Władysław Aleksander Langner (18 June 1896 in Jaworów  28 September 1972) was a Polish general, best known as commander of the Siege of Lwów in 1939.

Early career
Władysław Langner spent his childhood in the Polish town of Tarnów, where he became a member of a local Independent Youth Union, which he represented at a national congress in Kraków in 1913. In the same year he founded a paramilitary organization in Tarnów together with his brother, in which they regularly organized military exercises and training. Later this organization also engaged in recruiting to the Polish National Army.

In the years 1914-1917, he served in the I Brigade of Piłsudski's Polish Legions and became commander of an infantry platoon. In the following years he was commanding officer of, among others, the 5th Infantry Regiment, the 40th Infantry Regiment stationed in Lwów, and the 12th Infantry Division based in Tarnopol. In 1928, Władysław Langner was called to Warsaw, where he worked as Head of the Main Administration Bureau of the Ministry of War. After three years he was promoted to the second Vice Minister of War and Chief of Army Administration, and in 1934 he was promoted to General. Until 1938 he served as a CO of Łódź-based IV Corps Command. Later, until 1939, he served on the same post in the headquarters of the VI Corps Command in Lwów.

World War II
During the Polish Defensive War of September 1939, Władysław Langner assumed command of all the Polish forces stationed in and around the city of Lwów. Although most of the regular Polish forces normally stationed in the area were transported to the front, he managed to organize the defence of both the city and its area. With march battalions, rear troops, marauders and raw recruits, he prepared the city for the fight. He commanded his forces during fights against the Wehrmacht and the Red Army, which later became known as the Battle of Lwów. Although his troops were badly outnumbered, outflanked and under equipped, the defense lasted ten days, after which General Langner surrendered the city to the Red Army so as to, according to his own words, "not endanger further the lives of the people and risk the destruction of the city".

After leaving the city, he managed to escape to Romania, and then to France, where he joined the reborn Polish Army being formed under the auspices of the Polish government in exile. After the fall of France, he retreated to the United Kingdom. There, he was appointed commander of the Polish 3rd Carpathian Rifle Brigade stationed in Scotland. In 1941 he gave up this post and between 1943 and the end of World War II he served as an Inspector of Military Training of Polish Units in Great Britain.

Retirement

In 1945 Władysław Langner retired to a farm near Newcastle upon Tyne, where he died in 1972.

Honours and awards
 Gold Cross of the Virtuti Militari, also the Silver Cross
 Cross of Independence
 Officer's Cross of the Order of Polonia Restituta
 Cross of Valour - four times
 Gold Cross of Merit

1896 births
1972 deaths
People from Yavoriv
Polish generals
Polish military personnel of World War II
Recipients of the Gold Cross of the Virtuti Militari
Recipients of the Cross of Independence
Officers of the Order of Polonia Restituta
Recipients of the Cross of Valour (Poland)
Recipients of the Gold Cross of Merit (Poland)
Polish people of the Polish–Soviet War

Władysław Langner


Levi's Stadium is a stadium in Santa Clara, California. The San Francisco 49ers play there.

History
A year after the stadium opened, Super Bowl 50 was held there. After the 2019 San Francisco 49ers season (2019 season), the stadium held its first playoff game on against the Minnesota Vikings, and the first NFC Championship game against the Green Bay Packers. The 49ers won both games.

The stadium hosted the 2019 College Football Playoff National Championship, in which the Clemson Tigers defeated the Alabama Crimson Tide, 44-16.

Construction
The stadium's construction was completed on July 17, 2014. There are 174 executive suites. The capacity is 68,500, which is expandable to 75,000. The cost of the stadium's construction was $1.27 billion. The first match held in the stadium was an MLS league match between the San Jose Earthquakes and the Seattle Sounders (1-0) on August 2nd 2014. On September 14, 2014, the 49ers played their first game at the stadium against the Chicago Bears, but lost 20-28.

References

San Francisco 49ers
Stadiums in the San Francisco Bay Area
Santa Clara County, California
Santa Clara, California

Levi's Stadium


Michael Coghlan (born 15 January 1985) is an English footballer who plays for Northern League club Washington.

A midfielder, Coghlan played in the Football League for Darlington and in non-league football for numerous clubs in the north-east of England.

Football career
Sunderland-born Coghlan began his football career with Darlington. As a 16-year-old, he was playing for their reserve team, and was included in the travelling squad, though not among the matchday 16, for Darlington's League Cup visit to Wolverhampton Wanderers in September 2003. A week later, he was an unused substitute for the Third Division match at home to Southend United, and on 11 October, as a member of "one of the youngest and smallest squads in the Third Division"Coghlan himself had been dubbed "pint-sized"he made his debut in the Football League. He entered the match as a second-half substitute with his team already two goals down at home to Bristol Rovers; it finished as a 4–0 defeat. In the Football League Trophy, against a Hull City side with eleven changes from their previous league match, Coghlan's "low, fierce shot" was blocked, rebounding to Mark Sheeran who scored to reduce Hull's lead to 2–1, but Darlington were eliminated.

He played twice more in the league in December, before joining Northern Premier League club Harrogate Town on loan in March 2004. The manager thought he "maybe struggled with the pace of the game" in his first appearance, in a defeat at Alfreton Town, and he was back with Darlington a few days later. He played regularly for the reserves in 2004–05according to his 2004 profile on the club's website, he had "shown he is a good passer of the ball with plenty to offer in midfield"but in November was one of seven players with contracts due to expire at the end of the season whom manager David Hodgson listed for transfer or loan and told to prove their worth to the club. After spending time with Bishop Auckland, another Northern Premier League club, on loan, Coghlan finished the season with Darlington's reserves, and was released when his contract expired.

He then went on a tour of non-league football in the north-east of England, playing for clubs including Ryhope CA, Durham City, Crook Town, another spell at Bishop Auckland, Sunderland RCA, Jarrow Roofing, Chester-le-Street Town, Seaham Red Star, and most recently Washington.

He also captained Humbledon Plains Farm, a Sunderland-based team, to victory in the 2014 FA Sunday Cup.

References

External links

1985 births
Living people
Footballers from Sunderland
English men's footballers
Men's association football midfielders
Darlington F.C. players
Harrogate Town A.F.C. players
Bishop Auckland F.C. players
Sunderland Ryhope Community Association F.C. players
Durham City A.F.C. players
Crook Town A.F.C. players
Jarrow Roofing Boldon Community Association F.C. players
Chester-le-Street Town F.C. players
Seaham Red Star F.C. players
Washington F.C. players
English Football League players
Northern Premier League players
Northern Football League players

Michael Coghlan


Jack Ignatius Dragna (born Ignazio Dragna, ; April 18, 1891 – February 23, 1956) was a Sicilian-American Mafia member, entrepreneur and Black Hander who was active in both Italy and the United States in the 20th century. He was active in bootlegging in California during the Prohibition Era in the United States. In 1931, he succeeded Joseph Ardizzone as the boss of the Los Angeles crime family after Ardizzone's mysterious disappearance and death. Both James Ragen and Earl Warren dubbed Dragna the "Capone of Los Angeles". Dragna remained the boss of the Los Angeles crime family from 1931 until his death in 1956.

