Richard Neville, 5th Earl of Salisbury KG PC (1400 – 31 December 1460) was an English nobleman and magnate based in northern England who became a key supporter of the House of York during the early years of the Wars of the Roses. He was the father of Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick, the "Kingmaker".

Origins

He was born in 1400 at Raby Castle in County Durham, the third son (and tenth child) of Ralph de Neville, 1st Earl of Westmorland, by his second wife, Joan Beaufort, the youngest of the four legitimised children and only daughter of John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster (third surviving son of King Edward III), by his mistress, later wife, Katherine Swynford.

The Neville lands were primarily in County Durham and Yorkshire, but both King Richard II and King Henry IV (Joan's cousin and half-brother respectively) found the family useful to counterbalance the strength of the Percys on the Scottish Borders. This led to Ralph's earldom being granted in 1397, and to his appointment as Warden of the West March in 1403.

Ralph's marriage to Joan Beaufort, at a time when the distinction between royalty and nobility was becoming more important, can be seen as another reward; as a granddaughter of King Edward III, she was a member of the royal family.

The children of Ralph's first wife, Margaret Stafford, made good marriages to local nobility, and his eldest son had married into royalty in the person of Elizabeth Holland, but his Beaufort children married into even greater families. Three of Richard's sisters married dukes, the youngest Cecily, married Richard, Duke of York.

Marriage

Richard married Alice Montagu, daughter and heiress of Thomas Montagu, 4th Earl of Salisbury. The date of Richard and Alice's marriage is not known, but it must have been before February 1421, when as a married couple they appeared at the coronation of Queen Catherine of Valois. At the time of the marriage, the Salisbury inheritance was not guaranteed, as not only was Thomas Montacute still alive, but in 1424 he remarried (to Alice Chaucer, granddaughter of the poet Geoffrey Chaucer). This second marriage was without issue and when Thomas Montagu died in 1428, Richard Neville and Alice were confirmed as the Earl and Countess of Salisbury.

Salisbury came into possession of greater estates than, as a younger son under primogeniture, he could reasonably have expected. Strangely, his eldest half-brother John Neville apparently agreed to many of the rights to the Neville inheritance being transferred to his step-mother Joan Beaufort, and her son Salisbury inherited these on her death in 1440.

He also gained possession of the lands and grants made jointly to Ralph and Joan. Ralph's heir (his grandson Ralph Neville, 2nd Earl of Westmorland) as the representative of the senior line, disputed the loss of his inheritance, and although he agreed to a settlement in 1443, it was on unequal terms – Salisbury kept the great Neville possessions of Middleham and Sheriff Hutton, as well as the more recent grant of Penrith.

Only Raby Castle, the family's most ancient possession, returned to the senior branch. The resultant Neville–Neville feud was later to become absorbed into the destructive Percy-Neville feud. Salisbury's marriage gained him his wife's quarter share of the Holland inheritance. Ironically, his Salisbury title came with comparatively little in terms of wealth, though he did gain a more southerly residence at Bisham Manor in Berkshire.

Warden of the West March

The defence of the Scottish Border was carried out by two Wardens – that of the East March (based at Berwick-upon-Tweed) and that of the West March at Carlisle. Both offices had been held by the Percy family in the fourteenth century, and their support of King Henry IV seemed to have paid off in 1399, when Henry Percy, 1st Earl of Northumberland was appointed Warden of the West March and his son Henry Percy ("Hotspur") as Warden of the East March. However, Hotspur rebelled, and his father was held to be complicit in his treason.

After Hotspur was killed at the Battle of Shrewsbury in 1403, Ralph Neville was employed by King Henry V to capture the elder Percy. His reward was to succeed the Percys as Warden of both Marches. Under King Henry V, the Percys were restored to their lands, and eventually in 1417, to the East March.

Salisbury became a Knight Bachelor and was named Warden of the West March in 1420. It was one of the most valuable appointments in England, worth £1,500 in peacetime and four times that if war broke out with Scotland. Although unlike Calais, it did not require a permanent garrison, the incessant raiding and border skirmishes meant that there would always be a ready supply of trained and experienced soldiers at the Warden's command. Salisbury must have been high in Henry V's estimation, as he was also appointed Justice of the Peace in Cumberland, Westmoreland, and Durham. In 1431, he accompanied the young King Henry VI to France for his coronation, and on his return was made Warden of the East March.

In 1436, he resigned from both posts, although this may have originally been intended as a means of forcing the crown to make good its arrears of payment. When his resignation was accepted, he accompanied his brother-in-law Richard, Duke of York, to France, taking 1,300 men-at-arms and archers with him. He returned the following year, and in November became a member of the King's Council.

He did not resume either of the Wardenships, as the Percy-Neville dispute took up most of his time, but when this was resolved in 1443 he resumed the Wardenship of the West March. Although this was at a reduced fee of just under £1,000, the money was secured on specific sources of Crown income, not on the frequently uncollectable tallies.

He was invested as a Knight of the Order of the Garter (K.G.) in 1436. He was invested as a Privy Counsellor (P.C.) the following year, in 1437.

Neville and Percy

At the end of 1443, from his principal seat at Middleham Castle in Wensleydale, Salisbury could look with some satisfaction at his position. He was a member of the King's Council and Warden of the West March. His brother Robert Neville was the Bishop of Durham, and another of his brothers, William Neville, 1st Earl of Kent, had the custody of Roxburgh Castle. He had seven children, four boys and three girls. In 1436 the two oldest children, Cicely and Richard, made excellent marriages to the son and daughter of Richard de Beauchamp, 13th Earl of Warwick.

It was becoming apparent that the rise of the Nevilles was coming to an end. The king, who during the late 1430s had started to exercise personal rule, was more concerned to promote the fortunes of his closest relatives – and Salisbury was only related by a junior, legitimised and female line. In this context, the local rivalry between the Nevilles and the Percys in the north of England was likely to take on greater importance. A strong and capable ruler would be able to control such feuds, or even profit from them. A weak king could find the disputes spreading from local to regional or national conflict.

The Percys had lands throughout northern England, while the northern lands of the Nevilles were concentrated in north Yorkshire and in County Durham. As Warden of the West March, Salisbury was in a position to exert great power in the northwest, in spite of holding only Kendal and Penrith. The Percys resented the fact that their tenants in Cumberland and Westmorland were being recruited by Salisbury, who even with the reduced grant of 1443 still had great spending power in the region. The senior Neville line (now related by marriage to the Percys) still resented the inequitable settlement of their inheritance dispute.

The fifteenth century could be regarded as the peak of "bastard feudalism" – when every subject needed a "good lord". In return for a commitment by the retained man to provide (usually) military support, the lord would give his retainer a small annual fee, a badge or item of clothing to mark his loyalty (livery) and provide help for him in his disputes with his neighbours (maintenance). Northern England was a long way from the Palace of Westminster, and rapid legal redress for wrongs was impossible. With his economic power as Warden, Salisbury could provide better support for Percy tenants than Northumberland, unpaid in regard to the East March for years, could hope to.

In 1448, during the renewal of the war with Scotland, Northumberland took his forces through Salisbury's West March – a grave breach of etiquette. Northumberland was defeated at the Battle of Sark, and his son Henry Percy, Lord Poynings was captured. The fact that Salisbury lost 2,000 horses trying to respond to this attack, and was then excluded (along with Northumberland) from the subsequent peace negotiations, can only have inflamed relations between the two families. Over time, the ill will might have receded, but Northumberland's second son, Thomas Percy, Lord Egremont, spent the next few years stirring up trouble in Yorkshire – particularly at York, situated between the Percy estates of Spofforth and Healaugh, and Neville's castle at Sheriff Hutton.

On 24 August 1453, Thomas Percy, Lord Egremont, assembled a force of men-at-arms and archers perhaps as large as 1,000 strong, intending to waylay Salisbury and his family at Heworth Moor, outside York, as he made for Sheriff Hutton.  Salisbury had been attending the wedding of his son Thomas in Tattershall Castle, Lincolnshire, and although his escort would have been smaller, it would have been better armed than Egremont's York craftsmen and tradesmen. Salisbury and his retinue fought them back, arriving unscathed at Sheriff Hutton, but the episode marked the beginning of what was virtually a private war. The bride, Maud Stanhope, was the widow of Lord Willoughby of Eresby, his son would become a Yorkist. Another of the Yorkist party, John Neville, was later Lord Montagu.  Maud was due to inherit the manors of Wressle and Burwell from her uncle, Lord Cromwell, who had obtained them from the Percys through litigation. Historian John Sadler argues this was the first incident in the Yorkist/Lancastrian affinities lawless squabble leading to civil war.

Neville and York
Salisbury changed his allegiance to Richard, Duke of York, who made him Lord Chancellor in 1455. This enabled Salisbury to advance the interests of his retainers against the Percies; for example Thomas de la More petitioned against Lord Egremont, whom de la More claimed had threatened to kill him years earlier. When King Henry VI tried to assert his independence and dismiss York as Protector, Salisbury joined him in fighting at the First Battle of St Albans, claiming that he was acting in self-defence. In 1458 he participated in The Love Day, an attempt at reconciliation held in London. He was notably successful in the Battle of Blore Heath, but after the Yorkist army collapsed in the Rout of Ludford Bridge, Salisbury escaped to Calais, having been specifically excluded from a royal pardon. He returned to England with York in 1460, and was slain on 30–31 December 1460, the night after the Battle of Wakefield.

Death and burial
After the defeat of the Yorkists at the Battle of Wakefield, Salisbury himself escaped the battlefield but was captured during the night. Upon discovery, battle-worn and now a traitor to the realm, he was taken to the Lancastrian camp. Although due to his great wealth, the Lancastrian nobles might have been prepared to allow Salisbury to ransom himself, he was nevertheless dragged out of Pontefract Castle and beheaded by the local population, to whom he had been a harsh overlord.

He was buried first at Pontefract, but his sons transferred his body to the family mausoleum at Bisham Priory in Berkshire where they erected a monument to his memory. The effigy from this was brought to St Mary's Church at Burghfield, near Reading, after the Dissolution of the Monasteries. The effigy of a lady alongside him wears a headdress which is not thought to be of the right date to be his wife, but she may represent one of the earlier Countesses of Salisbury buried at Bisham.

