In Philippine folk culture, lihí is a condition of pregnancy food craving. A notable characteristic is that pregnant women usually desire food such as sour, unripe mango with bagoong. While it is a cultural concept restricted among Filipinos, analogous cultural phenomena of pregnancy food cravings have been observed in various cultures. It is still debatable whether lihí can be classified and established as either a biological or psychological condition or a purely social and cultural one.

Superstitions
Lihí also broadly encompasses a folk belief that whatever a woman craves during pregnancy will imprint characteristics on the child. The period of the lihi is usually the first trimester of the pregnancy. When a child resembles a manatee, for example, it is said that the mother enjoyed looking at that particular animal during the gestational period. The lihi period is also the time when the expectant mother is allegedly susceptible to supernatural creatures which might play pranks on her. She might also develop a strong dislike for her husband.

In other regions, lihí refers to the belief that any sensory stimuli imbibed by a pregnant woman influences her child development. Among some ethnic groups in the northern Philippines, it is taboo to mention anything about animals such as rats or pigs near a pregnant woman for fear that her child may acquire the features of the mentioned animals.

See also
Food craving

References

Health in the Philippines
Superstitions of the Philippines
Tagalog words and phrases
Austronesian spirituality

Lihi


Sesame Street Stays Up Late! is a 1993 Sesame Street New Year's Eve television special with guest appearances of characters from the international versions of Sesame Street. The special was produced by the Children's Television Workshop in association with Norddeutscher Rundfunk, Israel Educational Television, NHK, Televisa S.A. de C.V., Norsk Rikskringkasting and Radiotelevisão Portuguesa, the respective broadcasters of the respective international co-productions featured in the special. This special also marked Steve Whitmire's first performance as Ernie.

It aired on December 29, 1993 on PBS, and released on December 31, 1994 on VHS.

Plot
It is New Year's Eve on Sesame Street and everyone is planning on celebrating. Big Bird sees all the adults going to their own parties, while Gina and Savion are helping the kids hold their own party on the street. Meanwhile, Baby Bear doesn't know when New Year's Eve happens for real, Snuffy is fast asleep, and Telly Monster becomes upset that the current year ending. The others show him that the New Year is celebrated all over the world, so he calms a bit.

How New Year's traditions are celebrated is through the Monster News Network, hosted by Elmo. Throughout the special, segments featuring Sesame characters from different co-productions around the world, beginning with Mexico, represented by Rosita and Elmo's Cousin Pepe, who show how to celebrate using Pinatas. Zoe questions how they are going to know when it's midnight, but then one of the kids mentions that her parents went to Times Square the previous year and saw a Ball being dropped from a tall building at midnight. When Big Bird hears this, he knows exactly who to find, eventually finding Wolfgang the Seal to balance a beach ball that Big Bird found. Savion then questions how Wolfgang will know about what exact time midnight will be, and then Count von Count arrives to help everybody out, counting down the seconds to the New Year.

Oscar the Grouch tries to call his family, but Telly interrupts Oscar and panics with him about the new year, Oscar doesn't want to be bothered, but he explains to Telly that he does this because it's tradition every New Year's Eve. Telly starts to think maybe he shouldn't worry, but Oscar soon comes up with false claims about it, and sends Telly into a panic, as Telly starts a campaign to prevent the new year from coming to Sesame Street. Oscar gets a hold the operator Lily Tomlin, only to be informed that all the lines are busy. Elmo then shows off another way of celebrating, with Tita from Rua Sésamo representing the country of Portugal, and showing how they use grapes to celebrate. Afterwards, as everyone is trying to wake up Snuffy, they are interrupted by a figure wearing a coat, sunglasses and a white beard, claiming to be part of the "Department of Celebrations and Parties" and who deems Sesame Street is in a "No Party Zone". However, the figure turns out to be a disguised Telly, trying to stop the New Year from arriving, Prairie Dawn, who interviewed Telly described it as another big shot exposed.

Oscar manages to get in contact with his mother as well as his Uncle Hank until the operator decides to take a "breaky-wakey". Prairie Dawn informs the viewers that the countdown continues on Sesame Street, while Elmo shows off how Japan celebrates the New Year, represented by his cousin Elmo-nosque, who shows how everyone makes cards for each other, helps to make rice cakes, and, during New Year's Day, plays home-made badminton. Next, Elmo showcases how Israel celebrated the New Year three months ago, represented by Moishe Oofnik (here referred to as "Oofnik the Grouch") and Kippi Ben Kippod from Rechov Sumsum. Meanwhile, Telly tries to temp Wolfgang into eating a fish so he can steal the ball, but this plot fails as well. The Count reminds Telly that the big moment is drawing closer, which results in Telly deciding to hide.

Telly goes missing, and Gina and Savion try to look for him. Elmo showcases how Germany celebrates, represented by Tiffy, Samson and Finchen from Sesamstrasse. They showcase how they dress up and go collecting treats around houses, similar to Halloween. As the seconds go down and down, Gina still can't find Telly, and Big Bird still can't wake up Snuffy. However, Snuffy does wake up for a sec to tell Big Bird what he's dreaming about, being at a party with Big Bird. Little does he realize that his dream IS coming true. The last country Elmo showcases the New Year on Monster News Network is in Norway, represented by Max Mekker, Alfa and Bjarne Betjent from Sesam Stasjon, as they show the New Year's skiing tournament, and then travel in a cart. In-between, Grover gets injured from coming back on skis and decides to take a break at the hot tub.

A parade of kids and Big Bird pass by the sleeping Snuffy as 73 seconds pass by. Oscar is finally able to connect the rest of his family. After they all shout "phooey" to each other, they hang up, but the operator states that she's off at 12:00 if anyone's interested. Gina finds Telly inside Finders Keepers, and tells him that nothing bad is going to happen and that the New Year is quite fun. Gina also tells him about New Year's Resolutions, and Telly soon quirks up hearing about everything he'll miss and decides his resolution will be to not be scared of everything.

Everyone reaches to Around the Corner, with Prairie Dawn reporting, the adults returning from their party, Snuffy waking up, and Elmo and his crew coming outside as everybody does the countdown and Wolfgang removes the ball in slow motion. When the ball drops to the ground, everyone cheers and welcomes in the new year. Baby Bear finally is able to know that is the New Year and finally manages to call it out. Meanwhile, Telly is amazed that everyone is still here and happily joins the celebration with everyone else. Big Bird soon calls out to everyone and makes a wish that everyone around the world should be friends as he eats the grape while Carlo wishes for peace and happiness everywhere and sing "Faces That I Love".

The special ends with everybody shouting "Happy New Year!" as they continue to celebrate, even Slimey, much to Oscar's chagrin as he goes back into his trash can. Cookie Monster eats one of the letters in "THE END", deeming that he "loves credits!".

Cast

Live-action cast
 Alison Bartlett as Gina
 Savion Glover as Savion
 Linda Bove as Linda
 Ruth Buzzi as Ruthie
 Annette Calud as Celina
 Emilio Delgado as Luis
 Angel Jemmott as Angela
 Loretta Long as Susan
 Sonia Manzano as Maria
 Bob McGrath as Bob
 Roscoe Orman as Gordon
 Jou Jou Papailler as Jamal
 Lily Tomlin as Ernestine the Telephone Operator (based on her role from Rowan & Martin's Laugh-In)
 Carlo Alban as Carlo
 Tarah Schaeffer as Tarah
 Olivia Oguma as the Young Girl (from New York City)

Jim Henson's Sesame Street Muppets
Caroll Spinney as Big Bird and Oscar the Grouch
Steve Whitmire as Ernie
Frank Oz as Bert, Cookie Monster, Grover, and Uncle Hank
Jerry Nelson as The Count
Fran Brill as Zoe, Roxie Marie, and Prairie Dawn
Kevin Clash as Elmo, Wolfgang the Seal, Cousin Pepe, Elmo-noske, Bjarne Betjent (voice), and the Announcer
Jim Martin as Max Mekker (voice)
Joey Mazzarino as MNN Logo Purple Monster, Grouches, and AM Monsters
Carmen Osbahr as Rosita
Pam Arciero as Alfa (voice), Telly Monster (assistant)
Martin P. Robinson as Telly, Snuffy, Slimey, and Mrs. Grouch
David Rudman as Baby Bear, MNN Logo Orange Monster, Grouches, and AM Monsters
Bryant Young as rear end of Snuffy
Ivy Austin as Tita (voice)

Additional Muppets performed by Jim Kroupa, Peter Linz, Rick Lyon, Stephanie D'Abruzzo, Noel MacNeal, and Alison Mork.