Biography

Early life

Dragna was born to Francesco Paolo Dragna and Anna Dragna in Corleone, Sicily, on April 18, 1891. On November 18, 1898, Dragna came to the United States on the S.S. Alsatia with his parents, older sister Giuseppa, and older brother Gaetano. They stayed in East Harlem, in Manhattan, with his mother's cousin Antonio Rizzotto's family, also from Corleone. It is unknown when Dragna's father arrived in the United States. Dragna stayed in New York for ten years before returning to Sicily. As a young man, he joined the Italian Army and later the Sicilian Mafia.

In 1914, Dragna returned to America. He appears to have had a relationship with Gaetano Reina, who eventually led his own crime family in Manhattan and the Bronx. That same year, Dragna petitioned for naturalization as Charles Dragna, and was a suspect in the murder of Jewish poultry dealer Barnet Baff. After the killing, Dragna fled to California. He was extradited to New York, but never went on trial. In 1915, Dragna was arrested for Black Hand extortion of a Long Beach man and served three years in prison. Dragna was arrested as Ignazio Rizzotto, leading to the assumption he was the brother of his criminal associate, Benigno Rizzotto, with whom he'd lived in New York City.

During the Prohibition Era, Dragna and his brother Gaetano (now named Tom) ran extortion and illegal liquor distillation operations. In 1922, Dragna married his second cousin, Francesca Rizzotto. After his prison stint he worked closely with Joseph Ardizzone, a prominent mobster in Los Angeles.

Mafia Don
In 1931, Dragna succeeded Joseph Ardizzone as boss of the Los Angeles crime family. It was rumored that Dragna was involved in Ardizzone's disappearance and presumed murder. The American Mafia wanted to make inroads in California, and supported Dragna, as opposed to the "Mustache Pete" Ardizzone. His brother Tom became his consigliere.

As boss, Dragna's chief source of income came from extorting local bookmakers for "protection" money, although he was also the main illegal gambling operator in the city. Other businesses including running gambling ships, a heroin smuggling operation, and collecting extortion money. His close supporters included Girolamo "Momo" Adamo and John Roselli. Roselli had been a member of the Chicago Outfit, but left for California and worked with Dragna in gambling. In the 1950s, Roselli left California and became the Mafia's main representative in Las Vegas. An old bootlegging associate of Dragna's, Anthony Cornero ran gambling ships off the coast of California. Tommy Lucchese, of the Lucchese crime family, was Dragna's main contact in New York. Dragna also controlled unions in the laundromat business and dress importing companies.

Siegel and Cohen

As boss, Dragna often had to do business with representatives from the more powerful Cosa Nostra families in New York. When Benjamin "Bugsy" Siegel, an associate of the New York Luciano crime family, relocated to the West Coast during the late 1930s, he started his own rackets and formed an uneasy relationship with Dragna. Siegel brought in much more income for the Los Angeles family and generated a great deal of 'respect', which Dragna resented. Although many sources speak of a rivalry between them, Dragna and Siegel worked closely together, especially at organizing a racing wire service on the West Coast.

In June 1947, the East Coast crime families murdered Siegel in Los Angeles due to his failure to properly manage the new Flamingo Hotel in Las Vegas. Mickey Cohen, who had been serving as Siegel's bodyguard, immediately took over Siegel's rackets and refused to accept Dragna's authority. Dragna ordered several murder attempts on Cohen, but he managed to survive them all. On February 14, 1950, the California Commission on Organized Crime singled out Dragna as the head of a crime syndicate that controlled crime in Southern California. Soon after, several Los Angeles family members were arrested for the bombing of Mickey Cohen's home. Dragna fled the state to avoid questioning. He later surrendered to authorities, and was questioned in the U.S. Senate Kefauver hearings, but denied all accusations against him. Cohen was also questioned in the hearings, and as a result was convicted of federal tax evasion and was forced to give up control of his rackets to the Los Angeles family.

Private life and death
In 1953, the federal government ordered Dragna to be deported to Sicily. Back in 1932, Dragna had violated immigration law by illegally entering the United States at the San Ysidro border crossing in San Diego after a three-day stay in Mexico.  However, at the time of his death Dragna was still living in California, appealing against the deportation order.

Dragna was a very private boss who eschewed flashiness and attention. However, in the 1950s, the Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) under Chief William H. Parker engaged in a campaign of harassment against organized crime figures. Dragna and his family were frequently arrested. When his wife Frances died in 1953, Dragna lost interest in running the Los Angeles family and instead focused on meeting new women. On one occasion, several members of the LAPD stationed themselves outside a trailer where Dragna and a girlfriend were having sex. Using listening devices, officers gained enough evidence to arrest Dragna for engaging in lewd acts.

On February 23, 1956, Dragna died of a heart attack in Los Angeles. His body was interred at Calvary Cemetery in East Los Angeles, California. Dragna was survived by two children. His son Frank Paul Dragna was a USC graduate and World War II veteran who lost an eye in the war and was nicknamed "One Eye" to distinguish him from his cousin who had the same name ("One Eye" also had a glass eye). Dragna had a daughter Anna Rosalia Dragna, who later married and changed her surname to Niotta.

In popular culture

Dragna appears as a character in James Ellroy's fictional L.A. Quartet novels, specifically The Big Nowhere (1988) and White Jazz (1992).
Though he does not make an actual appearance, he is mentioned several times in the video game L.A. Noire.
A character by the same name appears in the sixth episode of the second series of the 1960s cult British spy-fi TV series The Avengers portrayed by Reed De Rouen.
Dragna appears in the 2013 film Gangster Squad, where he is played by actor Jon Polito.
In the 1991 film Bugsy, the highly fictionalized story of Bugsy Siegel, Dragna is played by Richard C. Sarafian.
Paul Ben-Victor plays Dragna in the neo-noir 2013 TV series Mob City.

Sources

References
 Demaris, Ovid. The Last Mafioso: The Treacherous World of Jimmy Fratianno. Bantam Books, 1981.
 Fisher, David. Joey the Hitman: The Autobiography of a Mafia Killer. Da Capo Press: Massachusetts, 2002.
 Lewis, Brad, Hollywood's Celebrity Gangster. The Incredible Life and Times of Mickey Cohen, Enigma Books: New York, 2007.
 Sifakis, Carl. The Mafia Encyclopedia, Third Edition, Checkmark Books: New York, 2005.
 Warner, Richard N. "The First Mafia Boss of Los Angeles? The Mystery of Vito Di Giorgio, 1880-1922." On The Spot Journal (Summer 2008), 46–54.
Dragna background (Part I) at Crimefile. Copyright Gatecitypublishing, 2010.

Further reading

External links

1891 births
1956 deaths
American crime bosses
American gangsters of Sicilian descent
History of Los Angeles
Los Angeles crime family
Prohibition-era gangsters
Burials at Calvary Cemetery (Los Angeles)
People extradited within the United States
Italian emigrants to the United States

Jack Dragna


The president of India (IAST: ) is the head of state of the Republic of India. The president is the nominal head of the executive, the first citizen of the country, as well as the supreme commander of the Indian Armed Forces. Droupadi Murmu is the 15th and current president, having taken office from 25 July 2022.