Marriage and issue

He married Alice Montacute (1407-1462), daughter and heiress of Thomas Montacute, 4th Earl of Salisbury (1388-1428), by whom he had twelve children:

Sons
Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick (1428–1471), "The Kingmaker", eldest son and heir, who married Lady Anne Beauchamp and had issue.
Sir Thomas Neville (c. 1429–1460), who was knighted in 1449 and died at the Battle of Wakefield. He was the second husband of Maud Stanhope (30 August 1497), who married firstly Robert Willoughby, 6th Baron Willoughby de Eresby (died 25 July 1452), and thirdly Sir Gervase Clifton, beheaded 6 May 1471 after the Battle of Tewkesbury.
John Neville, 1st Marquess of Montagu (c. 1431–1471), married Isabel Ingaldesthorpe and had issue.
George Neville (1432–1476), who became Archbishop of York and Chancellor of England.
Ralph Neville (b. 1440 approx.), did not survive infancy
Robert Neville (b. 1446 approx.), did not survive infancy

Daughters
Joan Neville (c. 1424–1462), who married William FitzAlan, 16th Earl of Arundel, and had issue.
Cecily Neville (c. 1425–1450), who married Henry Beauchamp, 1st Duke of Warwick (1425–1446), and by him had one daughter, Anne Beauchamp, 15th Countess of Warwick (1444–1449), on whose death her title passed to her paternal aunt, who in turn had married her maternal uncle Richard Neville (below named).
Alice Neville (c. 1430–1503), who married Henry FitzHugh, 5th Baron FitzHugh. Their daughter, Elizabeth, married William Parr, thus making them great-grandparents of Catherine Parr, sixth wife of King Henry VIII.
Eleanor Neville (c. 1438–before 1472), who married Thomas Stanley, 1st Earl of Derby, and had issue.
Katherine Neville (1442–1504), who married first William Bonville, 6th Baron Harington, and second William Hastings, 1st Baron Hastings, had issue.
Margaret Neville (c. 1444–1506), who married John de Vere, 13th Earl of Oxford.

Ancestry

References

Sources

Further reading

External links
 Royal Berkshire History: Richard Neville, Earl of Salisbury (1400–1460)
 Sir Richard Neville, 5th Earl of Salisbury
 War of the Roses: Richard Neville, Earl of Salisbury (1400–1460)

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1400 births
1460 deaths
15th-century English nobility
Burials at Bisham Abbey
Neville
Executed people from County Durham
English knights
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Members of the Privy Council of England
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Peers jure uxoris
People executed under the Lancastrians
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People from Bisham
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Richard Neville, 5th Earl of Salisbury


The version of record of an article is the fully copyedited, typeset and formatted copy of a manuscript as published. The terminology is used in a wide variety of written media (e.g. books, journals, monographs).

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Michael Wilson is a former player of the Harlem Globetrotters and the University of Memphis, also known as 'Wild Thing'.

Wilson, 6'5, holds the record for the highest dunk. On April 1, 2000, Wilson dunked a basketball on a goal set at 3.65m (12 feet) from the floor; the feat placed him in the Guinness Book Of World Records, and broke a previous record held by former Arizona State University basketball star Joey Johnson, the younger brother of former NBA great Dennis Johnson. However, Wilt Chamberlain was also known to have performed the feat on an experimental basket set up by Phog Allen at the University of Kansas in the 1950s. Chamberlain, unlike Wilson, did not have the advantage of being given an alley oop. In 2001 the record (3.65m) was repeated by Robertas Javtokas from Lithuania during a local All Stars day.

Michael Wilson played high school basketball at Melrose High School in Memphis, Tennessee. The Texarkana Gazette reported that he had a 52-inch vertical leap.

In 1995, he was a starter on the University of Memphis Tiger basketball team that went to the Sweet 16 under coach Larry Finch.

Wilson is the former Director of Headfirst Basketball.

He is now founder and CEO of World Record Basketball.

References

Harlem Globetrotters players
Memphis Tigers men's basketball players
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)

Michael Wilson (basketball)


The Cape Cod Rail Trail (CCRT) is a  paved rail trail located on Cape Cod in Massachusetts. The trail route passes through the towns of Yarmouth, Dennis, Harwich, Brewster, Orleans, Eastham, and Wellfleet. It connects to the 6-plus mile (10 km) Old Colony Rail Trail leading to Chatham, the 2 mile Yarmouth multi-use trail, and 8 miles (13 km) of trails within Nickerson State Park. Short side trips on roads lead to national seashore beaches including Coast Guard Beach at the end of the Nauset Bike Trail in Cape Cod National Seashore. The trail is part of the Claire Saltonstall Bikeway.

History
The original rail line from Yarmouth to Orleans was constructed by the Cape Cod Central Railroad (1861–1868), which was later incorporated into the Old Colony Railroad in 1872, and finished the line to Provincetown in 1873.  The railroad was later incorporated into the New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad in 1893. The New Haven Railroad merged into Penn Central in 1968: it went bankrupt by 1970. The corridor was purchased by the Commonwealth of Massachusetts in 1976, and a portion of the right-of-way was converted to the Cape Cod Rail Trail by the Massachusetts Department of Conservation and Recreation in the 1970s. The current owner, the Massachusetts Department of Transportation, leases the line from Station Avenue in Yarmouth to US Route 6 in Wellfleet to the Massachusetts Department of Conservation and Recreation for trail use.

In July 2020, the state awarded $181,000 for design of Phase 3 of the extension project, which will extend the trail west from Peter Horner Park in Yarmouth to Mary Dunn Road in Barnstable. Because that section of the rail line is still in use, the trail will follow a different route to the south.

Route description

Yarmouth trailhead to Nickerson State Park

The trail begins in Yarmouth at Station Avenue. This trailhead has a parking area and is just south of exit 75 on US 6. West of here, the trail crosses over Station Ave on an overpass and connects to Peter Homer Park and continues as the town-owned Yarmouth multi-use trail, which runs for 2 miles to Higgins Crowell Road. The first 5 miles of trail run through industrial and residential areas of Yarmouth and Dennis, and include a new trail bridge over the Bass River. It roughly parallels Great Western Road during this section, crossing it twice.

The trail then enters Harwich as the landscape turns to houses and agricultural land before turning gradually north and intersecting with the Old Colony Rail Trail at a bike rotary between miles 3 and 4. The rotary has maps and benches in its center for users of the trail. North of the rotary, the trail passes through a wooded area and crosses Route 6 via an overpass. Another parking area is located at the trail's intersection with Headwaters Drive, north of Route 6. It crosses Massachusetts Route 124 at mile 5 and runs along it until mile 7, passing several ponds and entering Brewster at mile 6.

The CCRT crosses Massachusetts Route 137 at mile 8 and then runs south of central Brewster. A parking area is located at Route 137, before the trail enters Nickerson State Park just past mile 10. It is in the park for about two-thirds of a mile, intersecting some of its trails, then crosses Massachusetts Route 6A by an underpass as it leaves the park. A parking lot is located near the Route 6A crossing.

Nickerson State Park to Wellfleet trailhead

The trail continues to cross Namskaket Creek into Orleans between miles 11 and 12. The crossing of Route 6 between miles 12 and 13, near exit 89 on the highway, constitutes the trail's only (and brief) on-road section. The trail follows Salty Ridge Road to West Road, where it turns right over the Route 6 overpass. It then turns left and leaves West Road heading northeast into downtown Orleans. The CCRT crosses Main Street just past mile 13; this area in downtown has several bike shops and dining establishments. A parking area is located off of Old Colony Way, named for the former railroad that the trail runs on. The landscape changes to a less dense residential area as it leaves downtown. The third crossing of Route 6 is an overpass just before mile 14 and just east of the Orleans rotary.

The trail enters Eastham shortly after this, at which point there is a large salt marsh, Boat Meadow Creek, on the west side of the trail. It was at this location that a rudimentary canal, Jeremiah's Gutter, had existed in the 1700s, allowing passage from Cape Cod Bay to the Cove area of Orleans. Around mile marker 15, the trail enters the residential section of Eastham, crossing Gov. Prence Road. The trail remains relatively straight through most of Eastham, and at-grade road crossings are fairly frequent. Locust Road, between miles 16 and 17, is a signed bike route to the Nauset Bicycle Trail (which brings cyclists and pedestrians to Coast Guard Beach) and the Salt Pond Visitor Center, as well as other points in the Cape Cod National Seashore. In the North Eastham area, just west of the trail's intersection with Brackett Road, there are bike shops as well as delis and a Ben and Jerry's ice cream shop. North of Brackett Road, the trail runs closer to Route 6 and several motels and restaurants on the east side of the highway are connected directly to the trail.

The CCRT enters Wellfleet near mile 19. Sparse residential development lies west of the trail, while the east side of the trail is fronted by a power line right-of-way, with undeveloped National Seashore land beyond that. North of mile 21, the trail intersects Marconi Beach Road, which leads to Marconi Beach and the Marconi Station site. Sparse development continues, with the trail ending near mile 22, at Lecount Hollow Road in Wellfleet. This trailhead has the only parking area on the trail north of Orleans. The road provides access to several Wellfleet town beaches.

Expansion and development
In April 2018, Massachusetts DCR awarded a contract for the design and construction of a 2-mile northern extension of the rail trail from the current terminus at LeCount Hollow Road to Route 6 near turnoff to Wellfleet Center.  This extension will follow the former railroad grade.  As part of this project, the state has purchased a former campground and renovated it. The new Wellfleet Hollow Campground opened in May 2019.

Efforts to extend the bike path from the Wellfleet trailhead north to Provincetown have been under discussion for many years. Four possible routes were identified in 2011: a scenic corridor through the National Seashore, a share-the-road corridor of back roads west of Route 6, a corridor that follows the former railroad right of way (some of which is now privately owned), and a route that would take the bike path north along a power line right of way from South Wellfleet into Truro and then along Route 6 into Provincetown.

Westward expansion is planned to Route 132.

