht 9 S. 1–278.
(1949) New and revised nomina generica conservanda proposed for Basidiomycetes (Fungi) in Annales du Jardin Botanique de Buitenzorg (Annals of the Buitenzorg Botanical Garden) 3rd series, 18 S. 83–168.
(1949) Nomenclatural notes on generic names of agarics (Fungi: Agaricales) in Annales du Jardin Botanique de Buitenzorg (Annals of the Buitenzorg Botanical Garden) 3rd series, Bd. 18 S. 271–402
(1959) Notes on Cyphellaceae: 1 in Persoonia 1 S. 25–110.
(1962) The generic names proposed for the Agaricaceae in Beihefte Nova Hedwigia (supplement to Nova Hedwigia) 5 S. 1–320.
(1962) Notes on Cyphellaceae: 2 in Persoonia 2 S. 331–348.
(1964) A conspectus of the families of Aphyllophorales in Persoonia 3 S. 199–324.
(1964) The generic names proposed for Polyporaceae in Persoonia 1 S. 173–302.

Taxa described
Clavariadelphus Donk
Datronia Donk
Osteina Donk
Ramariopsis (Donk) Corner (as Clavaria subg. Ramariopsis)
Thanatephorus Donk

Eponymous taxa
Donkella Doty 1950 (now Clavulinopsis)
Donkia Pilat 1937 (now Climacodon)
Donkioporia Kotl. & Pouzar 1973

Further reading

References

1908 births
1972 deaths
People from Situbondo Regency
20th-century Dutch East Indies people
Dutch mycologists
Dutch curators
Indonesian people of Dutch descent
Academic staff of the University of Indonesia
Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences
20th-century Dutch botanists

Marinus Anton Donk


The Airline Deregulation Act is a 1978 United States federal law that deregulated the airline business in the United States. It removed all of the federal government control over such areas as fares, routes, and market entry of new airlines.

It introduced a free market in the commercial airline business and led to a great increase in the number of flights, a decrease in fares, an increase in the number of passengers and miles flown, and a consolidation of carriers.

Notes

1978 in the United States
United States federal legislation

Airline Deregulation Act


Major John Buttrick (July 20, 1731 May 16, 1791, Concord, Massachusetts) was one of the leaders of the Concord militia during the Battle of Concord on April 19, 1775.  Given the usual interpretation of the first stanza of Ralph Waldo Emerson's famous poem "Concord Hymn," Buttrick is the man who ordered "the shot heard around the world."

Battle of Concord

Buttrick played two notably critical roles in the Battle of Concord. Prior to the battle, the Concord militia and neighboring towns—then outnumbered by about 700 to 250—retreated to a ridge overlooking Concord as its command discussed immediate strategy. Colonel James Barrett surrendered the town of Concord and led the men across its Old North Bridge to a hill about a mile north of town, where they could continue to watch the troop movements of the British and the activities in the center of town. (This step proved fortuitous, as the ranks of troops continued to grow as Minuteman companies and additional militia arriving from the western towns joined them there.)

British Companies from the 4th and 10th Regiments, led by relatively inexperienced commander Captain Walter Laurie, had been stationed to guard their return route of the British troops; one company from the 43rd Regiment remained guarding the bridge itself. Upon seeing smoke rising from the village square, and seeing only a few companies directly below them, Colonel Barrett decided to march back toward the town from their vantage point on Punkatasset Hill to a lower, closer flat hilltop about 300 yards (274 m) from the North Bridge. Five full companies of Minutemen and five more of militia from Acton, Concord, Bedford and Lincoln occupied this hill as more groups of men streamed in, totaling at least 400 against Captain Laurie's light infantry companies, a force totaling 90–95 men.

As the militia advanced, the by now outnumbered British troops retreated from their position near the road to the bridge, yielding the hill to Barrett's men.  Barrett ordered the Massachusetts men to form one long line two abreast on the highway leading down to the bridge. At around 10:30 a.m., after further consultation with his fellow officers, Barrett told the men to load their weapons but not to fire unless fired upon, and then ordered them to advance to the bridge.  The militia troops approached the bridge in a column of two men abreast, they were led by their officers: Captain Isaac Davis, Major Buttrick of Concord, and Lt. Col. John Robinson of Westford.

The column of Minutemen and militia advanced on the light infantry in formation, keeping to the road, since it was surrounded by the spring floodwaters of the Concord River.  Laurie ordered the British companies guarding the bridge to retreat across it. One officer then tried to pull up the loose planks of the bridge to impede the colonial advance, but Major Buttrick began to yell at the regulars to stop harming the bridge, preserving the militiamen's ability to continue to pursue their aims.

When the provincials were within about 75 yards of the bridge, the Regulars fired a few warning shots, wounding one.  The British then fired a disorganized volley. Captain Davis was shot through the heart, becoming the first officer to die in the American Revolutionary War.  At the same moment, Private Abner Hosmer of Acton became the first non-commissioned soldier to die. Seeing these casualties, Buttrick commanded, "Fire, fellow soldiers, for God's sake fire!"

The provincials returned fire, causing the British to abandon their wounded and immediately raced towards the advancing companies of British grenadiers approaching from Concord.  This left isolated the companies that had been searching fruitlessly for the colonists' munitions at Barrett's farm. Buttrick and his militiamen then crossed the bridge to assume a defensive posture behind a stone wall.

As the detachment of regulars sent to Barrett's farm marched back, they passed through the now mostly-deserted battlefield and saw dead and wounded comrades lying on the bridge. One who had been killed by a hatchet to the head looked to them as if he had been scalped, angering and shocking them. They crossed the bridge and returned to the town by 11:30 AM, under the watchful eyes of the colonists, who continued to maintain defensive positions. The regulars continued to search for and destroy colonial military supplies in the town, ate lunch, reassembled for marching, and left Concord after noon. This delay in departure gave colonial militiamen from outlying towns additional time to reach the road back to Boston—on which they would inflict upon the British their worst casualties of the day.

Legacy
Inscribed at the base of the statue called "The Minute Man," placed on the approximate site of Davis's death, is the first stanza of his "Concord Hymn," written in 1836:

While the first shots of the exchange, like all shots that had found their targets earlier that morning at the skirmish in Lexington, had come from the British, it was the colonists' retort that Emerson had intended to memorialize.  That first ever wartime attack by the colonial forces of the American Revolutionary War came at the order of the Major marching at the head of their advancing line, John Buttrick.

A street in Fitchburg Massachusetts bears his name in memorial.

Notes

References

External links
https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/7519886

1731 births
1791 deaths
Massachusetts militiamen in the American Revolution
People from Concord, Massachusetts
People of colonial Massachusetts

John Buttrick