Fort Wainwright is a United States Army installation in Fairbanks, Alaska. Fort Wainwright is part of the Fairbanks North Star Borough and the coterminous Fairbanks Metropolitan Statistical Area. The installation is managed by U.S. Army Garrison Alaska (USAG Alaska) and the senior command is 11th Airborne Division. Fort Wainwright was formerly known as Ladd Field (1939-1945) and Ladd Air Force Base (1947-1961); it was renamed Fort Wainwright in honor of General Jonathan M. Wainwright, a Medal of Honor recipient for his courageous leadership as commander of U.S. forces during the fall of the Philippines in World War II. Ladd Field was designated as a National Historic Landmark (NHL) on 4 February 1985 and Ladd Air Force Base was designated as Ladd Air Force Base Cold War District and was added to the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) on the same day. With over 1.6 million acres of land spanning across the Fairbanks North Star Borough and Southeast Fairbanks, Fort Wainwright is the largest U.S. military installation by area outside the contiguous United States.

Geography

Location
Fort Wainwright is located in Interior Alaska, between the Alaska Range in the south and the Brooks Range in the north. Fort Wainwright's boundaries are located within the Fairbanks North Star Borough. To the west is the City of Fairbanks, and to the southeast is the City of North Pole. Fort Wainwright resides on both sides of the Chena River, a 100-mile tributary of the Tanana River.

Demographics
The total population to include the workforce on Fort Wainwright is approximately 15,000 personnel. There are roughly 6,500 military members, 5,700 military dependents, 1,250 civilian employees including appropriated and non-appropriated fund employees and over 400 contractors.

Climate
Fort Wainwright is located in a subarctic climate with seasonal temperature extremes. Temperature extremes have been recorded from −66 °F to +94 °F (−54 °C to +34 °C). The average low temperature is in January at −17 °F (−27 °C) with the average high temperature is during July at +73 °F (+22 °C). The annual precipitation averages 12 inches (305 mm) of rain and 37 inches (94 cm) of snow. Fort Wainwright is approximately 190 miles south of the Arctic Circle. The hours where the sun is above the horizon averages 22 hours in June with twilight during the night hours and less than 4 hours in December. The climate creates a short construction season for installation projects. It also potentially contributes to Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) among the workforce.

Geology
Fairbanks falls in a region with discontinuous permafrost, a condition where permafrost is broken by pockets of unfrozen ground. This, coupled with the periglacial effect of seasonal freezing and thawing, can drastically modify the ground surface. Construction engineering in this environment requires additional planning to avoid the potential for hazards of ground movement or collapse.

Cultural resources

Historic and archeological sites
Fort Wainwright has a Cultural Resources Management Program that is responsible for over 1.6 million acres of Army-managed land with a diverse array of resources including historical buildings, a national historic landmark, archeological sites, and properties of traditional religious and cultural significance. There are over 650 prehistoric archeological sites on Fort Wainwright and its training lands that date from the last ice age (14,000 years ago) to the Alaskan homesteading era. USAG Alaska have several agreements in place in regards to historical findings and archaeological digs. Partnerships include the State of Alaska Historical Preservation office and the University of Alaska Fairbanks' Museum of the North who curates the archeological relics.

Native Liaison
The U.S. Army Garrison Alaska (USAG Alaska) provides an Alaska Native Liaison that manages the Native Liaison/Government to Government program for Fort Wainwright. Fort Wainwright's cantonment and training areas is made up of Army-withdrawn land that support resources that have been utilized by the Alaska Native community for thousands of years. U.S. Army Alaska (USARAK) and USAG Alaska support the policy of tribal self-determination through support for Army's government-to-government relationship with tribes and implementing the Army American Indian and Alaska Native Policy, Department of Defense (DoD) American Indian and Alaska Native Policy, the policy's Alaska Implementation Guidance, and DoD Instruction 4710.02: Interactions with Federally-Recognized Tribes.

Major tenants and supported units
11th Airborne Division ''Arctic Angels''
HHC Reception Group
1st Infantry Brigade Combat Team, 11th Airborne Division "Arctic Wolves"
1st Battalion, 5th Infantry Regiment "Bobcats"
1st Battalion, 24th Infantry Regiment "Legion"
5th Squadron, 1st Cavalry Regiment "Black Hawks"
2d Battalion, 8th Field Artillery Regiment "Automatic"
70th Brigade Engineer Battalion "Kodiaks"
25th Support Brigade "Opahey"
65th Explosive Ordnance Disposal Company "Dreadnought" (Higher HQ is in Hawaii)
1st Battalion, 52d Aviation Regiment, 16th Aviation Brigade
1st Battalion, 25th Aviation Regiment, 25th Aviation Brigade
17th Combat Sustainment Support Battalion
402d Army Field Support Battalion – Logistic Readiness Center
Northern Warfare Training Center
U.S. Army Garrison Alaska - Installation Management Command
Medical Department Activity – Alaska (Bassett Army Hospital/Veterans Center)
Dental Activity - Alaska
Veterinary Command
412th Contracting Command
U.S. Army Reserve Center

History
In the 1930s Alaska was a vast undefended region where Alaska's territorial delegates to congress lobbied to obtain a better defense strategy. Then-Lt. Col. Henry "Hap" Arnold led a flight of B-10 bombers from Washington D.C. to Alaska in 1934 scouting for potential airfields. His report recommended the establishment of an air base at Fairbanks which could support cold weather testing and serve as a tactical supply depot.

In 1935, Congress passed the Wilcox National Air Defense Act which authorized the construction of new airbases including one in Alaska for cold weather testing and training. March 1937, President Franklin Roosevelt withdrew public land for the Army in Executive Order 7596 as the location for the airfield and the base. Congress approved appropriated funds in 1939 for the construction of Ladd Field, named after Maj Arthur Ladd, an Army Air Corps pilot who perished in an airplane crash in South Carolina while under sealed orders.

World War II

Cold-weather test station

The construction of Ladd Field began in earnest early in 1940, prompted by the declaration of war in Europe months before. During its first two years of operations, Ladd Field's mission was as a cold-weather test station. The station commander was Maj. Dale V. Gaffney. The cold weather station focused primarily on testing aircraft performance and maintenance. Its major goal was to develop standard procedures for servicing and operating aircraft in subzero temperatures and to test various airplane parts and fluids. The testing program looked at other aspects of arctic operations to include clothing, communication, equipment, survival gear, medical issues, and ground support.

During 1940–1942, Ladd Field was devoted to research and considered an "exempt station" from combat. In June 1942, Japan bombed Dutch Harbor, on the Aleutian Island of Unalaska, and occupied the islands of Attu and Kiska. The Cold Weather Test Station was deactivated and Ladd Field came temporarily under control of the 11th Air Force who fell under the Alaska Defense Command. By fall of 1942, the Cold Weather test Station was reactivated and became an exempted research station again.

Lend-Lease program

In 1942, under Lend-Lease agreements, the United States provided war planes and materials to the Soviet Union to use against Nazi Germany. Ladd Field was selected as the transfer point for Lend-Lease aircraft transiting the Alaska-Siberia (ALSIB) route. More than 7,900 aircraft were eventually delivered to Soviet pilots waiting at Ladd field who would then fly them to Nome and across Siberia to the eastern war front. To facilitate this mission, Ladd Field was transferred to the Air Transport Command (ATC) for the remainder of the war.

Under the ATC, Ladd field expanded with a new hangar and runway along with hundreds of temporary building to house the large workforce needed to support the mission. By June 1945 Ladd Field was capable of billeting 4,555 troops. Cold weather testing continued its mission as a tenant unit on Ladd. The conclusion of WWII marked the end of the Lend-Lease Program in September 1945. Military personnel left Alaska and Ladd Field was transferred from ATC back to 11th Air Force.

Women's Army Corps (WAC)

1st Lt. Woodall was the very first WAC to be stationed at Ladd Field, arriving in January 1945 to work as an aerial photographer with the Cold Weather Test Detachment. At Ladd Field, her duties included establishing the Extreme Temperature Operations Unit (ETOU) laboratory that tested photographic equipment on military aircraft. This required her to cross the Arctic Circle in a B-29 at high altitude making her the first armed forces female to fly to the arctic. The 1466th AAF Base Unit Squadron W arrived at Ladd Field in April.  Maj. Betty Etten Wiker, then a 1st Lieutenant (1st Lt.) served as the WAC commanding officer at Ladd Field. The WAC served in various positions, from office work to performing field duty as medics and airplane mechanics. One tenth of the Ladd Field WACs were assigned duties within Army Airways Communication System (AACS). The WAC departed from Ladd Field in December 1945 after the end of the Lend-Lease Program.

Cold War
In 1945, rivalry developed between the United States and the Soviet Union resulting in the Cold War. The proximity of the Soviet Union to Alaska in a post-war long-range bomber age spurred the development of the Arctic front. The Arctic would encompass many activities for the Department of Defense to include use as a forward deployment zone and as a first line of defense in the region. In 1947, due to the National Securities Act, the Air Force was designated as a separate branch from the Army. Ladd Field was renamed Ladd Air Force Base commanded by the 11th Air Force. During this time Eielson airfield was established to supplement Ladd AFB with a separate B-36 bomber mission.

In the early years of the Cold War, Ladd AFB's missions included; assessing the Soviet presence in the Arctic by strategic reconnaissance; supplying a regional air defense asset; improvement of the practice of polar navigation; and continued cold weather testing of equipment, clothing and human performance. In 1948, the Army sent the 2nd Infantry Division to Ladd AFB with a mission of ground defense.

During the Korean War in 1950 and through to 1957 Ladd AFB saw a rise in tempo and an increase in their logistics operations. The base became the logistical support center for Alaska's defense projects. Research expanded creating an ice station research center to analysis and track polar ice packs; perform geophysics projects and expand communication networks. The 4th Infantry Regiment provided the combat mission man power through 1956.

By 1957, intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) and satellites reduced the role for Ladd AFB. In 1960, with two major airbases in close proximity, coupled with economic pressures, the Air Force stopped flying operations at Ladd and reassigned them to Eielson AFB and to Elmendorf AFB in Anchorage. The Air Force transferred Ladd to the Army on 1 January 1961, and the installation was renamed Fort Wainwright after WWII General, Jonathan M. Wainwright.

In 1963, the 171st Infantry Brigade (mechanized) was activated at Fort Wainwright to defend Eielson AFB.  Several elements of the 171st IN (Mech) deployed to Vietnam in 1966. In 1969, the 171st Infantry transitioned from mechanized to light infantry and were subsequently inactivated in 1972 from Fort Wainwright. Ladd Field was designated as a National Historic Landmark (NHL) on 4 February 1985. Ladd Air Force Base was designated as Ladd Air Force Base Cold War District and was added to the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) on the same day. In 1986, Fort Wainwright expanded their mission beyond the Arctic to support world-wide deployments. USARAL was discontinued in 1974. This left the 172nd Infantry Brigade at Fort Richardson to assume control of the Army in Alaska, reporting directly to FORSCOM at Fort McPherson, Georgia. In 1986, the 6th Infantry Division (light) was assigned to Fort Richardson and assumed the role of overall Army Command in Alaska from the 172nd Infantry Brigade. The 6th ID provided a rapid-deployment worldwide strike force and participated in worldwide training events.