Crossings
All crossings in Barnstable County, Massachusetts.

See also
 Old Colony Rail Trail – between Harwich and Chatham
 Shining Sea Bikeway – between North Falmouth and Woods Hole

References

Further reading

External links

 Cape Cod Rail Trail official page | Massachusetts Department of Conservation and Recreation
 Friends of the Cape Cod Rail Trail
 Cape Cod Rail Trail - Wellfleet Extension Project | Massachusetts Department of Conservation and Recreation
 Cape Cod Rail Trail | TrailLink by the Rails-to-Trails Conservancy

Brewster, Massachusetts
Chatham, Massachusetts
Dennis, Massachusetts
Eastham, Massachusetts
Transportation in Barnstable County, Massachusetts
Parks in Barnstable County, Massachusetts
Rail trails in Massachusetts
State parks of Massachusetts
Wellfleet, Massachusetts
Harwich, Massachusetts

Cape Cod Rail Trail


Evening Bell is a 1988 Chinese war film directed by Wu Ziniu. The film stars Tao Zeru, Chong Peipei, and others, and was produced in part by the August First Film Studio, a production company associated with the People's Liberation Army.

It was one of three war films Wu directed in 1988, the other two being Joyous Heroes, and its sequel Between Life and Death.

Plot
Taking place in the immediate aftermath of the Second Sino-Japanese War (the Chinese branch of the Second World War), Evening Bell follows a small platoon of five Chinese soldiers who must negotiate a devastated landscape, burying bodies, disarming mines, and eventually facing off against a starving band of Japanese soldiers who do not yet know that the war has ended.

Censorship and reception
Evening Bell went through a rigorous four-part process with Chinese censors. While the final result was much changed from Wu's original vision, the film nevertheless did well critically both home and abroad. The film won Wu a Golden Rooster award for best direction in 1989 as well as a Silver Bear - Special Jury Prize at the 39th Berlin International Film Festival.

References

External links

Evening Bell at the Chinese Movie Database

1988 films
Chinese war drama films
Second Sino-Japanese War films
1980s Mandarin-language films
Films directed by Wu Ziniu
Silver Bear Grand Jury Prize winners

Evening Bell (film)


Richard J. Bonnie is the Harrison Foundation Professor of Law and Medicine, Professor of Public Policy, Professor of Psychiatry and Neurobehavioral Science, and Director of the Institute of Law, Psychiatry and Public Policy at the University of Virginia and the University of Virginia School of Law. He teaches and writes about criminal law, bioethics, and public policies relating to mental health, substance abuse, aging and public health.

Education
Bonnie received his Bachelor of Arts from Johns Hopkins University in 1966. He received his L.L.B. from University of Virginia in 1969.

Career
Bonnie has been actively involved in public service throughout his career. Among many other positions, he has been associate director of the National Commission on Marihuana and Drug Abuse (1971–73); secretary of the first National Advisory Council on Drug Abuse (1975–80); chair of Virginia's State Human Rights Committee responsible for protecting rights of persons with mental disabilities (1979–85), chief advisor for the ABA Criminal Justice Mental Health Standards Project (1981–88) and Chair of the Commission on Mental Health Law Reform established by the Chief Justice of Virginia (2006–11).

Bonnie has served as an advisor to the American Psychiatric Association Council on Psychiatry and Law since 1979, received the American Psychiatric Association's Isaac Ray Award in 1998 for contributions to the field of forensic psychiatry, and was awarded a special presidential commendation in 2003 for his contributions to American psychiatry. He has also served on three MacArthur Foundation research networks — on Mental Health and the Law (1988–96), Mandated Community Treatment (2000-2010) and Law and Neuroscience (since 2008).

In 1991, Bonnie was elected to the National Academy of Medicine. He has chaired numerous National Academy studies on subjects ranging from elder mistreatment to underage drinking, including the landmark report, Ending the Tobacco Problem: A Blueprint for the Nation (2007). Most recently, he chaired major studies on juvenile justice reform (2013) and the health and well-being of young adults (2014).

Research
Bonnie has authored many papers and books on the subjects of criminal law, bioethics and public policies relating to mental health, substance abuse, aging and public health.

Awards and honors
In 2007, Bonnie received the University of Virginia's highest honor, the Thomas Jefferson Award. He received the Yarmolinsky Medal in 2002 for his contributions to the National Academies. Bonnie was elected to the American Law Institute in 2014.

References

Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)
University of Virginia School of Law alumni
Johns Hopkins University alumni
University of Virginia School of Law faculty
Mental health law
American psychiatrists
American drug policy reform activists
Members of the National Academy of Medicine

Richard Bonnie


1924 was the 31st season of County Championship cricket in England. Yorkshire secured a hat-trick of titles. England, in their first home series since 1921, proved too strong for South Africa and won the Test series 3–0.

Honours
County Championship - Yorkshire
Minor Counties Championship - Berkshire
Wisden Cricketers of the Year - Robert Catterall, Jack MacBryan, Herbie Taylor, Dick Tyldesley, Dodger Whysall

County Championship

Test series

England defeated South Africa 3–0 with two matches drawn. There was a sensational start to the series when the visitors were bowled out in their first innings in the First Test at Edgbaston for 30, in just 12.3 overs, after England had made over 400. Arthur Gilligan, the Sussex and England captain, and his county colleague Maurice Tate, making his Test debut, bowled unchanged, with the former taking 6/7 and the latter 4/12.

Leading batsmen
Andy Sandham topped the averages with 2082 runs with an average of 59.48.

Leading bowlers
George Macaulay topped the averages with 190 wickets with an average of 13.23

References

Annual reviews
 Wisden Cricketers' Almanack 1925

External links
 CricketArchive – season summary
 Cricinfo – season summary

1924 in English cricket
English cricket seasons in the 20th century

1924 English cricket season


Fort Buford was a United States Army Post at the confluence of the Missouri and Yellowstone rivers in Dakota Territory, present day North Dakota, and the site of Sitting Bull's surrender in 1881.

Company C, 2nd Battalion, 13th Infantry, 3 officers, 80 enlisted men and 6 civilians commanded by Capt.  (Brevet Lt. Col.) William G. Rankin, first established a camp on the site on June 15, 1866, with orders to build a post, the majority of which was built using adobe and cottonwood enclosed by a wooden stockade. The fort was named after the late Major General John Buford, a Union Army cavalry general during the American Civil War.

Lakota attacks

The second night after arrival the camp was attacked by a band of the Hunkpapa Lakota led by Sitting Bull, they were driven off with one soldier wounded. The next day, the same group attacked and attempted to drive off the company's herd of beef cattle, but were repulsed and two Lakota killed. Parties of men cutting and rafting logs from the mouth of the Yellowstone were often attacked and driven to camp, where the fighting often lasted from two to six hours with losses on both sides.

Hard winter

Three civilian wood cutters were killed at the mouth of the Yellowstone in December. Lieut. Hiram H. Ketchum with sixty men reacted, drove off the Indians and recovered the bodies with slight loss to his detachment. According to the regimental history, the Lakota boasted that they intended to annihilate the soldiers and during the winter they besieged the post. The siege cut off the garrison from the nearby Missouri River and forced them to sink shallow wells near their quarters in order to obtain fresh water. The shallow well water they drank was contaminated, by the post's livestock and/or human waste, and caused dysentery. From December 21–24 a large group of the Hunkpapas repeatedly attacked and captured the post's ice house and sawmill located near the river and opened fire on the post. The attackers were not repelled until Rankin ordered his two 12 pound Napoleons to return fire. Captain Rankin's wife spent the winter in camp, enduring the hardships and dangers with the troops in garrison.

Massacre hoax

The harassing raids and resulting lack of communication from the isolated post led to the perpetration of a hoax, the "Fort Buford Massacre", purporting that the fort had been wiped out, Capt. Rankin captured and tortured to death, and Rankin's wife captured and abused. The episode began when the Philadelphia Inquirer ran a story April 1, 1867, based on a letter allegedly written from the fort, which was then picked up and run the next day nationwide. It was given "legs" by a letter published April 6 in the Army and Navy Journal, attributed to the wife of a prominent Army officer, confirming the massacre. Although by April 4 many newspapers had begun to question the validity of the report, The Chicago Daily Times, Detroit Free Press, New York Daily Tribune, The New York Times, and Boston Herald, among others, continued to feed the rumors with further stories for another month, many of them accusing the Army and the Johnson Administration of covering up the massacre. The hoax was eventually exposed by Rankin himself in correspondence to the war department.

Although the general harassing by the Lakota of Fort Buford lasted until the early 1870s, the worst was during that first year, June 1866 to May 1867. In May, the Missouri River thawed allowing the sternwheeler steamboat Graham to reinforce the garrison with additional riverboats arriving in June carrying Companies B, F, G, and part of E thereby enabling the garrison to better defend itself and allow for more permanent structures to be built.

Construction phases

With the arrival of Companies B, F, G, and E, Fort Buford was expanded in 1867–1868 from the original 1866 one-company 360-foot square frontier stockade to a 540 x 1,080 feet 5 company fort with only three walls towards the West, North, and East. The South side, while not being walled off, was enclosed by the long portion of a reverse "L" of adobe barracks buildings and the Missouri River towards the South served as a natural moat. The reconstructed barracks on the site today is on the location of where the original that formed the short leg of the "L" was. In 1867, old Fort Union, A fur trading post dating back to 1829 and located 2 miles away by land, 7 by river, was bought by the Army and parts of it were demolished and used at Fort Buford during this construction phase. The reason being that the wood there had 30 years worth of age and was of superior quality to the green cottonwood available along the Yellowstone and Missouri Rivers where the only native wood grew.

