was the 6th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.  Historians consider Emperor Kōan to be a legendary person; and the name Kōan-tennō was created for him posthumously by later generations.

No certain dates can be assigned to this emperor's life or reign.  The conventionally accepted names and sequence of the early emperors were not to be confirmed as "traditional" until the reign of Emperor Kammu, who was the 50th monarch of the Yamato dynasty.

The Gukanshō ruled from the palace of Akitsushima-no-miya at Muro in what will come to be known as Yamato province.

Traditional history
Kōan is almost certainly a legend. The Kojiki records only his name and genealogy. The  Nihonshoki includes Kōan as the fifth of .

Emperor Kōan was the second son of Emperor Kōshō.  Jinnō Shōtōki records that his mother was Yosotarashi-no-hime, who was the daughter of Okitsuyoso, and ancestress of the Owari.

Events of Kōan's life
The absence of information about Kōan does not imply that no such person ever existed. Very little information is available for study prior to the reign of the 29th monarch, Emperor Kimmei.

After his death
This emperor's official name after his death (his posthumous name) was regularized many centuries after the lifetime which was ascribed to Kōan.

The actual site of his grave is not known.  According to the Imperial Household Agency, this emperor is venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (misasagi) at Nara.

Related pages
 Emperor of Japan
 List of emperors of Japan
 Japanese imperial family tree

References

Emperors of Japan

Emperor Kōan


Jeffrey Perry (born August 16, 1955) is an American actor of stage, television, and film. He is known for his role as Richard Katimski on the teen drama My So-Called Life, Thatcher Grey on the medical drama series Grey's Anatomy, Cyrus Beene on the political drama series Scandal, all for ABC, and as Inspector Harvey Leek on the CBS crime drama Nash Bridges. He currently stars on the ABC drama Alaska Daily, alongside Hilary Swank.

Career
Perry is a co-founder of the Steppenwolf Theatre Company in Chicago. He and schoolmates Gary Sinise and Terry Kinney started the company in one end of the cafeteria at Highland Park High School and later moved it to a small space in the Immaculate Conception Church in Highland Park. It has since grown into a notable national theater company whose alumni include John Malkovich, John Mahoney, and Joan Allen. Perry remains an executive artistic director along with co-founders Kinney and Sinise.

After spending nearly two decades with Steppenwolf, Perry moved to Los Angeles in 1987 to pursue film and television work. Perry perhaps is best known as San Francisco Police Department inspector Harvey Leek (a diehard Grateful Dead fan) on the CBS police drama series Nash Bridges. He was a tough superior to Kevin Bacon's detective in the thriller Wild Things (1998). His many television and film credits include The Human Stain (2003), Hard Promises (1991) and The Grifters (1990) as well as appearances on My So-Called Life (1994), The West Wing (2003), The Practice (2003), Lost (2005), Cold Case (2006), Raines (2007), and several episodes of Grey's Anatomy (2005) as Meredith Grey's father, Thatcher Grey. He replaced John Billingsley in the role of Terrence Steadman in the critically acclaimed TV show Prison Break.

Perry also has been in multiple stage productions. These include Time of your Life (in San Francisco and Seattle), Grapes of Wrath (Broadway and London), and The Caretaker (Broadway). He starred in the Tracy Letts play August: Osage County on Broadway, which originated at Steppenwolf Theatre in Chicago. In 2012, he appeared Off Broadway playing Christopher, the aggressive father in Tribes by Nina Raine.

From 2012 to 2018, Perry starred in the ABC drama series Scandal as Cyrus Beene.

In 2015, Perry performed alongside his daughter Zoe Perry and actor Kevin McKidd in Eugene O'Neill's Pulitzer Prize-winning drama Anna Christie at the Odyssey Theatre Ensemble in West Los Angeles. During the production, he said "During Anna Christie the biggest challenge I had was working with my daughter and sort of not stopping and asking an audience member for a camera to record the moment."

In 2022-23, Perry starred as editor Stanley Kornik in the ABC drama series Alaska Daily.

Personal life
Perry was born in Highland Park, Illinois, where his father was a teacher at Highland Park High School. He graduated from Illinois State University in 1978. In 2011, Perry received an honorary doctorate from Illinois State University in recognition of his extraordinary contributions to the field of theatre.

Perry was married to actress Laurie Metcalf from 1983 until 1986. They had a child, actress Zoe Perry, together in 1983, but they subsequently divorced. In 1989, he married Linda Lowy, Grey's Anatomys casting director, with whom he has a daughter, Leah Perry.