Post–Cold War

In 1994, U.S. Army Alaska (USARAK) was activated and replaced the 6th Infantry Division, reestablishing the Alaskan Command. The 2004 Army Modernization Plan, created to facilitate deployments to Afghanistan and Iraq, created modular brigade combat teams. This configuration transformed the 172nd Infantry Brigade at Fort Richardson into the 1st Stryker Brigade Combat Team (SBCT), 25th Infantry Division (1/25 SBCT) stationed at Fort Wainwright becoming its dominant warfighting unit. The newly transformed 4/25 BCT (Airborne) remained at Fort Richardson. The mission of the 1-25 SBCT (no "/" is used for this unit) was to deploy rapidly "to a designated contingency area of operation by air and [conduct] operations either as a separate Brigade Combat Team or under the control of a contingency force headquarters."  Equipped with wheeled Stryker armored vehicles, the brigade filled the gap between light forces like the 4/25 BCT (Airborne) and heavy, armored units. In June 2022, U.S. Army Alaska reflagged to the 11th Airborne Division subsequently making the former 1-25 and 4-25 1st Infantry Brigade and 2nd Infantry Brigade of the 11th Airborne Division, respectively.

Training and recreation areas
Fort Wainwright manages over 1.6 million acres of training and recreation land. Training areas include Tanana Flats, Yukon, Donnelly, Black Rapids and Gerstle River. Seasonally, these areas can be used by the military and the public for recreation activities by obtaining a Recreation Access Permit. The U.S. Army Recreation Tracking Systems (USARTRAK) has been established to facilitate public access on Fort Wainwright training lands and allows recreational users to check in by phone or online. The USARTRAK website has updated training area map information depicting impact areas and off limit areas. It also shows when and where certain training areas will be temporarily restricted during training exercises.

Fort Wainwright manages specialized outdoor recreation areas in the cantonment area to include Chena Bend Clubhouse and Golf Course, Birch Hill Ski and snowboard Area, Fischer Skeet range and two RV and tent campgrounds. Fort Wainwright also manages the Seward Military Resort located on the Kenai Peninsula.

Quality-of-life issues
In 2019, a behavioral health epidemiological consultation, or EPICON, was requested after Alaskan Congressman Don Young sent a letter to the Surgeon General of the U.S. Army and Commanding General, U.S. Army Medical Command requesting a team of medical professionals to be sent to Fort Wainwright to examine the situation on the ground in relation to a number of reported suicides. Observed findings were consistent with suicide cases in previous EPICONs. Soldiers who died by suicide had indications of multiple risk factors, these included chronic pain, relationship issues, and trouble sleeping.

Concurrently, in 2019, the Army initiated a pilot program to target quality-of-life improvements at Fort Irwin, California; Fort Polk, Louisiana; and Fort Wainwright, Alaska. General Gus Perna, Commander for the Army Materiel Command (AMC), emphasized that increasing quality of life across the force remains a top priority for Army senior leaders.

General Perna stated that "Quite frankly, Fort Wainwright is in an austere environment, ...Fort Irwin and Fort Polk are also austere, but it is where we do all of our [brigade combat team] training. We send our best leaders at all levels that go train our BCTs ... to places that don't have a lot of quality of life."

On Fort Wainwright, USARAK and USAG Alaska implemented a number of Quality of Life initiatives that included blackout curtains barracks to boost the ability to sleep during the 24-hours of sunlight in the summer, planning the construction of winter maintenance facilities to improve workplace quality during extreme cold weather and generous leave policies for soldiers allowing for more time with family in an attempt to reduce an isolation effect in an austere environment.

By 2022, the Army and Defense Health Agency began hiring behavioral health providers as well as family life counselors to support the installation's soldiers and reduce wait times. This included temporary positions until full-time providers were made available all as part of the Army's recently established Mission 100 program. Additionally, resources were made available to new families to include loaner furniture, increased funding and expanded routes for the post shuttle, and increasing access to Alaskan ski facilities. The year prior, Option 20 became available to new Army recruits to enable them to choose Alaska as a duty station, allowing for more region-specific volunteers to be stationed there.

Environmental issues

Site contamination
Since 1978, Fort Wainwright has been participating in the Department of Defense Installation Restoration Program to investigate and clean up contamination. In 1985 and 1986, lead and chromium were detected in monitoring wells at the landfill. In 1987, chromium and tetrahydrofuran were detected in monitoring wells at the proposed housing area, and chromium was detected in soil. About 15,000 people live and work at the fort and obtain drinking water from wells in close proximity to contaminated source areas. The Chena River also runs through the contaminated area of Fort Wainwright.

National priorities listing
In August 1990 Fort Wainwright was registered on the national priorities list as a Superfund. In most source areas, groundwater is contaminated with solvents and petroleum products, in a few source areas, with pesticides and/or fuel additives. Soil contains some solvents, waste oil, waste fuel/petroleum products, pesticides, paint residues, fuel tank sludge and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Sediments contain PAHs and low level pesticides. Contaminants on the site also include mercury.

Taku Gardens
To meet the needs of new personnel and their families, construction of 128 homes on a 54-acre housing project known as Taku Gardens began in 2005 on the former communications site. In June, 2005 construction workers noticed "stained soil and unusual odors during excavation of a building foundation" and laboratory testing revealed the presence of PCB at concentrations of up to 115,000 mg/kg - Alaska's current clean-up standard is 1 mg/kg. Further testing of the site revealed the presence of volatile and semi-volatile organic compounds, chlorinated compounds including solvents, herbicides, pesticides, dioxins, and "munitions-related compounds" such as nitroaromatics and propellants. Construction was suspended August–September 2005 and continued until end of 2006. A January, 2007 Army audit questioned "the wisdom of building a family housing complex on top of a known 1950s-era military landfill" and concluded that "the situation with the Taku construction project is the direct result of multiple individuals failing to adhere to Army and federal regulations and guidance. From 2007 to 2010 drums and debris were excavated, PCB contaminated soil was removed and backfilled, but some fuel and volatile organic compound-contaminated soil and groundwater remains on site.

Construction of the housing project resumed during the summer of 2011. In the intervening years, many housing units between Taku Gardens and the main gate were reconstructed or renovated, with new housing built as well. Immediately northeast of Taku Gardens, Bear Paw was built on a part of the former site of Bassett Army Hospital, while construction of new homes began on the rest of the site in 2011. Immediately northeast of Bear Paw, Denali Village, a much larger development, was constructed between Glass Park and the former billeting. Taku Gardens area, the newer housing across from Bassett Hospital was renamed to Tanana Trails in 2015.

Hangar 6
In June, 2006, civilian construction workers at Aircraft Maintenance Hangar No. 6 – known by the Corps of Engineers to be a designated Hazardous Waste Accumulation point – were overcome by fumes described as "pungent, chalky and metallic tasting" and suffered nausea, headaches and other symptoms. A state health report concluded that "an unknown, volatile chemical likely caused nerve damage to the disabled workers." More than 30 workers were hospitalized and at least 4 have suffered lasting disabilities. The workers initiated a civil suit against the Army which was dismissed because the workers were limited to state workers' compensation as their only relief.

Underground storage fuel tanks
EPA inspections found that from at least 2012 to 2013, Fort Wainwright failed to monitor underground storage tanks regularly, perform leak detection tests, and investigate suspected releases. The Army paid a penalty of nearly $158,700.

References

Additional reading

External links

Buildings and structures in Fairbanks, Alaska
Wainwright
Installations of the United States Army in Alaska
Military installations established in 1961
Military Superfund sites
Superfund sites in Alaska

Fort Wainwright


Blessed Thomas Holford Catholic College is a secondary school based in Altrincham, Greater Manchester. The school specialises in maths and computing, and is named after Blessed Thomas Holford, a 16th-century priest from Cheshire. The college has a Catholic identity, and all pupils are required to wear uniform.

Curriculum
The college puts emphasis on maths and computing, and follows the Key Stage process. At Key Stage 3 in year 7 & 8, the pupils take the following subjects:
English (3 hours)
Maths (4 hours)
Science (3 hours)
Religious Education (2.5 hours)
Design Technology (3 hours) - Woodwork, food technology, graphic design, art, music, PSHCE
Computer Science (1 hour)
French/Spanish (2 hours)
History (2 hours)
Geography (2 hours)
Physical Education (2 hours)
Drama (1 hour)
For GCSE, the pupils take core subjects including English language, English literature, Science, Mathematics, RE, computer science or BTEC and PE although not to complete as a GCSE. Pupils choose from a variety of additional subjects, including history, geography, art, health and social care, physical education, food technology, business studies, classics, music, Italian, drama, French, German, Japanese, Spanish. BTEC courses for sport are also available. Pupils have to take at least one, but not more than three, of History, Geography, Spanish and French. Out of all the other subjects a maximum of two can be chosen.

Academic performance and Ofsted judgements

In 2019, the school was above national average for Section 48.

It was judged Outstanding by Ofsted in 2012 and 2009. In 2022 its inspection rating was 'Requires Improvement'.

Football Academy
The school has a UEFA-standard FieldTurf artificial grass football pitch which was opened in April 2007 by Bobby Charlton. The pitch, which cost £1 million to install, was used by the England national football team for training prior to an away game against Russia at the Luzhniki Stadium in Moscow, as it uses the same surface as the Russian pitch.

References

Secondary schools in Trafford
Catholic secondary schools in the Diocese of Shrewsbury
Altrincham
Voluntary aided schools in England

Blessed Thomas Holford Catholic College


The General Directorate for National Roads and Motorways () is the central authority of national administration set up to manage the national roads and implementation of the state budget in Poland. The GDDKiA was established on 1 April 2002 by the Polish Ministry of Transportation.

The directorate was formed by a consolidation of the:
 General Directorate of Roads (, est. 23 March 1951)
 Public Agency for Construction and the Operations of Motorways (, est. 8 June 1995).

The head of administration of the GDDKiA is the Director-General of National Roads and Motorways. The GDDKiA consists of 16 provincial branches and also the Regional Country Roads offices, which manage roads in their territories. In addition the Directorate-General of the History of Roads resides in Szczucin, and is responsible for preserving any road monuments.

