USS Gloria Dalton (IX-70), an unclassified miscellaneous vessel, was the only ship of the United States Navy to be given that name.  Her keel was laid down in 1925 by Craig Shipbuilding Company, in Long Beach, California. She was purchased by the Navy 11 May 1942 and commissioned on 30 May 1942.

Gloria Dalton performed coastal patrol duties from her home port San Diego, under the Commandant, 11th Naval District, until 16 November 1942, then under Commander, Western Sea Frontier. She was laid up and decommissioned because of a need for extensive repairs 1 October 1943, struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 28 June 1944, and was transferred to the War Shipping Administration for disposal. She was eventually returned to her owner.

After extensive remodeling, repairs and decorating the 107-ft schooner Gloria Dalton was launched from Newport Harbor on 8 December 1953. The boat was purchased from William Roberts of Newport Beach California by L.E. Strickland, San Gabriel California and C.H. Otterman of Pasadena California.

References

Gloria Dalton
Gloria Dalton
1942 ships
Patrol vessels of the United States Navy
Schooners of the United States Navy

USS Gloria Dalton


Karl Joseph Wirth (1879-1956) was a German politician. He was a member of the Centre Party (Deutsche Zentrumspartei). From May 10,1921 to November 14, 1922 he was chancellor of the Weimar Republic. When he started his office as chancellor, he was the youngest chancellor in office. The party he was part of was Catholic, and he was seen as being part of the left wing of that party. Germany had lost the First World War. Wirth was criticized because he wanted to cooperate with the winners of the war. In 1922, he thought that the winners of the war in the West had made too few concessions. For that reason, Wirth talked to Soviet Russia, who had made an offer for a treaty. The result was the Treaty of Rapallo, of 1922. After the Second World War, Wirth worked towards German reunification.  When the Ermächtigungsgesetz was passed, brining the Nazis to power in 1933, Wirth emigrated, first to Switzerland, then to the United States, and France. Wirth returned to Germany in 1949.

By profession, Wirth was an economist and mathematician.

Wirth wanted to serve as a volunteer in the First World War, but was not seen as fit to serve as a soldier. From 1914 to 1919 he worked with the Red Cross, at the Western Front.

1879 births
1956 deaths
German politicians
Chancellors of the Weimar Republic

Joseph Wirth


Production fluid is the fluid mixture of oil,  gas and water in formation fluid that flows to the surface of an oil well from a reservoir.  Its consistency and composition varies.

Fluids may be described by a multitude of characteristics including:
Water cut - the proportion of the fluid, which is water rather than hydrocarbons.
API gravity - the oilfield measurement of the weight of the hydrocarbons.
GOR - Gas to oil ratio describing how many standard cubic feet of gas can be obtained for every  stock tank barrel of oil.
 H2S - the concentration of this gas.  Fluids with a high concentration of H2S are described as "sour".

External links
 Schlumberger Oilfield Glossary: produced fluid

Petroleum production
Natural gas

Production fluid


Callosobruchus maculatus is a species of beetles known commonly as the cowpea weevil or cowpea seed beetle. It is a member of the leaf beetle family, Chrysomelidae, and not a true weevil. This common pest of stored legumes has a cosmopolitan distribution, occurring on every continent except Antarctica. The beetle most likely originated in West Africa and moved around the globe with the trade of legumes and other crops. As only a small number of individuals were likely present in legumes carried by people to distant places, the populations that have invaded various parts of the globe have likely gone through multiple bottlenecks. Despite these bottlenecks and the subsequent rounds of inbreeding, these populations persist. This ability to withstand a high degree of inbreeding has likely contributed to this species' prevalence as a pest.

It is used as a model organism for both research and education due to its quick generation time, sexual dimorphism, and ease of maintenance.

Description

The cowpea weevil lacks the "snout" of a true weevil. It is more elongated in shape than other members of the leaf beetle family. It is reddish-brown overall, with black and gray elytra marked with two central black spots. The last segment of the abdomen extends out from under the short elytra, and also has two black spots.

The beetle is sexually dimorphic and males are easily distinguished from females. The females are sometimes larger than males, but this is not true of all strains. Females are darker overall, while males are brown. The plate covering the end of the abdomen is large and dark in color along the sides in females, and smaller without the dark areas in males.

There are two morphs of C. maculatus, a flightless form and a flying form. The flying form is more common in beetles that developed in conditions of high larval density and high temperatures. The flying form has a longer lifespan and lower fecundity, and the sexes are less dimorphic and can be more difficult to tell apart.

The egg is clear, shiny, oval to spindle-shaped, and about 0.75 millimeters long. The larva is whitish in color.

Life cycle

A female adult can lay over a hundred eggs, and most of them will hatch. She lays an egg on the surface of a bean, and when the larva emerges about 4 to 8 days later, it burrows into the bean. During development, the larva feeds on the interior of the bean, eating the tissue just under the surface, leaving a very thin layer through which it will exit when it matures. It emerges after a larval period of 3 to 7 weeks, depending on conditions. In colder climates the gestation period is typically longer taking anywhere from 4–13 weeks to emerge.

Larval crowding can occur when up to 8 or 10 larvae feed and grow within one bean. Crowding limits resources for each individual, leading to longer development time, higher mortality, smaller adult size, and lower fecundity.

Once the beetle emerges as an adult, it may take 24 to 36 hours to mature completely. The lifespan is 10 to 14 days. However, in colder climates lifespans typically range from three to four weeks. The adult requires neither food nor water, but if offered water, sugared water, or yeast, it may consume it. A female given nutrients may lay more eggs.

The beetle tolerates a range of humidity and temperature, making it adaptable in climates worldwide. Its developmental time varies with factors such as humidity, temperature, legume type, crowding, and inbreeding levels in the population. A bean that is too dry will be impossible for the larva to bore into, and wet beans may have fungal growth. In experiments, a humidity range of 25% to 80% was acceptable, with different optimal levels at each life stage. The most eggs hatched between 44% and 63% humidity, and 44% produced the highest survival. The adult lives longer at 81% to 90%. In another experiment, temperatures of 17 °C (63 °F) and 37 °C (99 °F) with a constant humidity stressed the beetle, and the ideal temperature range was 24 °C (75 °F) to 28 °C (82 °F).

The age of the female at oviposition affects the development and survival of the offspring. The eggs of older females are less likely to hatch, the larvae take longer to develop, and fewer larvae survive to adulthood.

Reproduction

Copulation is injurious for the female beetle. The male possesses penile spines which damage the female reproductive tract. The female may forcefully kick the male during copulation, ending the mating. It is possible that male may benefit from harming the female because the injury could reduce matings or mating success with other males, or increase her egg production. When the female is experimentally prevented from kicking the male (by removal of the hind legs), matings continued for longer than usual, and injury increased. However, the amount of time before she became receptive again and the rate of oviposition were not affected. This suggests that penile spines do not increase the reproductive success of males, and it is suspected that the spines do not increase reproductive success for either sex, and may have no adaptive value.

After mating, the female glues single eggs to a bean. The female generally lays fewer eggs when there are fewer hosts. In an experiment, females presented with three large beans laid more eggs than females presented with three small beans. Occasionally, females deposit many eggs onto nonviable surfaces, especially if there are few or no hosts available. This leads to a higher mortality rate in eggs and potential larvae, but it may also lead to host expansion in the long term.

Recessive deleterious alleles of C. maculatus tend to be directly selected against in males but not in females.  Mutations with deleterious effects on population growth due to their effects on females tend to be indirectly selected against and efficiently purged via their male siblings.

Habitat
Temperature and humidity in legume storage areas are relatively constant and the food density is high. The female lays eggs on legumes in the field or in storage. Inbreeding is more common in laboratory situations where the beetle is allowed to breed continuously; breeding in the field is more limited.

The beetle is known for attacking the cowpea (Vigna unguiculata), but it readily attacks other beans and peas such as the mung bean (Vigna radiata) and adzuki bean (Vigna angularis). The adult is more likely to seek the legume in which it developed as a larva, but if it is not available or less common, the beetle will utilize another type.

Behavior

Females are more likely than males to take advantage of sugar water or other resources. In an experiment to test the hypothesis that access to nutritional resources would affect the frequency of second matings, females with access to sugar were less likely to mate more than once. Available food makes the female less receptive to advances from males, which present a nuptial gift as part of courtship. The gift is a spermatophore, nutritional content mixed into his ejaculate, a package which can be up to 20% of his body weight. Females with other nutritional resources can afford to refuse a mating.

A female without an additional nutrient source is less choosy in the mating process. She does not even refuse matings with close relatives, such as brothers. The species does suffer from inbreeding depression, but it does not seem to take behavioral action to avoid it.

In addition, bean beetles are known to exhibit homosexual behavior. Males will mount both females and other males. This could potentially have fitness benefits for the male, as the male does not waste time determining whether his partner is male or female.

The female usually oviposits on the smooth side of a bean rather than the rough top, and it avoids legumes without smooth surfaces. It also has a way of distributing the eggs among small and large legumes so that each larva has access to roughly the same amount of nutrients; its assessment of legumes is based on mass rather than surface area, and on the number of eggs already present.

When preparing to pupate, the larva digs a cell in the bean and lines it with feces. If it encounters another larva in the bean, both retreat and create walls of feces. If the wall is removed, the two larvae fight to the death. This behavior is not well understood.

Host Preference
The bean beetle, Callosobruchus maculatus, oviposit their eggs on the cowpea bean. The species that are most common for the beetle to lay their eggs on are black eyed peas, mung beans, and adzuki beans. If more than one host is available, the beetle will choose its host depending on the variety and size of the bean as well as the texture of the seed coat. One study showed that the beetles will choose their host depending on the geographic region in which they live. It has also been found that the beetle will often switch hosts if a new host becomes available to them. Over time the beetles will start specializing on the new host and will lose preference for the ancestral host.

The beetle larvae grow inside the bean until they emerge as an adult. The time it takes the larvae to develop varies across hosts, with longer development times on less suitable hosts. It has been found that beetles that choose to oviposit their eggs on the black eyed pea have a shorter development time, suggesting that the black eyed pea is a more suitable host.  The temperature and relative humidity have an effect on the developmental time as well; higher temperatures and a relative humidity range of 40%-60% shorten developmental time.