Perry encouraged Georgia voters who planned to cast a ballot in the 2021 U.S. Senate races to make sure their ID met requirements and contact VoteRiders with questions about acceptable ID or help obtaining it.

Filmography

Remember My Name (1978) as Harry
A Wedding (1978) as Bunky Lemay
Say Goodnight, Gracie (1983)
Tales from the Hollywood Hills: Closed Set (1988) as Bud
Three Fugitives (1989) as Orderly Two
Family Ties as David Simmons (1 episode, 1989)
Columbo: Murder, Smoke, and Shadows as Leonard Fisher (1989)
Roe vs. Wade (1989)
The Final Days (1989) as Staffer
The Grifters (1990) as Drunk
Shannon's Deal (1 episode, 1990)
Equal Justice as ADA Warren (1 episode, 1990)
The Flash as Charlie (1 episode, 1990)
thirtysomething as David Hall (2 episodes, 1989-1991)
American Playhouse as Noah Joad (1 episode, 1991)
Brooklyn Bridge as Joel Jacobson (2 episodes, 1991)
Civil Wars (1 episode, 1991)
Hard Promises (1991) as Pinky
Life on the Edge (1992) as Ray Nelson
Storyville (1992) as Peter Dandridge
A Private Matter (1992) as Randall Everett
Casualties of Love: The Long Island Lolita Story (1993) as Amy's Attorney
Murder in the Heartland (1993) as Earl Heflin
L.A. Law as Jonah Burgee (3 episodes, 1993)
Naked Instinct (1993) as Frat Boy
Body of Evidence (1993) as Gabe
Playmaker (1994) .... Allen
My So-Called Life as Richard Katimski (4 episodes, 1994-1995)
Kingfish: A Story of Huey P. Long (1995) as Earl Long
Chicago Hope as Gilbert Weeks (3 episodes, 1995)
American Gothic as Artie Healy (1 episode, 1996)
Into Thin Air: Death on Everest (1997) as Doug Hansen
Wild Things (1998) as Bryce Hunter
Lansky (1999) as American Lawyer
Nash Bridges as Insp. Harvey Leek (122 episodes, 1996-2001)
Frasier as John Clayton (1 episode, 2002)
NYPD Blue as Gordon Dillit (1 episode, 2003)
The Human Stain (2003) as Tennis Player
ER as Officer Mitch Palnick (1 episode, 2003)
The District as Lemma (1 episode, 2003)
The West Wing as Burt Ganz (1 episode, 2003)
The Practice as Randy Markham (1 episode, 2003)
Lost as Frank Duckett (1 episode, 2005)
Law & Order: Trial by Jury as Andrew Soin (1 episode, 2005)
Numb3rs as Morton Standbury (1 episode, 2005)
Invasion as Terrence Gale (1 episode, 2005)
Close to Home as Uncle Bill (1 episode, 2005)
Cold Case as Eric Witt (1 episode, 2006)
Crossing Jordan as Kyle Everett (1 episode, 2006)
The Valley of Light (2007) as Taylor Bowers
Prison Break as Terrence Steadman (3 episodes, 2006-2007)
Raines as Harry Tucker (1 episode, 2007)
The Last Supper: 13 Men of Courage (2007) as Bartholomew
Side Order of Life as Reno (1 episode, 2007)
American Dad! as Nicholas Dawson (1 episode, 2007)
Diminished Capacity (2008) as Casey Dean
Saving Grace as Det. Walter Eckley (1 episode, 2009)
Eleventh Hour as Doctor Mal Sheppard (1 episode, 2009)
Fringe as Joseph Slater (1 episode, 2009)
CSI: NY as Judge (1 episode, 2010)
CSI: Crime Scene Investigation as George Stark / (2 episodes, 2003-2010)
Outsourced" (1 episode, 2010)
Grey's Anatomy as Thatcher Grey (15 episodes, 2006-2019)
Picture Paris (2011) as Keith
The Anniversary at Shallow Creek (2011) as Cashier
The Chicago Code as David Argyle (1 episode, 2011)
Scandal as Cyrus Beene (2012–2018)
Lizzie (2018) as Andrew Jennings
Trial by Fire (2018) as Hurst
Dirty John (2018) as Michael O'Neil
Inventing Anna (2022) as Lou
Alaska Daily (2022) as Stanley