International Muppet performers
 Gilles Ben-David as Moishe Oofnik (referred to as Oofnik the Grouch)
 Geir Børresen as Max Mekker
 Hanne Dahle as Alfa
 Uta Delbridge as Finchen
 Klaus Esch as Samson
 Åsmund Huser as Bjarne Betjent
 Paula Pais as Tita
 Marita Stolze as Tiffy
 Sarai Tzuriel as Kippi Ben Kippod
 Christine Stoesen as Py

Songs
 "We're Gonna Stay Up Late and Party"
 "Mexican Folk Song"
 "Oshogatsu"
 "Bashana Haba'ah"
 "Rummel Pot Song"
 "It's New Year's Eve"
 "New Year Chorale for Six Grouches"
 "Faces That I Love"

Home media/digital releases
The special was originally released on VHS by Random House Home Video in 1994, where it was retitled as Sesame Street Celebrates Around the World, which is what all rereleases of the special would use. The VHS later reissued by Sony Wonder in 1996.

Sony Wonder released the special on DVD in 2004, and was reissued by Genius Entertainment and Warner Home Video in 2008 and 2010, respectively.

The 2017 Amazon Video digital download release, reinstated the special's original title of Sesame Street Stays Up Late.

External links

Sesame Street features
1993 in American television
1993 television specials
New Year's television specials
Films directed by Chuck Vinson
1993 films
1990s English-language films
1990s American films

Sesame Street Stays Up Late!


A pre-entry closed shop (or simply closed shop) is a form of union security agreement under which the employer agrees to hire union members only, and employees must remain members of the union at all times to remain employed. This is different from a post-entry closed shop (US: union shop), which is an agreement requiring all employees to join the union if they are not already members. In a union shop, the union must accept as a member any person hired by the employer. By comparison, an open shop does not require union membership of potential and current employees.

International Labour Organization covenants do not address the legality of closed shop provisions, leaving the question up to each individual nation. The legal status of closed shop agreements varies widely from country to country, ranging from bans on the agreement, to extensive regulation of the agreement to not mentioning it at all.

Legal status

Council of Europe
The European Court of Human Rights held that Article 11 of the European Convention on Human Rights provides for a "negative right of association or, put in other words, a right not to be forced to join an association", in Sørensen and Rasmussen v. Denmark (2006).

United Kingdom
Dunn and Gennard found 111 UK cases of dismissals on the introduction of a closed shop, involving 325 individuals, and they stated, "While proponents of the closed shop may argue that an estimated minimum 325 dismissals is a relatively small number compared with the total population covered by closed shops, critics would see the figure as substantial arguing that one dismissal is one too many". In relation to the pre-entry closed shop, they stated, "Its raison d'être is to exclude people from jobs by denying them union membership".

All forms of closed shops in the UK are illegal following the introduction of the Employment Act 1990. They were further curtailed under section 137(1)(a) of the Trade Union and Labour Relations (Consolidation) Act 1992 (c. 52) passed by the Conservative government at the time. The Labour Party, then in opposition, had supported closed shops until December 1989, when it abandoned the policy in accordance with European legislation. Equity was one of the last trade unions in the United Kingdom to offer a pre-entry closed shop until the 1990 act.

The famous English tort law case of Rookes v Barnard concerned a closed shop agreement.

United States
The Taft–Hartley Act outlawed the closed shop in the United States in 1947. The union shop was ruled illegal by the Supreme Court. States with right-to-work laws go further by not allowing employers to require employees to pay a form of union dues, called an agency fee. An employer may not lawfully agree with a union to hire only union members, but it may agree to require employees to join the union or pay the equivalent of union dues to it within a set period after starting employment. Similarly, a union could require an employer that had agreed to a closed shop contract prior to 1947 to fire an employee who had been expelled from the union for any reason, but it cannot demand an employer to fire an employee under a union shop contract for any reason other than failure to pay dues that are required by all employees.

The US government does not permit union shops in any federal agency, regardless of state laws.

Construction unions and unions in other industries with similar employment patterns have coped with the prohibition of closed shops by using exclusive hiring halls as a means of controlling the supply of labor. Such exclusive hiring halls do not strictly and formally require union membership as a condition of employment, but they do so in practical terms since an employee seeking to be dispatched to work through the union's hiring hall must pay union dues or a roughly-equivalent hiring hall fee. If the hiring hall is run on a non-discriminatory basis and adheres to clearly-stated eligibility and dispatch standards, it is lawful.

The Taft–Hartley Act also prohibits unions from requiring unreasonably-high initiation fees as a condition of membership to prevent unions from using initiation fees as a device to keep non-union employees out of a particular industry. Also, the National Labor Relations Act permits construction employers to enter pre-hire agreements in which they agree to draw their workforces from a pool of employees dispatched by the union. The NLRA prohibits pre-hire agreements outside the construction industry.

For the entertainment industry, unions representing performers have as their most important rule banning any represented performer from working on any non-union production. Penalties are imposed on the union member, not the employer, and can lead to loss of union membership. Most major productions are union productions, and non-members join SAG-AFTRA, the country's main union of actors and performing artists, by performing as extras and earning three union vouchers or by being given a speaking line and entering that way. The other performance unions do not have minimum membership standards, but those who join them are prohibited from working on non-union productions.

Canada
The status of closed shops varies from province to province within Canada. The Supreme Court has ruled that Section Two of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms guaranteed both the freedom to associate and the freedom not to associate, but employees in a work-environment largely dominated by a union were beneficiaries of union policies and so should pay union fees, regardless of membership status. However, religious and conscientious objectors were allowed the option of paying the amount to a registered charity instead.

Australia
All forms of closed shops in the Commonwealth are illegal under federal workplace laws. Discriminating against an employee, or prospective employee, due to their status as a union, or non-union, member is considered an "adverse action" and is hence illegal under S.342 of the Fair Work Act 2009.

See also

Merit shop
Master contract (labor)
Bump (union)
Agency shop

Further reading
Johnsen, J. E. The Closed Shop. 1942.

References

Labor relations
Criticism of trade unions
Business law
Labour law

Closed shop


The discontinuity effect is known as the markedly greater competitiveness displayed between different, interacting groups relative to the competitiveness displayed when individuals interact with other individuals. Given that group competition over scarce resources is believed to lead to group-level conflict (see realistic group conflict theory), it has been asserted that the link between competition and conflict is also considerably more powerful between groups than between individuals.  While individuals within a group may prefer to be cooperative, once they join together to make a collective unit, individual orientations favoring cooperation tend to be overshadowed by competitive orientations of the group.

The discontinuity between individuals and groups has been consistently replicated in laboratory settings, but are not confined to them. These effects emerge during sports activities, sessions of classes, and even when groups merge to plan or strategize (Forsyth, 2010).

Causes

The discontinuity effect is consistent, which suggests that it emerges due to a number of causes, which may ultimately combine to intensify inter-group conflict.   These causes are greed, anonymity, fear, ingroup favoritism, and diffusion of responsibility.

Greed: First of all, when individuals congregate to form groups, they typically become more greedy. This change in disposition develops as group members realize and discover that they are in similar pursuit of maximizing group- level gains and are therefore in competition with other groups to achieve them. This social support then spurs the group members onto smaller levels of greed.
Fear: People tend to fear aggregations of individuals (i.e., groups) more than they fear individuals in singularity.  Groups are described as more abrasive, competitive, and aggressive, and also less agreeable, cooperative, and trustworthy.  In extreme cases, this general distrust may lead to intergroup paranoia, which is the belief held by members of one group that they will be mistreated by members of a malevolent outgroup.
Ingroup favoritism: Group members may feel pressure to do what they can to maximize a group's collective outcomes and maintain a sense of group duty. This is the sense that as being a part of (or leader of) a group is to do what increases group achievements, even if it comes at a cost to an outside group.
Diffusion of responsibility: This is a phenomenon whereby a person is less likely to take responsibility for an action or inaction while others are present, and it has been shown to contribute to the discontinuity effect. Individual group members may feel that others are either responsible for taking action, or have already done so, and therefore are not ultimately responsible for their actions within a group setting.

See also
Conflict resolution
Group conflict

References

Group processes

Discontinuity effect


The Upper Harbour Bridge (also called the Greenhithe Bridge) is a motorway bridge in west Auckland, New Zealand. It is technically two bridges, spanning an upper reach of the Waitematā Harbour, and connecting Hobsonville (in West Auckland) and Greenhithe (on the North Shore). It is an important connection for State Highway 18, and became even more important as a component of the Western Ring Route when the route was completed on 2 July 2017.