The GDDKiA is the central government body responsible for national roads and also performs the duties of:
 Participation in the implementation of road transport policy
 Collection of data and information about the network of public roads
 Supervising the preparation of road infrastructure for the defense of the nation
 Issuing permits for a single journey, within a specified time and for a fixed route, of non-standard vehicles
 Cooperating with other road administrations and international organizations
 Cooperation with local governments for the development and maintenance of road infrastructure
 Management of traffic on the national roads
 Protection of road monuments
 Performing the tasks associated with preparing and coordinating the construction and operation of paid motorways
 Managing payment for transit in accordance with the provisions of paid highways and the National Fund for traffic.

References

External links
 Archived official website
 Current official website

Government agencies of Poland
Transport organisations based in Poland
Road authorities

General Directorate for National Roads and Highways


George Owen Knapp (January 21, 1855 – July 21, 1945) was a wealthy industrialist and philanthropist. He was the President of Peoples Gas Light and Coke Company in Chicago, by 1893. In 1894 he was a founder of the Union Calcium Carbide Company which he reformulated as Union Carbide in 1904. He was CEO and President, and the board chair of Union Carbide until 1933.

Knapp's philanthropy was broad, but where he focused it was in medical care. He funded the growth and provided key leadership to Santa Barbara Cottage Hospital starting in 1914. In 1931 he funded the Knapp Hospital in Crescent City, California.

Background
Knapp grew up in Hatfield, Massachusetts, son of Jared Owen Knapp and Sara Elizabeth Beach Knapp. He attended Hatfield High School and Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, graduating in 1876 with a degree in Civil Engineering. He worked as an engineer for the War Department for one year, then joined the New Britain Gas Company in Connecticut. Moving to New York, he worked as a gas main inspector and then worked at laying out new mains for the Fullerton Municipal Gas Works. In 1883, he moved to Chicago where he joined Peoples Gas Light and Coke Company.

Calcium Carbide
Knapp worked at Peoples for twenty-one years, becoming president in 1893. While there, he became close friends with the son of the prior company president, Albert Merritt Billings. Albert's son was Cornelius Kingsley Garrison Billings who later became President of Peoples, and co-founder with Knapp of Union Carbide.

Knapp learned of calcium carbide (discovered in 1888) in 1894. The colorless compound was used in the production of acetylene and calcium cyanamide. Acetylene was critical to the large and quickly growing steel industry for its use in welding. That year, with Billings, he formed the Union Calcium Carbide Company. Over the next ten years, Knapp focused on getting the business off the ground.

By 1904, Knapp had his first processing plant at Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan, and he reincorporated Union Calcium Carbide Company as Union Carbide. Over the next decade, Knapp opened two processing plants at Niagara Falls, New York, and another at Sault Ste. Marie.

First Family and Residence
Knapp married Isabel Murray in 1880. The couple had two children, Sarah Estelle Knapp and William Jared Knapp. Isabel died in childbirth in 1886 taking their third child with her. In 1890, Knapp remarried to Louise Savage. The couple never had children.

Most of the year, the Knapps lived where George Owen Knapp worked, in New York. They had a residence at 955 Park Avenue and a country home on Polly Park Road in Rye, New York.

In 1894, the Knapps purchased the Hundred Island House and another hotel at Lake George (New York). He continued to buy adjacent land over the next two decades until he owned over 12 square miles of lake front. He started building his own home on the property in 1901, a large stone and shingle mansion with a cable car to run people down to the lake and back.  In 1922, he donated the Old Stone House Library to the community.

It is believed that in 1904, Knapp, who was perhaps fifty or sixty pounds overweight, was diagnosed with diabetes and instructed by his physician, Franklin Nuzum, to take a health retreat to California.

Knapp in Santa Barbara
The Knapps, traveling with the Billingses, came by train west to Santa Barbara, and stayed at the Potter Hotel in 1904. They returned the next year and purchased 11 parcels of land in Montecito, California, near the beach where they stated they had plans to build. They did not return for six years.

When they returned in 1911, the Knapps made Santa Barbara a more permanent residence. Staying at the Potter for six weeks, they purchased the 70-acre Arcady estate in Montecito from Ralph Radcliffe Whitehead and sold the 11 beach parcels. The Knapp's launched an expansion of the already large home, with E. Russell Ray as architect. The remodel was completed a year later and the Knapp's moved in during August 1912. The gardens at Arcady were designed by Carleton Winslow and Francis T. Underhill.

The Knapps extended their holdings to 148 acres at Arcady, and began purchasing other local properties. They acquired beachfront property at Sandyland Cove, California, where the Knapps, the Billingses, and the Frederick Forrest Peabodys all owned adjacent homes and property. Knapp also purchased six separate mountain estates above Santa Barbara.

The most famous of these was Knapp's Castle. Knapp purchased the land in 1916 and built roads in to make it accessible. He built a large stone and wood retreat with five bedrooms and five fireplaces. The site also had a guest house, servant's quarters, and a superintendent's house.

Other mountain retreats Knapp owned in the area were the Laurel Springs Ranch (purchased in 1925), which he refurbished and made available as a nurse's retreat (and which was the future home of Jane Fonda and Tom Hayden), the El Capitan Ranch at Refugio Pass, Indian Camp (aka Wagon Wheels), Lower Indian Camp (aka Punch Bowl), and Agua Caliente Springs.

The Four Horsemen
Knapp, Billings, Peabody, and Clarence Black all lived in the same Eucalyptus Hill area of Montectio and as all owned horses, were soon called the Four Horsemen of Eucalyptus Hill. The moniker in part was given because the four acted together in philanthropic efforts, especially for Santa Barbara Cottage Hospital.

Founded by 50 women in 1888, the hospital was transitioning from convalescent treatment to modern insurance-based medical care in the early 1910s. A new hospital building was needed, and the all-women board sought outside assistance for the first time. They first met with Clarence Black, President of Cadillac, in 1914 and asked him to form a board and take over. Black made the hospital's plight known to his friends and all four, over the next year or two, joined the board and began funding the hospital's growth in significant ways.

Knapp at Cottage
Knapp first became involved in 1914 by funding the purchase of a new X-ray department including the Kelly Koett X-ray machines. He joined the hospital board in 1916, and donated funds to retire the hospital's debt in 1917. In 1917, Knapp also funded the first Dispensary in Santa Barbara, serving the populace who could not afford hospitals or physicians.

Over the next decade, Knapp provided funding for a new maternity building, the Potter Metabolic Clinic wing, a Children's wing, a 50-bed patient care wing, and the 1923 Louise Savage Knapp School of Nursing. He brought in architect E. Russell Ray who was superseded by Winsor Soule. Later he brought in Carleton Winslow.

Knapp became President of the Board in 1919, and brought his personal physician from Chicago, Dr. Franklin Nuzum, to serve as Chief of Staff. When Milo Potter died in 1919 as the Potter Metabolic Clinic was being opened, it was Nuzum who recommended Dr. William David Sansum. Sansum came to Santa Barbara to run the Potter Clinic, and as the sole practitioner in the United States using insulin for the treatment of diabetes, made crucial contributions to the substance's development.

In 1920, as board president, Knapp wrote the hospital's credo in the Annual Report, "First, every item of hospital equipment and management must be considered from the standpoint of the good of the patient. No other consideration must come before this. No personal motives or convenience of the officers of the hospital, of the nurses, or of the physicians in charge have any place till the good of the patient has been taken care of. Second, the poorest charity patient in the hospital must have as good attention and care, and have every function of the hospital at his disposal, as the patient with unlimited wealth."

During Knapp's era of leadership, Santa Barbara Cottage Hospital became a premiere research, learning, and practicing hospital. It attracted patients from across the country for its successful treatment of diabetes, and the spa-quality rooms and service.

Final Years
Louise Savage Knapp died in 1924, and Knapp never remarried. Following her death, he soon retired from active responsibilities at Union Carbide, and traveled even more extensively than before.

He purchased land in Northern California at Rock Creek, on the southern fork of the Smith River (California). The boat trip to the hunting lodge he built there took two-hours, so Knapp had a 180-hp airplane motor mounted to his river boat, Arcady. The trip then took 30 minutes. After a flood decimated the lodge at Rock Creek, Knapp purchased one at a safer location.

As hospitals were scarce in the region, he donated the funds to build Seaside Hospital (aka the Knapp Hospital) in Crescent City, California. That hospital opened in 1931.

He spent the last years of his life as a patient at Santa Barbara Cottage Hospital and died there on July 21, 1945.

References

1855 births
1945 deaths
People from Hatfield, Massachusetts
People from Lake George, New York
People from Santa Barbara, California
Burials at Santa Barbara Cemetery

George Owen Knapp


Wilhelm Griesinger (29 July 1817 – 26 October 1868) was a German neurologist and psychiatrist born in Stuttgart.

Life and career
He studied under Johann Lukas Schönlein at the University of Zurich and physiologist François Magendie in Paris. After receiving his doctorate, he worked in several locations, including Winnethal in Württemberg, in Stuttgart (private practice), in the medical clinic at Tübingen, and at the University of Kiel.

In 1845 Griesinger published his influential textbook Die Pathologie und Therapie der psychischen Krankheiten.

In the early 1850s he traveled to Egypt as director of the medical school in Cairo, and in the meantime became a personal physician to Abbas I. During his stay in Egypt, he gained experience in regards to tropical diseases, and as a result published Klinische und anatomische Beobachtungen über die Krankheiten von Aegypten (1854) and Infectionskrankheiten (1857).

In 1854 he returned to the University of Tübingen as a professor of clinical medicine, succeeding his friend Carl Wunderlich (1815–1877) as director of the Tübingen medical clinic. In 1859 Griesinger became head of an institution for mentally handicapped children in the small town of Mariaberg, and beginning in 1860, participated in the planning of the Burghölzli Mental Hospital in Zurich.

In 1865 he moved to Berlin, where he succeeded Moritz Heinrich Romberg (1795–1873) as director at the Charité university polyclinic. In Berlin he founded a medical-psychological society, the Berliner Medicinisch-psychologische Gesellschaft, and established an influential psychiatric journal, the Archiv für Psychiatrie und Nervenkrankheiten. In 1868, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. He died in Berlin.

Legacy
Griesinger is remembered for initiating reforms in treatment of the mentally ill as well as introducing changes to the existing asylum system. He believed in integration of the mentally ill into society, and proposed that short-term hospitalization be combined with close cooperation of natural support systems. He also provided valuable insights on the nature of psychopathic behavior. In the preface for the first issue of the Archiv für Psychiatrie und Nervenkrankheiten, Griesinger wrote, "Psychiatry has undergone a transformation in its relation to the rest of medicine. ... This transformation rests principally on the realization that patients with so-called 'mental illnesses' are really individuals with illnesses of the nerves and brain." Today, the Wilhelm Griesinger Hospital in Berlin is named in his honor.

Associated eponym
 "Griesinger's sign": Erythema and edema over the mastoid process due to septic thrombosis of the mastoid emissary vein and thrombophlebitis of the sigmoid sinus.