The emerged adult beetles mate assortatively, meaning they mate with others that developed on the same host bean. If the hybrids of the population are less fit, assortative mating can lead to speciation. One study looked at this and found speciation beginning to occur in early generations but because there was no selection against hybrids, recombination destroyed any linkage that was formed between host and mating preference which did not allow speciation to be completed.

Predation
The predators of C. maculatus include several parasitoid wasps. Anisopteromalus calandrae, Uscana mukerjii, and Dinarmus wasps specifically target Callosobruchus species. Dinarmus basalis parasitizes small larvae and halts their development. This limits the damage they can do to beans, but their presence still makes the beans unfit for human consumption and usually makes them unfit for sowing, as well. Uscana  mukerjii is an egg parasite which prevents the egg from hatching, thereby preventing damage to the legume.

Control

The beetle is considered "medically harmless" to humans. It is a damaging agricultural pest.

In developing countries, small-scale farmers mix the crushed leaves of Cassia occidentalis into bean stores to deter the beetle. Other Cassia are useful, as well. The powdered leaves are effective, and a warm-water extract and the essential oil from the seeds are better. The seed oil does not stop oviposition, but it increases the mortality of the eggs and the first-instar larvae. The warm-water extract deters the adult female from ovipositing.

Other botanical biological pest control agents tested include nishinda (Vitex negundo), Tasmanian blue gum (Eucalyptus globulus), bankalmi (Ipomoea sepiaria), neem (Azadirachta indica), safflower (Carthamus tinctorius), sesame (Sesamum indicum), and gum arabic (Acacia nilotica syn. Acacia arabica).

Hermetic storage technologies like the Purdue Improved Cowpea Storage bags have also proven successful in controlling C. maculatus. These technologies work by separating the container environment from the surrounding air and forcing the insects inside to deplete the available oxygen inside the container  Not only does this ultimately kill the insects, but it also reduces the level of damage they inflict as active feeding ceases below a certain threshold of oxygen

Animal agents of biological control include the parasitoid wasps that target the beetle. In laboratory trials D. basalis has eliminated the beetle. A. calandrae and U.  mukerjii may also prove useful.

Freezing the whole storage area will also control C. maculatus. A period of six to 24 hours at -18 °C kills all the adults and larvae. If the cooling is slow, the beetle can acclimatize, so longer freezing is required.

References

Bruchinae
Agricultural pest insects
Animal models
Beetles described in 1775
Taxa named by Johan Christian Fabricius
Cosmopolitan insects
Storage pests

Callosobruchus maculatus


A park is an area of natural, semi-natural or planted space set aside for human enjoyment and recreation or for the protection of wildlife or natural habitats. Urban parks are green spaces set aside for recreation inside towns and cities. National parks and country parks are green spaces used for recreation in the countryside. State parks and provincial parks are administered by sub-national government states and agencies. Parks may consist of grassy areas, rocks, soil and trees, but may also contain buildings and other artifacts such as monuments, fountains or playground structures. Many parks have fields for playing sports such as baseball and football, and paved areas for games such as basketball. Many parks have trails for walking, biking and other activities. Some parks are built adjacent to bodies of water or watercourses and may comprise a beach or boat dock area. Urban parks often have benches for sitting and may contain picnic tables and barbecue grills.

The largest parks can be vast natural areas of hundreds of thousands of square kilometers (or square miles), with abundant wildlife and natural features such as mountains and rivers. In many large parks, camping in tents is allowed with a permit. Many natural parks are protected by law, and users may have to follow restrictions (e.g. rules against open fires or bringing in glass bottles). Large national and sub-national parks are typically overseen by a park ranger. Large parks may have areas for canoeing and hiking in the warmer months and, in some northern hemisphere countries, cross-country skiing and snowshoeing in colder months. There are also amusement parks that have live shows, fairground rides, refreshments, and games of chance or skill.

History

English deer parks were used by the aristocracy in medieval times for game hunting. They had walls or thick hedges around them to keep game animals (e.g., stags) in and people out. It was strictly forbidden for commoners to hunt animals in these deer parks.

These game preserves evolved into landscaped parks set around mansions and country houses from the sixteenth century onwards. These may have served as hunting grounds but they also proclaimed the owner's wealth and status. An aesthetic of landscape design began in these stately home parks where the natural landscape was enhanced by landscape architects such as Capability Brown and Humphry Repton. The French formal garden such as designed by André Le Nôtre at Versailles is an earlier and elaborate example. As cities became crowded, private hunting grounds became places for the public.

Early opportunities for the creation of urban parks in both Europe and the United States grew out of medieval practice to secure pasture lands within the safe confines of villages and towns. The most famous US example of a city park that evolved from this practice is the Boston Commons in Boston, Massachusetts (1634).

With the Industrial revolution parks took on a new meaning as areas set aside to preserve a sense of nature in the cities and towns. Sporting activity came to be a major use for these urban parks. Areas of outstanding natural beauty were also set aside as national parks to prevent them from being spoiled by uncontrolled development.

Design

Park design is influenced by the intended purpose and audience, as well as by the available land features. A park intended to provide recreation for children may include a playground. A park primarily intended for adults may feature walking paths and decorative landscaping. Specific features, such as riding trails, may be included to support specific activities.

The design of a park may determine who is willing to use it. Walkers might feel unsafe on a mixed-use path that is dominated by fast-moving cyclists or horses. Different landscaping and infrastructure may even affect children's rates of park usage according to gender. Redesigns of two parks in Vienna suggested that the creation of multiple semi-enclosed play areas in a park could encourage equal use by boys and girls.

Parks are part of the urban infrastructure: for physical activity, for families and communities to gather and socialize, or for a simple respite. Research reveals that people who exercise outdoors in green-space derive greater mental health benefits. Providing activities for all ages, abilities and income levels is important for the physical and mental well-being of the public.

Parks can also benefit pollinators, and some parks (such as Saltdean Oval in East Sussex) have been redesigned to accommodate them better. Some organizations, such as the Xerces Society are also promoting this idea.

Role in city revitalization
City parks play a role in improving cities and improving the futures for residents and visitors - for example, Millennium Park in Chicago, Illinois or the Mill River Park and Green way in Stamford, CT. One group that is a strong proponent of parks for cities is The American Society of Landscape Architects. They argue that parks are important to the fabric of the community on an individual scale and broader scales such as entire neighborhoods, city districts or city park systems.

Design for safety

Parks need to feel safe for people to use them. Research shows that perception of safety can be more significant in influencing human behavior than actual crime statistics. If citizens perceive a park as unsafe, they might not make use of it at all.

A study done in four cities; Albuquerque, NM, Chapel Hill/Durham, NC, Columbus, OH, and Philadelphia, PA, with 3815 survey participants who lived within a half-mile of a park indicated that in addition to safety park facilities also played a significant role in park use and that increasing facilities instead of creating an image of a safe park would increase use of the park.

There are a number of features that contribute to whether or not a park feels safe. Elements in the physical design of a park, such as an open and welcoming entry, good visibility (sight lines), and appropriate lighting and signage can all make a difference. Regular park maintenance, as well as programming and community involvement, can also contribute to a feeling of safety.

While Crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED) has been widely used in facility design, the use of CPTED in parks has not been.  Iqbal and Ceccato performed a study in Stockholm, Sweden to determine if it would be useful to apply to parks.  Their study indicated that while CPTED could be useful, due to the nature of a park, increasing the look of safety can also have unintended consequences on the aesthetics of the park.  Creating secure areas with bars and locks lowers the beauty of the park, as well as the nature of who is in charge of observing the public space and the feeling of being observed.

Active and passive recreation areas

Parks can be divided into active and passive recreation areas. Active recreation is that which has an urban character and requires intensive development. It often involves cooperative or team activity, including playgrounds, ball fields, swimming pools, gymnasiums, and skateparks. Active recreation such as team sports, due to the need to provide substantial space to congregate, typically involves intensive management, maintenance, and high costs. Passive recreation, also called "low-intensity recreation" is that which emphasizes the open-space aspect of a park and allows for the preservation of natural habitat. It usually involves a low level of development, such as rustic picnic areas, benches, and trails.

Many smaller neighborhood parks are receiving increased attention and valuation as significant community assets and places of refuge in heavily populated urban areas. Neighborhood groups around the world are joining to support local parks that have suffered from urban decay and government neglect.

Passive recreation typically requires less management which can be provided at lower costs than active recreation. Some open space managers provide trails for physical activity in the form of walking, running, horse riding, mountain biking, snowshoeing, or cross-country skiing; or activities such as observing nature, bird watching, painting, photography, or picnicking. Limiting park or open space use to passive recreation over all or a portion of the park's area eliminates or reduces the burden of managing active recreation facilities and developed infrastructure. Passive recreation amenities require routine upkeep and maintenance to prevent degradation of the environment.

Parks owned or operated by government

National parks

A national park is a reserve of land, usually, but not always declared and owned by a national government, protected from most human development and pollution. Although this may be so, it is not likely that the government of a specific area owns it, rather the community itself. National parks are a protected area of International Union for Conservation of Nature Category II. This implies that they are wilderness areas, but unlike pure nature reserves, they are established with the expectation of a certain degree of human visitation and supporting infrastructure.

While this type of national park had been proposed previously, the United States established the first "public park or pleasuring-ground for the benefit and enjoyment of the people", Yellowstone National Park, in 1872, although Yellowstone was not gazetted as a national park. The first officially designated national park was Mackinac Island, gazetted in 1875. Australia's Royal National Park, established in 1879, was the world's second officially established national park.

The largest national park in the world is the Northeast Greenland National Park, which was established in 1974 and currently protects .

Sub-national parks

In some Federal systems, many parks are managed by the sub-national levels of government. In Brazil, the United States, and some states in Mexico, as well as in the Australian state of Victoria, these are known as state parks, whereas in Argentina, Canada and South Korea, they are known as provincial or territorial parks. In the United States, it is also common for individual counties to run parks, these are known as county parks.

Urban parks

A park is an area of open space provided for recreational use, usually owned and maintained by a local government. Parks commonly resemble savannas or open woodlands, the types of landscape that human beings find most relaxing. Grass is typically kept short to discourage insect pests and to allow for the enjoyment of picnics and sporting activities. Trees are chosen for their beauty and to provide shade.