The office of president was created when India became a republic on 26 January 1950 when its constitution came into force. The president is indirectly elected by an electoral college comprising both houses of the Parliament of India and the legislative assemblies of each of India's states and territories, who themselves are all directly elected by the citizens.

Article 53 of the Constitution of India states that the president can exercise their powers directly or by subordinate authority, though all of the executive powers vested in the president are, in practice, exercised by the prime minister heading the Council of Ministers. The president is bound by the constitution to act on the advice of the Council and to enforce the decrees passed by the Supreme Court under article 142.

Origin
India achieved independence from the British on 15 August 1947, initially as a dominion within the Commonwealth of Nations with George VI as king, represented in the country by a governor-general. Following independence, the Constituent Assembly of India, under the leadership of B. R. Ambedkar, undertook the process of drafting a completely new constitution for the country. The Constitution of India was eventually enacted on 26 November 1949 and came into force on 26 January 1950, making India a republic. The offices of monarch and governor-general were replaced by the new office of President of India, with Rajendra Prasad as its first incumbent. India retained its Commonwealth membership per the London Declaration, recognising The King as "the symbol of the free association of its independent member nations and as such the Head of the Commonwealth."

The Indian constitution accords to the president the responsibility and authority to defend and protect the Constitution of India and its rule of law. Invariably, any action taken by the executive or legislature entities of the constitution shall become law only after the president's assent. The president shall not accept any actions of the executive or legislature which are unconstitutional. The president is the foremost, most empowered and prompt defender of the constitution (Article 60), who has pre-emptive power for ensuring constitutionality in the actions of the executive or legislature. The role of the judiciary in upholding the Constitution of India is the second line of defence in nullifying any unconstitutional actions of the executive and legislative entities of the Indian Union.

Powers and duties

Duty
The primary duty of the president is to preserve, protect and defend the constitution and the law of India as made part of their oath (Article 60 of Indian constitution). The president is the common head of all independent constitutional entities. All their actions, recommendations (Article 3, Article 111, Article 274, etc.) and supervisory powers (Article 74(2), Article 78C, Article 108, Article 111, etc.) over the executive and legislative entities of India shall be used in accordance to uphold the constitution. There is no bar on the actions of the president to contest in the court of law.

Legislative powers
Legislative power is constitutionally vested in the Parliament of India of which the president is the head, to facilitate the lawmaking process per the constitution (Article 78, Article 86, etc.). The president summons both the houses (Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha) of the parliament and prorogues them. They can dissolve the Lok Sabha.

The president inaugurates parliament by addressing it after the general elections and also at the beginning of the first session every year per Article 87(1). The presidential address on these occasions is generally meant to outline the new policies of the government.

All bills passed by the parliament can become laws only after receiving the assent of the president per Article 111. After a bill is presented to them, the president shall declare either that they assent to the Bill, or that they withhold assent from it.  As a third option, they can return a bill to parliament, if it is not a money bill, for reconsideration. President may be of the view that a particular bill passed under the legislative powers of parliament is violating the constitution, they can send back the bill with their recommendation to pass the bill under the constituent powers of parliament following the Article 368 procedure. When, after reconsideration, the bill is passed accordingly and presented to the president, with or without amendments, the president cannot withhold their assent from it. The president can also withhold their assent to a bill when it is initially presented to them (rather than return it to parliament) thereby exercising a pocket veto on the advice of the prime minister or council of ministers per Article 74 if it is inconsistent with the constitution. Article 143 gives the president the power to consult the supreme court about the constitutional validity of an issue. The president shall assent to constitutional amendment bills without power to withhold the bills per Article 368 (2).

When either of the two Houses of the Parliament of India is not in session, and if the government feels the need for an immediate procedure, the president can promulgate ordinances that have the same force and effect as an act passed by parliament under its legislative powers. These are in the nature of interim or temporary legislation and their continuance is subject to parliamentary approval. Ordinances remain valid for no more than six weeks from the date the parliament is convened unless approved by it earlier. Under Article 123, the president as the upholder of the constitution shall be satisfied that immediate action is mandatory as advised by the union cabinet and they are confident that the government commands majority support in the parliament needed for the passing of the ordinance into an act and parliament can be summoned to deliberate on the passing of the ordinance as soon as possible. The promulgated ordinance is treated as an act of parliament when in force and it is the responsibility of the president to withdraw the ordinance as soon as the reasons for the promulgation of the ordinance are no longer applicable. Bringing laws in the form of ordinances has become a routine matter by the government and president, but the provisions made in Article 123 are meant for mitigating unusual circumstances where immediate action is inevitable when the extant provisions of the law are inadequate. Re-promulgation of an ordinance after failing to get approval within the stipulated time of both houses of parliament is an unconstitutional act by the president. The president should not incorporate any matter in an ordinance which violates the constitution or requires an amendment to the constitution. The president should take moral responsibility when an ordinance elapses automatically or is not approved by the parliament or violates the constitution. Thus, it is believed that the POI is the de jure head of the state, whereas PM is the de facto head.

Executive powers

As per Article 53, the executive power of the country is vested in the president and is exercised by the president either directly or through officers subordinate to him in accordance with the constitution. When parliament thinks fit it may accord additional executive powers to the president per Article 70 which may be further delegated by the president to the governors of states per Article 160. Union cabinet with prime minister as its head, should aid and advise the president in performing their functions. Per Article 74 (2), the council of ministers or prime minister are not accountable legally to the advice tendered to the president but it is the sole responsibility of the president to ensure compliance with the constitution in performing their duties. President or their subordinate officers is bound by the provisions of the constitution notwithstanding any advice by the union cabinet.

As per Article 142, it is the duty of the president to enforce the decrees of the supreme court.

Judicial powers
The primary duty of the president is to preserve, protect and defend the constitution and the law of India per Article 60. The president appoints the Chief Justice of India and other judges on the advice of the chief justice. The President may dismiss a judge with a two-thirds vote of the two Houses of the parliament.

The Indian government's chief legal adviser, Attorney General of India, is appointed by the president of India under Article 76(1) and holds office during the pleasure of the president. If the president considers a question of law or a matter of public importance has arisen, they can also ask for the advisory opinion of the supreme court per Article 143. Per Article 88, the president can ask the attorney general to attend the parliamentary proceedings and report to him any unlawful functioning if any.

Appointment powers
The president appoints as prime minister, the person most likely to command the support of the majority in the Lok Sabha (usually the leader of the majority party or coalition). The president then appoints the other members of the Council of Ministers, distributing portfolios to them on the advice of the prime minister. The Council of Ministers remains in power at the 'pleasure' of the president.

The president appoints 12 members of the Rajya Sabha from amongst persons who have special knowledge or practical experience in respect of such matters as literature, science, art and social service. The president may nominate not more than two members of Anglo Indian community as Lok Sabha members per Article 331, which was removed in 2019.

Governors of states are also appointed by the president who shall work at the pleasure of the president. Per Article 156, the president is empowered to dismiss a governor who has violated the constitution in their acts.