Published works

 Herr Ringseis und die naturhistorische Schule ("Johann Nepomuk von Ringseis and the natural history school"). "Archiv für physiologische Heilkunde" 1 (1842)
 Theorien und Thatsachen ("Theories and Facts"). "Archiv für physiologische Heilkunde" 1 (1842)
 Über den Schmerz und über die Hyperämie ("Concerning pain and congestion"). "Archiv für Physiologische Heilkunde" 1 (1842)
 Über psychische Reflexaktionen. Mit einem Blick auf das Wesen der psychischen Krankheiten ("Concerning mental reflex actions. With a glance at the nature of mental illnesses"). "Archiv für physiologische Heilkunde" 2, p. 76 (1843)
 Neue Beiträge zur Physiologie und Pathologie des Gehirns ("New contributions to the physiology and pathology of the brain"). "Archiv für physiologische Heilkunde" (1844)
 Pathologie und Therapie der psychischen Krankheiten ("Pathology and treatment of mental diseases"). Stuttgart: Krabbe, 1845; second edition, Braunschweig 1861
 Ueber Schwefeläther-Inhalationen ("Concerning sulfur-ether inhalation"). "Archiv für physiologische Heilkunde" 6, pp. 348–350 (1847)
 Bemerkungen über das Irrenwesen in Württemberg ("Remarks about psychiatric care in Württemberg"). "Württemberg Medic. Correspondenzblatt" (1848/49)
 Klinische und anatomische Beobachtungen über die Krankheiten von Aegypten ("Clinical and anatomical observations on the diseases of Egypt"). "Archiv für physiologische Heilkunde" 13, pp. 528–575 (1854)
 Infectionskrankheiten ("Infectious diseases"); in Virchow's "Handbuch der speciellen Pathologie und Therapie". Erlangen (1857)
 Zur Kenntnis der heutigen Psychiatrie in Deutschland. Eine Streitschrift gegen die Broschüre des Samitätsrats Dr. Laehr in Zehlendorf: "Fortschritt? – Rückschritt!" ("For the attention of today's psychiatry in Germany, A polemic against the brochure of Heinrich Laehr from Zehlendorf: 'Progress? - Backwards!'"). Leipzig: Wigand (1868)
 Über Irrenanstalten und deren Weiter-Entwicklung in Deutschland ("About asylums and their further development in Germany"). "Archiv für Psychiatrie und Nervenkrankheiten" 1 (1868)
 Gesammelte Abhandlungen ("Collected essays"), 2 volumes. Berlin: Hirschwald (1872)

Notes

References
 Wilhelm Griesinger at Who Named It
 "Parts of this article are based on a translation of an equivalent article at the German Wikipedia, whose references include": ADB:Griesinger, Wilhelm at Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie.

External links

1817 births
1868 deaths
German psychiatrists
Physicians from Stuttgart
People from the Kingdom of Württemberg
Academic staff of the University of Kiel
Academic staff of the University of Tübingen
Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
History of psychiatry
Physicians of the Charité

Wilhelm Griesinger


The Saddlehorn Caretaker's House and Garage, also known as the Stone House, the Rock House, and the Superintendent's Quarters is a house and asset listed as part of the National Register of Historic Places located in the Colorado National Monument.

History

Design and construction

The Saddlehorn Caretaker's House and Garage was designed in 1934 by architect W.G. Carney of the National Park Service's Western Division of the Branch of Plans and Design. The structure was built between 1935 and 1936 by members of the Civil Conservation Corps, its construction being funded with money appropriated from the Emergency Conservation Work (ECW) Act of 1933. The house and the associated properties are located at the intersection of Rim Rock Drive and the Saddlehorn Loop, named after a distinctive nearby rock formation. Many of the construction workers were sourced from the CCC and were hired with New Deal Relief appropriations. They were trained by locally sourced stonemasons and carpenters. The construction was administered by Public Works Administration. Materials for the build were sourced from the immediate vicinity around the site, and from the Rim Rock Drive construction project, which was also located in the Colorado National Monument.

Functions

The structure was designed with a domestic nature in mind. The house and garage was used to shelter workers of the Civilian Conservation Corps. The workers were based out of Camp NM-2-C, which was set up in March 1933 at the Monument Canyon trail-head but was moved to a more permanent location at Saddlehorn. There had been no permanent structure for the CCC to use while working in the area up until the construction of the building.

In addition to the Caretaker's house, there had also been plans drawn up in 1935 to construct:
A baseball field (labeled "Baseball Field for CCC Camp")
A permanent administration building to take over from the Caretaker's house
A recreation hall
A mess hall
A latrine
Five barracks to house workers

Plans for a much larger, more permanent camp had been finalized by mid-1935. There is a record from the park's Chief Ranger that one of the structures was set on fire as a fire training exercise. The last buildings were removed in the early 1960s when newer facilities were built elsewhere.

The Caretaker's House and Garage ceased to be used in 1942, as the majority of workers either volunteered or were drafted into military service in World War II. The National Register of Historic Places lists the house and garage as 'vacant/not in use' as of June 2020.

Architecture

The exterior of the structure is described by Kathy McCoy of the National Park Service as being:

"...gabled, of moderate rise, and is covered with cedar shingles. The main structure at the gable ends has weatherboard wood siding with exposed log purlin ends. Louvered vents are located under each gable. The residence has one off-center coursed ashlar sandstone chimney. The two small wings at either end of the building have gabled roofs. All wood trim is painted rust color. A detached stone garage is located to the southwest and is associated with the residence."

The interior features a living room, two bedrooms, a kitchen, and bathroom. The kitchen, bathroom, and basement were remodeled in 1973.

The materials used in its construction include locally sourced red sandstone, much of which came from the immediate vicinity of the buildings, logs, and concrete as a foundation.

See also
Saddlehorn Utility Area Historic District
Saddlehorn Comfort Station
Colorado National Monument
Civilian Conservation Corps

References

External links

Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in Colorado
Houses completed in 1935
National Register of Historic Places in Colorado National Monument
National Park Service rustic in Colorado
Houses in Mesa County, Colorado
Civilian Conservation Corps in Colorado
Works Progress Administration in Colorado
Historic American Buildings Survey in Colorado
1935 establishments in Colorado

Saddlehorn Caretaker's House and Garage


Sila María González Calderón (born May 3, 1965, on San Juan, Puerto Rico) is a Puerto Rican attorney and former senator. She is the daughter of former Governor of Puerto Rico Sila Calderón, and served as her First Lady, along with her sister, María Elena. After that, she served as a member of the Senate of Puerto Rico from 2005 to 2013. She currently works as an attorney for the McConnell Valdés law firm.

Early years and University of Puerto Rico

Sila María González was born on May 3, 1965, on San Juan, Puerto Rico to engineer Francisco Xavier González and Sila Calderón. She studied elementary and junior high school at the Colegio Puertorriqueño de Niñas in Guaynabo, finishing high school at Saint John's School in Condado.

In 1987, she obtained her bachelor's degree in Economy from the University of Pennsylvania with a concentration on International Commerce from Wharton School of Economics. She continued studying law at Boston University, graduating in 1990. After passing the bar exam, she started working as an attorney in Massachusetts.

Professional career: 1990-2000

Sila María González worked as Assistant Regional Counsel in the Superfund area of the Environmental Protection Agency in Boston. In 1992, she returned to Puerto Rico and obtained the license to practice law in the island, on Federal Court, and on the Court of Appeals for the First Circuit in Boston.

She started working as a corporative attorney for the Ledesma, Palou & Miranda Law Firm, and then for O'Neill & Borges where she specialized in real estate and notary. She then worked for the Maldonado Nicolai Law Firm for two years, mostly on commercial closings for financial institutions.

Political career: 2004-2013

Sila María was elected to the Senate of Puerto Rico on the 2004 general elections. She was reelected on 2008. During her time in the Senate, she has been the speaker for commissions on Education, Family Affairs, Treasury, Government, and Ethics.

In September 2011, González announced she wouldn't run for a third term in the Senate citing a desire to return to her private life. In her statement, González remarked that she felt "shame" in being part of the 16th Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico, which has faced the resignations of seven legislators due to public scandals of corruption, drug use, and others.

Return to private life

After finishing her term in the Senate, González returned to her profession as an attorney. In January 2013, it was announced that she would join the McConnell Valdés law firm. According to the firm website, González main areas of practice include general corporate work and government affairs.

Personal life

Sila María González has three children from her first marriage. During her time as First Lady, she was in a relationship with reporter Ramón "Papo" Brenes. She was also in a brief relationship with fellow senator Héctor Martínez Maldonado. In 2012, she confirmed she was in a relationship with businessman Manuel Rivera González with whom she planned to marry.

References

External links
 Hon. Sila M. González Biography on SenadoPR

1965 births
Living people
Popular Democratic Party members of the Senate of Puerto Rico
Puerto Rican party leaders
20th-century Puerto Rican women lawyers
20th-century American women lawyers
21st-century Puerto Rican women lawyers
21st-century American women lawyers
21st-century American lawyers
21st-century Puerto Rican women politicians

Sila María González Calderón


Jean Le Clerc, also Johannes Clericus (March 19, 1657 – January 8, 1736), was a Genevan theologian and biblical scholar.  He was famous for promoting exegesis, or critical interpretation of the Bible, and was a radical of his age. He parted with Calvinism over his interpretations and left Geneva for that reason.

Early life

Le Clerk was born in Geneva, where his father, Stephen Le Clerc, was professor of Greek. The family originally belonged to the neighborhood of Beauvais in France, and several of its members acquired some name in literature. Jean Le Clerc applied himself to the study of philosophy under Jean-Robert Chouet (1642-1731) the Cartesian, and attended the theological lectures of Philippe Mestrezat, François Turrettini and Louis Tronchin (de) (1629-1705). In 1678-1679 he spent some time in Grenoble as tutor in a private family; on his return to Geneva he passed his examinations and received ordination. Soon afterwards he went to Saumur.

In 1682 he went to London, where he remained for six months, preaching on alternate Sundays in the Walloon church and in the Savoy Chapel. Due to political instability, he moved to Amsterdam, where he was introduced to John Locke and to Philipp van Limborch, professor at the Remonstrant college. He later included Locke in the journals he edited; and the acquaintance with Limborch soon ripened into a close friendship, which strengthened his preference for the Remonstrant theology, already favorably known to him by the writings of his grand-uncle, Stephan Curcellaeus (d. 1645) and by those of Simon Episcopius.

A last attempt to live at Geneva, made at the request of relatives there, satisfied him that the theological atmosphere was uncongenial, and in 1684 he finally settled in Amsterdam, first as a moderately successful preacher, until ecclesiastical jealousy reportedly shut him out from that career, and afterwards as professor of philosophy, belles-lettres and Hebrew in the Remonstrant seminary. This appointment, which he owed to Limborch, he held from 1684, and in 1725 on the death of his friend he was called to occupy the chair of church history also.