History
The original bridge was built in November 1975. Its capacity proved insufficient for later traffic demands of more than 27,000 vehicles per day (soon to be up to 35,000 vehicles per day with the completion of the motorway works) and a duplicate bridge was constructed next to it. The new bridge was designed and engineered by Beca, and built between 2005–2006 by Fletcher Construction using self-compacting concrete. The new bridge cost NZ$35 million and provides a 524 m long, 16.5m wide, 10-span crossing. This was designed to match the existing 457 m long existing 7-span cantilever bridge aesthetically.

The bridges provide three lanes toward Greenhithe (an uphill gradient) and two lanes downhill. Prior to the first stage of the Upper Harbour Motorway opening, Transit NZ closed off the old bridge to make repairs, especially to reduce a sagging effect due to old tensioning cables.
With the opening of the motorway on 6 December 2007 all bridge lanes were open. The new bridge also provides a cycle-way and walkway on the north side.

The bridge project, together with the causeway widening, has received a Silver Award from the Association of Consulting Engineers New Zealand.

The original bridge was in 1986 used by A. J. Hackett for the first jumps testing the equipment for what was to eventually become the world's first commercial bungee jumping company.

References

Upper Harbour Local Board Area
North Shore, New Zealand
Bridges completed in 2006
Concrete bridges in New Zealand
Bridges in Auckland
Waitematā Harbour

Upper Harbour Bridge


Alberto da Giussano (named after Alberto da Giussano, a fictional medieval military leader condottiero) was an Italian , which served in the Regia Marina during World War II. She was launched on 27 April 1930.

She participated in the normal peacetime activities of the fleet in the 1930s as a unit of the 2nd Squadron, including service in connection with the Spanish Civil War. On 10 June 1940 she was part of the 4th Cruiser Division, with the 1st Squadron, together with her sister ship  and was present at the Battle of Punta Stilo in July. She carried out a minelaying sortie off Pantelleria in August, and for the rest of the year acted as distant cover on occasions for troop and supply convoys to North Africa.

On 12 December 1941 she left port together with her sister ship Alberico da Barbiano. Both she and her sister were being used for an emergency convoy to carry gasoline for the German and Italian mobile formations fighting with the Afrika Korps. Jerrycans and other metal containers filled with gasoline were loaded onto both cruisers and were placed on the ships' open decks. The thinking behind using these two cruisers for such a dangerous mission was that their speed would act as a protection. Nonetheless, the ships were intercepted by four Allied destroyers guided by radar on 13 December 1941, in the Battle of Cape Bon. Alberto da Giussano was able to fire only three salvos before being struck by a torpedo amidships and hit by gunfire, which left her disabled and dead in the water. After vain struggle to halt the fire, the crew had to abandon the ship, which broke in two and sank at 4.22. 283 men out of the 720 aboard lost their lives. The ship's commanding officer, Captain Giovanni Marabotto, was among the survivors.

Citations

References

External links
 Alberto da Giussano Marina Militare website

Giussano-class cruisers
Ships built in Genoa
Ships built by Gio. Ansaldo & C.
1930 ships
World War II cruisers of Italy
World War II shipwrecks in the Mediterranean Sea
Maritime incidents in December 1941

Italian cruiser Alberto da Giussano


RMS Titanic wis an Olympic-class passenger liner owned bi the White Star Line an biggit at the Harland an Wolff shipyaird. On the nicht o 14 Aprile 1912, durin her maiden vaige, Titanic strack an iceberg, an sank two hours and forty minute later in early 15 Aprile 1912. At the time o her lenchin in 1912, she wis the maist muckle passenger steamship in the warld.

The sinkin resulted in the daiths o 1,517 fowk, rankin it as ane o the warst peacetime maritime disasters in history an by far the maist infamous. The Titanic uised some o the maist advanced technology tae haund at the time an wis faur ben trowed tae be "unsinkable" - atweel, in a 1910 White Star Line brochure advertisin the Titanic, it wis claimed that she wis "designed tae be unsinkable". It wis a great conflummix tae mony that despite the advanced technology a skeeled crew, the Titanic still sank wi a great lowse o life. The media frainesie aboot Titanic's famous victims, the leegends aboot whit happened on board the ship, the affcomin chynges tae maritime law, an the discovery o the wreck in 1985 by a team led by Robert Ballard hae makkit Titanic persistently weelkent lang syne.

1911 ships
1912 in Canadae
1912 in the Unitit Kinrick
1912 in the Unitit States
Ships biggit in Belfast
!Titanic
!Titanic
Edwardian era
Fower funnel liners
History o the Halifax Regional Municipality
Olympic-class ocean liners
Passenger ships o the Unitit Kinrick
Ship collisions wi icebergs
Ships o Ireland
Ships o the White Starn Line
Ships sunk in collisions
Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean
Steamships
Steamships o the Unitit Kinrick

RMS Titanic


Teru (stylized as TERU) is a Japanese visual kei metal musician, songwriter and artist. He is best known as guitarist for the symphonic metal band Versailles. He is also a member of Jupiter. Before Versailles he was previously in Aikaryu and supported his future bandmate Hizaki in his solo project.

Biography
Teru joined  in 2002, replacing guitarist Death. In August 2003 they signed to Crow Music (the same label as Hizaki's band Crack Brain) and released their first single the following month. For the next three years they toured extensively, had numerous releases and several line-up changes. But in early 2006, they were involved in a car accident with most members having serious injuries. While the members recovered Teru participated in Hizaki's solo project, Hizaki Grace Project. In December Aikaryu regrouped and performed a small tour. But in April 2007, they decided to disband.

Teru joined Hizaki's solo band, Hizaki Grace Project, in October 2006. Which also included Yuu (Jakura) on bass, Mikage (Babylon) on drums and Juka (Moi dix Mois) on vocals. They released three albums; Dignity of Crest, Ruined Kingdom and Curse of Virgo, and on December 24, 2007 had their latest live performance.

In 2007, he was recruited for Versailles by Hizaki and Kamijo, after being recommended by the Rock May-Kan venue. They quickly developed a large following worldwide, having their debut EP released domestically in Europe, and to date have gone on two world tours, which took them across Asia, Europe and Latin America.

Teru is also an artist, having designed many releases for Kamijo's record label Sherow Artist Society under the alias "Wait a Minute" (stylized as wait A minute), including for Versailles, Hizaki Grace Project and Matenrou Opera. He even gave a lecture at a seminar on the development of Japanese pop culture, held by the Kyoto University of Art and Design on November 25, 2010. He also designed the artwork for the 2015 album, Venom, by American heavy metal band, Impellitteri.

In January 2011, he and the rest of Versailles started starring in their own TV mini drama called . The show also starred Rina Koike and aired on Mainichi Broadcasting System and TV Kanagawa until March. Both Teru and Hizaki participated in the Blue Planet Japan project, which was created in response to the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami. The project is comprised on many visual kei artists, including members of DaizyStripper, heidi., Matenrou Opera, and Dolly. They performed live at Shibuya O-West on June 25 and released the single "Hitotsu Dake ~We are the One~" on September 14, with the proceeds from the single donated to the victims.

On August 9, 2011, the second anniversary of Jasmine You's death, Teru composed and dedicated the song "「For You」" to his former bandmate.

On July 20, 2012, Versailles announced they were stopping all activities at the end of the year. On April 1, 2013, every member of Versailles minus singer Kamijo announced they had formed a new band named Jupiter. They recruited Zin as vocalist and released their debut single, "Blessing of the Future", in the summer.

Equipment
Current
- ESP 激鉄 "Geki-Tetsu" Teru Custom Black

Other
- ESP Antelope Black
- ESP Reindeer Teru Custom See Thru Black
- ESP Jerk Teru Custom
- Strat Type Guitar Cherry Burst with EMG pickups
- Strat Type Guitar Black
- Zoom G7.1UT
- Custom Audio Electronics Cables
- TC Electronic G Major
- Korg DTR-1 Rack Tuner
- EX-PRO Wireless System
- Furman Power Conditioner
- BOSS FC-50 Midi Foot Controller
- ENGL, Hughes & Kettner, Bogner, Brunetti, Mesa Boogie & Marshall Amps

Discography

With Aikaryu

With Hizaki Grace Project
Albums
 Dignity of Crest (January 1, 2007)
 Ruined Kingdom (September 19, 2007)
 Curse of Virgo (December 26, 2007)

DVD

With Versailles

With Jupiter

References

External links
 Official blog
 Official Twitter
 Blue Planet Japan official website

Versailles (band) members
Visual kei musicians
Japanese heavy metal guitarists
Japanese designers
Japanese male actors
Musicians from Kyoto Prefecture
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)
Unidentified musicians
21st-century Japanese guitarists

Teru (guitarist)


Journal of Physics G: Nuclear and Particle Physics is a peer-reviewed journal that publishes theoretical and experimental research into nuclear physics, particle physics and particle astrophysics, including all interface areas between these fields.