The post was expanded again in 1871–1872 with the arrival of Colonel William B. Hazen's 6th Infantry Regiment to a six-company infantry post covering approximately a square mile, including laundress' quarters and other civilian areas, using lumber shipped from the Eastern United States by steamboat but with no stockade. At that time the fighting had moved further westward into Montana Territory and the garrison was large enough to no-longer need the perimeter stockade. The original Commanding Officer's Quarters at the site today was part of this expansion and originally built in 1871–1872 and served as Hazen's residence from 1872–1880. This structure sits at the southern end of what once was a double row of Officer's Quarters that ran towards the North. Beyond this double row the stone Powder Magazine was built in 1875 out of sandstone quarried from an area located to the North of the fort. When in use the magazine held over a million rounds of ammunition for the fort's garrison, much of it being black powder cartridges one of which was the .45-70. At this time Fort Buford became a key element in the supply route for the military campaigns of 1876–1877 in Montana Territory. At the peak of occupation, which followed the Battle of the Little Bighorn in 1876 until 1881, there were just under 100 buildings and approximately 1,000 people occupying the post at any given moment including infantry and cavalry companies bivouacking in tents on the parade ground while being resupplied.

Following the 1871–1872 expansion there were several improvements to the fort. In 1873–1874 the 6 adobe barracks from the 1867–1868 expansion were rehabilitated in order to stabilize their crumbling adobe, this was done by adding wood sheathing to the outside of the building protecting it from the weather as well as plastering the interior and replacing the sod roof with a new lighter roof covered with tar and gravel. At the same time, the kitchen and mess hall for each barracks was relocated from the main building to a new addition connected by a short hallway. This new addition was built using the same quality lumber from the Eastern States as used in the other buildings of the 1871–1872 expansion, the existing reconstruction represents what the original building would have looked like in 1876. By 1880 however, all of the remaining adobe barracks buildings were collapsing, with a few having already collapsed and forcing the men to bivouac in tents on the parade ground. By 1881, the adobe structures were torn down and replaced with wooden structures relocated to the eastern side of the parade ground. In 1883, the Commanding Officer's Quarters' bay window was pushed out to the South adding on two rooms to the structure.

In 1889, the last of the expansions took place. A much larger Commanding officer's Quarters was built on the northern end of Officer's Row replacing the 1872 Hazen Quarters which then became the Field Officer's Quarters. A water tower was built towards the river and attempts were made at installing water mains to the structures. The attempt failed however, because they could not bury the pipes deep enough to keep them from freezing every Winter with the last attempt at 8 feet.

The remoteness of the post, poor quality of its original construction, and age resulted in the fort's deterioration with many of the original adobe and cottonwood structures constantly in a state of collapse due to unskilled labor, the elements, and poor construction methods when built.

Indian village

Around 1870, the garrison received unexpected newcomers. They were Hidatsa and Mandan Indians from the joint settlement Like-a-Fishhook Village nearly 100 miles further downstream in the Fort Berthold Indian Reservation. From 150 to 200 migrants, led by Bobtail Bull and Crow Flies High, founded a new settlement of mainly log cabins some two miles northwest of the fort. The Indian rebels were in conflict with the old village chiefs. Further, they fled the newly introduced reservation system.

Since the Hidatsas never had taken up arms against the U.S. Army, they were accepted in the area. Moreover, they were enemies of the Sioux.  The very grounds for the separatists to settle this close to the military fort "was the greater protection from the Sioux" it offered to a small village.     The garrison recognized the military value of its new neighbors and enlisted some as scouts to a regular pay.

Once in the 1880s, the scouts and the soldiers went to Bismarck, expecting problems with some reservation Sioux which never emerged. In peacetime, the Hidatsas carried military mail to places like Poplar and Glendive, Montana.
The Indian village in the Military Reservation lasted until 1884. Commanding officer J.N.G. Whistler closed the settlement due to a growing number of inhabitants, instances of prostitution and some begging at the fort.

Decommissioning and the site as it is today

Due to the settlement of the region and the poor condition of the post, Fort Buford was decommissioned by the Army on October 1, 1895. In 1896, all of the remaining structures were sold at auction to be either hauled away or torn down. All but 3 were moved: the 1872 Commanding Officer's Quarters where Sitting Bull surrendered his rifle, the 1875 stone Powder Magazine, and a Duplex Officer's Quarters. The Duplex was used as a residence and the much smaller Commanding Officer's Quarters was used as a guest house and later as a granary by the Mercer family and the grounds were called "Villa Militare" until the grounds were given to the State of North Dakota in 1927. The Duplex burned down destroying with it many artifacts in 1937. In the 1990s the former Officer of the Guard/Officer of the Day building was found being used as a pump house for the nearby irrigation canal and was relocated to its original location. In 2004, an example of an adobe barracks was built at the location of an original barracks that was there from 1867 to 1881. From archaeological findings at the site prior to its construction, it was determined that this particular barracks held Co. G 6th Infantry Regiment while the 6th Infantry was stationed at the post from 1871 to 1880. Of the approximately 1 square mile sized fort only 40 acres is currently owned by the state of North Dakota. Today the North Dakota State Historical Society runs Fort Buford as Fort Buford State Historic Site.

See also
Fort Buford Stage Road, also National Register-listed
Fort Union Trading Post National Historic Site, nearby site that predates Fort Buford.
Missouri-Yellowstone Confluence Interpretive Center
Fort Dilts State Historic Site
Fort Abraham Lincoln State Park

References

Remele, Larry (ed). Fort Buford and the Military Frontier on the Northern Plains 1850–1900. Bismarck, ND: State Historical Society of North Dakota, 1987.

Further reading
Barnes, Jeff. Forts of the Northern Plains: Guide to Historic Military Posts of the Plains Indian Wars. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2008.
Remele, Larry (ed). Fort Buford and the Military Frontier on the Northern Plains 1850–1900. Bismarck, ND: State Historical Society of North Dakota, 1987.

External links

Fort Buford – North Dakota State Historic Site
PBS – THE WEST – Ft. Buford

Pre-statehood history of North Dakota
Military facilities on the National Register of Historic Places in North Dakota
Military and war museums in North Dakota
Museums in Williams County, North Dakota
Protected areas of Williams County, North Dakota
North Dakota State Historic Sites
Historic American Buildings Survey in North Dakota
Buford
Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in North Dakota
National Register of Historic Places in Williams County, North Dakota
Military installations established in 1866
1866 establishments in Dakota Territory
Military installations closed in 1895
1895 disestablishments in North Dakota
Forts along the Missouri River

Fort Buford


Blitz and Pieces is a museum in Scratby in Great Yarmouth, England, owned and operated by Darren Stride.  Based on the British Home Front during World War II and the BBC comedy Dad's Army, the museum is housed in a 1940s prefabricated building, a 1930s wooden military hut and a variety of large sheds. In 2014 the museum was a finalist in Channel 4's George Clarke's Amazing Spaces: Shed of the Year series. The museum is open to the public by appointment.

Origins of the museum

Stride's interest in the 1940s began as a small boy when he watched repeats of the BBC comedy Dad's Army with his late grandfather, John Fenton, who had served as a private in the real Queen's Own Royal West Kent Regiment during World War II, the regiment that the Home Guard platoon in Dad's Army was based on. Before his death in 2001 he gave his grandson his service medals, which started the collection.

Many of the items in the collection were donated by members of the public or by visitors to the museum. The display in the period chemist's shop was acquired from the Yesterday's World attraction in Great Yarmouth following its closure in 2014.

Blitz Street
The museum is housed along 'Blitz Street', and is based on the British Home Front during World War II; it features two period shops including a chemist's and a grocer's, a fully equipped 1940s kitchen and living room, an Anderson shelter complete with contents, a display of World War II uniforms, helmets and other artifacts, and a reconstruction of Captain Mainwaring's church hall office from Dad's Army.

Captain Mainwaring's office is housed in a 1930s beach hut requisitioned by the military during World War II and features several authentic Home Guard uniforms, a screen-used uniform and webbing from Dad's Army, a collection of Dad's Army memorabilia including original props such as half of the string used during filming of The Deadly Attachment. This was donated by David Croft; the other half is in the collection of Jimmy Perry.

In 2014 Blitz and Pieces was a finalist in Cuprinol's 'Shed of the Year' competition, broadcast by Channel 4.

Gallery

References

External links
Blitz and Pieces Official Website

Dad's Army
Great Yarmouth
Museums in Norfolk
History museums in Norfolk
Tourist attractions in Norfolk
World War II museums in the United Kingdom

Blitz and Pieces


U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) is a federal law enforcement agency under the U.S. Department of Homeland Security. ICE's stated mission is to protect the United States from the cross-border crime and illegal immigration that threaten national security and public safety.

The ICE mission is executed through the enforcement of more than 500 federal statutes and focuses on customs violations, immigration enforcement, preventing terrorism and combating the illegal movement of people and goods. ICE has two primary and distinct law enforcement components, namely, Homeland Security Investigations (HSI) and Enforcement and Removal Operations (ERO); in addition to three supporting divisions: Management & Program Administration, Office of Principal Legal Advisor (OPLA) and Office of Professional Responsibility (OPR).

Enforcement and Removal Operations (ERO), which primarily deals with the deportation and removal of undocumented non-citizens, is among the most public and contentious function of ICE. ERO maintains the custodial facilities used to detain people that are illegally present in the United States. In interior offices, ERO officers primarily conduct targeted enforcement operations to apprehend aliens engaged in serious criminal activity. For example, in fiscal year 2020, 90% of those aliens apprehended by ERO had criminal convictions or pending charges at the time of their administrative arrest. This FY 2020 arrest statistic includes 1,800 homicide related offenses, 1,600 kidnappings, 3,800 robberies, 37,000 assaults, and 10,000 sex crimes. At border offices, ERO officers receive and detain illegal immigrants apprehended by Border Patrol. Illegal immigrants apprehended at the border have significantly lower levels of criminal history than those arrested by ERO in the interior of the United States.

ICE maintains domestic offices throughout the United States and attachés at major U.S. diplomatic missions overseas. ICE personnel (special agents and officers) do not patrol American borders; rather, that role is performed by the United States Border Patrol. ERO and HSI operate as two independent law enforcement agencies and have completely separate mission statements. HSI is focused on the disruption of transnational crime, where as ERO is responsible for the apprehension, detention and removal of illegal immigrants.

The Acting Director is Patrick Lechleitner. The agency has not had a Senate-confirmed director since Sarah Saldaña stepped down on January 20, 2017.