Apart from literary work, Le Clerc's life at Amsterdam was uneventful. In 1691 he married a daughter of Gregorio Leti. From 1728 onward he was subject to repeated strokes of paralysis, and he died 8 years later, on 8 January, in Amsterdam.

Views
His suspected Socinianism was the cause, it is said, of his exclusion from the chair of dogmatic theology.

Published works
In 1679 in Saumur were published Liberii de Sancto Amore Epistolae Theologicae (Irenopoli: Typis Philalethianis), usually attributed to Leclerc. They deal with the doctrine of the Trinity, the Hypostatic union of the two natures in Jesus Christ, original sin, and other topics, in a manner unorthodox for the period. In 1685 he published with Charles Le Cène Entretiens sur diverses matières de théologie.

In 1685 he published Sentimens de quelques theologiens de Hollande sur l'histoire critique du Vieux Testament composée par le P. Richard Simon, in which, while pointing out what he believed to be Richard Simon's faults, he advanced views of his own. These included: arguments against the Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch; his views as to the manner in which the five books were composed; and his opinions on the subject of divine inspiration in general, in particular on the Book of Job, Book of Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Canticles. Simon's Réponse (1686) drew from Le Clerc a Defence des sentimens in the same year, which was followed by a new Réponse (1687).

In 1692 appeared his Logica sive Ars Ratiocinandi, and also Ontologia et Pneumatologia; these, with the Physica sive de rebus corporeis (1696), are incorporated with the Opera Philosophica, which have passed through several editions. In his Logica, Le Clerc rewrites the Catholic Port-Royal Logique from a protestant Remonstrant perspective and supplements the Logique with analyses taken from Essay of his friend, John Locke.
In turn, Charles Gildon published a partial and unattributed translation of Le Clerc's Logica as the treatise "Logic; or, The Art of Reasoning" in the second (1712) and subsequent editions of John Brightland's Grammar of the English Tongue.
In 1728, Ephraim Chambers used Gildon's translation of Le Clerc's version of the Port-Royal Logique as one of his sources when he compiled his Cyclopaedia. John Mills and Gottfried Sellius later translated Chambers's Cyclopaedia into French. Their translation was appropriated by Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert as the starting point for their Encyclopédie.
In particular, the article on définition (1754) in the Encyclopédie can be traced through this chain of writers, editors, translators, and compilers to the Port-Royal Logique through the Logica of Jean Le Clerc.

In 1693 his series of Biblical commentaries began with that on the Book of Genesis; the series was not completed until 1731. The portion relating to the New Testament books included the paraphrase and notes of Henry Hammond. Le Clerc's commentary challenged traditional views and argued the case for inquiry into the origin and meaning of the biblical books, It was hotly attacked on all sides.

His Ars Critica appeared in 1696, and, in continuation, Epistolae Criticae et Ecclesiasticae in 1700. Le Clerc produced a new edition of the Apostolic Fathers of Cotelerius (Jean-Baptiste Cotelier, 1627-1686), published in 1698. He also edited journals of book notices and reviews: the Bibliothèque universelle et historique (Amsterdam, 25 vols, 1686-1693), begun with J. C. de la Croze; the Bibliothèque choisie (Amsterdam, 28 vols, 1703-1713); and the Bibliothèque ancienne et moderne, (29 vols, 1714-1726).

Other works were Le Clerc's Parrhasiana ou, Pensées diverses sur des matiéres de critique, d'histoire, de morale et de politique avec la défense de divers ouvrages de M. L. C. par Théodore Parrhase (Amsterdam, 1699); and Vita et opera ad annum MDCCXI, amici ejus opusculum, philosophicis Clerici operibus subjiciendum, also attributed to himself. The supplement to Hammond's notes was translated into English in 1699, Parrhasiana, or Thoughts on Several Subjects, in 1700, the Harmony of the Gospels in 1701, and Twelve Dissertations out of 211.  Other works include the collected works of Erasmus, begun in 1703, and Harmonia evangelica, 1700. One of his final works was his three-volume Histoire des Provinces-Unies des Pays Bas, covering the history of the Dutch Republic up to the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht and published between 1723 and 1728.

Notes

References
 Vincent, Benjamin (1877) "Leclerc, Jean (1657-1736)" A Dictionary of Biography, Past and Present: Containing the chief events in the lives of eminent persons of all ages and nations Ward, Lock, & Co.,  London;
 Hargreaves- Mawdsley, W.N. (1968) "Leclerc, Jean (1657-1736)" Everyman's Dictionary of European Writers Dutton, New York,  ;
 Watson, George (ed.) (1972) "Leclerc, Jean (1657-1736)" The New Cambridge Bibliography of English Literature Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England,  ;
 Lueker, Erwin L. (ed.) (1975) "Arminianism" Lutheran Cyclopedia, accessed November 7, 2006 ;
 Pitassi, Maria Cristina (1987) Entre croire et savoir. Le problème de la méthode critique chez Jean Le Clerc, E.J. Brill, Leiden ;
 Le Clerc, Jean (1987-1997) "Epistolario", 4 vols., ed. M. e M.G. Sina, Leo S. Olschki, Firenze, , 88 222 3872 9, 88 222 4211 4, 88 222 4536 9 ;
 Yolton, John W. et al. (1991)  "Leclerc, Jean (1657-1736)" The Blackwell Companion to the Enlightenment Basil Blackwell, Cambridge, MA,  ;
  Walsh, Michael (ed.) (2001) "Leclerc, Jean (1657-1736)" Dictionary of Christian Biography Liturgical Press,  Collegeville, MN,  ;
 Asso, Cecilia (2004) "Erasmus redivivus. alcune osservazioni sulla filologia neotestamentaria di Jean Le Clerc" Vico nella storia della filologia, ed. Silvia Caianiello e Amadeu Viana, Alfredo Guida, Napoli,  ;
 Dmitri Levitin. Ancient Wisdom in the Age of the New Science (Cambridge University Press, 2015)
 Bocast, Alexander K (2016). Chambers on Definition. McLean: Berkeley Bridge Press.

External links
 Literature by and about Jean Leclerc in the Katalog der Deutschen Nationalbibliothek in German.

1657 births
1736 deaths
17th-century clergy from the Republic of Geneva
Theologians from the Republic of Geneva
Dutch Calvinist and Reformed theologians
Remonstrants
Arminian theologians
Dutch biblical scholars
17th-century Protestant theologians
18th-century Protestant theologians

Jean Le Clerc (theologian)


Two Moon Junction is a 1988 melodrama and erotic romance-thriller movie. The movie is about events happening in the Southern United States. Sherilyn Fenn plays April. Louise Fletcher plays Belle. Milla Jovovich plays Samantha.

This was Milla Jovovich's first movie.

This movie was filmed around Los Angeles.

1980s thriller movies
1980s drama movies
1988 movies
American independent movies

Two Moon Junction


Benjamin Edward Russell (October 5, 1845 – December 4, 1909) was a U.S. Representative from Georgia, cousin of Rienzi Melville Johnston.

Biography
Born in Monticello, Florida, Russell moved with his parents to Decatur County, Georgia, in 1854.

He attended the common schools.  He entered the Confederate States Army as a drummer boy in the First Georgia Regiment.  Upon the disbanding of this regiment, he immediately enlisted in the Eighth Florida Regiment and continued with it during the last three years of the war, with the rank of first lieutenant.

After the Civil War, he entered the printing business.  He was editor of the Bainbridge (Georgia) Democrat.  He served as delegate to the State constitutional convention in 1877.  He served as delegate to the Democratic National Convention in 1880.  He served as mayor of Bainbridge in 1881 and 1882.  He was a member of the Georgia House of Representatives in 1882 and 1883, and was postmaster of Bainbridge in 1885–1890.

Russell was elected as a Democrat to the Fifty-third and Fifty-fourth Congresses (March 4, 1893 – March 3, 1897).

He was not a candidate for renomination in 1896.  He resumed the publication of the Bainbridge Democrat.  He died in Bainbridge, Georgia, December 4, 1909.  He was interred in Oak City Cemetery.

References
 Retrieved on 2009-03-04

External links

1845 births
1909 deaths
Democratic Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Georgia (U.S. state)
Mayors of places in Georgia (U.S. state)
People of Georgia (U.S. state) in the American Civil War
Confederate States Army officers
Burials in Georgia (U.S. state)
Democratic Party members of the Georgia House of Representatives
People from Monticello, Florida
19th-century American newspaper editors
19th-century American politicians
Editors of Georgia (U.S. state) newspapers
Georgia (U.S. state) postmasters

Benjamin E. Russell


John Cook Bennett (August 4, 1804 – August 5, 1867) was an American physician and briefly a ranking and influential leader of the Latter Day Saint movement, who acted as mayor of Nauvoo, Illinois, and Major-General of the Nauvoo Legion in the early 1840s.

Early life
John Cook Bennett was born on August 4, 1804, in Fairhaven, Massachusetts. He married Mary A. Barker. He worked as a physician in Ohio and helped found Willoughby Medical College.

Early Latter-day Saint
Bennett's involvement in the Latter Day Saint movement came after several encounters with the community that had left him impressed. He wrote several letters to Joseph Smith in Nauvoo, Illinois, in which he declared his desire to join the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints. He was baptized into the church in September of 1840. Prior to his baptism, he had expressed his intentions to join the growing body of Latter Day Saints in Nauvoo. His wife, Mary Barker, and their children did not accompany him.

Bennett was essential to the passing of the Nauvoo city charter, the provisions of which he had helped craft, in the Illinois Legislature. He even garnered praise for his lobbying efforts from the young Abraham Lincoln.

His efforts on behalf of the Mormons and the long time he spent living in the Mansion House in Nauvoo secured Bennett the confidence of Smith. Smith was instrumental in promoting Bennett to greater civic and ecclesiastical responsibilities in Nauvoo. Bennett became a Counselor in the First Presidency, according (Times and Seasons, Vol. II.,
No.12, page 387) on 7 Nov. 1841, as "Assistant President, until President Rigdon's health should be restored," and the mayor of Nauvoo, General of the Nauvoo Legion, and the chancellor of University of Nauvoo.

Leaving the Latter-day Saints
Bennett left the church for adultery on May 11, 1842. Rumors of adultery, homosexuality, and unauthorized polygamy emerged. Contemporary sources indicate that Bennett used his trusted position as a doctor to allay fears of women he attempted to seduce by telling them that he could cause abortions by administering medicine if they became pregnant.
While Bennett was mayor, he was caught in private sexual relations with women in the city. He told the women that the practice, which he termed "spiritual wifery", was sanctioned by God and Smith and that Smith did the same. When discovered, he privately confessed his crimes, produced an affidavit that Smith had no part in his adultery, and was disciplined accordingly.

Later life
After Bennett left Nauvoo in May 1842, he claimed he had been the target of an attempted assassination by Nauvoo Danites, who were disguised as women.  In July 1842, he wrote a series of letters to The Sangamo Journal, accusing Smith of conspiring to assassinate former Missouri Governor Boggs.