The president is responsible for making a wide variety of appointments. These include:
 The Chief Justice of India and other judges of the Supreme Court of India and state/union territory high courts.
 The Chief Minister of the National Capital Territory of Delhi (Article 239 AA 5 of the constitution).
 The Comptroller and Auditor General Of India.
 The Chief Election Commissioner and other Election Commissioners.
 The Chairman and other members of the Union Public Service Commission.
 The Attorney General Of India.
Ambassadors and High Commissioners to other countries (only through the list of names given by the prime minister).
 Officers of the All India Services (IAS, IPS and IFoS), and other Central Civil Services in Group 'A'.

Financial powers
 A financial bill can be introduced in the parliament only with the president's recommendation.
 The president lays the Annual Financial Statement, i.e. the Union budget, before the parliament.
 The president can take advances out of the Contingency Fund of India to meet unforeseen expenses.
 The president constitutes a Finance Commission every five years to recommend the distribution of the taxes between the centre and the States. The most recent was constituted in 2017.

Diplomatic powers
All international treaties and agreements are negotiated and concluded on behalf of the president. However, in practice, such negotiations are usually carried out by the prime minister along with their Cabinet (especially the Minister of External Affairs). Also, such treaties are subject to the approval of the parliament. The president represents India in international forums and affairs where such a function is chiefly ceremonial. The president may also send and receive diplomats, i.e. the officers from the Indian Foreign Service. The president is the first citizen of the country.

Military powers
The president is the Supreme Commander of the Indian Armed Forces. Only the president can declare war or conclude peace, on the advice of the Union Council of Ministers headed by the prime minister. All important treaties and contracts are made in the president's name.

Pardoning powers

As mentioned in Article 72 of the Indian constitution, the president is empowered with the powers to grant pardons in the following situations:
 punishment for an offence against Union law
 punishment by a military court
 a death sentence

The decisions involving pardoning and other rights by the president are independent of the opinion of the prime minister or the Lok Sabha majority. In most cases, however, the president exercises their executive powers on the advice of the prime minister and the cabinet.

Emergency powers
The president can declare three types of emergencies: national, state and financial, under articles 352, 356 & 360 in addition to promulgating ordinances under article 123.

National emergency

A national emergency can be declared in the whole of India or a part of its territory for causes of war or armed rebellion or an external aggression. Such an emergency was declared in India in 1962 (Indo-China war), 1971 (Indo-Pakistan war), and 1975 to 1977 (declared by Indira Gandhi).[see main]

Under Article 352 of the India constitution, the president can declare such an emergency only on the basis of a written request by the cabinet of ministers headed by the prime minister. Such a proclamation must be approved by the parliament with at least a two-thirds majority within one month. Such an emergency can be imposed for six months. It can be extended by six months by repeated parliamentary approval-there is no maximum duration.

In such an emergency, Fundamental Rights of Indian citizens can be suspended. The six freedoms under Right to Freedom are automatically suspended. However, the Right to Life and Personal Liberty cannot be suspended (Article 21).

The president can make laws on the 66 subjects of the State List (which contains subjects on which the state governments can make laws). Also, all money bills are referred to the president for approval. The term of the Lok Sabha can be extended by a period of up to one year, but not so as to extend the term of parliament beyond six months after the end of the declared emergency.

National Emergency has been proclaimed 3 times in India to date. It was declared first in 1962 by President Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, during the Sino-Indian War. This emergency lasted through the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 and up to 1968. It was revoked in 1968. The second emergency in India was proclaimed in 1971 by President V. V. Giri on the eve of the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971. The first two emergencies were in the face of external aggression and War. They were hence external emergencies. Even as the second emergency was in progress, another internal emergency was proclaimed by President Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed, with Indira Gandhi as prime minister in 1975. In 1977, the second and the third emergencies were together revoked.

State emergency

If the president is not fully satisfied, on the basis of the report of the governor of the concerned state or from other sources, that the governance in a state cannot be carried out according to the provisions in the constitution, they can proclaim under Article 356 a state of emergency in the state. Such an emergency must be approved by the parliament within a period of 2 months.

Under Article 356 of the Indian constitution, it can be imposed from six months to a maximum period of three years with repeated parliamentary approval every six months. If the emergency needs to be extended for more than three years, this can be achieved by a constitutional amendment, as has happened in Punjab and Jammu and Kashmir.

During such an emergency, the president can take over the entire work of the executive, and the governor administers the state in the name of the president. The Legislative Assembly can be dissolved or may remain in suspended animation. The parliament makes laws on the 66 subjects of the state list (see National emergency for explanation).

A State Emergency can be imposed via the following:
 By Article 356If that state failed to run constitutionally, i.e. constitutional machinery has failed. When a state emergency is imposed under this provision, the state is said to be under "President's rule.
 By Article 365If that state is not working according to the direction of the Union government issued per the provisions of the constitution.

This type of emergency needs the approval of the parliament within 2 months. It can last up to a maximum of three years via extensions after each 6-month period. However, after one year it can be extended only if

 A state of National Emergency has been declared in the country or the particular state.
 The Election Commission finds it difficult to organise an election in that state.

The Sarkaria Commission held that presidents have unconstitutionally misused the provision of Article 356 many times for achieving political motives, by dismissing the state governments although there was no constitutional break down in the states. During 2005, President's rule was imposed in Bihar state, misusing Article 356 unconstitutionally to prevent the democratically elected state legislators to form a government after the state elections.

There is no provision in the constitution to re-promulgate president's rule in a state when the earlier promulgation ceased to operate for want of parliaments approval within two months duration. During 2014 in Andhra Pradesh, president's rule was first imposed on 1 March 2014 and it ceased to operate on 30 April 2014. President's rule was promulgated after being fully aware that the earliest parliament session is feasible at the end of May 2014 after the general elections. It was reimposed again unconstitutionally on 28 April 2014 by the president.

Financial emergency
Article 282 accords financial autonomy in spending the financial resources available with the states for public purposes. Article 293 gives liberty to states to borrow without any limit to its ability for its requirements within the territory of India without any consent from the Union government. However, the Union government can insist on compliance with its loan terms when a state has an outstanding loan charged to the consolidated fund of India or an outstanding loan in respect of which a guarantee has been given by the Government of India under the liability of consolidated fund of India.

Under article 360 of the constitution, the president can proclaim a financial emergency when the financial stability or credit of the nation or any part of its territory is threatened. However, until now no guidelines defining the situation of financial emergency in the entire country or a state or union territory or a panchayat or a municipality or a corporation have been framed either by the finance commission or by the central government.

Such an emergency must be approved by the parliament within two months by a simple majority. It has never been declared. A state of financial emergency remains in force indefinitely until revoked by the president.

The president can reduce the salaries of all government officials, including judges of the supreme court and high courts, in cases of a financial emergency. All money bills passed by state legislatures are submitted to the president for approval. They can direct the state to observe certain principles (economy measures) relating to financial matters.

Selection process

Eligibility
Article 58 of the constitution sets the principal qualifications one must meet to be eligible to the office of the president. A president must be:
 a citizen of India
 of 35 years of age or above
 qualified to become a member of the Lok Sabha

A person shall not be eligible for election as president if they hold any office of profit under the Government of India or the Government of any State or any local or other authority subject to the control of any of the said Governments.

Certain office-holders, however, are permitted to stand as presidential candidates. These are:
 The current vice-president
 The governor of any state
 A Minister of the Union or of any state (including prime minister and chief ministers)

In the event that the vice-president, a state governor or a minister is elected president, they are considered to have vacated their previous office on the date they begin serving as president.