Some early parks include the la Alameda de Hércules, in Seville, a promenaded public mall, urban garden and park built in 1574, within the historic center of Seville; the City Park, in Budapest, Hungary, which was property of the Batthyány family and was later made public.

An early purpose built public park was Derby Arboretum which was opened in 1840 by Joseph Strutt for the mill workers and people of the city. This was closely followed by Princes Park in the Liverpool suburb of Toxteth, laid out to the designs of Joseph Paxton from 1842 and opened in 1843. The land on which the Princes park was built was purchased by Richard Vaughan Yates, an iron merchant and philanthropist, in 1841 for £50,000. The creation of Princes Park showed great foresight and introduced a number of highly influential ideas. First and foremost was the provision of open space for the benefit of townspeople and local residents within an area that was being rapidly built up. Secondly it took the concept of the designed landscape as a setting for the suburban domicile, an idea pioneered by John Nash at Regent's Park, and re-fashioned it for the provincial town in a most original way. Nash's remodeling of St James's Park from 1827 and the sequence of processional routes he created to link The Mall with Regent's Park completely transformed the appearance of London's West End. With the establishment of Princes Park in 1842, Joseph Paxton did something similar for the benefit of a provincial town, albeit one of international stature by virtue of its flourishing mercantile contingent. Liverpool had a burgeoning presence on the scene of global maritime trade before 1800 and during the Victorian era its wealth rivaled that of London itself.

The form and layout of Paxton's ornamental grounds, structured about an informal lake within the confines of a serpentine carriageway, put in place the essential elements of his much imitated design for Birkenhead Park. The latter was commenced in 1843 with the help of public finance and deployed the ideas he pioneered at Princes Park on a more expansive scale. Frederick Law Olmsted visited Birkenhead Park in 1850 and praised its qualities. Indeed, Paxton is widely credited as having been one of the principal influences on Olmsted and Calvert's design for New York's Central Park of 1857.

There are around an estimated 27,000 public parks in the United Kingdom, with around 2.6 billion visits to parks each year. Many are of cultural and historical interest, with 300 registered by Historic England as of national importance. Most public parks have been provided and run by local authorities over the past hundred and seventy years, but these authorities have no statutory duty to fund or maintain these public parks. In 2016 the Heritage Lottery Fund's State of UK Public Parks reported that "92 per cent of park managers report their maintenance budgets have reduced in the past three years and 95 per cent expect their funding will continue to reduce".

Another early public park is the Peel Park, Salford, England opened on August 22, 1846. Another possible claimant for status as the world's first public park is Boston Common (Boston, Massachusetts, US), set aside in 1634, whose first recreational promenade, Tremont Mall, dates from 1728. True park status for the entire common seems to have emerged no later than 1830, when the grazing of cows was ended and renaming the Common as Washington Park was proposed (renaming the bordering Sentry Street to Park Street in 1808 already acknowledged the reality).

Linear parks
A linear park is a park that has a much greater length than width. A typical example of a linear park is a section of a former railway that has been converted into a park called a rail trail or greenway (i.e. the tracks removed, vegetation allowed to grow back). Parks are sometimes made out of oddly shaped areas of land, much like the vacant lots that often become city neighborhood parks. Linked parks may form a greenbelt.

Country parks

In some countries, especially the United Kingdom, country parks are areas designated for recreation, and managed by local authorities. They are often located near urban populations, but they provide recreational facilities typical of the countryside rather than the town.

Military parks

In 2021, following the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war, a Military Trophy Park was opened in Azerbaijan's capital Baku, showcasing seized military equipment, as well as the helmets and wax mannequins of Armenian troops. The helmets were reported by international media to belong to dead Armenian soldiers. Several international journalists have called the park "barbaric". Armenia strongly condemned it, accusing Baku of "dishonoring the memory of victims of the war, missing persons and prisoners of war and violating the rights and dignity of their families". Armenia's ombudsman called it a "clear manifestation of fascism", saying that it is a "proof of Azerbaijani genocidal policy and state supported Armenophobia". Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Azerbaijan stated that such museums are a widely accepted international practice, and the country has a right to commemorate its victory through parades, parks, museums and other means. Azerbaijani authorities  claimed that the helmets were left behind by retreating Armenian soldiers. When Azerbaijani historian Altay Goyushov, one of the leaders of liberal democratic opposition, criticized the helmets corridor, he was rebuffed by local journalists and bloggers who justified demonstrating the helmets, one of them going as far as inviting "all who does not feel well looking at them to go and drown in Caspian sea".

Private parks
Private parks are owned by individuals or businesses and are used at the discretion of the owner. There are a few types of private parks, and some which once were privately maintained and used have now been made open to the public.

Hunting parks were originally areas maintained as open space where residences, industry and farming were not allowed, often originally so that nobility might have a place to hunt – see medieval deer park. These were known for instance, as deer parks (deer being originally a term meaning any wild animal). Many country houses in Great Britain and Ireland still have parks of this sort, which since the 18th century have often been landscaped for aesthetic effect. They are usually a mixture of open grassland with scattered trees and sections of woodland, and are often enclosed by a high wall. The area immediately around the house is the garden. In some cases this will also feature sweeping lawns and scattered trees; the basic difference between a country house's park and its garden is that the park is grazed by animals, but they are excluded from the garden.

Other park types
 Amusement parks have live shows, fairground rides, refreshments, and games of chance/skill.
 Dog parks permit dogs to run off-leash. Parks have differing rules regarding whether dogs can be brought into a park: some parks prohibit dogs; some parks allow them with restrictions (e.g., use of a leash).
 Forest parks are large areas of attractive country with marked paths and special areas for camping.
 Nature park
 Parklet
 Pocket park
 Urban park

See also

 10-Minute Walk
 Landscape architecture
 Public open space
 Royal forest
 Urban open space

References

External links

Parkjankari.com is a website that gives information about water parks in India in Hindi.

Landscape
Protected areas
Recreation

Park


Jelle Zijlstra (Augustus 27, 1918 in Oosterbierum - December 23, 2001 in Wassenaar) was a Dutch economist and a politician of the Anti-Revolutionary Party (ARP).

Zijlstra studied economics at the Erasmus University Rotterdam and was a economics professor at the Free University Amsterdam.

He was prime minister from 1966 to 1967. He was also a government minister, a member-parliamentary leader of the Second Chamber and a member of the First Chamber.

After his political career he was president of De Nederlandsche Bank, the Dutch central bank.

Zijlstra was a Reformed Christian. He died in 2001, aged 83.

References
  Bio at Parlement.com

1918 births
2001 deaths
Anti-Revolutionary Party politicians
Dutch bankers
Dutch academics
Dutch Calvinists
Dutch economists
Leaders of political parties in the Netherlands
Members of the House of Representatives of the Netherlands
Members of the Senate of the Netherlands
Government ministers of the Netherlands
Politicians from Friesland
Prime Ministers of the Netherlands

Jelle Zijlstra


Strike () is a 1925 Soviet silent drama film directed and edited by Sergei Eisenstein. Originating as one entry out of a proposed seven-part series titled "Towards Dictatorship of the Proletariat", Strike was a joint collaboration between the Proletcult Theatre and the film studio Goskino. As Eisenstein's first full-length feature film, it marked his transition from theatre to cinema, and his next film Battleship Potemkin emerged from the same film cycle.

Arranged in six parts, the film depicts a strike in 1903 by the workers of a factory in pre-revolutionary Russia, and their subsequent suppression. It is best known for a sequence towards the climax, in which the violent suppression of the strike is cross-cut with footage of cattle being slaughtered, and similar animal metaphors are used throughout the film to describe of various individuals.

Upon release, Strike received praise from critics, but many audiences were confused by its eccentric style. It received little international distribution until its reappraisal during the 1950s and 1960s. It is now recognized as one of Eisenstein's more accessible works and a major influence on many of his contemporaries.

Plot summary

The film opens with a quotation from Vladimir Lenin:
The strength of the working class is organization. Without organization of the masses, the proletarian is nothing. Organized it is everything. Being organized means unity of action, unity of practical activity.

На заводе всё спокойно / At the factory all is quiet
Using typography, the word "но" (but) is added to the title of the chapter which then animates and dissolves into an image of machinery in motion.
The administration is spying on the workers, reviewing a list of agents with vivid code names. Vignettes are shown of them. Conditions are tense with agitators and Bolsheviks planning a strike prior to the catalytic event.
Повод к стачке / Reason to strike
A micrometer is stolen, with a value of 25 rubles or 3 weeks pay. A worker, Yakov, is accused of the theft and subsequently hangs himself. Fighting ensues and work stops. The workers leave the milling room running and resistance is met at the foundry. The strikers throw rocks and loose metal through the foundry windows. Then locked within the gates of the complex, the crowd confronts the office. They force open the gates and seize a manager carting him off in a wheel barrow dumping them down a hill into the water. The crowd disperses.

Завод замер / The factory dies down
The chapter begins with footage of ducklings, kittens, piglets, and geese. A child then wakes his father for work ironically with no work to do, they laugh and frolic. The factory is shown vacant and still with birds moving in. The children act out what their fathers had done, wheelbarrowing a goat in a mob. The owner is frustrated by orders arriving and the frozen plant. Demands are formulated: an 8-hour work day, fair treatment by the administration, 30% wage increases, and a 6-hour day for minors. The shareholders get involved with the director and read the demands. They discuss dismissively while smoking cigars and having drinks. Presumably on the orders of the shareholders, the police raid the workers, and they sit down to protest. At their meeting the shareholders use the demand letter as a rag to clean up a spill, and a lemon squeezer metaphorically represents the pressure the stockholders intend to apply to the strikers.
Стачка затягивается / The strike draws out
Scenes are shown of a line forming at a store which is closed, and a baby needing food. A fight occurs at a home between a man and a woman, subsequently she leaves. Another man rummages through his home for goods to sell at a flea market, upsetting his family. A posted letter publicly shows the administrators rejection of the demands. Using a hidden camera in a pocket watch, a spy named "Owl" photographs someone stealing the letter. The pictures are transferred to another spy. The man is beaten, captured, and beaten again.
Провокация на разгром / Provocation and debacle
The scene opens with dead cats dangling from a structure.
A character is introduced, a "King of Thieves" whose throne is made of a derelict automobile amidst rubbish, and who leads a community that lives in enormous barrels buried with only their top openings above ground. After a deal with a tsarist police agent, the "King" hires a few provocateurs from among his community to set fire, raze, and loot a liquor store. A crowd gathers at the fire and the alarm is sounded. The crowd leaves to avoid being provoked but are set upon by the firemen with their hoses regardless.