In late 1842, Bennett published History of the Saints: Or, An Exposé of Joe Smith and Mormonism, accusing Smith and his church of crimes including treason, conspiracy to commit murder, prostitution, and adultery, with a preface that begins: "I have been induced to prepare and publish the following work by a desire to expose the enormous iniquities which have perpetrated by one of the grosses and most infamous impostors that ever appeared upon the face of the earth, and by many of his minions, under the name and garb of Religion, and professedly by the direct will and command of Almighty God." Through his newspaper writings and book, Bennett appeared to encourage Missouri's June 1843 attempt to extradite Smith to stand trial for treason. Ironically, Smith narrowly escaped extradition by virtue of the powerful Nauvoo charter for which Bennett had been a principal author.

In the fall of 1843, Bennett visited George M. Hinkle, a Mormon who was excommunicated after surrendering Smith to the Missouri Militia in 1838. Bennett's subsequent letter to the editor of the Hawk-Eye and Iowa Patriot describing the Mormon "Doctrine of Marrying for Eternity" is the first of his writings that discusses eternal marriage, as compared to the free love/spiritual wife doctrine he previously accused Smith of practicing, in which sexual relations were not in the context of committed marriage. It is unclear whether Bennett learned of eternal marriage from Hinkle or from correspondents inside Nauvoo.

Bennett briefly returned to Nauvoo in December 1843, but the sole record of that visit is a notation in Smith's daybook from his general store showing a payment of the rent Bennett owed for the 39 weeks he lived in the Mansion House in 1840 to 1841. After December 1843, Bennett is recorded to have lectured only once more against Mormonism during Smith's life in Boston during the spring of 1844. At the 1844 Boston lecture, Bennett was not well received: he was pelted with rotten eggs and chased through Boston by the "vast assemblage", which ran over several Boston police officers in the process.

After Smith was killed by a mob in Carthage, Illinois, on June 27, 1844, Bennett surprised many by returning briefly to Mormonism and joining forces first with Sidney Rigdon and then with James Strang, two of several Mormons contending for leadership of the movement. Bennett united with the "Strangites", who founded their own Mormon community on Beaver Island in Michigan. While there, he founded a short-lived Halcyon Order of the Illuminati to reinforce Strang's power over his kingdom. With Bennett's enthusiastic support, polygamy was introduced into the Michigan Mormon community (this led to the dissent of anti-polygamists from Strang's faction & was a contributing factor leading to Strang's assassination). Shortly thereafter, in 1847, amid more charges of sexual misconduct, Bennett was excommunicated from the Strangite community. Bennett did not associate with any Latter Day Saint group for the remainder of his life.

Bennett has been accused of having a part in Smith's murder, but, as his biographer Andrew F. Smith (no relation to Joseph Smith) states, based on the extant evidence, "Bennett appears to have had no influence on the events that unfolded in Carthage during June 1844."

Bennett is often credited with introducing into Mormonism the term "spiritual wifery", the term he used for both his own practice of "free love" and for the Nauvoo practice of "plural marriage". The term was occasionally used by Mormon leaders such as Brigham Young, who spoke of the shock he received when introduced by Smith to "the spiritual wife doctrine", referring to "plural marriage". One of Bennett's legacies was the conflation of "plural marriage" with "free love" in the popular imagination. The term "spiritual wifery", with its mixed connotations of polygyny and promiscuity, was frequently used in the national dialogue and in activism against Mormon polygamy.

Legacy
Bennett's troubled relationship with the Mormons has overshadowed his other notable activities, including commanding a company for the Union in the American Civil War. Beginning in 1835, Bennett was an early champion of the health benefits of the tomato; a pioneer in the use of chloroform as an anesthetic, publishing his findings in 1848; and the creator of several breeds of chicken, including Plymouth Rock fowl, which he exhibited in Boston in 1849. From 1830 to 1846, Bennett worked to establish institutions of higher learning, many of which were medical colleges. Bennett's practice of "selling diplomas" clouds that achievement, and only one educational institution survived Bennett's connection with it.

Bennett left behind an extensive body of letters and published works on his various endeavors, including two books, History of the Saints and The Poultry Book. Bennett died in 1868 in Polk City, Iowa.

Notes

References

External links
 John C. Bennett's History of the Saints (1842)

 Biography at Joseph Smith Papers Project website

History of the Bennett Trial Manuscript, L. Tom Perry Special Collections, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University
John C. Bennett report to Nauvoo Legion on mutiny charge for George Schindle and Alva Tippetts, L. Tom Perry Special Collections, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University
Research materials relating to John Cook Bennett, L. Tom Perry Special Collections, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University

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! colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #FABE60;" |Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints titles

1804 births
1867 deaths
American Latter Day Saints
Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Strangite) members
Converts to Mormonism
Counselors in the First Presidency (LDS Church)
Critics of Mormonism
Doctrine and Covenants people
Former Latter Day Saints
Illuminati
LGBT and Mormonism
Leaders in the Church of Christ (Latter Day Saints)
Mayors of Nauvoo, Illinois
Mormonism-related controversies
Nauvoo Legion
People excommunicated by the Church of Christ (Latter Day Saints)
People excommunicated by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Strangite)
People from Fairhaven, Massachusetts
Religious leaders from Massachusetts
Rigdonites
Harold B. Lee Library-related 19th century articles

John C. Bennett


Alfons Jēgers (1919–1999) was a Latvian football and hockey player. He is recognized as one of the greatest in the history of both of these sports in Latvia.

Biography

Jēgers came from a poor family and in the first years he played football barefoot with a "ball" made from papers and old clothes in the street. At the age of 16 he caught the attention of the trade-union football team. He soon emerged as a very talented footballer and his popularity was on the rise as he scored the single late goal in the victory for his team against the renowned Rīgas FK. In 1939 Jēgers played his single international football match for Latvia.

In 1940 when Latvian sports life was reorganized according to Soviet standards Jēgers played for Dinamo Riga with which he went on a tourney to Moscow, Kiev and Tbilisi. After German occupation Nazis sent him to Stutthof concentration camp where Jēgers caught typhus and was close to death. However, he survived and after the end of World War II he returned to both football and ice-hockey. From 1946 to 1948 he played football with Dinamo Riga, when it was merged with Daugava Rīga he became a player of Daugava. From 1950 to 1952 he was the captain of Daugava, in 1951 - the best goalscorer for the club in the Soviet Top League. Jēgers had to retire from football when after the 1952 season Daugava got relegated from the top league and in the whole season Jēgers as a forward hadn't scored a single goal.

In ice hockey Jēgers made a career only after World War II when he became a player with Dinamo Rīga. He played hockey on a professional level until 1957. Later he worked in coaching.

Latvian men's footballers
Latvia men's international footballers
Latvian ice hockey players
Soviet men's footballers
Soviet ice hockey players
1919 births
1999 deaths
FC Daugava Riga players
Dinamo Riga players
Men's association football players not categorized by position
Honoured Masters of Sport of the USSR

Alfons Jēgers


The personal rescue enclosure (PRE), or "rescue ball", was a device for transporting astronauts from one Space Shuttle to another in case of an emergency. It was produced as a prototype but never flew on any missions.

The ball was  in diameter and had a volume of . The structure comprised three fabric layers and incorporated a window and a zipper to allow the astronaut to enter and exit the ball. The ball enabled one crew member to curl up inside and don an oxygen mask and hold a carbon dioxide scrubber/oxygen supply device with one hour's worth of oxygen. The ball would have been connected by an umbilical to the shuttle to supply air until the airlock depressurized. The rescue ball containing the crew member would have been carried to the rescue shuttle by a space-suited astronaut.

The PRE was designed to protect humans in space in the event of an emergency where not enough full space suits were available. It was developed in the 1970s and 1980s to support the Space Shuttle program. The PRE was designed to be used in conjunction with a fully suited astronaut that would provide mobility to the person in the ball. The ball's life-support systems consisting of oxygen and a carbon dioxide scrubber could support a person for about an hour.

The life support system that supplied oxygen was called the Personal Oxygen Supply, or, alternatively, it could be supplied with oxygen from an external source after being sealed. The ball was made of fabric, and was sealed by way of zippers, with a small circular window to allow the occupant to see out.

NASA evaluated three methods of transporting the balls:
By hand, a suited astronaut would haul the balls
By robotic arm, a robotic manipulator arm would move the balls through space (see Canadarm)
The balls would be attached to a line between two spaceships and pulled along like a clothesline.

Dimensions:
 sphere
As a flexible not rigid item this figure would be subject to some variation, especially if not pressurized.
Materials/construction methods
Fabric consisting of three layers
urethane
Kevlar
Thermal protective layer (outermost)
Window constructed of Lexan

See also
Space suit
Rescue Agreement
Single-person spacecraft

References

External links

Space Shuttle program
Rescue equipment

Personal Rescue Enclosure


James Keane (; born 7 February 1948) is an Irish traditional musician and accordion player. The Italian Castagnari company issued and continues a line of signature instruments called keanebox in his honor.

Early life
James Keane was born in Drimnagh, south Dublin City in Co Dublin. He reportedly began playing at age six, and lilting since before he could talk. The Keane house in Dublin was a musical landmark on the traditional music scene in the 1950s and 1960s. Keane's mother and father were both fiddle players from musical communities in County Longford and County Clare, and would play host to the legendary players who traveled from all over Ireland to perform in the capital city. These guests greatly affected James and his brother Seán Keane, the fiddler with the Chieftains, as did their summer trips to Longford and Clare where they encountered the music at its roots.

By the age of ten, James had become a fixture on the late 1950s Dublin traditional scene regularly performing with Séamus Ennis, Leo Rowsome, Sonny Brogan and Tommy Reck, honing his skills under their guidance.  While still in his early teens, James co-founded what would become one of Ireland's most heralded music ensembles, the Castle Céilí Band with Mick O'Connor, his brother and others. The band would go on to win numerous Oireachtas competitions, and the All-Ireland Senior Céilí Band competition in Thurles in 1965.

He won the senior Accordion Championship while still a junior in the Dundalk open accordion championships in 1964, 1965 and 1966. He won the All-Ireland junior (under 18) Championship at Fleadh Cheoil na hÉireann in Mullingar in 1963.

Move to the United States
Keane emigrated to New York City in 1967 to play music in the Irish music scene there, part of the American folk music revival. In 1979, Keane moved to Nova Scotia and began playing with Canadian folk trio Ryan's Fancy, contributing accordion to two songs on their 1979 album A Time With Ryan's Fancy (credited as "James 'Skip' Keane"). He joined the band as their fourth member in 1980, touring and appearing on the albums Sea People (1980) and Dance Around This One (1981), as well as several CBC specials such as Pirate's Gold (1980), Christmas at King's Landing (1980), and Home, Boys, Home (1981). Shortly after Keane left the band, Ryan's Fancy split in 1983. Keane moved back to New York City, where he became part of the traditional scene there, performing in numerous bands, including the Ellis Island Céilí Band, which was formed for the Smithsonian Institution's Centennial Celebration honoring the Statue of Liberty in New York Harbor. In 1991, Keane was made Traditionalist of the Year by The Irish Echo, and his album Sweeter as the Years Roll By was chosen as one of the top twenty traditional albums of the last twenty years by Irish America magazine in their anniversary edition.