A member of parliament or a State Legislature can seek election to the office of the president but if they are elected as president, they shall be deemed to have vacated their seat in parliament or State Legislature on the date on which they enter upon their office as President [Article 59(1)].

Article 57 provides that a person who holds, or who has held, office as president shall, subject to the other provisions of this constitution, be eligible for re-election to that office.

Under the Presidential and Vice-Presidential Elections Act, 1952, a candidate to be nominated for the office of president needs 50 electors as proposers and 50 electors as seconders for their name to appear on the ballot.

Time of election
Article 56(1) of the constitution provides that the president shall hold office for a term of five years, from the date on which they enter their office. According to Article 62, an election to fill a vacancy caused by the expiration of the term of office of President shall be completed before the expiration of the term. An election to fill a vacancy in the office of President occurring by reason of their death, resignation or removal, or otherwise shall be held as soon as possible after, and in no case later than six months from, the date of occurrence of the vacancy; and the person elected to fill the vacancy shall, subject to the provisions of Article 56, be entitled to hold office for the full term of five years from the date on which they enter their office.

To meet the contingency of an election to the office of President not being completed in time due to unforeseen circumstances like countermanding of an election due to death of a candidate or on account of the postponement of the poll for any valid reason, Article 56(1)(c) provides that the president shall, notwithstanding the expiration of their term, continue to hold office until their successor enters into office.

Conditions for the presidency

Certain conditions, per Article 59 of the Indian constitution, debar an otherwise eligible citizen from contesting the presidential elections. The conditions are:
 The president shall not be a member of either house of the parliament or a house of the legislature of any state, and if a member of either house of the parliament or a house of the legislature of any state is elected president, they shall be deemed to have vacated their seat in that house on the date on which they enter into office as president.
 The president shall not hold any other office of profit.
 The president shall be entitled without payment of rent to the use of their official residences and shall be also entitled to such emoluments, allowances and privileges as may be determined by parliament by law and until provision in that behalf is so made, such emoluments, allowances and privileges as are specified in the Second Schedule.
 The emoluments and allowances of the president shall not be diminished during their term of office.

Election process
Whenever the office becomes vacant, the new president is chosen by an electoral college consisting of the elected members of both houses of parliament (MPs), the elected members of the State Legislative Assemblies (Vidhan Sabha) of all States and the elected members of the legislative assemblies (MLAs) of union territories with legislatures, i.e., National Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi, Jammu and Kashmir and Puducherry. The election process of the president is a more extensive process than of the prime minister who is also elected indirectly (elected by the members of the majority party (or union) in the Lok Sabha). Whereas President being the constitutional head with duties to protect, defend and preserve the constitution and rule of law in a constitutional democracy with constitutional supremacy, is elected in an extensive manner by the members of Lok Sabha, Rajya Sabha and state legislative assemblies in a secret ballot procedure.

The nomination of a candidate for election to the office of the president must be subscribed by at least 50 electors as proposers and 50 electors as seconders. Each candidate has to make a security deposit of  in the Reserve Bank of India. The security deposit is liable to be forfeited in case the candidate fails to secure one-sixth of the votes polled.

The election is held in accordance with the system of proportional representation (PR) by means of the instant-runoff voting (IRV) method. The voting takes place by a secret ballot system. The manner of election of President is provided by Article 55 of the constitution.

Each elector casts a different number of votes. The general principle is that the total number of votes cast by Members of parliament equals the total number of votes cast by State Legislators. Also, legislators from larger states cast more votes than those from smaller states. Finally, the number of legislators in state matters; if a state has few legislators, then each legislator has more votes; if a state has many legislators, then each legislator has fewer votes.

The actual calculation for votes cast by a particular state is calculated by dividing the state's population by 1000, which is divided again by the number of legislators from the State voting in the electoral college. This number is the number of votes per legislator in a given state. Every elected member of the parliament enjoys the same number of votes, which may be obtained by dividing the total number of votes assigned to the members of legislative assemblies by the total number of elected representatives of the parliament.

Although Indian presidential elections involve actual voting by MPs and MLAs, they tend to vote for the candidate supported by their respective parties.

Oath or affirmation
The president is required to make and subscribe in the presence of the Chief Justice of India—or in their absence, the senior-most judge of the supreme court—an oath or affirmation to protect, preserve and defend the constitution as follows:

Emoluments

The president of India used to receive  per month per the Second Schedule of the constitution.  This amount was increased to  in 1998. On 11 September 2008, the Government of India increased the salary of the president to . This amount was further increased to  in the 2018 Union budget of India. However, almost everything that the president does or wants to do is taken care of by an annual  budget that the Government allots for their upkeep. Rashtrapati Bhavan, the president's official residence, is the largest Presidential palace in the world. The Rashtrapati Nilayam at Bolarum, Hyderabad and Retreat Building at Chharabra, Shimla are the official Retreat Residences of the president of India. The official state car of the president is a custom-built heavily armored Mercedes Benz S600 (W221) Pullman Guard.

The former presidents and widows and widowers of presidents are eligible for pension, furnished accommodation, security, various allowances, etc.

Impeachment
The Supreme Court shall inquire and decide regarding all doubts and disputes arising out of or in connection with the election of a president per Article 71(1) of the constitution. The Supreme Court can remove the president for the electoral malpractices or upon being not eligible to be a member of the Lok Sabha under the Representation of the People Act, 1951. Subject to Article 71 (3), parliament made applicable rules/procedure to petition the supreme court for resolving the disputes only that arise during the election process of the president but not the doubts that arise from their unconstitutional actions/deeds or changing Indian citizenship during the tenure of the president which may violate the requisite election qualifications.

The president may also be removed before the expiry of the term through impeachment for violating the Constitution of India by the Parliament of India. The process may start in either of the two houses of the parliament. The house initiates the process by levelling the charges against the president. The charges are contained in a notice that has to be signed by at least one-quarter of the total members of that house. The notice is sent up to the president and 14 days later, it is taken up for consideration.

A resolution to impeach the president has to be passed by a two-thirds majority of the total number of members of the originating house. It is then sent to the other house. The other house investigates the charges that have been made. During this process, the president has the right to defend himself through an authorised counsel. If the second house also approves the charges made by the special majority again, the president stands impeached and is deemed to have vacated their office from the date when such a resolution stands passed. No president has faced impeachment proceedings so the above provisions have never been used.

Under Article 361 of the constitution, though the president cannot be summoned for questioning except on their voluntary willingness to testify in the court in support of their controversial deeds, the unconstitutional decisions taken by the president would be declared invalid by the courts. The case would be decided by the courts based on the facts furnished by the Union government for the president's role. As clarified by the supreme court in the case Rameshwar Prasad & Others vs Union of India & An Other on 24 January 2006; though the president cannot be prosecuted and imprisoned during their term of office, they can be prosecuted after he/she steps down from the post for any guilt committed during the term of the presidency as declared earlier by the courts. No president has resigned on impropriety to continue in office for declaring and nullifying their unconstitutional decisions by the courts till now. No criminal case at least on the grounds of disrespecting constitution is lodged till now against former presidents to punish them for their unconstitutional acts; though many decisions taken during the term of a president have been declared by the supreme court as unconstitutional, mala fides, void, ultra vires, etc.