Ликвидация / Extermination
The governor sends in the military. A child walks under the soldiers' horses and his mother goes under to get him and is struck. Rioting commences, and the crowd is chased off through a series of gates and barriers heading to the forge, then their apartments. The crowd is chased and whipped on the balconies. A policeman murders a small child. The workers are driven into a field by the army and shot en masse. This is shown with alternating footage of the slaughtering of a cow.

Cast
 Maksim Shtraukh — Police spy
 Grigori Aleksandrov — Factory foreman
 Mikhail Gomorov — Worker
 I. Ivanov — Chief of police
  — Revolutionary
 Aleksandr Antonov — Member of strike committee
  — Queen of thieves
 Anatoli Kuznetsov
 Vera Yanukova
 Vladimir Uralsky (as V. Uralsky)
 Misha Mamin

Production

Development

Prior to Strike, Eisenstein had primarily worked in experimental theatre, as a designer and director with the Proletcult Theatre. , head of the First Goskino factory, wanted to recruit Eisenstein to work in cinema, but Proletcult wanted to keep him. They negotiated and decided on a joint collaboration, a film cycle called "Towards Dictatorship of the Proletariat". The cycle was to be a historical panorama focused on lessons learned by the Russian working class during the pre-revolutionary period, through political activities such as strikes and underground publications. It had seven parts: Geneva-Russia, Underground, May Day, 1905, Strike, Prison Riots and Escapes, and October.

Of those, 1905 and Strike were identified as having mass appeal. Strike was selected to enter production first as a joint production between Proletcult and Goskino. One of the episodes from 1905 would later be expanded to form Eisenstein's second feature, Battleship Potemkin. The screenplay was written by Valerian Pletnyov, Grigori Aleksandrov, , and Eisenstein. They used memoirs of the Bolsheviks and troves of historical documents as source material for the script.

Pre-production
Studio head Boris Mikhin introduced Eisenstein to cinematographer Eduard Tisse, who had started his career as a newsreel cameraman during the Civil War. Eisenstein spent several months researching labor struggles. He interviewed strikers and activists, visited factories, and read Émile Zola's novel Germinal. He worked on the script with Esfir Shub at her house; however, after it was officially accepted he removed her from the project.

Eisenstein cast many of the roles from the Proletcult Theatre. Actors and students from the studio filled other parts, and crowd scenes were populated by factory workers from Moscow.

Filming
Production began in early 1924. The board of Goskino was afraid that Eisenstein would produce a plotless "montage of attractions". They had him begin with test shoots conducted at their studio on  in Moscow. After two days of test shoots, the board decided to remove Eisenstein from the project. Only after Mikhin and Tisse personally guaranteed the film's completion was Eisenstein was given a third test shoot and allowed to continue with production. During filming, he continued to quarrel with the studio over enormous demands, such as a thousand extras to form a mob in a scene from part five. Much of the crew resented him over the stringent production process, but Eisenstein was generally unaware.

Style and themes

Strike applies Eisenstein's principle of "montage of attractions". Developed during his work in theatre, the principle stipulates that each moment of a work should be filled with surprise and intensity. His influential essay, Montage of Attractions, was written between production and premiere.

Eisenstein's editing is rapid, even compared to other Soviet filmmakers of the era. Strike has an average shot length of 2.5 seconds, less than half that of a typical Hollywood film. Dissolves, traditionally used to indicate the passage of time between shots, are used instead as a visual effect. In some scenes, the aspect ratio is dynamic, with masks in front of the camera being added or removed to change the framing of a shot. The film also makes use of multiple exposures and iris shots.

Eisenstein uses multiple visual motifs that, after being established with one side of the conflict, change over the course of the narrative arc. Early on, animal identities distinguish the police spies, and pushing goat in a wheelbarrow is equated to throwing out the factory manager. At the end of the film, shots of a bull being slaughtered are used to symbolize violence against the workers. Images of puddles and swimming link water to the workers early in the film. Later on, a heavy rain appears during the capture of the first leader, and firemen attack the workers with large jets of water. Circular shapes are originally associated with the workers, through images of spinning flywheels and turbines. During the strike the wheels are stopped, and the motif reappears as the barrels in which the provocateurs live and the wheels of the fire truck.

Release

Although Strike was completed in late 1924, its release was delayed because of a shortage of positive film stock. The film premiered in Leningrad on 1 February 1925. It had a public viewing on 9 March and had a theatrical release on 28 April. In the years after its initial release, Strike received little international distribution, only to Germany and Austria. The film was re-released in 1967 with a musical score.

Reception
For Pravda, Mikhail Koltsov called Strike "the first revolutionary creation of our cinema." However, public reaction to the film was mixed, particularly regarding its satire and grotesquerie. Proletcult officials attacked the film's "superfluous, self-directed formalism and gimmickry". Authorities were critical of its eccentricity and the relation between its ideological content and form.

At the 1925 International Exhibition of Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts in Paris, Eisenstein was awarded a gold medal for Strike. After the film's first British screening in 1956, Ivor Montagu noted the combination of realism and "fantastic clowning, remarking that, "there springs a lavish shower of fireworks: violations of every canon, experiments in method, such an abundance of trial runs as was never dreamed of in cinema before or seen since in a single work; diabolical and wavering changes of mood…everything in such overpowering quantity". In the New Statesman, David Sylvester likened its rhythmic editing to T. S. Eliot's poem The Waste Land, writing that "it operates through…scattered images, each of them precisely concrete yet also symbolic, the juxtaposition of which startles and surprises."

Western cinema audiences rediscovered Strike during the mid 1960s, appreciating its vibrant eccentricity. In a review for Les Temps modernes, Christian Zimmer described the film as "a memory of future fusillades". Geoff Andrew of Time Out called it Eisenstein's "most watchable" film, adding that "the harshly beautiful imagery…roots the movie effortlessly in down-to-earth reality, but its relentless energy and invention transform the whole thing into a raucous, rousing hymn to human dignity and courage."

Legacy
The film was an influence on directors Alexander Dovzhenko and Fridrikh Ermler. Its innovations were embraced by the  group, with director Grigori Kozintsev saying, "We must all see Strike again and again, until we can understand it and adopt its power for our own."

In the United States, Strike is now part of Anthology Film Archives' Essential Cinema Repertory collection.

Francis Ford Coppola revives/quotes the slaughtering of the cow metaphor at the end of Apocalypse Now (1979).

Notes

References
 .
 .
 .
 .
 .

External links

 Strike watchable on RussianFilmHub.com with English subtitles

1925 drama films
Soviet black-and-white films
Soviet silent feature films
Soviet drama films
Russian drama films
Films about the labor movement
Films shot in Moscow
Mosfilm films
Soviet revolutionary propaganda films
Films directed by Sergei Eisenstein
Articles containing video clips
1925 directorial debut films
Russian black-and-white films
Russian silent feature films
Films set in the Russian Empire
Films about labor relations
Silent drama films

Strike (1925 film)


Nasser Al-Duwailah was a member of the Kuwaiti National Assembly, representing the fourth district. Born in 1956, Al-Duwailah studied military science and sharia law and worked as a lawyer and army commander before being elected to the National Assembly in 2008.  While political parties are technically illegal in Kuwait, Al-Duwailah affiliates with the Islamist deputies.  He is a member of the Al-Rashaydah tribe.

Supports Project Kuwait
 Al-Duwailah supports Project Kuwait.

References

Members of the National Assembly (Kuwait)
Living people
1956 births
Place of birth missing (living people)

Nasser Al-Duwailah


The final of a competition is the match or round in which the winner of the entire event is decided.

In sports competitions following a knockout system, where only two individuals or teams compete in each match, the final is usually played between the winners of two semifinals. However, if more than two entrants are required for each match, then qualification for the final may be through some other process such as winning heats.

The final is usually, but not always, the last match in a tournament to be played, and the winner of this match is declared the winner of the whole tournament. In many contests, the winner(s) and runner(s)-up receive gold and silver medals respectively. Another game, or competition, between the two players who lost in the semifinals is done to determine who receives the bronze medal. With multi-competitor finals, the grand final, big final, final A, may determine medals placements; While the consolation final, little final, final B, may set the lesser rankings.

If the final round is contested in a "best-of" format (like "best-of-7"), the term is sometimes called "finals," (playoffs) to denote that there is more than one game (like "the NBA Finals"). The NHL has referred to the "Stanley Cup Final" in the singular since the 2005–06 season, although media outlets typically use the term "Stanley Cup finals" (with a lowercase "f") or the traditional name "Stanley Cup Finals." The NHL refers to its semifinal round as the Conference Finals, because there are two separate ones being contested.

See also

 Grand final
 Playoffs
 Championship

References

Terminology used in multiple sports
Sports matches

Final (competition)


Hector Cameron,  (June 3, 1832 – November 2, 1896) was a lawyer and political figure in Ontario, Canada. He represented Victoria North in the House of Commons of Canada from 1875 to 1887 as a Conservative member.

He was born in Montreal, the son of Kenneth Cameron and Christian Selby. Cameron was the nephew of John Cameron who had served in the assembly for the Province of Canada. He was educated at King's College London, Trinity College Dublin and the University of Toronto. Cameron was called to the bar in 1854. In 1860, he married Clara Boswell. In 1872, he was named Queen's Counsel. He practised law in Toronto. Cameron was an unsuccessful candidate for the House of Commons in 1867, 1872, 1874 and a subsequent by-election held in 1874. The election of James Maclennan in 1874 was overturned and Cameron was declared elected in 1875. He was elected again in 1878 and 1882 but defeated by John Augustus Barron when he ran for reelection in 1887. Cameron was a director of the Huron and Quebec Railway. He died in Cobourg at the age of 64.

Electoral record

|-

|Liberal
|James Maclennan
|align="right"| 604

|Conservative
|Hector Cameron
|align="right"| 601
|}

This by-election was declared void, and Mr. Cameron was declared elected on 17 September 1875.