History

U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement was formed under the Homeland Security Act of 2002, following the events of September 11, 2001. With the establishment of the Department of Homeland Security, the functions and jurisdictions of several border and revenue enforcement agencies were combined and consolidated into U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement. Consequently, ICE is the largest investigative arm of the Department of Homeland Security and the second largest contributor to the FBI's Joint Terrorism Task Force.

The agencies that were either moved entirely or merged in part into ICE included the criminal investigative and intelligence resources of the United States Customs Service, the criminal investigative, detention and deportation resources of the Immigration and Naturalization Service, and the Federal Protective Service. The Federal Protective Service was later transferred from ICE to the National Protection and Programs Directorate effective October 28, 2009. In 2003, Asa Hutchinson moved the Federal Air Marshals Service from the Transportation Security Administration (TSA) to ICE, but Michael Chertoff moved them back to the TSA in 2005.

The origins of HSI Special Agents date back to the formations of the United States Customs Service in 1789. The taxing of imports led to the creation of the Treasury Department and its sub-components (i.e. Division of Customs Chief).  Later, the Industrial Revolution led to some of the first immigration related laws targeting forced labor, human trafficking and child exploitation.

Organization
U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement is responsible for identifying and eliminating border, economic, transportation, and infrastructure security vulnerabilities. There is an estimate of about 20,000 ICE employees in approximately 400 offices within the United States and 53 countries.

The organization is composed of two law enforcement directorates (HSI and ERO) and several support divisions each headed by a director who reports to an Executive Associate Director. The divisions of ICE provide investigation, interdiction and security services to the public and other law enforcement partners in the federal and local sectors.

The Director of ICE is appointed at the sub-cabinet level by the President of the United States, confirmed by the U.S. Senate, and reports directly to the Secretary of Homeland Security.

Structure
Director (until July 2010 the title had been "Assistant Secretary") - Tae Johnson
Deputy Director - Patrick J. Lechleitner
Chief of Staff - Timothy Perry
Enforcement and Removal Operations - Acting Executive Associate Director Corey A. Price
Removal Division
Secure Communities and Enforcement Division
Immigration Health Services Division
Mission Support Division
Detention Management Division
Local Field Offices
Homeland Security Investigations - Acting Executive Associate Director Steve K. Francis
Domestic Operations Division
Intelligence Division
International Operations Division
Mission Support
National Intellectual Property Rights Coordination Center
National Security Investigations Division
Management and Administration - Executive Associate Director Staci Barrera
Office of Professional Responsibility - Associate Director Waldemar Rodriguez
Office of the Principal Legal Advisor - Principal Advisor John D. Trasviña

Homeland Security Investigations (HSI)

HSI is the primary investigative arm of Department of Homeland Security and consists of more than 10,300 employees who are assigned to over 210 cities throughout the U.S. and 80 international offices in 53 countries across the world. Approximately 7,100+ Special Agents (Criminal Investigators) are included among the over 10,300 HSI employees, making it the second largest investigative service in the United States, behind the Federal Bureau of Investigation.

HSI special agents investigate violations of more than 400 U.S. laws that threaten the national security of the United States such as counter-proliferation; counter-terrorism; human smuggling and trafficking; weapons smuggling and export enforcement; narcotics smuggling and trafficking; document and benefit fraud; the manufacturing, sale, and use of counterfeit immigration and identity documents; human rights violations; transnational gang activity; financial crimes, including money laundering and bulk cash smuggling; cyber crime; child exploitation and sex tourism; trade crimes such as commercial fraud and intellectual property theft; smuggling of counterfeit pharmaceuticals and other merchandise; mass-marketing fraud; art theft; international cultural property and antiquities crimes; and visa security. HSI agents can be requested to provide security for VIPs, and also augment the U.S. Secret Service during overtaxed times such as special security events and elections.

HSI was formerly known as the ICE Office of Investigations (OI). HSI special agents investigate the largest range of crimes and have the statutory authority to enforce the Immigration and Nationality Act (Title 8), U.S. customs laws (Title 19), general federal crimes (Title 18), the Controlled Substances Act (Title 21), as well as Titles 5, 6, 12, 22, 26, 28, 31, 46, 49, and 50 of the U.S. Code.

The Special Agents of Homeland Security Investigations (HSI) are Series 1811 Criminal Investigators, analogous to agencies such as the FBI, DEA, ATF, Secret Service, IRS Criminal Investigation, and the US Postal Inspection Service.

HSI Domestic Operations
The largest cadre of Special Agents are located within Domestic Operations. HSI is primarily a criminal investigative agency and consistently leads the feds in arrests. In FY 2020, HSI Special Agents made 31,915 criminal arrests, rescued or identified 1,012 child exploitation victims, and seized $341 million worth of counterfeit goods, 6,195 lbs of fentanyl and $1.8 billion in currency & assets from criminal organizations.

HSI has played a key role in investigating and arresting citizens suspected of possessing and distributing child pornography.

In April 2006, ICE's Cyber Crimes Center, Child Exploitation Section, initiated an investigation into criminal organizations that distributed child pornography. The project, dubbed Operation Flicker, found that there were a number of government employees, including "dozens of Pentagon staff and contractors with high-level security clearance", who had downloaded child pornography.

HSI Office of Intelligence
The Office of Intelligence is a subcomponent of HSI that employs a variety of special agents and Intelligence Research Specialists to facilitate HSI's tactical and strategic intelligence demands. Collectively, these intelligence professionals collect, analyze, and disseminate intelligence for use by the operational elements of DHS. The Office of Intelligence works closely with the intelligence components of other federal, state, and local agencies. Many HSI field offices assign intelligence analysts to specific groups, such as financial crimes, counter-proliferation, narcotics, or document fraud; or they can be assigned to a residential intelligence unit, known as a Field Intelligence Group (FIG). HSI agents assigned to FIGs generally focus on Human Intelligence (HUMINT) collection.

HSI International Operations

International Operations, formerly known as the Office of International Affairs (OIA), is a subcomponent of HSI with agents stationed in 60 locations around the world. HSI's foreign offices, known as Attaché Offices, work with foreign governments to identify and combat transnational criminal organizations before they threaten the United States. IO also facilitates domestic HSI investigations by providing intelligence from host countries, conducting collateral investigations, and facilitating international investigations conducted by field offices within the United States.

HSI Special Response Teams
Seventeen HSI field offices maintain a Special Response Team (SRT) that operates as a federal SWAT element for the office's area of responsibility (AOR). SRT was founded under the U.S. Customs Service as the Warrant Entry and Tactical Team (WETT) and were renamed to SRT in 1998. The SRT handles HSI's high-risk arrest and search warrants, barricaded subjects, rural area operations, VIP protection, sniper coverage for high-risk operations, and security for National Security Events. HSI's active SRTs are located in Tampa, Miami, Arizona (Phoenix), New Orleans, Houston, New York, Boston, Dallas, Los Angeles, San Antonio, San Juan, Detroit, San Francisco, El Paso, Chicago, San Diego and Washington, D.C. There is also a team of instructors and coordinators stationed full-time in Columbus, Georgia. These teams primarily deploy to handle high-risk operations, but also assist in events such as Hurricane Katrina, the Haiti earthquake 2010, and other natural disasters around the globe.

SRT is a collateral duty open to HSI special agents assigned to an office with a certified team. To qualify, candidates must pass a physical fitness test, qualify with multiple firearms by shooting 90% or better in full tactical gear, and pass an oral interview process. If a candidate passes these stages and is voted on the local team, they are then designated "Green Team" members and allowed to train with the certified team members. Green Team members are eventually sent to the SRT Initial Certification Course at the Office of Firearms and Tactical Programs, Tactical Operations Unit (OFTP/TOU) Fort Benning, Georgia, where they must pass additional physical fitness, firearms, scenario-based and written assessments. Out of approximately 7,100 special agents, there are currently only approximately 300 certified SRT members nationwide.

HSI SRTs often conduct training exercises with various federal, state and local teams, and also assist other teams during national events or large-scale operations that require multiple high-risk scenarios to be conducted simultaneously. The working relationship between the SRTs and the U.S. Department of Defense's U.S. Special Operations Command has led to SOCOM providing the SRTs with excess Mine Resistant Ambush Protected vehicles (MRAPs), firearms, and other gear designed for use by U.S. Special operations forces.

Enforcement and Removal Operations (ERO)

ERO is responsible for enforcing the nation's immigration laws and ensuring the departure of removable immigrants from the United States. ERO uses its detention and deportation officers to identify, arrest, and remove immigrants who violate U.S. immigration law. Deportation officers are responsible for the transportation and detention of immigrants in ICE custody to include the removal of immigrants to their country of origin. Deportation officers arrest immigrants for violations of U.S. immigration law, monitor cases during deportation proceedings, supervise released immigrants, and remove immigrants from the United States.

Deportation officers operate strategically placed Fugitive Operations Teams whose function is to locate, apprehend, and remove immigrants who have absconded from immigration proceedings and remain in the United States with outstanding warrants for deportation. Due to limited staffing, ERO Fugitive Operations typically target illegal immigrants with a history of serious criminal convictions (i.e. homicide, sexual assaults, aggravated felonies). ERO Officers do not randomly target illegal immigrants for detention and civil arrest due to current case law and internal policies.

ERO manages the Secure Communities program which identifies removable immigrants located in jails and prisons. Fingerprints submitted as part of the normal criminal arrest and booking process will automatically check both the Integrated Automatic Fingerprint Identification System (IAFIS) of the FBI's Criminal Justice Information Services (CJIS) Division and the Automated Biometric Identification System (IDENT) of the Department of Homeland Security's US-VISIT Program.

ERO was formerly known as the Office of Detention and Removal Operations (DRO).

Other ICE Divisions
The Office of State, Local and Tribal Coordination (OSLTC) is ICE's primary outreach and communications component for state, local and tribal stakeholders. It is responsible for building and improving relationships, and coordinating activities with state, local, territorial, and tribal law enforcement agencies and through public engagement. It also fosters and sustains relationships with federal, state and local government officials and coordinates ICE ACCESS programs (Agreements of Cooperation in Communities to Enhance Safety and Security).

The Office of the Principal Legal Advisor (OPLA) provides legal advice, training and services to support the ICE mission and defends the interests of the United States in the administrative and federal courts.