The editor-in-chief is Jacek Dobaczewski, University of York, UK.

Scope
The journal publishes research articles on:
 theoretical and experimental topics in the physics of elementary particles and fields;
 intermediate-energy physics and nuclear physics;
 experimental and theoretical research in particle, neutrino, and nuclear astrophysics;
 research arising from all interface areas among these fields.

Research is published in the following formats:
 Research Papers: Reports of original and high-quality research work;
 Research Notes: Contributions from individuals (or small groups) within large collaborations, containing early results of analyses, detector development, simulations, etc. which might not otherwise be published in the wider literature;
 Topical Reviews: Specially commissioned review articles on areas of current interest;
 LabTalk: Article summaries written by the researchers themselves which introduce the findings, techniques, and possible applications of their research.

Abstracting and indexing information
The journal is indexed in INSPEC Information Services, ISI (Science Citation Index, SciSearch, ISI Alerting Services, Current Contents/Physical, Chemical and Earth Sciences), Article@INIST, and Chemical Abstracts.

References

External links
 Journal of Physics G: Nuclear and Particle Physics website
 IOP Publishing

IOP Publishing academic journals
Nuclear physics journals
Particle physics journals
Physics journals

Journal of Physics G


Peter Jackson (3 July 1861 – 13 July 1901) was an Australian heavyweight boxer who had a significant international career. Jackson was inducted into the International Boxing Hall of Fame in the inaugural 1990 class, as well as being the 2004 inductee for the Australian National Boxing Hall of Fame in the Pioneers category.

Early life

Jackson was born in Christiansted on the island Saint Croix, which was then the capital of the Danish West Indies (subsequently, part of the U.S. Virgin Islands). His family originally came from Montego Bay, Jamaica. His father, also called Peter Jackson, was a warehouseman and the grandson of a freed slave who had been owned by a planter with the surname of Jackson. Born a free man, Peter was in principle (at least) a Danish citizen before he gained Australian citizenship. Jackson had a good primary school education before becoming a mariner. Originally working on ships as a deckhand in the Sydney Docks since he was 14, he used his fists to quell a mutiny. This garnered him some notoriety and brought him to the attention of Larry Foley which started his career in boxing.

Professional career

Jackson won the Australian heavyweight title in 1886 with a knockout of Tom Lees in the 30th round. Jackson was at one stage a pupil of "The Black Diamond" Jack Dowridge, a Barbadian immigrant who pioneered boxing in Queensland, Australia. Among Dowridge's other pupils was "Gentleman Jack" John Reid McGowan, a fellow Australian National Boxing Hall of Fame Inductee. After establishing his boxing career, and like many of Australia's best boxers of this era, Jackson left for America. He arrived in San Francisco on 12 May 1888. and promptly beat "Old Chocolate" Godfrey to gain the World Colored Heavyweight Championship. During his stay in America, Jackson frequently sparred with Lees. Jackson would become an instructor at the California Athletic Club in San Francisco. He was considered one of the most "scientific" boxers of his day due to his footwork and technical proficiency.

Jackson would once again embark on to strange lands after a year in America, leaving that country for Great Britain. Jackson fought for a 1,000 pounds and the inaugural British Commonwealth title against Jem Smith, winning due to the latter's use of wrestling tactics in the second round. Later that year, during a short stay in Dublin, Jackson challenged anyone to stay in the ring with him for 4 rounds. Local champion Peter Maher, who was 20 years old at the time, was the man who took up his bet. Jackson thoroughly beat him in 3 rounds. Maher would go on to have a successful career, winning over 100 bouts. During Jackson's later years there was talk of a rematch against Maher that never materialized.

Jackson repeatedly tried to secure a fight against world champion John L. Sullivan to no avail. Sullivan cited the color bar as the reason for his refusal, claiming he would never fight a black man. Although there is no data to support that claim since Sullivan had on several occasions been scheduled to fight Black fighters such as "Old Chocolate", George Godfrey and a fighter named "Johnson" whose first name has been lost to history. The Godfrey bout was broken up by police as both men were stripped and ready to fight. On 21 May 1891, in Benicia, California Jackson fought the future world champion James Corbett. The match with Corbett went 61 rounds before it was declared no contest, as both boxers were too exhausted to continue. Jackson's last defense of his Commonwealth title came against his long-time rival and fellow Australian Frank Slavin. Both Slavin and Jackson had trained under Larry Foley and a real feud had existed between them for several years, due to Slavin's racism and a romantic triangle with a woman named Josie Leon. Although they had brawled before, this was the first and only professional bout between them. After a frenetic start to the fight, Jackson would gain the upper hand en route to a 10th-round knockout of Slavin.

After a long hiatus in which he only took part in exhibitions, he lost a bout to the powerfully built James J. Jeffries. Jeffries was another great boxer who would hold the championship of the world in the early 1900s.

Life after boxing

Jackson gained some fame during his stay in America. He stated his desire to play Othello, but it never came to fruition. However, he starred in a touring production of Uncle Tom's Cabin. Despite his celebrity, Jackson would run into financial troubles following his retirement from the ring. Jackson's health rapidly decayed following his bout against Jeffries, making it impossible for him to box. Several benefits were held in order to send him back to Australia.

Jackson died of tuberculosis in Roma, Queensland and was buried at Toowong Cemetery. A short time after becoming the first black heavyweight champion of the world in 1908, "The Galveston Giant" Jack Johnson, made a pilgrimage to Jackson's grave, a measure of the respect in which the man was held not only in Queensland, but in the boxing community worldwide. Jackson's tomb is emblazoned with the words "This was a man".

Professional boxing record
All information in this section is derived from BoxRec, unless otherwise stated.

Official record

All newspaper decisions are officially regarded as "no decision" bouts and are not counted in the win/loss/draw column.

Unofficial record

Record with the inclusion of newspaper decisions in the win/loss/draw column.

See also

 List of heavyweight boxing champions

References

External links

 Boxing: Australian National Boxing Hall of Fame - Peter Jackson

 IBHOF / Peter Jackson

Jackson, Peter — Brisbane City Council Grave Location Search

1861 births
1901 deaths
20th-century deaths from tuberculosis
Immigrants to colonial Australia
Australian male boxers
Australian people of Cruzan descent
Australian people of Jamaican descent
Bare-knuckle boxers
Burials at Toowong Cemetery
Commonwealth Boxing Council champions
Danish emigrants to Australia
Heavyweight boxers
Infectious disease deaths in Queensland
International Boxing Hall of Fame inductees
Tuberculosis deaths in Australia
People from the Danish West Indies
World colored heavyweight boxing champions
Australian waterside workers

Peter Jackson (boxer)


Stage combat, fight craft  or fight choreography is a specialised technique in theatre designed to create the illusion of physical combat without causing harm to the performers. It is employed in live stage plays as well as operatic and ballet productions. With the advent of cinema and television the term has widened to also include the choreography of filmed fighting sequences, as opposed to the earlier live performances on stage. It is closely related to the practice of stunts and is a common field of study for actors. Actors famous for their stage fighting skills frequently have backgrounds in dance, gymnastics or martial arts training.

History

Ancient
The history of stage fighting and mock combat can be traced to antiquity, with Aristotle quoted as noting that tragedy is conflict between people or indeed it may be traced to the origins of the human species and primate display behaviour. Display of martial aptitude is a natural occurrence in warrior societies, and ritualized forms of mock combat often evolve into war dances. Whether it is the struggle between the men and women of Aristophanes' Lysistrata in Ancient Greece or Ancient Egypt where Herodotus in his Histories talks about a religious festival in which they beat each other with staves but no one dies, staged combat has always  existed. As it doesn't make sense to sacrifice citizens in rituals, many ancient civilizations turned to symbolic gestures of combat through dancing or bringing a weapon to someone's throat or neck without actually touching them to symbolize death or an act of violence.

Post-classical
Fights staged for entertainment may also be in earnest for the combatants, as was the case with the Roman gladiators, and any public duel, such as the judicial duel of the European Middle Ages. The medieval tournament and joust are a classical examples of competitive ritualised mock combat. The joust from the time of Maximilian I developed into a sport with enormous cost involved for each knight and correspondingly high prestige attached, comparable to contemporary Formula One races, while at the same time minimizing the danger of injury with highly specialized equipment.