He is a founding member of Fingal, the critically acclaimed  group with Randal Bays and Dáithí Sproule, he tours regularly, performing music and lecturing in colleges about the history of Irish traditional music. He has been flown back to Ireland on numerous occasions for awards and performances, including a trip to participate when the City of Dublin was deemed a European Capital of Culture by the EU. In 2004 an event to honor Keane was organized by Luke Kelly's biographer--Des Geraghty—held at Liberty Hall, and attended by dignitaries including Taoiseach Bertie Ahern, prime minister of Ireland.

Discography
Solo albums
 The Irish Accordion of James Keane (1972) Rex Heritage Disc 808
 Roll Away the Reel World (1980) Green Linnet 1026. Track listing of the Green Linnet CD reissue at irishtune.info.
 That's the Spirit (1994) Green Linnet 1138. Track listing at irishtune.info.
 Toss the Feathers (1996) Green Linnet - an unreleased album
 With Friends Like These (1998) Shanachie 78015. Track listing of the 2014 re-master from New Folk Records at irishtune.info.
 Sweeter as the Years Roll By (1999) Shanachie 78031. Track listing at irishtune.info.
 James Keane & Friends - Live in Dublin (2002) Lavalla Records LA01 (recorded, November 10, 1998)
 Heir of the Dog (2012) New Folk Records NFR1552. Track listing at irishtune.info.

Group album - with Randal Bays and Dáithí Sproule
 Fingal (2008) New Folk Records NFR0502. Track listing at irishtune.info.

Artist Compilations
 Live at the Embankment (1965) Keane accompanied by Dónal Lunny
 Sweet and Traditional Music of Ireland (1971) classic album also featuring fiddler Paddy Reynolds and button accordionist Charlie Mulvihill.
 Irish Traditional Instrumental Music (1997) Rounder Records
 The Rights of Man (1991) The Concert for Joe Doherty
 Atlantic Wave (1997) Kells. Track listing at irishtune.info.
 The Boston College Gaelic Roots (1997) Kells Music
 The Tocane Concerts (2000) with Kieran Hanrahan

Books & CD
 Menus & Music, the Irish Isle (1996) arranged and performed by James Keane with Sharon O'Connor, Séamus Egan, Winifred Horan, Sue Richards (harp)

Session Work
 Uncommon Bonds (1984) Mick Moloney & Eugene O'Donnell
 Long Black Veil (1995) RCA Victor 62702, The Chieftains, Ry Cooder

References

Sources
 Irish Times 2008
 James Keane inducted into Irish Musicians' Hall of Fame
 James Keane, Rebel with a Cause
 New York Times
 RTÉ performance

  New York Times 12/7/98
 New York Times 2003
 Irish Abroad article
 Irish Voice, Dec.2001
 Feile Frank McGann
 Weblo biography
 New York University, Ireland House bio
 German Folk World article
 Folk Music article

External links
 Official James Keane site
 Fingal's site
 Kane Wilson management

1948 births
Living people
Irish male accordionists
Irish male folk musicians
Musicians from Dublin (city)
21st-century accordionists
Shanachie Records artists
Green Linnet Records artists
20th-century Irish male musicians
20th-century Irish accordionists
20th-century Irish folk musicians
21st-century Irish male musicians
21st-century Irish accordionists
21st-century Irish folk musicians

James Keane (musician)


"You Can" is a 1981 single by Madleen Kane and produced by Giorgio Moroder. The song was written by Yolanda Yvette Adams, Donald Ray Atkins and Marcus Ecby.  Along with the track, "Fire in My Heart", "You Can" was Kane's most successful single on the dance charts, spending three weeks at number one.  The single was her only Hot 100 chart entry, peaking at #77.

Charts

Weekly charts

References

1981 singles
Song recordings produced by Giorgio Moroder
1981 songs

You Can


Thurrock Thames Gateway Development Corporation was a non-departmental public body sponsored by the Department for Communities and Local Government. It was an Urban Development Corporation set up by the Government of the United Kingdom covering the entire borough and unitary authority of Thurrock in Essex. It handled large planning applications in the borough, and was part of the government's plan for urban expansion in the Thames Gateway.

Thurrock Thames Gateway Development Corporation opened for business in 2005 to drive economic growth in Thurrock, create homes, jobs and opportunities and make Thurrock a place where people want to live and work. The Corporation was given a target of creating 26,000 jobs and 18,500 homes in the borough and given the power to determine major planning applications to help achieve this.

The Corporation encouraged and managed new projects and was committed to achieving growth and improvement in the Borough. It received annual government funding and was eligible to bid for more to support key projects, such as the development of Purfleet centre. It also worked to attract private sector investment in Thurrock.

In 2007, following public consultation, it was planned for its remit to last until 2014. At the end of the premiership of Gordon Brown, there was an intention to merge the Corporation into the Homes and Communities Agency. However, following its emphasis on localism, the 2010 coalition government merged the Corporation with Thurrock Borough Council on 1 April 2012. and Thurrock Thames Gateway Development Corporation was formally abolished on 31 October 2012.

See also
London Thames Gateway Development Corporation

References

External links
Thurrock Development Corporation
The Thurrock Development Corporation (Area and Constitution) Order 2003

2004 establishments in the United Kingdom
2012 disestablishments in the United Kingdom
Defunct public bodies of the United Kingdom
Department for Levelling Up, Housing and Communities
Development Corporations of the United Kingdom
Government agencies established in 2004
Government agencies disestablished in 2012
Thames Gateway
Thurrock


Bourn Brook is a minor tributary of the River Cam in Cambridgeshire, England.

Course
The Bourn Brook has its source just to the east of the village of Eltisley, 10 miles west of Cambridge, where the hills rise to around 60 metres above sea level. Minor tributaries known as the Eastern Brook, Hay Dean, Crow Dean and Gascote Dean merge just to the west of Caxton before it flows through Caxton, crossing the Roman road Ermine Street at its junction with the Bourn and Gransden roads.

A footpath then follows its course to the outskirts of Bourn, where it is forded by the Caxton End road, and then bisects the village of Bourn. The village takes its name from the brook − "bourn" being another word for a brook.

Flowing south-east from Bourn, it runs through Bourn Golf Course where it merges with the Dean Brook. Upon meeting the B1046 it turns east and runs alongside the former Varsity Line railway that closed in 1968. From this point until it reaches the River Cam it also forms the boundary between neighbouring parishes. Firstly it forms the northern parish boundary of Kingston then Great Eversden and the southern boundary of Caldecote and Toft, though at points it deviates slightly from the boundaries, indicating that its flow has altered since early medieval times.

After skirting the southern edge of Toft village, it crosses the Prime Meridian still following the former railway line that is now used as part of the Mullard Radio Astronomy Observatory. Here it forms the southern boundary of Comberton and then Barton and the northern boundary of Little Eversden, Harlton, and Haslingfield parishes, though it flows some distance away from the villages themselves.

Finally it crosses the M11 motorway and forms the boundary between Grantchester and Haslingfield before flowing into the River Cam at Byron's Pool a few hundred metres south of Grantchester village, where the poet Lord Byron is reputed to have swum.

Usage

Bourn Brook is used for angling, though there are few fish in its waters. The fish most commonly seen are small roach, dace and perch.

Flooding

After exceptionally heavy rainfall, Bourn Brook has occasionally flooded, most notably in 2001 when it reached an all-time high of 3.11 meters at bourn causing significant damage was done to properties in Bourn and other villages. It regularly rises significantly in height making the Caxton End ford in Bourn impassable.

Information on the current height of the brook is available on the environment agency website for the Bourn and Comberton gauges, more information is available on twitter.

References

Rivers of Cambridgeshire
River Cam

Bourn Brook, Cambridgeshire


4 Vesta () is the second most massive asteroid in the solar system, with an average diameter of about 530 km (around 330 miles) and an estimated mass 9% the mass of the entire asteroid belt. Its size and unusually bright surface makes Vesta the brightest asteroid, and the only one ever visible to the naked eye from Earth. Vesta's astronomical symbol is .

Discovery

Vesta was discovered by the German astronomer Heinrich Wilhelm Olbers on March 29, 1807. He allowed the prominent mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss to name the asteroid after the Roman virgin goddess of home and hearth, Vesta.

After the discovery of Vesta in 1807, no asteroids were discovered for the next 38 years. During this time the four known asteroids were counted among the planets, and each had its own planetary symbol. Vesta was represented by a stylized hearth, currently . Old graphic variants include ,  and Symbol of Vesta. The modern form is a simplification of the last.

Physical characteristics

Vesta is the second-most massive body in the asteroid belt. Vesta does have a different interior compared to its surface. It is in the Inner Main Belt, at a distance of about 2.50 AU. It is similar to 2 Pallas in volume (although it is not confirmed), but somewhat more massive.

Vesta's shape is close to the shape of a sphere by its own gravity, but the large concavity and lump at the pole (see 'Surface Features' below) did not fit the criteria from being considered a planet under the IAU. In any case, this resolution was rejected by the IAU membership and Vesta will continue to be called an asteroid. However, it is possible that Vesta may be listed as a dwarf planet in the future, if it is convincingly determined that its shape is from hydrostatic equilibrium.

Its rotation is actually fast for an asteroid (5.342 h) and prograde, with the north pole pointing in the direction of right ascension 20 h 32 min, declination +48° with an uncertainty of about 10°. This gives an axial tilt of 29°.

Temperatures on the surface have been thought to be between about -20°C with the Sun overhead, dropping to about -190°C at the winter pole. Typical day-time and night-time temperatures are -60°C and -130°C, respectively. This estimate is for May 6, 1996, very close to perihelion, while details vary somewhat with the seasons.

Geology
For Vesta, there is a large collection of possible samples available to scientists, in the form of over 200 HED meteorites, giving insight into Vesta's geologic history and structure.

Vesta is thought to consist of a metallic iron-nickel core, above with a rocky olivine mantle, and a surface crust. From the first appearance of Ca-Al-rich inclusions (the first solid matter in the Solar System, forming about 4567 million years ago), a likely timeline is as follows:
 Accretion completed after about 2-3 million years.
 Complete or almost complete melting due to radioactive decay of 26Al, leading to separation of the metal core at about 4-5 million years.
 Progressive crystallization of a convecting molten mantle. Convection stopped when about 80% of the material had crystallized, at about 6-7 million years.
 Extrusion of the remaining molten material to form the crust. Either as basaltic lavas in progressive eruptions, or possibly forming a short-lived magma ocean.
 The deeper layers of the crust crystallize to form plutonic rocks, while older basalts are metamorphosed due to the pressure of newer surface layers.
 Slow cooling of the interior.