The Office of Professional Responsibility is responsible for investigating allegations of misconduct involving employees of ICE.

ICE Air is the aviation division of ICE that charters aircraft or books commercial flights to send deportees back to their home countries. There are 10 aircraft used to send deportees and has a working list of 185 countries. Deportees have legs and arms secured while boarding, handcuffs are removed during flight and all shackles removed upon disembarking.

ICE Health Service Corps (IHSC) is a division that is responsible for providing direct patient care to approximately 13,500 detainees housed in 21 detention facilities throughout the nation. Their stated mission is to provide the best care to those in ICE custody, practicing on the core values of Integrity, Commitment, Accountability, Service, and Excellence. The IHSC team is made up of around 1,000 members that consist of US Public Health Service Commissioned Corps officers, healthcare professionals, and federal civil service workers.

Former units
The Federal Air Marshal Service (FAMS) was aligned into ICE shortly after the creation of the Department of Homeland Security. On October 16, 2005, Homeland Security Secretary Michael Chertoff officially approved the transfer of the Federal Air Marshal Service from the Bureau of Immigration & Customs Enforcement (ICE) to the TSA as part of a broader departmental reorganization to align functions consistent with the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) "Second Stage Review" findings for:

consolidating and strengthening aviation law enforcement and security at the Federal level;
creating a common approach to stakeholder outreach; and
improving the coordination and efficiency of aviation security operations.

As part of this realignment, the Director of the Federal Air Marshal Service also became the Assistant Administrator for the TSA Office of Law Enforcement (OLE), which houses nearly all TSA law enforcement services.

The Federal Protective Service (FPS) was moved from the General Services Administration (GSA) to ICE upon the creation of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS). The FPS was later moved out of ICE to the National Protection Programs Directorate.

Originally a part of the U.S. Customs Service's Office of Investigations, the Office of Air and Marine (then called the Air and Marine Interdiction Division) was transferred to ICE in 2003 during the creation of the Department of Homeland Security, becoming the Office of Air and Marine Operations. Due in part to a 500 million dollar budgetary dispute between CBP and ICE, in 2004 ICE Air and Marine Operations was transferred to U.S. Customs and Border Protection. CBP Air and Marine still works closely with ICE to support the agency's domestic and international law enforcement operations.

The Office of Detention Policy and Planning was responsible developing and maintaining ICE's National Detention Standards, which set out detailed rules for how immigration detainees were to be treated differently than criminal inmates. In April 2017, President Donald Trump decided to close the office and to stop including the standards in new jail contracts.

Assistant Secretaries and Directors

Training

Newly hired ICE law enforcement personnel receive their training at the Federal Law Enforcement Training Centers (FLETC) in Glynco, Georgia. FLETC is the largest law enforcement training facility in the United States. To meet division specific academic and practical instruction, the ICE academies vary in length from 4 to 6 months depending on the position. Furthermore, following graduation, all ICE law enforcement personnel undergo additional post academy training, as well as career-continuous training.

HSI: HSI Special Agent trainees must complete the inter-agency Criminal Investigator Training Program (CITP) and the HSI Special Agent Training Course (HSI SAT). HSI special agents also receive significantly advanced training regarding U.S. customs law, warrant service, advanced tactics, undercover operations, criminal interrogation, weapons of mass destruction, and other subjects routinely encountered by HSI special agents in the field. HSI Special Agents typically complete CITP in conjunction with other agencies (i.e. Secret Service, Diplomatic Security Service, Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco & Firearms, and various Office of Inspector Generals, etc.). However, the agency specific HSI SAT course is only attended by HSI trainees and focuses on customs & immigration related investigations.

ERO: ERO Officer trainees must complete the basic 13-week ERO academy. ERO deportation officers undergo several weeks of intensive Spanish language training prior to graduating.

Specific course curriculum is kept confidential, but both ERO Officers and HSI Special Agent new hires undergo training related to basic law enforcement tactics, immigration law, firearms training, emergency response driving, and Constitutional law.

HSI requests separation from ICE
In 2018, a total of 19 HSI Special Agents in Charge or SACs (who are the senior most officials in each investigative division) sent a letter to the DHS Secretary and asked to be formally separated from ICE. These 19 SACs explained that HSI's investigative mission was repeatedly being hamstrung by ICE's civil immigration enforcement mission. It appeared HSI Special Agents were routinely being confused for ERO Officers both by the public and state/local law enforcement agencies. These Senior Leaders requested HSI be restructured as a stand-alone agency analogous to the Secret Service. It was also stated "No U.S. Department of Justice law enforcement agency is paired with another disparate entity, i.e., the FBI is not paired with the Bureau of Prisons or DEA." This letter was ultimately ignored by the administration and resulted in no institutional changes.

Weapons and equipment
Since the agency's formation, a variety of weapons have been carried by its agents and officers.

Previously issued sidearms
Initially when the agency was formed in 2003, the sidearms issued to its agents and officers were the weapons issued by the legacy agencies: the U.S. Customs Service and the U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service. The USCS issued sidearm was the Glock 19 9mm pistol. The I&NS issued sidearm was the Heckler & Koch USP Compact .40 caliber pistol. Both pistols were loaded with hollow-point rounds.

In 2009 the agency selected the SIG-Sauer P229 DAK .40 caliber pistol as its agency issued sidearm loaded with hollow-point rounds. This weapon stayed in service from 2009 to 2020.

Currently issued sidearms
The agency's current duty sidearm, is the SIG Sauer P320C (C for Carry) pistol, chambered in 9×19mm Parabellum hollow-point rounds, utilizing a striker-fired mechanism in lieu of a double action only hammer system.

The agency has a list of personally owned weapons that are authorized for duty and off duty carry. These weapons must be inspected and approved by the agency's firearms unit. The agent and/or officer must qualify with the weapon every three months.

Other firearms and non-lethal weapons
HSI special agents and ERO officers are trained on standard shoulder fired weapons that include the M4 carbine, chambered for 5.56×45mm NATO ammunition and the 12-gauge Remington 870 shotgun.

As non-lethal options, special agents and officers are armed with the expandable metal baton and pepper spray.

In popular culture
ICE special agents and officers have been depicted in a number of movies and documentaries.

HSI special agents
The Infiltrator: Led by actor Bryan Cranston, this reflects the story of undercover Special Agent Robert Mazur and the risks he took to infiltrate violent drug cartels. He ultimately took down a bank that was laundering drug proceeds.

The Punisher: The lead female character portrays an HSI special agent.

Human Trafficking: Led by Mira Sorvino, this TV series highlights the role of HSI special agents in combating sex trafficking.

The Crossing: People from a war torn future start showing up in a small town, prompting HSI special agents to investigate.

The Shield: Actress Laurie Holden played a prominent recurring role in the final season of The Shield as Special Agent Olivia Murray. In the final episode, the main character (Vic Mackey) is forced to work for ICE as part of his immunity agreement.

Crossing Over in this 2009 film Harrison Ford portrays ICE / Homeland Security Investigations Special Agent Max Brogan, who during the film, investigates human smuggling, fraud, and murder.  Brogan is world weary, honest, and tough. But he has not let the injustices of life that he has witnessed during his career make him cynical or uncaring.

ERO officers
Immigration Nation: Takes an unprecedented look into ICE operations that target fugitives.

Transnational gangs

In February 2005, ICE began Operation Community Shield, a national law enforcement initiative that targets violent transnational street gangs through the use of ICE's broad law enforcement powers, including the unique and powerful authority to remove criminal immigrants, including illegal immigrants and legal permanent residents.

Immigration law
Immigration and Nationality Act Section 287(g) allows ICE to establish increased cooperation and communication with state, and local law enforcement agencies. Section 287(g) authorizes the Secretary of Homeland Security to enter into agreements with state and local law enforcement agencies, permitting designated officers to perform immigration law enforcement functions, pursuant to a Memorandum of Agreement (MOA), provided that the local law enforcement officers receive appropriate training and function under the supervision of sworn U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement officers. Under 287(g), ICE provides state and local law enforcement with the training and subsequent authorization to identify, process, and when appropriate, detain immigration offenders they encounter during their regular, daily law-enforcement activity.

The enforcement of immigration laws was historically supported by both major political parties within the United States. In 1995, then President Clinton (Democrat) stated the following in his State of the Union address: "All Americans, not only in the states most heavily affected, but in every place in this country, are rightly disturbed by the large numbers of illegal aliens entering our country. The jobs they hold might otherwise be held by citizens or legal immigrants. The public service they use impose burdens on our taxpayers. That's why our administration has moved aggressively to secure our borders more by hiring a record number of new border guards, by deporting twice as many criminal aliens as ever before, by cracking down on illegal hiring, by barring welfare benefits to illegal aliens. In the budget I will present to you we will try to do more to speed the deportation of illegal aliens who are arrested for crimes, to better identify illegal aliens in the workplace as recommended by the commission headed by former Congresswoman Barbara Jordan." Similarly in the 1996 State of the Union, then President Clinton (Democrat) stated the following: "But there are some areas that the federal government should not leave and should address and address strongly. One of these areas is the problem of illegal immigration. After years of neglect, this administration has taken a strong stand to stiffen the protection of our borders. We are increasing border controls by 50 percent. We are increasing inspections to prevent the hiring of illegal immigrants. And tonight, I announce I will sign an executive order to deny federal contracts to businesses that hire illegal immigrants. Let me be very clear about this: We are still a nation of immigrants; we should be proud of it. We should honor every legal immigrant here, working hard to become a new citizen. But we are also a nation of laws."

The 287(g) program is one of several ICE ACCESS (ICE "Agreements of Cooperation in Communities to Enhance Safety and Security") programs that increase collaboration between local law enforcement and immigration enforcement agents.

Between 2009 and 2016, the Barack Obama administration oversaw the deporting of a record 2.4 million undocumented immigrants who had illegally entered the United States, earning him the nickname "Deporter-In-Chief" by Janet Murguía, the president of National Council of La Raza. According to ICE data, about 40% of those deported by ICE in 2015 had no criminal conviction, while a majority of those convicted were guilty of minor charges. However, this statistic is misleading, as the way in how deportations were counted was changed under the Bush administration and continued under the Obama administration. Before, people caught crossing the southern border were simply bused back and were not counted as deportations. However, with the change, these people were fingerprinted and added to the deportation tally, giving the Obama administration a record number of deportations.