References

1832 births
1896 deaths
Alumni of King's College London
University of Toronto alumni
Members of the House of Commons of Canada from Ontario
Conservative Party of Canada (1867–1942) MPs
Canadian King's Counsel

Hector Cameron (politician)


Voidokilia Beach (, ) is a popular beach in Messinia in the Mediterranean area. In the shape of the Greek letter omega (Ω), its sand forms a semicircular strip of dunes. On the land-facing side of the strip of dunes is Gialova Lagoon, an important bird habitat. The beach has been named "A Place of Particular Natural Beauty".  It is part of a Natura 2000 protected area.

Location
A hiking route begins from Voidokoilia. The climb towards Nestor's Cave begins at the south-west end of the beach, while after the cave the route continues towards Paliokastro. Voidokilia is next to Petrohori in Messinia, Greece. Though the ruins are not fenced off, the castle ruins are sign-posted as closed and tourists walk through the castle or around the walls at their own risk.

Gialova's aquatic habitat, being an important stop for a variety of migratory birds, has been declared the southernmost Habitat of National Importance in the Balkans. It is considered a protected area hosting 258 species of birds out of which the 79 are included in the "Red Book" (species under threat of extinction).

Parking for the beach is reached by sand tracks either from the Gialova Lagoon parking area (also used by bird-watchers) or by following the Northside route from Petrochori. The beach is considered friendly for naturists and gay tourists.

History and myth
Above the beach is Nestor's Cave and above this are the ruins of thirteenth-century Frankish castle (Old Navarino or Palaiokastro). Overlooking the beach at the north eastern end is the tomb of Nestor's son, Thrasymedes of the Mycenaean period (1680–1060 BC) with Neolithic finds at the same site showing occupation as early as 4000 BC.

The beach is presumed to be Homer's "sandy Pylos" where Telemachus was welcomed by King Nestor when searching for his father, Odysseus. According to myth, Nestor's Cave is where Hermes hid the cattle stolen from Apollo.

Archaeology

To the south of the beach stretches cape Koryphasion, where stood the classical city of Pylos. Nowadays very few remains of the city are still extant, as in the 13th century Nicholas de Saint'Omer built a castle  on the top of the cape using the extant building material consisting of the ancient stones. Beneath the castle a triangular opening on the rock, visible from Voidokoilia, marks the Cave of Nestor, where, according to mythology Hermes had hidden the stolen oxen of Helios, whereas according to Pausanias (36.2) it was the place where were kept the cattle of the king Neleus. The cave has been archaeologically investigated in various periods, starting from H Schliemann in 1874 and continuing with the research by Laucent and Kourouniotis in the beginning of the 20th century, C. Blegen and W Mc Donald, Sp. Marinatos in the 1950s and finally G. Korres  and A.  Samson in the 1980s.  It has yielded finds dating from the Final Neolithic period down to the Late Helladic period as well as some later, classical and early Hellenistic traces. The dimensions of the cave are 20x16 with a heigh which reaches 30 meters.

The tomb of Thrasymedes, on the other hand, has been excavated by Sp. Marinatos in the 1950s and by G.S. Korres in the 1970s, since the latter noticed a pithos burial which had not been recorded by his predecessor. The tholos is 5 meters wide and its floor is covered with pebbles. It contained about seven burials. Among the movable finds of the (otherwise looted in the past) tomb count arrow heads, necklaces made of carnelian and amethyst, two Mycenaean pottery vessels, etc. The first use of the tumulus (pithos burials' phase) dates to the Middle Helladic Period whereas the prime time of the beehive tomb was the Mycenaean period. Around the tomb were found Late Classical and Hellenistic votive tablets as well as a small model of an altar, which points to some kind of hero or ancestors' cult.

Gallery

Footnotes

External links

 Voidokilia website information
 Information on Yialova birds

Beaches of Greece
Tourist attractions in Peloponnese (region)
Landforms of Messenia
Landforms of Peloponnese (region)
Natura 2000 in Greece
Pylos-Nestor

Voidokilia beach


Division Street is a street and shopping area located in the Devonshire Quarter of Sheffield, England. It is home to many small independent shops, a few large ones such as Costa Coffee and Sainsburys Local, and a few local pubs such as the Frog & Parrot, as well as a Lloyd's No. 1 bar. It runs parallel to West Street in the west of the city.

The post-box at the end of Division Street near the City Hall was painted gold in August 2012, to celebrate the Olympic gold medal won by Sheffield's Jessica Ennis.

References

Sheffield City Centre
Streets in Sheffield

Division Street, Sheffield


The Reghin ghetto was one of the Nazi-era ghettos for European Jews during World War II. It was located in the city of Reghin () in Mureș County, Transylvania, now part of Romania but administered by the Kingdom of Hungary from the 1940 Second Vienna Award's grant of Northern Transylvania until late 1944. It was active in the spring of 1944, following Operation Margarethe.

History

The ghetto was located in a brick factory unsuitable for habitation, selected by mayor Imre Schmidt and police chief János Dudás. Together with Adolf Eichmann's assistant László Endre, they had both taken part in a planning conference at Târgu Mureș on April 28. In the matters of selecting a site for the ghetto and the operation of rounding up Jews, they were aided by Major László Komáromi, head of the city's Royal Hungarian Army unit; lieutenant G. Szentpály Kálmán, commander of the local gendarmerie unit; and Jenő Csordácsics, adviser at city hall and the local "expert" in Jewish matters.

Most of the Jews were housed in buildings without walls, previously used for drying bricks. Some had to live outdoors, while a few were allowed to live in houses near the ghetto, and the edge of the city. At its peak, the ghetto housed 4,000 people, of whom some 1,400 came from the city itself, with the rest brought in from the eastern part of Maros-Torda County (Mureș-Turda) and the north of Csík County (Ciuc). The residents of the Sfântu Gheorghe ghetto also ended up there. The Jews of Gheorgheni were taken in under supervision by mayor Mátyás Tóth and his police chief Géza Polánkai. This included Jews who had received an exemption; the entire community was placed in the primary school building, where local policeman Béla Ferenczi led the search for valuables. After spending three days in the building with almost no food, the Jews were transported to Reghin's ghetto.

Conditions were similar to those found in other ghettos of the region. Local police and a special unit of forty gendarmes from Szeged guarded the ghetto. These individuals searched Jews for valuables, aided by Pál Bányai, Balázs Biró, András Fehér and István Gősi, members of special investigative units from the gendarmerie. Béla Ferenczi was asked to come from Gheorgheni to Reghin in order to help with the interrogation of Jews from his hometown. Irma Lovas led the vaginal inspections for hidden goods. The ghetto was under the direct command of János Dudás. On June 4, 3,149 Jews from the ghetto left on a train bound for the Auschwitz concentration camp.

References

External links

Jewish Romanian history
Jewish Hungarian history
Reghin
Jewish ghettos in Nazi-occupied Hungary
1944 establishments in Hungary

Reghin ghetto


The Frawley Ranch is an historic ranch in Lawrence County, South Dakota, near Spearfish, South Dakota.  Henry Frawley developed what became the largest and most successful cattle ranch in western South Dakota by purchasing lands that had failed as smaller homesteading parcels. The property was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1977.

History

Patrick Henry Frawley was born March 13, 1851, in Washington County, New York to Thomas and Honora (Hogan) Frawley who had immigrated from County Limerick, Ireland. Frawley was graduated from the University of Wisconsin law school in 1876. In 1877 the Indian lands of the Black Hills District was opened to settlers and Frawley traveled by train to Bismarck, North Dakota and then by wagon train to Deadwood, Dakota Territory, where he set up a law practice. He was successful from the start and in 1879 joined with a partner, Edward L. Kohen, as Frawley and Kohen law firm. In 1894 John P. Laffey and a James Frawley joined to form Frawley and Laffey. In 1896 James moved to Nome, Alaska and in 1903 E.L. Frawley joined to form Frawley and Frawley. The firm represented John Fitzgerald (Fitzgerald-Mallory Construction Company), also from County Limerick, in railroad construction from Deadwood to Edgemont, the Burlington and Missouri River Railroad, the American National Bank of Deadwood  and various mining companies. During this time Frawley bought land and mining interests in the area.

On July 22, 1890, Henry married Cristina Anderson, sole heir to Centennial Farm that lay between Deadwood and Spearfish. They had three children Henry James, William C., and Honora. Frawley began to buy unsuccessful farms in the valley totaling more than 3000 acres, and by 1913 had over 4,783 acres from different farms referred to as the Upper, Lower, Middle, and East farms, that included the Anderson dairy with a brick barn, and a school. They bred Belgian and Percheron draft horses, as well as Hereford cattle.

After what seemed to be a bad business deal Henry Frawley had a breakdown in 1920 and went to Nebraska for treatment where he died in 1927. From 1920 Cristina ran the ranch as the matriarch until she died in 1942. Henry James Frawley, Sr. and the families of William and Honora Frawley jointly ran the ranch until Henry bought out the others in 1960. In 1962 Henry James Frawley, Jr. had completed college and joined his parents in running the ranch. In 1968 the state of South Dakota used eminent domain to gain a right-of-way for Interstate 90 through the northern pastures of the ranch. Tunnels were built so that livestock could cross under the interstate.

Current
Denver, Colorado developer Daryll Propp and his partner, Mike Kreke, who was head of the retail giant Douglas Holding (purchased by CVC), bought the property in 1998 as Elkhorn Ridge partners and started commercial development along the area of I-90 at exit 17. With a 30 million dollar investment the property contains an RV park, home sites, and a golf course. 2,800 acres was set aside as a conservation easement in perpetuity, through the South Dakota Agricultural Conservation Easement Program (ACEP), a division of the United States Department of Agriculture. Water and sewer was extended from Spearfish and the city limits expanded east of the golf course. Elkhorn Ridge announced a back-nine extension project was to start 2014 with an unknown completion date.

See also
List of National Historic Landmarks in South Dakota
National Register of Historic Places listings in Lawrence County, South Dakota

References

External links

Official website
Agricultural Conservation Easement Program (ACEP)
Private lands conservation
The National Conservation Easement Database (NCED)

National Historic Landmarks in South Dakota
Buildings and structures in Lawrence County, South Dakota
Farms on the National Register of Historic Places in South Dakota
Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in South Dakota
National Register of Historic Places in Lawrence County, South Dakota

Frawley Ranch


Nick the Knife is the third solo album by Nick Lowe, released in 1982 and his first since the 1981 breakup of his band Rockpile.