In the Late Middle Ages, staged fencing bouts, with or without choreography, became popular with fencing schools. Some German fechtbuch ("combat manuals", literally 'fight' or 'fence book') have sections dedicated to flamboyant techniques to be employed in such Klopffechten ("knockabout fighting"), which would be impractical in serious combat, and the Late Medieval German masters distinguish mock fights (fechten zu schimpf, 'rant fighting') and real combat (fechten zu ernst, 'earnest fighting').

The history of European theatrical combat has its roots in medieval theatre, and becomes tangible in Elizabethan drama. Richard Tarlton, who was a member of both William Shakespeare's acting company and of the London Masters of Defence weapons guild, was among the first fight directors in the modern sense. Sword duels depicted in plays showed how popular the pastime was in actual life. Before 1615 in England, many plays featured duels and the duels were regarded as highlights of the show. As opposed to after 1615, when dueling was publicly condemned by King James and the duels were used as a last resort in regard to the plot.

Modern
During the late 17th and early 18th centuries, stylized stage combat has been a staple feature of traditional performing arts for centuries, such as in Japanese Kabuki theater (as tachimawari "fighting scenes"), Chinese Beijing Opera and Indian theater.

Fencing masters in Europe began to research and experiment with historical fencing techniques, with weapons such as the two-handed sword, rapier and smallsword, and to instruct actors in their use. Notable amongst these were George Dubois, a Parisian fight director and martial artist who created performance fencing styles based on gladiatorial combat as well as Renaissance rapier and dagger fencing. Egerton Castle and Captain Alfred Hutton of London were also involved both in reviving antique fencing systems and in teaching these styles to actors.

During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, scenes of swordplay in touring theatrical productions throughout Europe, the British Commonwealth and the United States were typically created by combining several widely known, generic routines known as "standard combats", identified by names such as the "Round Eights" and the "Glasgow Tens".

Cinematic fencing has its roots in the 1920s, with the movies of Douglas Fairbanks. One of the more celebrated fight directors who emerged in this time was Paddy Crean who revolutionized stage combat, specifically sword play, for the silver screen and theater. Paddy created the flamboyant style of sword play that can be seen in Errol Flynn movies, among others. He promoted the use of safety above all things and then focused on story of the fight. B. H. Barry and J. Allen Suddeth, students of Paddy Crean, are two fight masters who have continued developing Paddy's legacy. Barry helped found the Society of British Fight Directors and then came to the United States to give fight direction a more specific shape. J. Allen Suddeth founded the National Fight Directors Training Program in the United States and wrote the book "Fight Direction for the Theater" (1996). Martial arts movies emerge as a distinct genre from the 1940s, popularized by Bruce Lee and Sonny Chiba from the 1960s.

Starting in the mid-1960s, John Waller, a pioneer in the English historical European martial arts (HEMA) revival, was a fight director for stage and screen, and later a teacher of stage combat at London drama schools, with an emphasis on historical realism. Informal guilds of fight choreographers began to take shape in the 1970s with the establishment of The Society of British Fight Directors, 1969 to 1996. Training was established in the United States with the formation of the Society of American Fight Directors in 1977.

Following this, further academies and associations worldwide have been established to uphold the craft, training and quality of work in the art-form of stage combat nationally and internationally, including: The British Academy Of Stage & Screen Combat (BASSC) and Fight Directors Canada (FDC) in 1993; the Society of Australian Fight Directors Inc. (SAFDi) in 1994; the Nordic Stage Fight Society (NSFS) and the New Zealand Stage Combat Society in 1995; the British Academy of Dramatic Combat (BADC, formerly known as The Society of British Fight Directors) in 1996; Art of Combat in 1997; New York Combat for Stage & Screen in 1999; Stage Combat Deutschland in 2004; and the Australian Stage Combat Association (ASCA) in 2010; The British Guild of Stage Combat in 2015. As of 2005, East 15 Acting School, London offered a B.A. (Hons) Degree in Acting & Stage Combat. Many of the societies offer certification programs for different weapons, which is used as an indicator about how much training an actor has had.  During the early part of the Covid 19 Pandemic, several organizations made strides in distance/virtual training, including international virtual workshops.

Techniques

Stage combat training includes unarmed combat skills such as illusory slaps, punches, kicks, throwing and holding techniques;  theatrical adaptations of various forms of fencing such as rapier and dagger, smallsword and broadsword, as well as the use of other weapons, notably the quarterstaff and knives; and more specialized skills such as professional wrestling and different styles of martial arts. However, stage combat can include any form of choreographed violence and the options are limited only by safety concerns, and the ability of the participants involved. As a note, most of these techniques are drawn from actual fighting techniques, but modified to be safer for actors. For example, although there are a number of ways of creating the safe illusion of a slap to the face (which is obviously something that could really be done in combat), none of these involve making actual contact with the victim's face.

The overriding concern is for the safety of the actors and audience. This requirement has led to the adaptation of many standard martial arts and fencing skills specifically for performance.  For example, many basic sword attacks and parries must be modified to ensure that the actors do not bring the points of their weapons past their partner's face or otherwise inadvertently risk the other actor's health and well-being. Attacking actions in stage combat are extended past the performance partner's body, or aimed short of their apparent targets. Likewise, whereas their characters may be engaged in vicious unarmed combat, the actors must operate at a high level of complicity and communication to ensure a safe, exciting fight scene. In many forms of stage combat, distance is a key factor in technique. Many attacks are performed 'out of distance' so that there is no possible chance of one performer accidentally striking the other. Considerable professional judgement is called upon to determine what technical level may be appropriate for a given performer, taking into account allotted rehearsal time, and the expectations of the director.

Another important element of stage combat is sound. Sound increases the believability of an action for the audience. There are two kinds of sounds that can be made. One is vocal reactions. By adding a gasp, groan, or grunt when struck, the combatants make the moves come to life. The other kind of sound is a knap or a percussive sound made by hitting a resonant part of the body. This is timed to the moment an impact would happen and is staged so it is hidden from the audience. This allows the audience to believe that an actual blow or slap has landed because they hear a corresponding sound and see a reaction.

The combat phase of a play rehearsal is referred to as a fight rehearsal. Choreography is typically learned step by step, and practiced at first very slowly before increasing to a speed that is both dramatically convincing and safe for the performers and their audience. Even stage combat is risky, and it is preferable for actors to have as much training and experience as possible. A "fight call" or a brief rehearsal before the show is performed each time, set aside for the actors to "mark" through the fight to increase their muscle memory. A show which involves fight choreography will typically be trained and supervised by a professional fight choreographer and may also include a fight captain, who runs fight calls and ensures that actors are remaining safe throughout the duration of the show.

The fighting styles in movies set in the Medieval or Renaissance periods may be unrealistic and historically inaccurate. Most fight choreographers use a mix between Asian martial arts and sports fencing to re-enact fight scenes. This is generally due to the look of the fighting asked for by the director. If the director wants the story to flow a certain way, then the fight director will choreograph the fights to fit that style and tell the story.

Weapons
For stage combat, all edges should be dulled and points blunted so that there is no risk of severe injury if someone is accidentally stabbed. In addition, weapons that are used, and not just for show, should be certified as combat-ready, thereby preventing any accidents involving blades accidentally breaking off.

Melee
Melee weapons are used in large battle scenes and can include spears, axes, maces, flails, and more. These are other weapons that are best used in large playing spaces where there is room to work at a safe distance.

Stick-fighting
Quarterstaffs are used in shows that are performed in large playing spaces due to the large size of the weapon. One of the most popular quarterstaff fights is that between Robin Hood and Little John in the tale of Robin Hood from the 17th century ballad. Modern quarterstaff choreography has also integrated the techniques of the bō staff from the Japanese martial art Tenshin Shōden Katori Shintō-ryū, which originated around 1447. Examples of this style can be seen in the famous Kabuki play Yoshitsune Senbon Zakura, written in 1748.

Asian Martial Arts

Replicating Asian martial arts on stage is often an imitation of their cinematic representation, and often involves creating the illusion of high level skills that the performers themselves do not possess.  Often, they are choreographed with stylized movements that are inspired by Asian martial arts cinema more so than actual martial practices.

The Vampire Cowboys Theatre Company, helmed by Qui Nguyen and Robert Ross Parker, have built a genre in part around the staging of elaborate martial arts derived fight scenes.

Lanford Wilson's play Burn This also includes a fight scene scripted to include elements of Aikido and Karate.  While the play itself is not focused on martial arts, their inclusion is important in a pivotal moment of the play.  An example of martial arts being centered in a scene of musical theatre can be found in Stephen Sondheim's Company (musical), during the song "The Little Things You Do Together."  They also appear in some of the works of David Henry Hwang.