2021 Border Crisis
The U.S. Border Patrol apprehended more than 1.3 million illegal crossers in the first eight months of 2021; with a total of 1.6 million apprehensions in Fiscal Year 2021 (highest on record). This figure does not include a daily count of 1,000+ illegal migrants who successfully evade the Border Patrol. Many of these migrants are now coming from third party countries and filing asylum claims, which have log jammed DOJ administrative courts. Not all migrants come from Mexico alone, many have come from other areas, such as: South America, Eastern Europe, Turkey and India. of those who arrived in the United States, two thirds were adults without children. Inversely, there was a record of 145,000 children that arrived in the United States unaccompanied. For example, in FY 2014 there were 56,912 asylum claims, which jumped to 142,760 in FY 2017 and are now even higher. Most undocumented immigrants are released into the United States after processing and ordered to report for a future court date. According to the American Immigration Council, 83% of nondetained immigrants with completed or pending removal cases attended all of their hearings and 96% of nondetained immigrants represented by a lawyer attended all of their hearings. This has been colloquially referred to by U.S. Conservatives as the Border Crisis, this has become a significant problem to solve for presidential administrations.

Cartel ambush of HSI Special Agent Jaime Zapata
In 2011, HSI Special Agents Jaime Zapata and Victor Avila, while working in Mexico to combat the flow of illicit narcotics, were ambushed by members of the Los Zetas drug cartel. Special Agent Zapata was killed while Special Agent Avila suffered life-threatening injuries. This was the first assassination of U.S. law enforcement agents since the infamous and gruesome murder of DEA Special Agent Enrique "Kiki" Camarena. Several members of the drug cartel were extradited to the U.S. and charged for the murders, however, the applicable statute revealed a potential loophole that made it inapplicable for violations committed outside the U.S. In November 2021, President Joe Biden signed the "Jaime Zapata & Victor Avila Federal Officers & Employees Protection Act," which helped extend legal protection to all U.S. personnel working overseas.

Kidnapping of HSI special agent
In 2005, an undercover HSI special agent was kidnapped in Medellin by members of a Colombian drug cartel, who held him responsible for a buy/bust operation that resulted in the seizure of 217 kilos of cocaine. The agent was moved to a "stash house" where he was assaulted and faced a "narco-trial." U.S. Embassy Officials eventually became aware of the kidnapping and notified senior officials within the Colombian government. The Colombian drug cartel members eventually obtained access to his hotel room safe and retrieved documents that revealed his true identity as a U.S. federal law enforcement officer. In order to avoid additional scrutiny from the Colombian Security Services, the drug cartel subsequently released the HSI special agent once they determined his true identity. The HSI agent eventually returned home safely and the subsequent investigation resulted in the extradition of several drug traffickers involved in the kidnapping.

ERO Detention centers

ICE ERO operates detention centers throughout the United States that detain illegal immigrants who are apprehended and placed into removal proceedings. About 34,000 people are held in immigration detention on any given day, in over 500 detention centers, jails, and prisons nationwide. Those detained are both illegal immigrants apprehended by ERO and other agencies such as Border Patrol.

Due to the United States detention bed quota, mandated by Congress, that number will increase rather than decrease. The quota mandates at least 34,000 beds available for immigrants on any given day. Under the Trump administration, the number of people being detained on any given day increased to 52,500 in early June 2019.

Corporate contracts
Engineering and construction firm Kellogg, Brown and Root (KBR) released a press statement on January 24, 2006, that the company had been awarded a no-bid contingency contract from the Department of Homeland Security to support its ICE facilities in the event of an emergency. The maximum total value of the contract is $385 million and consists of a one-year base period with four one-year options. KBR held the previous ICE contract from 2000 through 2005. The contract provides for establishing temporary detention and processing capabilities to expand existing ICE Detention and Removal Operations Program facilities in the event of an emergency influx of immigrants into the U.S., or to support the rapid development of new programs. The contract may also provide migrant detention support to other government organizations in the event of an immigration emergency, the company said.

Sexual abuse allegations
The Intercept published a report by the DHS Office of Inspector General revealing that 1,224 sexual abuse complaints while in immigration custody were filed between January 2010 and June 2017. Contrary to ICE's claims, only 2% of these complaints were investigated.
In 2020, the Kino Border Initiative received 442 reports of alleged abuse by US agents, meaning 18% of new arrivals were abused by a US official.

Forced sterilization allegations
In 2020, multiple human rights groups joined a whistleblower to accuse a private-owned U.S. immigration detention centre in Georgia of forcibly sterilizing women. The reports claimed a doctor conducted unauthorized medical procedures on women detained by ICE. The whistleblower, Dawn Wooten, was a nurse and former employee. She claims a high rate of sterilizations were performed on Spanish-speaking women and women who spoke various Indigenous languages common in Latin America. Wooten said the centre did not obtain proper consent for these surgeries, or lied to women about the medical procedures.

More than 40 women submitted testimony in writing to document these abuses, one attorney said. Jerry Flores, a faculty member at the University of Toronto Mississauga said the alleged treatment of women constituted a violation of human rights and genocide according to the standards of the United Nations. Just Security of the New York University School of Law said the U.S. bore "international responsibility for the forced sterilization of women in ICE detention". In September 2020, Mexico demanded more information from US authorities on medical procedures performed on migrants in detention centers, after allegations that six Mexican women were sterilized without their consent. Another women said she had undergone a gynecological operation, although there was nothing in her detention file to support she agreed to the procedure.

Allegations of pork and expired meals to Muslim detainees
In 2020, CNN reported that Muslim detainees at a federal immigration facility in Miami, Florida were repeatedly served pork or pork-based products against their religious beliefs, according to claims made by immigrant advocates. There are dozens of Muslim detainees at the facility for whom it is religiously forbidden to consume pork, civil rights groups said in a letter to ICE and federal oversight agencies. The Muslim detainees at the Krome detention facility in Miami were forced to accept pork because religiously compliant/halal meals that ICE served had been consistently rotten and expired. In one instance, the Chaplain at Krome's allegedly dismissed pleas from Muslim detainees for help, saying, "It is what it is."

A letter by civil rights lawyers stated "Many have suffered illness, like stomach pains, vomiting, and diarrhea, as a result." An ICE spokesman said, "Any claim that ICE denies reasonable and equitable opportunity for persons to observe their religious dietary practices is false." Representatives of the facility, including the chaplain did not respond to requests for comment. Previously in 2019, a Pakistani-born man with a valid American work permit was reportedly given nothing but pork sandwiches for six consecutive days.

Wrongful detention allegations
From 2012 to early 2018, ICE wrongfully arrested and detained 1,488 U.S. citizens, including many who spent months or years in immigration detention. A 2018 Los Angeles Times investigation found that ICE's reliance on incomplete and error-prone databases and lax investigations led to the erroneous detentions. From 2008 to 2018, ICE was sued for wrongful arrest by more than two dozen U.S. citizens, who had been detained for periods ranging from one day to over three years. Some of the wrongfully detained U.S. citizens had been arrested by ICE more than once. The inaccurate government data that ICE used had shown that both immigrants and U.S. citizens were both targets of being detained. In 2019, a U.S. citizen that was detained stated that he lost 26 pounds from the horrendous conditions that the detention center offered.

Separation of illegal migrant children from families by ICE ERO

As part of the 2018 Trump administration's zero tolerance policy, nearly 3,000 minors were separated from their parents, or the adults accompanying them, while trying to illegally cross the U.S.-Mexico border and placed in detention camps. Rolling Stone likened these centers to "prisons" while The Houston Chronicle reported that a movement swelled online to call them "concentration camps." Similarly, former First Lady of the United States Laura Bush compared the images of the centers to U.S. Japanese internment camps during the Second World War. 16 out of 34 of the centers located in Texas had previously been cited by Texas officials for more than 150 health violations. The former head of US Immigration and Customs Enforcement, John Sandweg, was critical of child separation, telling NBC News, "You could easily end up in a situation where the gap between a parent's deportation and a child's deportation is years," and that many children might never see their parents again.

Detained children have also been given up for adoption. In a series of court cases, foster families were successfully able to gain full custody of migrant children that they were housing without notifying their parents. Most notably, the agency Bethany Christian Services, an agency that facilitates the care of foster children in Michigan has been under fire for trying to promote the adoption of these migrant children instead of trying to reunite them with their families. In a previous Facebook post, they had waived the previous $550 international adoption application fee for the month of June. This had led to public outcry and protests have been held against this agency and their practices.

This policy in particular has led to the Abolish ICE movement gaining traction in June 2018.

Sanctuary cities
Sanctuary cities are cities that limit their cooperation with ICE ERO, particularly in regards to illegal migrants arrested for state criminal violations. When an undocumented non-citizen is arrested by state or local police for criminal offenses, their information is placed into a federal database that ERO officers can access. In a non-sanctuary city, ERO Officers can ask the police to hold that person after they would normally have been released until ERO can pick them up. However, sanctuary cities believe this is unconstitutional and view being an illegal immigrant as not a crime but a civil violation. As such, policies or ordinances in these cities prevent the police from continuing to hold a person based on an ERO request if that person was otherwise cleared for release.

Sanctuary cities were one of the many focal points for the Trump administration's attempts to reform the country's immigration policies. In early 2017, President Trump issued an executive order to deny sanctuary cities federal grants if they did not comply with ICE. By November 2017, this order was struck down by the United States District Court for the Northern District of California. Despite this, the Trump administration continued to seek ways to challenge sanctuary cities, such as implementing a policy that preferentially awards policing grants that cooperate with ICE.

The label or name "sanctuary city" is not one used by the cities involved, rather by critics of the cities.