Background
The record still has several  ties to Rockpile with Lowe's former bandmates Billy Bremner and Terry Williams both playing on the album. The album includes Lowe's  slower remake of the Rockpile song "Heart"; the original version can be found on the band's album Seconds of Pleasure, sung by Bremner.

Nick the Knife reached #50 on the Billboard 200, and #99 on the UK album charts. No singles from the album made the US or UK charts, although in Canada "Stick It Where The Sun Don't Shine" hit the top 40.

Nick the Knife is notable for being one of only two Lowe solo albums with no cover versions, including only songs written or co-written by Lowe, the other album being his 1990 Party of One.

A 1990 CD of the album was issued on Demon Records with the catalog number FIEND CD 183.

The album was reissued by Yep Roc Records in 2017.

Track listing
All tracks composed by Nick Lowe except where noted.
"Burning" - 2:07
"Heart" (Lowe, Rockpile) – 3:41
"Stick It Where the Sun Don't Shine" – 3:42
"Queen of Sheba" – 2:30
"My Heart Hurts" (Lowe, Carlene Carter) - 2:39
"Couldn't Love You (Any More Than I Do)" – 2:36
"Let Me Kiss Ya" – 2:56
"Too Many Teardrops" (Lowe, Carter) – 2:33
"Ba Doom" – 2:19
"Raining Raining" – 2:45
"One's Too Many (And a Hundred Ain't Enough)" (Lowe, Kim Wilson) – 2:37
"Zulu Kiss" (Lowe, J.E. Ceiling) – 3:22

Bonus tracks from 2017 YepRoc reissue:
"Heart (Demo)" - 3:53
"Raining Raining (Demo)" - 1:55
"I Got a Job" - 3:01

Personnel
Nick Lowe – vocals, bass, guitar, backing vocals
Bobby Irwin – drums, backing vocals
Terry Williams – drums
Billy Bremner – guitars
Martin Belmont – guitars
Aldo Bocca – guitars, drums on "Heart", engineer
Neill King – piano and Hammond organ, audio grip
Carlene Carter – piano and Hammond organ
Steve Nieve – piano and Hammond organ
Ben Barson – piano and Hammond organ
Paul Carrack – piano and Hammond organ
James Eller – more bass

Singles
Three songs from the album were released as singles:
"Stick it Where the Sun Don't Shine" b/w "My Heart Hurts"
"Burning" b/w "Zulu Kiss"
"My Heart Hurts" - released in four versions:
promo b/w same
b/w "Stick it Where the Sun Don't Shine"
double 45 with three live songs "Pet You and Hold You", "Cracking Up" and "(What's So Funny 'bout) Peace, Love and Understanding"
b/w "Pet You and Hold You" (Live)

Live versions recorded by Nick Lowe and His Noise To Go, February 10, 1982 at the Agora Ballroom, Cleveland, Ohio

Cover version
In 2015, Justin Remer of Elastic No-No Band recorded covers of all 12 tracks on Nick the Knife with his side project Duck the Piano Wire and released it as the album Duck the Knife: A Homemade Remake of Nick Lowe's "Nick the Knife."

Notes

External links

1982 albums
Nick Lowe albums
Albums produced by Nick Lowe
F-Beat Records albums
Columbia Records albums
Yep Roc Records albums

Nick the Knife


Ulam's packing conjecture, named for Stanislaw Ulam, is a conjecture about the highest possible packing density of identical convex solids in three-dimensional Euclidean space. The conjecture says that the optimal density for packing congruent spheres is smaller than that for any other convex body. That is, according to the conjecture, the ball is the convex solid which forces the largest fraction of space to remain empty in its optimal packing structure. This conjecture is therefore related to the Kepler conjecture about sphere packing. Since the solution to the Kepler conjecture establishes that identical balls must leave ≈25.95% of the space empty, Ulam's conjecture is equivalent to the statement that no other convex solid forces that much space to be left empty.

Origin

This conjecture was attributed posthumously to Ulam by Martin Gardner, who remarks in a postscript added to one of his Mathematical Games columns that Ulam communicated this conjecture to him in 1972. Though the original reference to the conjecture states only that Ulam "suspected" the ball to be the worst case for packing, the statement has been subsequently taken as a conjecture.

Supporting arguments

Numerical experiments with a large variety of convex solids have resulted in each case in the construction of packings that leave less empty space than is left by close-packing of equal spheres, and so many solids have been ruled out as counterexamples of Ulam's conjecture.
Nevertheless, there is an infinite space of possible shapes that have not been ruled out.

Yoav Kallus has shown that at least among point-symmetric bodies, the ball constitutes a local maximum of the fraction of empty space forced.
That is, any point-symmetric solid that does not deviate too much from a ball can be packed with greater efficiency than can balls.

Analogs in other dimensions

The analog of Ulam's packing conjecture in two dimensions would say that no convex shape forces more than ≈9.31% of the plane to remain uncovered, since that is the fraction of empty space left uncovered in the densest packing of disks. However, the regular octagon and smoothed octagon give counter-examples. It is conjectured that regular heptagons force the largest fraction of the plane to remain uncovered. In dimensions above four (excluding 8 and 24), the situation is complicated by the fact that the analogs of the Kepler conjecture remain open.

References

Packing problems
Conjectures
Spheres
Unsolved problems in geometry

Ulam's packing conjecture


Richard John Murnane (born 1945) is an economist and the Juliana W. and William Foss Thompson Professor of Education and Society at the Harvard Graduate School of Education.

He has made important contributions to our understanding of education policy and the relationship between the economy and education. He has published numerous peer-reviewed articles and coauthored a number of books.  His research has investigated what skills are required to earn a middle-class living in the U.S., the significance of the GED, and teacher quality. Murnane earned his Ph.D. at Yale University and is a winner of the Morningstar Family Teaching Award.

Selected publications
 The New Division of Labor: How Computers are Creating the Next Job Market, (with F. Levy) (2004)
 "Can the Internet Help Solve America's Education Problems: Lessons from the Cisco Networking Academies," (with N. Sharkey and F. Levy) in The Knowledge Economy and Postsecondary Education, (ed. by P. Graham and N. Stacey) (2002)
 "Information Technology and Skill Requirements: Examples from a Car Dealership," (with A. Beamish and F. Levy) in The Future of Computer Supported Diagnosis (ed. by F. Rauner, N. Schreier, and G. Sp'ttl) (2002)
 "Upstairs, Downstairs: Computers and Skills on Two Floors of a Large Bank," in Industrial and Labor Relations Review (with D. Autor and F. Levy) (2002)
 "Do Cognitive Skills of School Dropouts Matter in the Labor Market?" in Journal of Human Resources (with J.H. Tyler and J.B. Willett) (2001)
 "From High School to Teaching: Many Steps. Who Makes It?" in Teachers College Record (with E. Vegas and J.B. Willett) (2001)
 "Key Competencies Critical to Economic Success," (with F. Levy) in Defining and Selecting Key Competencies (ed. by D. Rychen and L. Salganik) (2001)
 "Will Standards-Based Educational Reforms Improve Education for Children of Color?" in National Tax Journal (with F. Levy) (2001)
 "Estimating the Labor Market Signaling Value of the GED" in Quarterly Journal of Economics (with J.H. Tyler and J.B. Willett) (2000)
 "Who Benefits from Obtaining a GED? Evidence from High School and Beyond," in The Review of Economics and Statistics (with J.B. Willett and J.H. Tyler) (2000)
 "Does A GED Lead to More Training, Post-Secondary Education, and Military Service for School Dropouts" in Industrial and Labor Relations Review (with J.B. Willett and K. Parker Boudett) (1997)
 Teaching the New Basic Skills (with F. Levy) (1996)
 Who Will Teach? Policies That Matter (with J. Singer and J. Willett) (1991)

References
Richard Murnane's Harvard University Faculty Webpage

1945 births
Living people
Yale University alumni
Harvard Graduate School of Education faculty
Labor economists
Williams College alumni
Education economists

Richard Murnane


The Magellan spacecraft was a  robotic space probe launched by NASA of the United States, on May 4, 1989, to map the surface of Venus by using synthetic-aperture radar and to measure the planetary gravitational field.

The Magellan probe was the first interplanetary mission to be launched from the Space Shuttle, the first one to use the Inertial Upper Stage booster, and the first spacecraft to test aerobraking as a method for circularizing its orbit. Magellan was the fifth successful NASA mission to Venus, and it ended an eleven-year gap in U.S. interplanetary probe launches.

History
Beginning in the late 1970s, scientists advocated for a radar mapping mission to Venus. They first sought to construct a spacecraft named the Venus Orbiting Imaging Radar (VOIR), but it became clear that the mission would be beyond the budget constraints during the ensuing years. The VOIR mission was canceled in 1982.

A simplified radar mission proposal was recommended by the Solar System Exploration Committee, and this one was submitted and accepted as the Venus Radar Mapper program in 1983. The proposal included a limited focus and a single primary scientific instrument. In 1985, the mission was renamed Magellan, in honor of the sixteenth-century Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan, known for his exploration, mapping, and circumnavigation of the Earth.

The objectives of the mission included:
 Obtain near-global radar images of the Venusian surface with a resolution equivalent to optical imaging of  per line pair. (primary)
 Obtain a near-global topographic map with  spatial and  vertical resolution.
 Obtain near-global gravity field data with  resolution and two to three milligals of accuracy.
 Develop an understanding of the geological structure of the planet, including its density distribution and dynamics.

Spacecraft design

The spacecraft was designed and built by the Martin Marietta Company, and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) managed the mission for NASA. Elizabeth Beyer served as the program manager and Joseph Boyce served as the lead program scientist for the NASA headquarters. For JPL, Douglas Griffith served as the Magellan project manager and R. Stephen Saunders served as the lead project scientist. Hughes Aircraft Company's Space and Communications Group designed and built the spacecraft's synthetic aperture radar.

To save costs, most of the Magellan probe was made up of flight spare parts and reused design elements from other spacecraft:

Reuse Type Legend

The main body of the spacecraft, a spare one from the Voyager missions, was a 10-sided aluminum bus, containing the computers, data recorders, and other subsystems. The spacecraft measured 6.4 meters tall and 4.6 meters in diameter. Overall, the spacecraft weighed 3,445 kilograms.