Succession
The Office of the president falls vacant in the following scenarios:
 On the expiry of their term.
 By reason of death.
 By reason of resignation.
 Removal by the supreme court.
 Removal by impeachment.
Article 65 of the Indian constitution says that the Vice-President of India will have to discharge the duties, if the office falls vacant due to any reason other than the expiry of the term. The vice-president reverts to their office when a new president is elected and enters office. When the president is unable to act because of absence, illness or any other cause, the vice-president discharges the president's functions until the president resumes the duties.

A vice-president who acts as or discharges the functions of the president has all the powers and immunities of the president and is entitled to the same emoluments as the president. When a vice-president discharges the duties of the president, he/she does not function as the Chairperson of the Rajya Sabha.

The Indian parliament has enacted the law—The President (Discharge of Functions) Act, 1969 — for the discharge of the functions of the president when vacancies occur in the offices of the president and the vice-president simultaneously, owing to removal, death, resignation of the incumbent or otherwise. In such an eventuality, the chief justice—or in their absence, the senior-most judge of the Supreme Court of India available—discharges the functions of the president until a newly elected president enters upon their office or a newly elected vice-president begins to act as president under Article 65 of the constitution, whichever is the earlier. For example, in 1969, when President Zakir Husain died in Office, Vice-President V. V. Giri served as the acting president of India. However, later, V.V Giri resigned from both posts (Acting President of India and Vice-President of India) as he became a candidate in the 1969 presidential election in India. In this event, the then Chief Justice of India, Justice Mohammad Hidayatullah served as the acting president of India until the next president was elected.

President vs Chief Justice

President vs Prime minister

Important presidential interventions in the past
The president's role as defender of the constitution and the powers as Head of State, especially in relation to those exercised by the prime minister as leader of the government, have changed over time. In particular, Presidents have made a number of interventions into government and lawmaking, which have established and challenged some conventions concerning presidential intervention.

Proving majority in the parliament

In 1979, Prime Minister Charan Singh, did not enjoy a parliamentary majority. He responded to this by simply not advising the president to summon parliament. Since then, presidents have been more diligent in directing incoming Prime Ministers to convene parliament and prove their majority within reasonable deadlines (2 to 3 weeks). In the interim period, the Prime Ministers are generally restrained from making policy decisions.

Proof of Majority to form a Government
Since the 1990s, Parliamentary elections have generally not resulted in a single party or group of parties having a distinct majority, until the 2014 Lok Sabha elections when BJP received a clear majority. In such cases, presidents have used their discretion and directed Prime Ministerial aspirants to establish their credentials before being invited to form the government. Typically, the aspirants have been asked to produce letters from various party leaders, with the signatures of all the MPs who are pledging support to their candidature. This is in addition to the requirement that a prime minister proves he has the support of the Lok Sabha (by a vote on the floor of the house) within weeks of being sworn into office.

Vetoing of a Bill

Since the Indian constitution does not provide any time limit within which the president is to declare their assent or refusal, the president could exercise a "pocket veto" by not taking any action for an indefinite time. The veto was used in 1986 by President Zail Singh over the Postal Bill. The president did not give assent to the bill, arguing that its scope was too sweeping and would give the government arbitrary powers to intercept postal communications indiscriminately.

Rashtrapati Bhavan Communiqués
In the late 1990s, President K. R. Narayanan introduced a modicum of transparency and openness in the functioning of the President. This was by means of Rashtrapati Bhavan Communiqués explaining, to the nation, the thinking that led to the various decisions he took while exercising their discretionary powers.

Return of a Bill

The constitution gives the president the power to return a bill unsigned but it circumscribes the power to send it back only once for reconsideration. If the parliament sends back the bill with or without changes, the president is obliged to sign it. In mid-2006, President A. P. J. Abdul Kalam sent back a controversial bill regarding the exclusion of certain offices from the scope of 'offices of profit', the holding of which would disqualify a person from being a member of parliament. The combined opposition, the NDA, hailed the move. The UPA chose to send the bill back to the president without any changes and, after 17 days, Kalam gave his assent on 18 August 2006.

Sacking state governors

Arunachal Pradesh governor Jyoti Prasad Rajkhowa, who was earlier appointed by the ruling party at the centre, was sacked by President Pranab Mukherjee after the Supreme Court struck down his unconstitutional acts.

See also
 List of presidents of India
 Spouse of the President of India

Notes

References

External links

Parliament of India
India
India
President

President of India


Incardination is the formal term in the Catholic Church for a clergyman being under a bishop or other ecclesiastical superior.  It is also sometimes used to refer to laity who may transfer to another part of the church. Examples include transfers from the Western Latin Church to an Eastern Catholic Church or from a territorial diocese to one of the three personal ordinariates for former Anglicans.

Tied to diocese or superior

As one part of the hierarchy of the Catholic Church, every Catholic priest or deacon must have an ordinary as a superior. Such an ordinary is most often a diocesan bishop, but can also be a leader of a religious order, such as the Jesuits or Franciscans, or some other ecclesiastical superior.

The purpose of incardination is to ensure that no cleric is "freelance", without a clear ecclesiastical superior to whom the cleric is accountable and who in turn is responsible for the cleric.

Change of diocese

Incardination does not cease until the moment when that cleric is incardinated as a subject of another superior. An excardination from one diocese, for instance, does not become effective until the moment of incardination to another, so there is no gap during which the clergyman is not clearly answerable to a definitely determined superior.

A priest or deacon may move from diocese to diocese taking a new position, including moving to a new country, while formally still being incardinated in his original diocese, and therefore still under the supervision of his original diocese's bishops, at least formally, by canon law.  For instance, a Philippine diocesan priest may be assigned to a parish in the United States for decades but still be formally incardinated in his original Philippine diocese.

Canon law

Incardination is dealt with in canons 265–272 of the 1983 Code of Canon Law.

There is a similar canonical institution in the law of the Eastern Catholic Churches, which appears in the Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches, Title X «Clerics», Chapter II «Ascription of Clerics to an Eparchy», Canons 357-366.

Civil law

Questions of civil jurisdiction can come into conflict with canon law in situations where a priest is on temporary assignment remotely while he remains incardinated to his diocese of origin. This applied in the case of a French priest involved in a car accident which killed two people, while at his temporary post in California.  The question arose in a civil suit, whether the Diocese of Fresno (California) where he was working was responsible legally, although the priest remained incardinated in France. The civil court ruled that it was.

Terminology

Its antonym, excardination, denotes that a member of the clergy has been freed from one jurisdiction and is transferred to another.

Both terms are derived from the Latin cardo (pivot, socket, or hinge), from which the word cardinal is also derived—hence the Latin verbs incardinare (to hang on a hinge or fix) and excardinare (to unhinge or set free).

Procedures

During the ordination ceremony, prior to the actual sacrament of Holy Orders itself, the man places himself under a promise of obedience to his bishop or other ordinary of a particular church, or makes an acknowledgment of a pre-existing vow of obedience to a prior, abbot, or other superior in an institute of consecrated life or society of apostolic life.