Pan Asian Rep produced Shogun MacBeth twice, which transposed Shakespeare's play to feudal Japan, with the appropriate style of swordplay.  Also adapting the same play to a Japanese setting, Ping Chong created a stage version of Kurosawa's Throne of Blood.

In terms of Asian theatre, fight scenes in genres such as Kabuki are often highly stylized.

European

A large sword commonly used in the early Middle Ages in Europe, the broadsword was notable for its large hilt which allowed it to be wielded with both hands due to its size and weight. Used for slashing rather than stabbing, this weapon is used in plays set in this period like Shakespeare's Macbeth and is also seen in fantasy epics like Lord of the Rings.

The first school instructing on the correct use of the rapier in England was started in 1576 by Rocco Bonetti from Italy. Bonetti took over the lease from playwright John Lyly to open his school in Blackfriars.  The rapier has the advantage of the thrust over the slash which means it could be a much smaller and lighter weapon than the broadsword. It is popular in Shakespeare plays like Romeo and Juliet and Hamlet where duels are performed and can be used in combination with a dagger.

The smallsword came into fashion in England and France in the late seventeenth century. It was used as a thrusting weapon and so sword movements were kept minimal to find the opening that a thrust could land. Most men of the period carried smallswords as fashion accessories so most were elegantly ornamented. An example of a smallsword duel can be seen in Les Liaisons Dangereuses by Christopher Hampton written in 1985, based on the 1782 novel of the same name.

There are many knife fighting styles from the Bowie knife to a switchblade. Knife fights tend to have quick sharp movements. An example of this can be seen in West Side Story's fight between Riff and Bernardo. Often in plays however, it is one actor with a knife against someone who is unarmed like in Act I of Georges Bizet's opera Carmen, written in 1875.

LLyg
The Sword and shields used in stage combat are commonly round and are strong enough that they can be used as a defensive and offensive weapon. An important element in using a shield is to hold the shield arm in an upper diagonal so the fist is higher than the elbow so the top of the shield does not move when struck, and the danger being hit in the face with the shield or the weapon using to strike it can be avoided. Sword and shields can be found in battle scenes like in Shakespeare's Wars of the Roses history plays.

Guns

A staple of modern action films due to its visual spectacle, a result of often impressive choreography and stuntwork.

Bodies and bottles
This consists of hand to hand combat without weapon. Elements of unarmed combat include slaps, punches, kicks, grabs, chokes, falls, rolls, grappling, among others. Many fight directors rely on combinations of messy street fighting and martial arts such as aikido and Brazilian jiu-jitsu to create fights of this nature. Generally more common in modern contemporary plays, after swords have gone out of style but also seen in older plays such as Shakespeare's Othello when Othello strangles Desdemona.

Found objects are objects that are not traditionally weapons but can be used so in the context of the scene. A classic example of this is breaking a bottle over someone's head. As with all stage combat, the objects are rigged so as not to actually pose any danger to the recipients. In the case of bottles or plates, sugar glass molds are used rather than actual glass bottles.

Realism
Fight choreography can vary widely from true realism to outright fantasy depending upon the requirements of a particular production. One of the biggest reasons that theatrical fight directors often do not aim for strict realism is that the live audience could not easily follow the 'story' of the action if bodies and blades were moving in the ways trained fighters would move them. For example, a production of Cyrano de Bergerac, by Edmond Rostand, using 17th-century rapiers, might show Cyrano making many circular cut attacks. But a more efficient, practical attack would be taking a quicker, more direct line to the opponent's body. But the fight director knows that the audience couldn't follow the action as well if the attacks were faster (the audience might hardly be able to see the thin blades whip through the air), so most fight choreographers would make choices to help the audience follow the story. Of course, this is dependent on the production, the director and other stylistic choices.

One school of fight choreographer thought says that an unusual aspect of live stage combat, such as in a play, is that audiences will react negatively to even simulated violence if they fear the actors are being harmed: for example, if an actor is really slapped in the face, the audience will stop thinking about the character and, instead, worry about the performer. Audiences may also fear for their own safety if large combat scenes seem to be out of control. Therefore, stage combat is not simply a safety technique but is also important for an audience to maintain uninterrupted suspension of disbelief.

Types

In theater
Having its roots in Medieval theatre, stage combat enters classical theatre choreography with Elizabethan drama (Shakespeare's simple and oft seen stage direction, they fight).

Classical stageplays with sword fight scenes:
Romeo and Juliet (1597) by William Shakespeare
Henry IV (1597) by William Shakespeare
Hamlet (circa 1600) by William Shakespeare
Macbeth (circa 1605) by William Shakespeare
King Lear (1606) by William Shakespeare (Cornwall and the servant, Act III; Edgar and Edmund, Act V)
Troilus and Cressida (1609) by William Shakespeare
'Tis Pity She's a Whore (circa 1630) by John Ford
The Rover (1677) by Aphra Behn
Die Räuber (1781) by Friedrich Schiller
Cyrano de Bergerac (1897) by Edmond Rostand

In film

Cinema inherited the concept of choreographed fights directly from the theatrical fight. Douglas Fairbanks in 1920 was the first film director to ask a fencing master to assist the production of a fencing scene in cinema. A second wave of swashbuckling films was triggered with Errol Flynn from 1935. Renewed interest in swashbuckling films arose in the 1970s, in the wake of
The Three Musketeers (1973). Directors at this stage aimed for a certain amount of historical accuracy, although, as the 2007 Encyclopædia Britannica puts it, "movie fencing remains a poor representation of actual fencing technique".
The Star Wars films, the fights for which are choreographed by Bob Anderson & Peter Diamond (Episodes IV, V & VI) and Nick Gillard (Episodes I, II & III), tend to portray its lightsaber combat using swordsmanship techniques drawn from existing martial arts, but performed with fantasy weapons such as lightsabers or the Force, whereas the action featured in The Lord of the Rings also choreographed by Bob Anderson employed fantasy weapons and fighting styles, designed by Tony Wolf.

During the 1970s and 1980s, Bruce Lee, Sonny Chiba, Jackie Chan and Sammo Hung became famous for both choreographing and acting in martial arts action films, and were influential in the development of stage combat on film. Hong Kong-based fight choreographer Yuen Woo-ping is known for his work on Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon and the Matrix trilogy, in which the often unrealistic fighting techniques are complemented by directorial techniques such as bullet time. Ching Siu-tung is particularly noted in the field of Hong Kong action cinema for his use of graceful wire fu techniques. By contrast, films such as The Duellists, fight directed by William Hobbs, Once Were Warriors, fight directed by Robert Bruce and Troy & Ironclad, fight directed by Richard Ryan are widely famed for including gritty, realistic combat scenes. Ryan is also known for his creativity in devising styles such as Batman's in The Dark Knight, Sherlock Holmes 'prevision' style in Guy Ritchie's two Sherlock Holmes movies.

Combat reenactment

Combat reenactment is a side of historical reenactment which aims to depict events of battle, normally a specific engagement in history, but also unscripted battles where the 'winner' is not predetermined.

See also
Hong Kong action cinema
Kung Fu Theater
Martial arts film
Samurai cinema

References

Further reading
William Hobbs, Fight Direction for Stage and Screen, Heinemann (1995), .
Wolf Christian, The Stage Combat Handbook, Lulu (2014), .
Jenn Boughn, Stage Combat: Fisticuffs, Stunts, and Swordplay for Theater and Film, Allworth Press (2006), .
Keith Ducklin and John Waller, A Manual for Actors and Directors, Applause Books (2001), .
Dale Anthony Girard, Actors on Guard: A Practical Guide for the Use of the Rapier and Dagger for Stage and Screen, Theatre Arts Book (1996), .
Michael Kirkland, Stage Combat Resource Materials: A Selected and Annotated Bibliography,  Praeger Publishers (2006), .
Richard Lane, Swashbuckling: A Step-by-Step Guide to the Art of Stage Combat and Theatrical Swordplay, Limelight Editions (2004), .
Meron Langsner, 'Theatre Hoplology: Simulations and Representations of Violence on the Stage' in 'Text & Presentation 2006' edited by Stratos E. Constantinidis',McFarland (2007), , 9780786430772.
Meron Langsner, 'Why Everyone Should Study Stage Combat', HowlRound, Why Everyone Should Study Stage Combat
J. D. Martinez, The Swords of Shakespeare: An Illustrated Guide to Stage Combat Choreography in the Plays of Shakespeare, McFarland & Company (1996), .
J. Allen Suddeth, Fight Directing for the Theatre, Heinemann Drama (1996), .
Richard Pallaziol, The Textbook of Theatrical Combat, Weapons of Choice (2009), weaponsofchoice.com,  .
Jonathan Howell, "Stage Fighting, a Practical Guide", Crowood Press (2008),
 F. Braun McAsh, "Fight Choreography, a Practical Guide", Crowood Press (2010)
Video
Basic Stage Combat DVD, Educational Video Network (2004).
Traditioneller Schaukampf für Anfänger nach Dreynschlag, Agilitas TV (2007).
B H Barry.  "Fights for Everyone" 2013

Filmmaking

Sports entertainment
Performing arts

Stage combat


Franz Böhm (16 February 1895 – 26 September 1977) was a German politician, lawyer, and economist.