Protests

Numerous protests have emerged across the nation in response to the Trump administration's ICE policies. Many of the protesters are occupying areas around ICE facilities in hopes of disrupting operations. The Occupy ICE movement began on June 17, 2018, outside Portland, Oregon. It initially began as a vigil for the people suffering from ICE policies but spontaneously grew into a larger movement as more people showed up. The movement ultimately spread into other major cities like Philadelphia, San Francisco, San Diego, and New York. As the movement grew, they faced counter protesters and arrests, but protesters remained undeterred and vowed to continue fighting the Trump administration's ICE policies. As Occupy ICE groups spread to different cities, there has also been a greater amount of coordination between them. Other grassroots protests have sprung up across the nation as well. On August 1, 2019, a month-long peaceful protest event was started outside the San Francisco ICE office, where protesters beat drums and demanded that family separation at the border be stopped. In addition to blocking ICE facilities, protesters are also protesting technology companies such as Microsoft for providing technology to aid ICE. One such instance of this was the sit in at the Microsoft store on 5th Avenue in NYC led by Close the Camps NYC on September 14, 2019. In the 2020 protests and riots in Portland, Oregon and other cities, ICE was attacked numerous times by protesters, costing Portland an estimated million in damage.

See also

Asylum shopping
Dillingham Commission
Diplomatic Security Service (DSS)—U.S. Department of State
Drug Enforcement Administration
Federal Air Marshal Service
Federal Protective Service (U.S.)
List of United States federal law enforcement agencies
Operation Endgame
Operation Front Line
Operation Protect Our Children
Operation Tangled Web
Title 19 of the Code of Federal Regulations
United States Border Patrol
U.S. Customs and Border Protection
United States Citizenship and Immigration Services
U.S. Marshals Service
U.S. Secret Service
Jaime Zapata (U.S. agent)

Comparable international agencies
Australian Border Force
Canada Border Services Agency
Immigration Enforcement – a Home Office division in the United Kingdom
Customs Surveillance Service – Spain (only customs enforcement; immigration issues are handled by the standard National Police and Guardia Civil)
Frontex – European Union (Schengen Area)
Federal Migration Service (FMS) – Russia

References

External links

U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement in the Federal Register
U.S. Customs and Border Protection

2003 establishments in Washington, D.C.
Government agencies established in 2003
History of immigration to the United States
Immigration to the United States
Organizations based in Washington, D.C.
United States Department of Homeland Security agencies


José Ramón Cossío Díaz (born 26 December 1960) is a Mexican jurist and Associate Justice (ministro) of the Supreme Court of Justice of the Nation.

Born in Mexico City, Cossío Díaz studied law at the University of Colima and a master's and doctorate (summa cum laude) at the Universidad Complutense in Madrid. He has taught constitutional law at the Instituto Tecnológico Autónomo de México, where he was also director of the law faculty.

He was nominated for the Supreme Court by President Vicente Fox, and confirmed by the Senate, in 2003, one of the youngest justices in the Court's history.

External links
Ministro José Ramón Cossío Díaz SCJN

1960 births
Supreme Court of Justice of the Nation justices
Lawyers from Mexico City
Living people

José Ramón Cossío


Neil Hosler McElroy (October 30, 1904 – November 30, 1972) was United States Secretary of Defense from 1957 to 1959 under President Eisenhower. He had been president of Procter & Gamble.

Early life and education

Born in Berea, Ohio, to school-teacher parents, McElroy grew up in the Cincinnati area. He received a bachelor's degree in economics from Harvard in 1925.

Procter & Gamble
McElroy returned to Cincinnati to work in the advertising department of the Procter & Gamble Company. In 1931, as a junior executive managing the advertising campaign for P&G's Camay brand of soap, McElroy wrote what became a famous three-page company memo that laid out the principles of modern brand management. In the memo, McElroy argued that companies should assign a separate marketing team to each individual product brand, as if it were a separate business. This innovative system of brand management would eventually be adopted by consumer product companies all throughout the U.S. He advanced rapidly up the managerial ladder, subsequently becoming company president in 1948.

Secretary of Defense

On October 4, 1957, just four days before Defense Secretary Charles E. Wilson left office, the Soviet Union launched into orbit the world's first satellite (Sputnik I), suggesting that the Soviets were ahead of the United States in missile development. This event, which raised important questions about the U.S. defense program, served as a backdrop to the swearing in, on October 9, 1957, of McElroy as Secretary of Defense. Although a well-known businessman, McElroy's only experience in the federal government prior to 1957 had been as chairman of the White House Conference on Education in 1955–56. Given his background in the industry, and given President Eisenhower's predominance in defense matters, McElroy's appointment was not unusual. He spelled out his mandate the day he assumed office: "I conceive the role of the Secretary of Defense to be that of captain of President Eisenhower's defense team."

The launching of Sputnik I and a second Soviet satellite a month later prevented McElroy from easing into his duties at a deliberate pace. To meet the concern generated by the sputniks, McElroy attempted both to clarify the relative positions of the United States and the Soviet Union in missile development and to speed up the U.S. effort. Placing considerable emphasis on the intermediate-range ballistic missiles the United States then had under development, McElroy argued that with proper deployment in overseas locations they would serve as effectively as Soviet intercontinental-range ballistic missiles (ICBMs).

Without waiting for completion of final tests and evaluations, McElroy ordered the Air Force Thor and Army Jupiter IRBMs into production and planned to begin their deployment in the United Kingdom before the end of 1958 and on the European continent shortly thereafter. McElroy also ordered accelerated development of the Navy solid-fuel Polaris IRBM and the Air Force liquid-fuel Atlas and Titan ICBMs.
In February 1958, he authorized the Air Force to begin development of the Minuteman, a solid-fuel ICBM to be deployed in hardened underground silos, with operational status expected in the early 1960s.

McElroy did not believe that the Sputnik success represented a major change in the world's military balance, but he acknowledged that it had a significant impact on world public opinion. The launching of the Sputniks indicated that "the Soviet Union is farther advanced scientifically than many had realized" and that "the weapons of the future may be a great deal closer upon us than we had thought, and therefore the ultimate survival of the Nation depends more than ever before on the speed and skill with which we can pursue the development of advanced weapons." McElroy had to spend much time explaining the missile programs and trying to allay congressional anxiety about a so-called "missile gap" between the United States and the Soviet Union.

McElroy shared some responsibility for the missile gap controversy. When asked whether the United States was behind the Russians in the satellite and missile fields, he responded affirmatively. Later he qualified his statement by noting that while the Soviet Union was ahead in satellites, it was not necessarily ahead in missiles, and he repeatedly pointed out that U.S. IRBMs deployed overseas were just as much a threat to the Soviet Union as Soviet ICBMs deployed in Russia were to the United States. But charges of a missile gap persisted. When he left office in December 1959 McElroy stated that the two nations had about the same number of ICBMs, but that if the USSR built missiles up to its capacity and the United States built those it planned to build, the Soviet Union would probably have more missiles than the United States during the 1961-63 period. The missile gap debate lasted throughout the rest of Eisenhower's term and became a prominent issue in the presidential campaign of 1960.

In some measure the Soviet sputniks may have hastened the landmark Defense Reorganization Act of 1958. Although President Eisenhower provided strong leadership in achieving the necessary legislation, McElroy was instrumental in seeing it through. The Defense Reorganization Act of 1958 significantly influenced the evolution of DoD organization and the role of the secretary. McElroy considered the most important aspects of the 1958 reorganization to be the replacement of service executive agents by the JCS in directing the unified commands and the creation of a strong director of defense research and engineering including the Advanced Research Projects Agency headed by Roy Johnson, a vice-president of General Electric.

As always, the budget greatly influenced the shaping of Department of Defense plans and programs. Although the Eisenhower administration maintained a determined interest in controlling expenditures and balancing the budget, McElroy did not place economy above preparedness. A strong supporter of military assistance, he argued effectively for continued congressional and public support for the program. "Military Assistance," he said, "is to the defense of our Country as fire prevention is to fire fighting. You can have the best, most modern sprinkling system in your factory but it will be useless if you don't take steps to prevent fires from getting out of control before they reach your plant." Nonetheless, he presided over a budget that remained stringent. In spite of public concern about preparedness in the wake of the Russian Sputnik and pressures from Democratic critics to spend more money, the Eisenhower administration did not panic. While it shifted some expenditure priorities, especially toward missile development, production, and deployment, it did not support a drastic increase in the defense budget. The president and Secretary McElroy contended that the budget was adequate to insure the nation's security. For the McElroy period, the Defense Department's total obligational authority by fiscal year was as follows: 1958, $41.1 billion; 1959, $42.1 billion; and 1960, $40.2 billion.

When McElroy acceded to Eisenhower's request in 1957 that he become secretary of defense, he limited his availability to about two years. Although there was criticism that the secretary was leaving just as he had learned the job, McElroy confirmed early in 1959 that he would resign before the end of the year. Speculation that Deputy Secretary of Defense Donald A. Quarles would succeed him ended with Quarles's death in May 1959. Secretary of the Navy Thomas S. Gates, Jr., succeeded Quarles, and when McElroy's resignation became effective on December 1, 1959, Gates replaced him. Actually, McElroy served longer as secretary of defense than any of his predecessors except Wilson. That same day, President Eisenhower presented McElroy with the Medal of Freedom. After leaving the Pentagon, he returned to Procter & Gamble and became chairman of the board.

Death
McElroy died of cancer on November 30, 1972, in Cincinnati at the age of 68. He was survived by his wife Camilla; children Nancy, Barbara, and Malcolm; and nine grandchildren.

See also
 USS Kitty Hawk (CV-63)

References

Sources
DoD biography
McCraw, Thomas K. American Business, 1920-2000: How It Worked. Wheeling, Illinois: Harlan Davidson, 2000, pp. 48–49.

External links
Papers of Neil H. McElroy, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library
Neil McElroy's Epiphany
The American Presidency Project
Neil McElroy of Procter and Gamble – Time Magazine 1953 article

United States Secretaries of Defense
American businesspeople in retailing
1904 births
1972 deaths
Harvard University alumni
Recipients of the Medal of Freedom
Eisenhower administration cabinet members
20th-century American politicians
People from Berea, Ohio
Politicians from Cincinnati
Procter & Gamble people
Deaths from cancer in Ohio

Neil H. McElroy