References

External links
Code of Canon Law Canons 265-272

Catholic ecclesiastical titles
Canon law of the Catholic Church
Catholic canon law of religious

Incardination and excardination


The Dutch Single Top 100 or Single Top 100 is a Dutch chart, based on official physical single sales, legal downloads and since July 2013 streaming and composed by Dutch Charts. It is one of the three official charts, the other two being the Dutch Top 40 and the Mega Top 30. The difference is that these charts also include airplay data.
The list is especially intended for the music industry and those who take an interest in charts. In Dutch TV programmes the Single Top 100 is often cited, although it has not been broadcast since December 2006.

History
The predecessor of the Single Top 100 started on 23 May 1969 as the Hilversum 3 Top 30. Originally it was broadcast by the VPRO and ever since December 1970 by the NOS. It was presented by Willem van Kooten. In 1971 Felix Meurders hosted the radio show. He renamed it the Daverende Dertig. In June 1974 the Nationale Hitparade became the official chart of Hilversum 3. It was a top 30 until the number of entries was extended to 50 in June 1978. The TROS took over the programme in 1985. AVRO's popular music chart television programme TopPop used the chart from 1974 to 1978 and from 1981 to 1986. The Nationale Hitparade became a top 100 in 1987. In February 1993 it was followed by the Mega Top 50, and in 1997 by the Mega Top 100.

In January 2003, Music & Media reported that the although positions one to 50 of the Mega Top 100 would remain based purely on sales, that positions 51 to 100 would reflect a combination of sales and airplay data. However, since May 2004, the Dutch Single Top 100 separated to remain as a sales based chart and should not be mixed up with the current 3FM Mega Top 50 which is a different chart, having branched off in 2004 to include airplay data and not being solely based on record sales.

Throughout the years, the chart has had several names and lengths:

1969–1974: Hilversum 3 Top 30 (since April 2, 1971: the Daverende 30)
1974–1993: Nationale Hitparade
1974–1978 a top 30
1978–1987 a top 50
1987–1989 Nationale Hitparade Top 100
1989–1993 Nationale Top 100
1993–1997: Mega Top 50
1997–2004: Mega Top 100
2004–present: Mega Top 50/Single Top 100 (Mega Top 50 on 3FM (Before Hilversum 3), Single top 100 only on the web)

The Single Top 100 and predecessors have never had any rules which prevented records from rising in the chart after having dropped. Re-entries occur frequently. The first record that got up again to number 1 was Soley Soley by Middle of the Road late 1971. Geef mij je angst by Guus Meeuwis (in 2005) and 4 Minutes by Madonna featuring Justin Timberlake and Timbaland (in 2008) rose 3 times to number one. Blijf bij mij by André Hazes and Gerard Joling even rose 4 times to the top position in 2007.

Year-end charts
Year-end charts of the Single Top 100 and predecessors were compiled from 1970 until 1978 by adding up points. From 1978 onwards they have been compiled on the basis of record sales.

See also
Album Top 100
Dutch Top 40

References

External links
Single Top 100 at the compiler Dutch Charts's official site

Dutch record charts
1969 in music
1969 introductions
1969 establishments in the Netherlands
1969 radio programme debuts
Netherlands Public Broadcasting

Dutch Single Top 100


The Embassy of Serbia in Vienna (, ) is Serbia's diplomatic mission to Austria. It is located at Ölzeltgasse 3, in Vienna, Austria.

The current Serbian ambassador to Austria is Nebojša Rodić.

Consulates
Serbia also maintains the Consulate General in Salzburg, currently under the Consul General Zoran Jeremić. There also Permanent Mission to the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe and United Nations under Chargé d'Affaires Miroslava Beham in Vienna. Serbia closed the Consulate General in Graz which was inherited from Yugoslavia.

History

Embassy of Serbia in Vienna used to be situated in the historic Palais Hoyos until 2011 when the building was handed over to Croatia as part of Yugoslav succession. The palace was built at the end of the 19th century by Otto Wagner, together with two outbuildings. The palace was built in the style of the Historicism, the facade was held to the Rococo and Jugendstil. In 1957 the palace of Hoyos in Rennweg was sold from the immovable of the family Hoyos to Yugoslavia which furnished it in the Embassy of Yugoslavia in Austria. After dissolution of Yugoslavia, the building went over in the possession of Serbia. In 2009 the palace was thoroughly restored.

See also
Austria–Serbia relations
List of Ambassadors from Serbia
Foreign relations of Serbia

External links
 Serbian Embassy in Vienna
 Serbian Consulate General in Salzburg
 Palais Hoyos

Vienna
Serbia
Austria–Serbia relations

Embassy of Serbia, Vienna


Jacques Pic (October 31, 1932 – September 19, 1992) was a French chef best known for being head chef at his three Michelin starred restaurant Maison Pic in Valence, Drôme, France. He was the son of chef Andre Pic, and the father of chefs Alain and Anne-Sophie Pic.

Early life
Jacques was the son of Andre Pic, a chef who worked at his family's restaurant Des Pins in the hills above Valence, Drôme. The restaurant was moved into the town to become Maison Pic when Jacques was two years old, and won three Michelin stars by the time he was seven. Jacques saw the impact the work was having on his father's health and decided that he did not want to become a chef, and instead aimed to become a car mechanic. The restaurant lost its third star in 1946, but after it lost its second star in 1950 and seeing that his father had no successor to take over from him, Jacques decided to train as a chef in order to take over at the restaurant and earn back those stars for his father and his family.

Career
As his father Andre was held in high esteem, Jacques applied to work in the kitchens of Fernand Point and Alexandre Dumaine, who were considered his father's equals in the kitchen. Both chefs turned down Jacques' application. He instead travelled to Geneva, Switzerland, and to a variety of towns and cities in France, picking up culinary skills on the way. During his French national service, he was sent to Algeria.

Upon returning to Maison Pic, he introduced an eight course tasting menu, becoming one of the first chefs in the nouvelle cuisine movement to expand upon the traditional three course meal. In 1959, he won back the second Michelin star for the restaurant and restored the third in 1973. His father died in 1983, seeing those stars returned to the restaurant and kept.

On 19 September 1992, Jacques Pic died from a heart attack at the age of 59 whilst working at the stove at Maison Pic. His son Alain succeeded him as head chef.  his daughter Anne-Sophie Pic is head chef of the family's restaurant.

References

1932 births
1992 deaths
French chefs
People from Valence, Drôme
Head chefs of Michelin starred restaurants
Pic family

Jacques Pic


Belenky, feminine: Belenkaya () is a Russian-language surname, typically of people of Jewish origin. In 1972 it was the 14th most common Jewish surname in Moscow and the 16th in Leningrad.