Early life
Franz Böhm was born on 16 February 1895 in Konstanz. He moved along with his family in 1898 to Karlsruhe as his father was appointed the Minister of Cultural Affairs for the Grand Duke of Baden.

Early career
After completing his Abitur and military service, Böhm enlisted in the military at the beginning of World War I. He was the first citizen of Karlsruhe to be awarded the Iron Cross. In 1919 Böhn began studying law and political science at the University of Freiburg and completed his Staatsexamen in 1924, receiving shortly thereafter a job as a public prosecutor.

Böhm published his first essay entitled "Das Problem der privaten Macht, ein Beitrag zur Monopolfrage" (The problem of private power; a contribution to the question of monopolies) in 1928, establishing himself as a prominent economist. In the wake of the publication of this essay, fellow economists Alexander Rüstow and Friedrich Lutz strongly encouraged Böhm to write a disputation of the economic work of Adam Smith. Böhm eagerly took up their suggestion and wrote what would become his principal work: "Wettbewerb und Monopolkampf."

After writing these pieces Böhm received a professorship at the University of Freiburg, where he and colleague Walter Eucken established the Freiburger Schule. During this time Böhm worked closely with Eucken and Hans Grossmann-Doerth in establishing the groundwork for their economic theory, Ordoliberalism.

From 1925 to 1931 Böhm served in the economic ministry of the Weimar Republic.

Nazi era
The liberal economic beliefs of the Freiburger Schule directly contrasted the economic beliefs of the Nazi Regime. Every assembly of the Freiburger Schule was therefore a direct afront to the regime. Public discussions became evermore dangerous, so the school was quickly forced to begin meeting secretly. During this time the assembly began calling itself the "Diehl-Seminar" in recognition of its meeting place, the home of Karl Diehl.

Böhm had his ability to teach revoked from him by the Nazis in 1938 due to his public outspokenness against the anti-Jewish policies of the regime. During the same year, Böhm became active in the Freiburger Konzil, which served as a meeting point for anti-Nazi professors from the university and pastors of the Confessing Church. Böhm became heavily involved throughout the following years in opposition groups such as the Bonhoeffer-Krise and the  Arbeitsgemeinschaft Erwin von Beckerath, a council of liberal economists opposed to Nazi economic practices.

Only through name confusion resulting from a mistake by the Nazis was Böhm able to avoid arrest after the failed July 20 plot. This confusion relates to the arrest of the Roman Catholic Parish Priest Franz Boehm, who had already been arrested on June 5, 1944 for preaching against the Nazi film industry.

Post-war and political career
After the war Böhm was able to resume teaching in Freiburg and was granted the position of Prorector. In 1946 he accepted a professorship at the University of Freiburg. During his time at the university he worked with Walter Eucken to found the German scholarly journal ORDO in 1948, which remains today a mouthpiece of German institutional economists.

During this time Böhm became active in politics, joining the CDU shortly after the war. He served as the minister of cultural affairs in Hessen under Karl Geiler from 1 November 1945 until February 1946, when he resigned due to differences of opinion with the American occupying forces.

Böhm was a member of the German Bundestag from 1953 until 1965. During this time he was the leader of the German delegation for the reparations negotiations with Israel.

Throughout his time in the Bundestag Böhm remained deeply connected to the University of Freiburg and his students, continuing to provide seminars despite his role in the Bundestag. His political role remained secondary in importance to his career as an instructor. Böhm died on 26 September 1977 in Rockenberg.

The Franz-Böhm Schule, a Berufsschule in Frankfurt am Main, is named in his honor.

References

Further reading
 Blumenberg-Lampe, Christine (2004). "Franz Böhm." Christliche Demokraten gegen Hitler: Aus Verfolgung und Widerstand zur Union. Ed. Buchstab, Günter; Kaff, Brigitte; Kleinmann, Hans-Otto. Freiburg, Germany: Herder, 2004. 108-114. Print.

External links
 Freiburger Schule

1895 births
1977 deaths
People from Konstanz
Freiburg School economists
20th-century German economists
German anti-fascists
Grand Crosses with Star and Sash of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Members of the Bundestag for Hesse
Members of the Bundestag 1961–1965
Members of the Bundestag 1957–1961
Members of the Bundestag 1953–1957
Members of the Bundestag for the Christian Democratic Union of Germany
Member of the Mont Pelerin Society

Franz Böhm


Bahia Lomas (or Lomas Bay) is a bay in the eastern mouth of the Strait of Magellan in Southern Chile, on the north coast of the Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego.  The area is a large tidal plain, with a tidal variation up to 7 km.  The wetlands of the bay are important sites for the red knot, the Hudsonian godwit and other shorebirds.
The wetlands are a Ramsar site of international importance and an Important Bird Area.

Geography
Bahía Lomas is a bay on the north of the island of Tierra del Fuego near the southern tip of South America. The bay is located in Chile, close to the border with Argentina at 52.55°S and 69.00°W, and opens onto the Strait of Magellan. The bay has about  of beach, a number of salt marshes and the largest area of tidal flats in Chile. Up to  of flats are exposed by the receding tide, measuring from the high tide mark to low water. Above the high tide mark are muddy plains criss-crossed by channels, and these are backed by sandy areas. This part of Tierra del Fuego experiences sudden changes in the weather and strong winds throughout the year; in the summer (December to March), the temperature averages between  while in the winter (June to August) the mean temperature can drop below . Two oil extraction platforms are situated on the flats.

Ramsar site

The bay was designated as a Ramsar site under the Ramsar Convention in 2004, being an area of around  of international importance to wetland birds. It has also been identified as an Important Bird Area. It is visited from October to March each year by large numbers of migratory shorebirds which overwinter here, including 23% of the world population of the Hudsonian godwit (Limosa haemastica) and over 88% of the American population of red knot (Calidris canutus). Other migratory and domestic species include the white-rumped sandpiper (Calidris fuscicollis), the Magellanic plover (Pluvianellus socialis) and the Chilean flamingo (Phoenicopterus chilensis), as well as Baird's sandpiper (Calidris bairdii), the sanderling (Calidris alba), the rufous-chested plover (Charadrius modestus), the two-banded plover (Charadrius falklandicus), the whimbrel (Numenius phaeopus), the Magellanic oystercatcher (Haematopus leucopodus), the American oystercatcher (Haematopus palliatus) and the kelp gull (Larus dominicanus).

Flora and fauna
Precipitation is very low in this area and the vegetation on the Patagonian steppe land is largely dominated by the grasses Festuca spp., while the saltmarshes are covered by succulent plants such as the glasswort Salicornia ambigua and the seablite Suaeda argentinensis. The mud flats provide habitat for bivalve molluscs and various polychaete worms, as well as many other invertebrates, and these provide food for the shore birds. Cetaceans visit the bay and sometimes get stranded on the mudflats, with 21 different species having been recorded.

References

External links
IBA factsheet

Strait of Magellan
Ramsar sites in Chile
Important Bird Areas of Chile
Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego
Bays of Chile
Bodies of water of Magallanes Region

Bahía Lomas


The Chevrolet HHR (for Heritage High Roof) was a retro-styled station wagon. It was introduced by Chevrolet at the 2005 Los Angeles Auto Show as a 2006 model. It was designed by Bryan Nesbitt. The HHR shared the GM Delta platform with the Chevrolet Cobalt, Pontiac G5, Saturn Ion, and Saturn Astra. In Mexico, it was sold alongside its predecessor, the Opel-sourced Chevrolet Zafira compact MPV.

The last HHRs were assembled in May 2011.  The HHR was sold in dealerships across North America until October 2011. In the compact crossover wagon/SUV class, the HHR was succeeded by the Chevrolet Trax in North America and Europe. The HHR was replaced in the U.S. by the Chevrolet Captiva Sport. This was a rebadged version of the Opel Antara. However, the Captiva Sport is only available as a fleet vehicle and is not available new to the general public.