Attitude control and propulsion

The spacecraft's attitude control (orientation) was designed to be three-axis stabilized, including during the firing of the Star 48B solid rocket motor (SRM) used to place it into orbit around Venus. Prior to Magellan, all spacecraft SRM firings had involved spinning spacecraft, which made control of the SRM a much easier task. In a typical spin mode, any unwanted forces related to SRM or nozzle mis-alignments are cancelled out. In the case of Magellan, the spacecraft design did not lend itself to spinning, so the resulting propulsion system design had to accommodate the challenging control issues with the large Star 48B SRM. The Star 48B, containing 2,014 kg of solid propellant, developed a thrust of ~89 kN (20,000 lbf) shortly after firing; therefore, even a 0.5% SRM alignment error could generate side forces of 445 N (100 lbf). Final conservative estimates of worst-case side forces resulted in the need for eight 445 N thrusters, two in each quadrant, located out on booms at the maximum radius that the Space Shuttle Orbiter Payload Bay would accommodate (4.4-m or 14.5-ft diameter).

The actual propulsion system design consisted of a total of 24 monopropellant hydrazine thrusters fed from a single 71 cm (28 in) diameter titanium tank. The tank contained 133 kg (293 lb) of purified hydrazine. The design also included a pyrotechnically-isolated external high pressure tank with additional helium that could be connected to the main tank prior to the critical Venus orbit insertion burn to ensure maximum thrust from the 445 N thrusters during the SRM firing. Other hardware regarding orientation of the spacecraft consists of a set of gyroscopes and a star scanner.

Communications

For communications, the spacecraft included a lightweight graphite/aluminum, 3.7-meter high-gain antenna left over from the Voyager Program and a medium-gain antenna spare from the Mariner 9 mission. A low-gain antenna attached to the high-gain antenna was also included for contingencies. When communicating with the Deep Space Network, the spacecraft was able to simultaneously receive commands at 1.2 kilobits/second in the S-band and transmit data at 268.8 kilobits/second in the X-band.

Power
Magellan was powered by two square solar arrays, each measuring 2.5 meters across. Together, the arrays supplied 1,200 watts of power at the beginning of the mission. However, over the course of the mission the solar arrays gradually degraded due to frequent, extreme temperature changes. To power the spacecraft while occulted from the Sun, twin 30 amp-hour, 26-cell, nickel-cadmium batteries were included. The batteries recharged as the spacecraft received direct sunlight.

Computers and data processing
The computing system on the spacecraft was partially modified equipment from the Galileo. There were two ATAC-16 computers forming one redundant system, located in the attitude-control subsystem, and four RCA 1802 microprocessors, as two redundant systems, to control the command and data subsystem (CDS). The CDS was able to store commands for up to three days, and also to autonomously control the spacecraft if problems were to arise while mission operators were not in contact with the spacecraft.

For storing the commands and recorded data, the spacecraft also included two multitrack digital tape recorders, able to store up to 225 megabytes of data until contact with the Earth was restored and the tapes were played back.

Scientific instruments

Thick and opaque, the atmosphere of Venus required a method beyond optical survey, to map the surface of the planet. The resolution of conventional radar depends entirely on the size of the antenna, which is greatly restricted by costs, physical constraints by launch vehicles and the complexity of maneuvering a large apparatus to provide high resolution data. Magellan addressed this problem by using a method known as synthetic aperture, where a large antenna is imitated by processing the information gathered by ground computers.

The Magellan high-gain parabolic antenna, oriented 28°–78° to the right or left of nadir, emitted thousands of microwave pulses per second that passed through the clouds and to the surface of Venus, illuminating a swath of land. The Radar System then recorded the brightness of each pulse as it reflected back off the side surfaces of rocks, cliffs, volcanoes and other geologic features, as a form of backscatter. To increase the imaging resolution, Magellan recorded a series of data bursts for a particular location during multiple instances called, "looks". Each "look" slightly overlapped the previous, returning slightly different information for the same location, as the spacecraft moved in orbit. After transmitting the data back to Earth, Doppler modeling was used to take the overlapping "looks" and combine them into a continuous, high resolution image of the surface.

 Radar System (RDRS)

The Radar System functioned in three modes: synthetic aperture radar (SAR), altimetry (ALT), and radiometry (RAD). The instrument cycled through the three modes while observing the surface geology, topography, and temperature of Venus using the 3.7-meter parabolic, high-gain antenna and a small fan-beam antenna, located just to the side.

– In the Synthetic Aperture Radar mode, the instrument transmitted several thousand long-wave, 12.6-centimeter microwave pulses every second through the high-gain antenna, while measuring the doppler shift of each hitting the surface.
– In Altimetry mode, the instrument interleaved pulses with SAR, and operating similarly with the altimetric antenna, recording information regarding the elevation of the surface on Venus.
– In Radiometry mode, the high-gain antenna was used to record microwave radiothermal emissions from Venus. This data was used to characterize the surface temperature.

The data was collected at 750 kilobits/second to the tape recorder and later transmitted to Earth (10Bit per second*365*4*24*60=21Mbit (maximum) = 85Foto (maximum) ) to be processed into usable images, by the Radar Data Processing Subsystem (RDPS), a collection of ground computers operated by JPL.
Principal investigator: Gordon Pettengill / MIT
Data: PDS/IN catalog, PDS/GSN archive Fufel. Abschießen. annulieren..

Other science
In addition to the radar data, Magellan collected several other types of scientific measurements. These included detailed measurements of the Venus gravitational field, measurements of the atmospheric density, and radio occultation data on the atmospheric profile.

Gallery

Mission profile

Launch and trajectory

Magellan was launched on May 4, 1989, at 18:46:59 UTC by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration from KSC Launch Complex 39B at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida, aboard Space Shuttle Atlantis during mission STS-30. Once in orbit, the Magellan and its attached Inertial Upper Stage booster were deployed from Atlantis and launched on May 5, 1989 01:06:00 UTC, sending the spacecraft into a Type IV heliocentric orbit where it would circle the Sun 1.5 times, before reaching Venus 15 months later on August 10, 1990.

Originally, the Magellan had been scheduled for launch in 1988 with a trajectory lasting six months. However, due to the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster in 1986, several missions, including Galileo and Magellan, were deferred until shuttle flights resumed in September 1988. Magellan was planned to be launched with a liquid-fueled, Centaur G upper-stage booster, carried in the cargo bay of the Space Shuttle. However, the entire Centaur G program was canceled after the Challenger disaster, and the Magellan probe had to be modified to be attached to the less-powerful Inertial Upper Stage. The next best opportunity for launching occurred in October 1989.

Further complicating the launch however, was the launching of the Galileo mission to Jupiter, one that included a fly-by of Venus. Intended for launch in 1986, the pressures to ensure a launch for Galileo in 1989, mixed with a short launch-window necessitating a mid-October launch, resulted in replanning the Magellan mission. Wary of rapid shuttle launches, the decision was made to launch Magellan in May, and into an orbit that would require one year, three months, before encountering Venus.

Orbital encounter of Venus

On August 10, 1990, Magellan encountered Venus and began the orbital insertion maneuver which placed the spacecraft into a three-hour, nine minute, elliptical orbit that brought the spacecraft 295-kilometers from the surface at about 10 degrees North during the periapsis and out to 7762-kilometers during apoapsis.

During each orbit, the space probe captured radar data while the spacecraft was closest to the surface, and then transmit it back to Earth as it moved away from Venus. This maneuver required extensive use of the reaction wheels to rotate the spacecraft as it imaged the surface for 37-minutes and as it pointed toward Earth for two hours. The primary mission intended for the spacecraft to return images of at least 70 percent of the surface during one Venusian day, which lasts 243 Earth days as the planet slowly spins. To avoid overly-redundant data at the highest and lowest latitudes, the Magellan probe alternated between a Northern-swath, a region designated as 90 degrees north latitude to 54 degrees south latitude, and a Southern-swath, designated as 76 degrees north latitude to 68 degrees south latitude. However, due to periapsis being 10 degrees north of the equatorial line, imaging the South Pole region was unlikely.

Mapping cycle 1
Goal: Complete primary objective.
September 15, 1990 – May 15, 1991

The primary mission began on September 15, 1990, with the intention to provide a "left-looking" map of 70% of the Venusian surface at a minimum resolution of 1-kilometer/pixel. During cycle 1, the altitude of the spacecraft varied from 2000-kilometers at the north pole, to 290-kilometers near periapsis. Upon completion during May 15, 1991, having made 1,792 orbits, Magellan had mapped approximately 83.7% of the surface with a resolution between 101 and 250-meters/pixel.

Mission extension

Mapping cycle 2
Goal: Image the south pole region and gaps from Cycle 1.
May 15, 1991 – January 14, 1992

Beginning immediately after the end of cycle 1, cycle 2 was intended to provide data for the existing gaps in the map collected during first cycle, including a large portion of the southern hemisphere. To do this, Magellan had to be reoriented, changing the gathering method to "right-looking". Upon completion during mid-January 1992, cycle 2 provided data for 54.5% of the surface, and combined with the previous cycle, a map containing 96% of the surface could be constructed.

Mapping cycle 3
Goal: Fill remaining gaps and collect stereo imagery.
January 15, 1992 – September 13, 1992

Immediately after cycle 2, cycle 3 began collecting data for stereo imagery on the surface that would later allow the ground team to construct, clear, three-dimensional renderings of the surface. Approximately 21.3% of the surface was imaged in stereo by the end of the cycle on September 13, 1992, increasing the overall coverage of the surface to 98%.

Mapping cycle 4
Goal: Measure Venus' gravitational field.
September 14, 1992 – May 23, 1993

Upon completing cycle 3, Magellan ceased imaging the surface. Instead, beginning mid-September 1992, the Magellan maintained pointing of the high-gain antenna toward Earth where the Deep Space Network began recording a constant stream of telemetry. This constant signal allowed the DSN to collect information on the gravitational field of Venus by monitoring the velocity of the spacecraft. Areas of higher gravitation would slightly increase the velocity of the spacecraft, registering as a Doppler shift in the signal. The space craft completed 1,878 orbits until completion of the cycle on May 23, 1993; a loss of data at the beginning of the cycle necessitated an additional 10 days of gravitational study.