The surname may refer to:

Valery Belenky, Soviet Azerbaijani/German artistic gymnast
Abram Belenky, Soviet secret service (Cheka/GPU/NKVD) leader
Dina Belenkaya, Russian chess player
Maya Belenkaya, Soviet figure skater

References

Russian-language surnames
Russian-Jewish surnames

Belenky


Frederick William Ratcliffe  (born 28 May 1927) is an English philologist and librarian. He has a Ph.D. in German, given for his thesis on Heinrich von Mügeln at the University of Manchester. From  1954 he was an assistant librarian or sublibrarian in the universities of Manchester, Glasgow, and Newcastle upon Tyne. He succeeded Moses Tyson as the University Librarian at Manchester in 1965 and from 1972 was additionally director of the John Rylands University Library. In 1980 he became University Librarian at the University of Cambridge where he remained until his retirement in 1994. From 1995 to 2000 he was Parker Librarian at the Parker Library, Corpus Christi College.  He has written a number of papers on the subject of librarianship including the preservation of library materials. He was born in Leek on 28 May 1927.

His son is George Ratcliffe, a professor of plant metabolism at Oxford.

Selected writings
1966-1980: University of Manchester. Librarian's report, 1966–1980
1980:  "The Scholar in the Academic Library" in: B. C. Bloomfield, ed., Middle East Studies and Libraries: a felicitation volume for Professor J. D. Pearson. London: Mansell Information Publishing; pp. 163–178
1980: "Archival Responsibilities of University Libraries" in Journal of Librarianship and Information Science vol. 12 (1980) pp. 71–83
1982: The Role of the Modern University Library. 23 pp. Darwin
1991: "Preservation and Scholarship in Libraries" in Library Review vol. 40 (1991) pp. 62–71
2007: Books, Books, Just Miles and Miles of Books: across the library counter, 1950–2000. 317 p.; 31 cm. Cambridge: F. W. Ratcliffe (unpublished autobiography, held at Cambridge University Library)

References
Who's Who.
 Pullan, Brian & Abendstern, Michele (2000) A History of the University of Manchester, 1951-73 ; p. 92 Quotation

1927 births
Possibly living people
British philologists
English librarians
Cambridge University Librarians
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire

Frederick William Ratcliffe


The Göttingen manuscript is the earliest known work devoted entirely to modern chess.  It is a Latin text of 33 pages held at the University of Göttingen.  A quarto parchment manuscript of 33 pages, ff. 1–15a are a discussion of twelve chess openings, f. 16 is blank, and ff. 17–31b are a selection of thirty chess problems, one on each page with a diagram and solution.   Authorship and exact date of the manuscript are unknown.  Similarities to Lucena's Repeticion de Amores e Arte de Axedres con CL iuegos de partido (c. 1497) have led some scholars to surmise that it was written by Lucena or that it was one of Lucena's sources.  Although the manuscript is generally assumed to be older than Lucena's work, this is not established.  The manuscript has been ascribed possible writing dates of 1500–1505 or 1471.

The manuscript is exclusively devoted to modern chess (using the modern rules of movement for the pawn, bishop, and queen, although castling had not yet taken its current form), and no mention is made of the earlier form.  The rules are not explained, so the manuscript must have been written at a time and place when the new rules were well established, or it was addressed to a player familiar with the new rules.  The addressee of the manuscript is not named, but was evidently a nobleman of high rank.  Some particulars of the manuscript suggest that the author was from Spain or Portugal and that it was copied at some point in France, although this is not certain.

Openings
The attention paid to the opening in the manuscript reflected the greater importance of study of the early part of the game caused by the changes to the movement of the pieces in modern chess.  The old game tended to develop slowly, with victory often achieved by capturing all enemy pieces to the bare king.  The modern game developed much more quickly due to the new ability of the pawn to make an initial move of two squares, and the greatly enhanced powers of the bishop and queen.  Checkmate became a more common end to the game, and study was required to develop early attacks and defend against them.  Subsequent chess writing would continue to emphasise study of the opening (; ).

The twelve openings in the manuscript include four attacks in which the Prince to whom the work is addressed is the first player, and eight defences where he is the second player.  They include one example each of 1.c4 (English Opening) and 1.f4 (Bird's Opening), two examples of 1.d4 (Queen's Pawn Openings) including a Queen's Gambit, and eight examples of 1.e4 (King's Pawn Openings).  Every King's Pawn Opening included is a Double King's Pawn Opening as Black always responds to 1.e4 with 1...e5.  One example of the Bishop's Opening (2.Bc4) is given.  The other seven King's Pawn Openings are King's Knight Openings (2.Nf3), to which the author seems to suggest that 2...Nc6 is the best defence .  Although no evaluation of the resulting positions is given, some of the examples continue well into the middle game; the eighth is given through move 33.  In the order in which they appear in the manuscript, the openings are:
 Damiano Defence (1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 f6)
 Philidor Defence (1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 d6), example favoring White
 Giuoco Piano (1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.Bc4 Bc5)
 Petrov Defence (1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nf6)
 Bishop's Opening (1.e4 e5 2.Bc4)
 Ruy Lopez (1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.Bb5 Bc5 Classical Defence)
 Ponziani Opening (1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.c3)
 Philidor Defence, example favoring Black
 Queen's Gambit Accepted (1.d4 d5 2.c4 dxc4)
 1.d4 d5 2.Bf4 Bf5 (a form of the London System)
 Bird's Opening (1.f4)
 English Opening (1.c4)

Problems
All thirty problems are also found in Lucena's work, and all but one (number 24) are found in Damiano.  Many of the thirty problems are given special conditions, such as specific pieces that cannot move or requirements that mate be delivered by a pawn or by two consecutive checks by pawns .  Examples of problems in the manuscript:

Notes

References

Chess books
History of chess
Gottingen manuscript
Chess problems
University of Göttingen
Medieval texts in Latin
15th century in chess

Göttingen manuscript


Cyclic AMP-dependent transcription factor ATF-7 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ATF7 gene.

Homonym

In 2001, Peters et al. published a paper showing that ATF-7, a Novel bZIP Protein, interacts with PTP4A1.
This ATF-7 is actually ATF5 and not ATF7, as noted by the authors at the end of their paper ("Note Added in Proof—While this manuscript was under review, sequences for mouse and human ATF-5 were deposited in GenBankTM. It appears that ATF-7 and ATF-5 are likely to be the same protein. In addition, an unrelated sequence named ATF7 has also been deposited in GenBankTM. In order to avoid confusion, future work on the protein described in this publication will likely refer to it as either ATF-5 or ATF-5/7.")

References

Further reading

External links

Transcription factors

ATF7


Saint Junian () was a 5th-century Christian hermit at the location later named after him, Saint-Junien.  According to tradition, he was the son of the Count of Cambrai and was born in 486, during the reign of Clovis I.  This tradition states that Junian and Saint Leonard were baptized at the same time.

At the age of 15, Junian journeyed to the Limousin, a region that had a reputation for austerity and also for the many saints and hermits who had resided there.  One of these saints was a certain Amand, and Junian wished to become his disciple.  Amand lived in a small hermitage at the confluence of the Vienne and Clain Rivers, at a place called Comodoliac, which had been offered to him by Ruricius, bishop of Limoges.

According to tradition, is said that, very late at night, Junian knocked on the door of Amand, who did not answer, fearing that it was a demon.  Junian had to sleep outside during a violent snowstorm, but the snow miraculously fell around rather than on him during the night.

Junian trained with Amand, and after the passing of his master, Junian lived where the collegiate church stands nowadays.

References

External links
St. Junian

Hermits
486 births
6th-century Frankish saints
6th-century deaths

Junian of Saint-Junien