References

HHR

Chevrolet HHR


Creationism is the idea that life on earth was created by God. This idea comes from a literal reading of scripture, very often the Bible.  Today, almost all scientists believe evolution is a good explanation. These scientists say that  the scientific method does not allow certain explanations, mostly those that include supernatural elements. For this reason, a movement called  Neo-creationism wants to re-state the ideas behind creationism and restart the discussion  over the origins of life. The followers want to do this in such a way that religious terms are not used, and that there are no references to scripture. This should make it easier to talk to other groups, such as the scientific community or the general public.

Intelligent design

Neo-creationism


Negation as failure (NAF, for short) is a non-monotonic inference rule in logic programming, used to derive  (i.e. that  is assumed not to hold) from failure to derive .  Note that  can be different from the statement  of the logical negation of , depending on the completeness of the inference algorithm and thus also on the formal logic system.

Negation as failure has been an important feature of logic programming since the earliest days of both Planner and Prolog. In Prolog, it is usually implemented using Prolog's extralogical constructs.

More generally, this kind of negation is known as weak negation, in contrast with the strong (i.e. explicit, provable) negation.

Planner semantics
In Planner, negation as failure could be implemented as follows:
if (not (goal p)),  then (assert ¬p)
which says that if an exhaustive search to prove p fails, then assert ¬p.  This states that proposition p shall be assumed as "not true" in any subsequent processing. However, Planner not being based on a logical model, a logical interpretation of the preceding remains obscure.

Prolog semantics
In pure Prolog, NAF literals of the form  can occur in the body of clauses and can be used to derive other NAF literals. For example, given only the four clauses

NAF derives ,  and  as well as  and .

Completion semantics

The semantics of NAF remained an open issue until 1978, when Keith Clark showed that it is correct with respect to the completion of the logic program, where, loosely speaking, "only" and  are interpreted as "if and only if", written as "iff" or "".

For example, the completion of the four clauses above is

The NAF inference rule simulates reasoning explicitly with the completion, where both sides of the equivalence are negated and negation on the right-hand side is distributed down to atomic formulae. For example, to show , NAF simulates reasoning with the equivalences

In the non-propositional case, the completion needs to be augmented with equality axioms, to formalize the assumption that individuals with distinct names are distinct. NAF simulates this by failure of unification. For example, given only the two clauses

NAF derives .

The completion of the program is

augmented with unique names axioms and domain closure axioms.

The completion semantics is closely related both to circumscription and to the closed world assumption.

Autoepistemic semantics

The completion semantics justifies interpreting the result  of a NAF inference as the classical negation  of . However, in 1987, Michael Gelfond showed that it is also possible to interpret  literally as " can not be shown", " is not known" or " is not believed", as in autoepistemic logic. The autoepistemic interpretation was developed further by Gelfond and Lifschitz in 1988, and is the basis of answer set programming.

The autoepistemic semantics of a pure Prolog program P with NAF literals is obtained by "expanding" P with a set of ground (variable-free) NAF literals Δ that is stable in the sense that

In other words, a set of assumptions Δ about what can not be shown is stable if and only if Δ is the set of all sentences that truly can not be shown from the program P expanded by Δ. Here, because of the simple syntax of pure Prolog programs, "implied by" can be understood very simply as derivability using modus ponens and universal instantiation alone.

A program can have zero, one or more stable expansions. For example,

has no stable expansions.

has exactly one stable expansion

has exactly two stable expansions   and

The autoepistemic interpretation of NAF can be combined with classical negation, as in extended logic programming and answer set programming. Combining the two negations, it is possible to express, for example

 		(the closed world assumption) and
 	( holds by default).

Footnotes

References

External links
 Report from the W3C Workshop on Rule Languages for Interoperability. Includes notes on NAF and SNAF (scoped negation as failure).

Logic programming
Rules of inference

Negation as failure


Temple Mill Island is an island in the River Thames in England upstream of Marlow, and just downstream of Temple Lock. It is on the southern Berkshire bank close to Hurley.

The island is named after the three watermills that used to be on the island for beating copper and brass.  The island now has a modern housing development on it with a marina.

Daniel Defoe referred to the mills in his A tour thro' the Whole Island of Great Britain (1724-1727). He referred to the "three very remarkable mills, called Temple-Mills, for making Bisham Abbey Battery-work viz. Brass Kettles and Pans &c of all sorts. And these works were attended with no small success, till in the year 1720, they made a bubble of it; and then it ran the fate of all the Bubbles at that time".

See also
Islands in the River Thames

References

Islands of Berkshire
Islands of the River Thames
Watermills on the River Thames
Watermills in Berkshire
Bisham

Temple Mill Island


Super Noypi is a 2006 Filipino action superhero fantasy film released on December 25, 2006, directed by Quark Henares and produced by Regal Films. It was an official entry to the 32nd Metro Manila Film Festival. This was the last movie appearance of Sandara Park throughout her showbiz career in the Philippines.

Plot
Six normal childhood friends bound together by friendship find themselves faced with a shocking revelation – their parents are the legendary Super Noypi, the most powerful superheroes in the land! But now they are in danger, taken hostage by the wicked super-villain Diego (Monsour del Rosario). One by one, the six friends discover their super powers: the ability to move objects with their mind, becoming invisible at will, having superhuman strength and speed, transforming into any shape imaginable, casting spells and controlling fire and ice.

With the help of a strong and spirited stranger from the future named Lia (Jennylyn Mercado), who claims that the world as we know it will cease to exist if they don't stop Diego now, Lorenzo Valdez (Mark Herras), Annys Valdez (Katrina Halili), Yñigo Raymundo (John Prats), Euen Rapisora (Polo Ravales), Michie Rapisora (Sandara Park), and Tonton Valdez (Andrew Muhlach) stick together, taking a stand against evil in order to save the world and the people they love the most.

Cast
 John Prats as Yñigo Raymundo: Yñigo is the son of legendary aswangs. He has superhuman strength and speed and transforms into his aswang form whenever there is a threat of danger. He is funny, witty and happy-go-lucky. He breaks up with Annys after he finds out her true identity.
 Polo Ravales as Euen Rapisora: Euen is the eldest son of the strongest wizards and witches. A rocker at heart, he is always locking horns with his younger sister who loves all things pink. Upon discovery of their superhero lineage, Euen also inherits a spell book, which enables him to cast magic spells.
 Sandara Park as Michie Rapisora: Michie is the younger sister of Euen who is almost always at odds with her brother. She is perky, a bit vain but also absolutely lovable. She inherits a magical staff that enables her to control and create fire and ice.
 Katrina Halili as Annys Valdez / Cassandra Azaren: Annys is the younger sister of Lorenzo and the girlfriend of Yñigo. She can become invisible at will and also has the power of premonition, When the truth that she is the actual daughter of Diego was revealed, she stole Euen's spell book to throw up in the sky so her father would blast the spell book off.
 Mark Herras as Lorenzo Valdez: Lorenzo is the eldest son of the most powerful superheroes. When their father left years ago, he stood as the head of the family and helped his mother take care of his two younger siblings. He has telekinetic powers and is the leader and the strongest among the new breed of Super Noypi.
 Jennylyn Mercado as Lia: Lia is a master of martial arts and a rebel from the year 2075 who travels back through time to find a way to defeat the dictator and super-villain Diego. She tries to change the course of history by looking for the descendants of the greatest superheroes the country has ever known.
Andrew Muhlach as Tonton Valdez: Tonton is the youngest brother of Lorenzo and Annys, and also the baby of the group. A typical kid, he is playful and sometimes mischievous. As his older siblings and their friends begin to discover their new powers, he finds himself not having any and feels kind of left out. But in the end, he finds out that he has one of the mightiest and most overwhelming powers of all.
 Monsour del Rosario as Diego Azaren: Diego is a technology genius who rose from the ranks and became the most evil and powerful dictator the country has known. He has made it his personal mission to wipe out the Super Noypi and their descendants.

Other cast
 Aubrey Miles as Laurana X / Diane Azaren
 Dino Imperial as Harvey / Arclight Man
 Jao Mapa as Henry Valdez
 Jennifer Sevilla as Nannette Valdez
 Mon Confiado as Sammy Raymundo
 Karla Estrada as Thelma Raymundo
 Richard Quan as Richard Rapisora
 Kookoo Gonzales as Kathryn Rapisora
 Allan Paule as Lia's Father
 Bing Pimentel as Lia's Mother

See also
List of Filipino superheroes

References

External links

2006 films
Philippine fantasy films
2000s Tagalog-language films
Regal Entertainment films

Super Noypi