Mapping cycle 5
Goal: Aerobraking to circular orbit and global gravity measurements.
May 24, 1993 – August 29, 1994

At the end of the fourth cycle in May 1993, the orbit of Magellan was circularized using a technique known as aerobraking. The circularized orbit allowed a much higher resolution of gravimetric data to be acquired when cycle 5 began on August 3, 1993. The spacecraft performed 2,855 orbits and provided high-resolution gravimetric data for 94% of the planet, before the end of the cycle on August 29, 1994.

Aerobraking
Goal: To enter a circular orbit
May 24, 1993 – August 2, 1993

Aerobraking had long been sought as a method for slowing the orbit of interplanetary spacecraft. Previous suggestions included the need for aeroshells that proved too complicated and expensive for most missions. Testing a new approach to the method, a plan was devised to drop the orbit of Magellan into the outermost region of the Venusian atmosphere. Slight friction on the spacecraft slowed the velocity over a period, slightly longer than two months, bringing the spacecraft into an approximately circular orbit with periapse altitude at 180 km and apoapse altitude at 540 km, down from an apoapse altitude at 8467 km. The method has since been used extensively on later interplanetary missions.

Mapping cycle 6
Goal: Collect high-resolution gravity data and conduct radio science experiments.
April 16, 1994 – October 13, 1994

The sixth and final orbiting cycle was another extension to the two previous gravimetric studies. Toward the end of the cycle, a final experiment was conducted, known as the "Windmill" experiment to provide data on the composition of the upper atmosphere of Venus. Magellan performed 1,783 orbits before the end of the cycle on October 13, 1994, when the spacecraft entered the atmosphere and disintegrated.

Windmill experiment
Goal: Collect data on atmospheric dynamics.
September 6, 1994 – September 14, 1994

In September 1994, the orbit of Magellan was lowered to begin the "Windmill experiment". During the experiment, the spacecraft was oriented with the solar arrays broadly perpendicular to the orbital path, where they could act as paddles as they impacted molecules of the upper-Venusian atmosphere. Countering this force, the thrusters fired to keep the spacecraft from spinning. This provided data on the basic oxygen gas-surface interaction. This was useful for understanding the impact of upper-atmospheric forces which aided in designing future Earth-orbiting satellites, and methods for aerobraking during future planetary spacecraft missions.

Results

Study of the Magellan high-resolution global images is providing evidence to better understand Venusian geology and the role of impacts, volcanism, and tectonics in the formation of Venusian surface structures.
The surface of Venus is mostly covered by volcanic materials. Volcanic surface features, such as vast lava plains, fields of small lava domes, and large shield volcanoes are common.
There are few impact craters on Venus, suggesting that the surface is, in general, geologically young - less than 800 million years old.
The presence of lava channels over 6,000 kilometers long suggests river-like flows of extremely low-viscosity lava that probably erupted at a high rate.
Large pancake-shaped volcanic domes suggest the presence of a type of lava produced by extensive evolution of crustal rocks.
The typical signs of terrestrial plate tectonics - continental drift and basin floor spreading - are not evident on Venus. The planet's tectonics is dominated by a system of global rift zones and numerous broad, low domical structures called coronae, produced by the upwelling and subsidence of magma from the mantle.
Although Venus has a dense atmosphere, the surface reveals no evidence of substantial wind erosion, and only evidence of limited wind transport of dust and sand. This contrasts with Mars, where there is a thin atmosphere, but substantial evidence of wind erosion and transport of dust and sand.

Magellan created the first (and currently the best) near-photographic quality, high resolution radar mapping of the planet's surface features. Prior Venus missions had created low resolution radar globes of general, continent-sized formations. Magellan, however, finally allowed detailed imaging and analysis of craters, hills, ridges, and other geologic formations, to a degree comparable to the visible-light photographic mapping of other planets. Magellan's global radar map currently remains as the most detailed Venus map in existence, although the upcoming NASA VERITAS and Roskosmos Venera-D probes will carry a radar that can achieve a much higher resolution compared to the radar used by Magellan. Both probes are expected to launch in 2029.

Scientists
The Magellan project was set up so that the initial images and data from the Magellan probe were only for use and study by a team of principal investigators from a variety of universities and institutions, and by the Magellan Project Science Team. These scientists were responsible for validating the data, contributing input for spacecraft acquisition of data, and interpreting the data results for their release to the public. Data was shared with three visiting Soviet scientists (Alexander Basilevsky, Effaim Akim and Alexander Zacharov), a first, and sensitive issue, for NASA at the time considering the Cold War was just coming to a close.

The Magellan Project Science room became notorious for its hanging of long thermal print strips of image data (FBIDRs) along the walls of a spacious room. This was the first form in which the imagery of the surface of Venus was seen due to the long, narrow swathes acquired by the spacecraft. Significant guests during the mission's operation included Margaret Thatcher.

After the initial investigation stage Magellan's full data set was released for public consumption.

Project Science Team
The Magellan Project Science Team consisted of Dr. R. Stephen Saunders, the Project Scientist; Dr. Ellen Stofan, the Deputy Project Scientist; research assistants Tim Parker, Dr. Jeff Plaut, and Annette deCharon; and Project Science Aide, Gregory Michaels.

Other Magellan scientists were involved with the mission's science including principal investigators and three visiting Soviet scientists.

End of mission

On September 9, 1994, a press release outlined the termination of the Magellan mission. Due to the degradation of the power output from the solar arrays and onboard components, and having completed all objectives successfully, the mission was to end in mid-October. The termination sequence began in late August 1994, with a series of orbital trim maneuvers which lowered the spacecraft into the outermost layers of the Venusian atmosphere to allow the Windmill experiment to begin on September 6, 1994. The experiment lasted for two weeks and was followed by subsequent orbital trim maneuvers, further lowering the altitude of the spacecraft for the final termination phase.

On October 11, 1994, moving at a velocity of 7 kilometers/second, the final orbital trim maneuver was performed, placing the spacecraft 139.7 kilometers above the surface, well within the atmosphere. At this altitude the spacecraft encountered sufficient ram pressure to raise temperatures on the solar arrays to 126 degrees Celsius.

On October 13, 1994 at 10:05:00 UTC, communication was lost when the spacecraft entered radio occultation behind Venus. The team continued to listen for another signal from the spacecraft until 18:00:00 UTC, when the mission was determined to have concluded. Although much of Magellan was expected to vaporize due to atmospheric stresses, some amount of wreckage is thought have hit the surface by 20:00:00 UTC.

Communication with the Magellan spacecraft was lost early Wednesday morning, following an aggressive series of five Orbit Trim Maneuvers (OTMs) on Tuesday, October 11, which took the orbit down into the upper atmosphere of Venus. The Termination experiment (extension of September "Windmill" experiment) design was expected to result in final loss of the spacecraft due to a negative power margin. This was not a problem since spacecraft power would have been too low to sustain operations in the next few weeks due to continuing solar cell loss.

Thus, a final controlled experiment was designed to maximize mission return. This final, low altitude was necessary to study the effects of a carbon dioxide atmosphere.

The final OTM took the periapsis to  where the sensible drag on the spacecraft was very evident. The solar panel temperatures rose to 126 deg. C. and the attitude control system fired all available Y-axis thrusters to counteract the torques. However, attitude control was maintained to the end.

The main bus voltage dropped to 24.7 volts after five orbits, and it was predicted that attitude control would be lost if the power dropped below 24 volts. It was decided to enhance the Windmill experiment by changing the panel angles for the remaining orbits. This was also a preplanned experiment option.

At this point, the spacecraft was expected to survive only two orbits.

Magellan continued to maintain communication for three more orbits, even though the power continued to drop below 23 volts and eventually reached 20.4 volts. At this time, one battery went off-line, and the spacecraft was defined as power starved.

Communication was lost at 3:02 am PDT just as Magellan was about to enter an Earth occultation on orbit 15032. Contact was not re-established. Tracking operations were continued to 11:00 am but no signal was seen, and none was expected. The spacecraft should land on Venus by 1:00 pm PDT Thursday, October 13, 1994.

See also

 List of missions to Venus
 Venus Express
 Venera 15
 Venera 16

References

External links
Magellan homepage
Magellan mission description and data
Magellan images
Magellan Mission Profile by NASA's Solar System Exploration
NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive

Missions to Venus
NASA space probes
Destroyed space probes
Orbiters (space probe)
Spacecraft launched by the Space Shuttle
Spacecraft launched in 1989
Space radars
Space synthetic aperture radar
Space radar altimeters
Articles containing video clips

Magellan (spacecraft)


There have been two baronetcies created for members of the Hardy family, both in the Baronetage of the United Kingdom. The first creation became extinct on the death of the first baronet in 1839 and the second creation became extinct on the death of the fifth baronet in 2017.

The Hardy Baronetcy, of the Navy, was created in the Baronetage of the United Kingdom on 4 February 1806 for the prominent naval commander Vice Admiral Thomas Hardy. The title became extinct on his death in 1839.

The Hardy Baronetcy, of Dunstall Hall in the County of Stafford, was created in the Baronetage of the United Kingdom on 23 February 1876 for the Conservative politician John Hardy, who had previously represented Midhurst, Dartmouth and Warwickshire South in the House of Commons. He was the son of John Hardy and the elder brother of the Conservative politician Gathorne Gathorne-Hardy, 1st Earl of Cranbrook. The second Baronet was High Sheriff of Staffordshire in 1893.

The title became extinct on the death without a male heir of Sir Richard Hardy, 5th Baronet in 2017.

Hardy baronets, of the Navy (1806)

Sir Thomas Masterman Hardy, 1st Baronet (1769–1839)

Hardy baronets, of Dunstall Hall (1876)

Sir John Hardy, 1st Baronet (1809–1888)
Sir Reginald Hardy, 2nd Baronet (1848–1938)
Sir Bertram Hardy, 3rd Baronet (1877–1953)
Sir Rupert John Hardy, 4th Baronet (1902–1997)
Sir Richard Charles Chandos Hardy, 5th Baronet (1945–2017)

See also
Earl of Cranbrook

Notes

References
Kidd, Charles, Williamson, David (editors). Debrett's Peerage and Baronetage (1990 edition). New York: St Martin's Press, 1990,

Extinct baronetcies in the Baronetage of the United Kingdom

Hardy baronets