Vesta is the only known intact asteroid that has been resurfaced in this procedure. However, the presence of iron meteorites and achondritic meteorite classes without identified parent bodies indicates that there once were other differentiated planetesimals with igneous histories, which have since been broken by impacts.

Surface features

Some Vestian surface features have been resolved using the Hubble Space Telescope and ground based telescopes, e.g. the Keck Telescope.

The most notable surface feature is a very large crater that is 460 km in diameter centered near the south pole. Its width is about 80% of the entire diameter of Vesta. The floor of this crater is about 13 km below, and its rim rises 4–12 km above the surrounding area, with total surface relief of about 25 km. A central peak rises 18 km above the crater floor. It is thought that the impact responsible blew up about 1% of the entire volume of Vesta, and it is likely that a group of smaller asteroids known as the Vesta family are the remains of this collision. If this is the case, then the fact that 10 km fragments of the Vesta family have survived bombardment until the present indicates that the crater is only about 1 billion years old or younger. It would also be the original site of origin of the HED meteorites. In fact, all the known V-type asteroids taken together account for only about 6% of the ejected volume, with the rest presumably either in small fragments, ejected by approaching the 3:1 Kirkwood gap, or perturbed away by radiation pressure. Spectroscopic analyses of the Hubble images have shown that this crater has penetrated deep through several distinct layers of the crust, and possibly into the mantle which is indicated by spectral signatures of olivine. Interestingly Vesta was not disrupted nor resurfaced by an impact of this magnitude.

Several other large craters about 150 km wide and 7 km deep are also present. A dark feature about 200 km across has been named Olbers in honour of Vesta's discoverer, but it does not appear in elevation maps as a fresh crater would, and its nature is presently unknown, perhaps an old basaltic surface. It serves as a reference point with the 0° longitude prime meridian defined to pass through its center.

The eastern and western hemispheres show markedly different terrains. From preliminary spectral analyses of the Hubble Space Telescope images, the eastern hemisphere appears to be have a highly reflective, heavily cratered "highland" terrain with old, dusty rocks, and craters probing into deeper plutonic layers of the crust. On the other hand, large regions of the western hemisphere are taken up by dark geologic units thought to be surface basalts.

Fragments
Various small solar system objects are believed to be fragments of Vesta caused by collisions. The Vestoid asteroids and HED meteorites are examples. The V-type asteroid 1929 Kollaa has been determined to have a composition akin to cumulate eucrite meteorites, indicating its origin deep within Vesta's crust.

Because a number of meteorites are believed to be Vestian fragments, Vesta is currently one of only five identified Solar system bodies for which we have physical samples, the others being Mars, the Moon, comet Wild 2, and Earth itself.

Proof of HED meteorite origin
This is based on data from the Dawn probe which orbited Vesta in the asteroid belt for 10 months.

Vesta is the source of the HED meteorites, which are about 6% of all the meteorites which fall to Earth. These meteorites have pyroxene, which is a mineral rich in iron and magnesium. This has been matched exactly to the mineral signatures on Vesta's surface captured by Dawn's instruments.

Visibility
Its size and unusually bright surface make Vesta the brightest asteroid, and it is occasionally visible to the naked eye from dark (non-light polluted) skies. Recently, in May and June 2007, Vesta reached a peak magnitude of +5.4, the brightest since 1989.

At that time, opposition and perihelion were only a few weeks apart. It was visible in the constellations Ophiuchus and Scorpius.

Less favourable oppositions during late autumn in the Northern Hemisphere still have Vesta at a magnitude of around +7.0. Even when in conjunction with the Sun, Vesta will have a magnitude around +8.5; thus from a pollution-free sky it can be observed with binoculars even at elongations much smaller than near opposition.

References

Further information
  — Horizons can be used to obtain a current ephemeris
 K. Keil, Geological History of Asteroid 4 Vesta: The Smallest Terrestrial Planet in Asteroids III, William Bottke, Alberto Cellino, Paolo Paolicchi, and Richard P. Binzel, (Editors), Univ. of Arizona Press (2002),

Other websites

 Views of the Solar System: Vesta
 HubbleSite: Hubble Maps the Asteroid Vesta
 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Vesta - full article
 HubbleSite: Hubble Reveals Huge Crater on the Surface of the Asteroid Vesta
 HubbleSite: short movie composed from Hubble Space Telescope images from November 1994.
 Adaptive optics views of Vesta from Keck Observatory
 Differentiated interior of Vesta
 Orbital simulation from JPL (Java)
 4 Vesta images at ESA/Hubble
 Hubble views of Vesta on the Planetary Society Weblog  (includes animation)

Asteroids

4 Vesta


Philotheca difformis is a species of flowering plant in the family Rutaceae and is endemic to continental eastern Australia. It is a shrub with variably-shaped leaves depending on subspecies, and white flowers arranged singly or in groups of up to four on the ends of the branchlets. Subspecies difformis is commonly known as the small-leaf wax-flower.

Description
Philotheca difformis is a shrub that grows to a height of about  and has glandular-warty branchlets. The leaves are fleshy, glabrous, glandular warty on  a short petiole but vary in size and shaped depending on subspecies. Subspecies difformis has fleshy leaves that are more or less cylindrical, about  long and  wide and subspecies smithiana has leaves that are flat, more or less egg-shaped, about  long and  wide. The flowers are borne singly or in clusters of two to four on the ends of the branchlets, each flower on a pedicel  long. There are five fleshy triangular sepals and five oblong white petals  long with a thick midrib. The ten stamens are woolly-hairy. Flowering occurs sporadically throughout the year and the fruit is about  long, warty and beaked.

Taxonomy and naming
This species was first formally described in 1837 by Stephan Endlicher from an unpublished description by Allan Cunningham who gave it the name Eriostemon difformis. Endlicher published the description in Enumaratio plantarum. Cunningham collected the type specimens in "sterile country on the Lachlan River" on 24 May 1817, during John Oxley's first expedition.

In 1998, Wilson changed the name to Philotheca difformis in the journal Nuytsia and described two subspecies:
Philotheca difformis  (A.Cunn. ex Endl.) Paul G. Wilson subsp. difformis;
Philotheca difformis subsp. smithiana (Benth.) Paul G. Wilson.

Distribution and habitat
Philotheca difformis subspecies difformis grows in rocky areas in woodland, mainly in inland parts of south-east Queensland, inland New South Wales, north-west Victoria and the Flinders Ranges in South Australia.

Subspecies smithiana often grows on rock outcrops and is found near the coast in south-east Queensland and in north-eastern New South Wales as far south as Singleton.

References

difformis
Flora of New South Wales
Flora of Queensland
Flora of Victoria (state)
Flora of South Australia
Sapindales of Australia
Plants described in 1837
Taxa named by Allan Cunningham (botanist)

Philotheca difformis


"Doll on a Music Box" is a song originally from the 1968 musical film, Chitty Chitty Bang Bang. It was subsequently performed in the 2002/2005 stage musical Chitty Chitty Bang Bang as well.  It is both a musical and lyrical counterpoint to the more free flowing, legato song, "Truly Scrumptious".  In the song, Truly is disguised as a wind up music box doll, metaphorically and actually on a pedestal.  In the song, Truly sings about herself and her rigid nature, all behind the mask of the "doll" she is portraying.  In the motion picture the part of Truly was played by actress Sally Ann Howes.  In the stage musical version, the part was re-created by 19-year-old London actress, Emma Williams.  In 2005, the Broadway "Truly" was portrayed by actress Erin Dilly, who was nominated for a Tony Award that year for the role.

Visual metaphor
This sequence is a part of Caractacus's story, which he is telling to Truly and his children. In the song, Caractacus plays a rag doll, too flexible for his own good; whereas, Truly plays a doll that is too rigid for her own good. Twice during the counterpoint, the rag doll approaches the doll, only to be slapped in the face. This mirrors the earlier story where Caractacus's first two interactions with Truly are mistimed as well.  The rag doll keeps trying, when suddenly he captures his own reflection and realizes how foolish he appears. It is only when Truly momentarily breaks character and shoves him slightly into the mirror to get his attention that he returns to his character. The rag doll properly courts the doll and is about to kiss the doll's hand, when she retracts her hand from him just in time.  Rigidity wins out. Only at the end of the movie do Caractacus and Truly truly see eye to eye.

Songwriters
The song was written by Robert B. Sherman & Richard M. Sherman.

Trivia
In 1992, "Doll on a Music Box" was re-enacted as part of a surrealistic sequence of the 1992 film, Arizona Dream starring Johnny Depp, Jerry Lewis, Faye Dunaway and Lili Taylor.
The music video for the Barenaked Ladies 1998 single, "One Week" had a short reference to "Doll on a Music Box".

Wardrobe
Truly Scrumptious sports a dirndl in this sequence consisting of a forest green satin bodice (trimmed in black velvet and accented with stitched crisscrossed red ribbon straps down the front and gold buttons), white blouse (the sleeves are double puffed done in delicate white silk satin; there are three yellow ribbons stitched to the sleeves for added detail; the collar is also trimmed in lace), full, printed (in the shape of gold diamonds) cotton red skirt (a tea length petticoat) and white, cotton apron (with a German inspired floral motif). Truly also wore white tights and black pumps (with a silver buckle near the toe area) with a Tyrolean hairstyle incorporating both pigtails and braids.

References

1968 songs
Songs from Chitty Chitty Bang Bang
Songs written by the Sherman Brothers

Doll on a Music Box


The myxobacteria ("slime bacteria") are a group of bacteria that usuallly live in the soil. They feed on insoluble organic substances. They have very large genomes compared to other bacteria. Myxobacteria are included in the delta group of proteobacteria, a large group of Gram-negative forms.

Myxobacteria move by gliding on the surface. They travel in swarms with many cells kept together by intercellular molecular signals. The swarm puts out extracellular enzymes to digest food. This increases feeding efficiency.

Life cycle
When nutrients are scarce, myxobacterial cells aggregate into fruiting bodies. These fruiting bodies are different shapes and colours, depending on the species.

Inside the fruiting bodies, cells develop into rounded myxospores with thick cell walls. These myxospores, like spores in other organisms, survive until nutrients are more plentiful. Then cell growth is restarted with a group (swarm) of myxobacteria, not just isolated cells.  Similar life cycles have developed among the amoebae called cellular slime moulds.

Uses
Myxobacteria produce a number of biomedically and industrially useful chemicals, such as antibiotics, and export those chemicals outside of the cell. Some myxobacteria are used as model organisms for the study of development. At a molecular level, initiation of fruiting body development is regulated by Pxr sRNA.

References

Gram-negative bacteria

Myxobacteria