References

External links

 Jeff Perry at Internet Off-Broadway Database
 The Steppenwolf Theater Company

1955 births
Living people
20th-century American male actors
21st-century American male actors
Male actors from Chicago
American male film actors
American male stage actors
American male television actors
Drama Desk Award winners
Highland Park High School (Illinois) alumni
Illinois State University alumni
People from Highland Park, Illinois
Steppenwolf Theatre Company players

Jeff Perry (American actor)


Albert Seqaqkind Anthony (born ca. 1839) was a Lenape missionary and scholar of the Six Nations of the Grand River in Ontario, Canada. He served as an interpreter between his native Munsee language, English, and Iroquoian languages, and assisted Oronhyatekha with a vocabulary of Munsee/Lenape in 1865.

Anthony graduated as an Anglican priest from Huron University College in 1873, and worked as a missionary with the New England Company. He visited Buffalo, New York for the Forest Lawn Cemetery reinterment of Red Jacket in 1884.

Anthony retired as a priest in 1886, after being employed as a farmer, and subsequently worked with Daniel Garrison Brinton on a dictionary of Munsee/Lenape, visiting Brinton in Philadelphia in 1886 and 1887 in his ancestral Delaware Valley, and Brinton also consulted with him on the Walam Olum, which he believed to be genuine. Anthony is the source of the etymology of Manhattan, which was named after a stand of hickory trees used for bows in the south of Manhattan.

References

External links

1839 births
20th-century Canadian Anglican priests
Alumni of Anglican seminaries and theological colleges
Anglican missionaries in Canada
First Nations academics
Interpreters
Lenape people
Linguists of Algic languages
Six Nations of the Grand River
Year of death missing

Albert Anthony


Groudle Glen Station  (Manx: Stashoon Raad Yiarn Ghlion Ghroudal) is the first mandatory stopping point and major station on the Manx Electric Railway which serves the village of Groudle Glen in the Isle of Man, and is situated between Groudle Lane and Eskadale on the route to Laxey and Ramsey.

Beginnings

The station was the first terminus of the line in 1893, the following year an extension was opened as far as Laxey and the station became an intermediate one.  The building that still occupies the site, consisting of a large open waiting shelter incorporating ticket office, dates from the beginning of the railway, but has been unmanned for many years.  Despite its somewhat basic appearance and lack of facilities, the station was one of the most popular on the line, serving the glen which operated as pleasure grounds, the adjacent hotel and nearby narrow gauge railway. The hill figure next to it reading "GROUDLE" was placed next to the shelter in a more recent date.

Centenary
The station was considerably refurbished in 1993 for the island's Year Of Railways to mark the centenary of the electric line; at this time, as well as receiving remedial attention to the shelter itself (including paving of the area and repainting, and the addition of old-fashioned advert signs) the surrounding area was also smartened up, with stone walling put in place denoting the station environs, and cast concrete letters being installed in the banking denoting the station name.  A plaque marking the occasion of the centenary was unveiled by the Lieutenant Governor  Sir Laurence Jones and remains in situ today.

Postbox
The station also features a post box, dating from the early part of the 20th century when the Manx Electric Railway held the contract for collection of mail at all stations and halts along its routes.  The contract was lost in 1975 when the railway closed for the winter and could therefore not provide year-round collection facilities.  Despite this, the station retains the post box, which is now cleared by Post Office staff in road vehicles.  This practice continues at the other stopping places on the line, and is one of the distinctive features of even the most basic and remote of the line's stopping places.

Connections
One of the main draws to the area today is that Groudle Glen has its own heritage railway nearby, the Groudle Glen Railway, which was built in 1896 to serve the zoo which had opened 1893 on the outer edge of the glen.  The two-foot gauge line ran intermittently after the Second World War and finally closed in 1962.  It was restored in the 1980s by the Isle of Man Steam Railway Supporters' Association and reopened fully in 1992.  The line now operates each weekend in the summer and for certain other events.  The railway's main station is a short but steep walk from Groudle Glen Station through the glen.

Groudle Glen Hotel

Directly opposite the station is the now closed Groudle Glen Hotel which was built upon the arrival of the railway in 1893 and designed by the renowned architect Baillie Scott.  It operated as a public bar for many years before being sold by the local brewery in 1999 and converted into a restaurant known as "La Casa".  Its remote location ensured that the venture was not entirely successful; however, the new owners did much aesthetic work on the building, restoring stained glass windows, recreating historical signage and completely repainting the building including much of the original detailing such as the "three legs" motifs in the cornice work.

Route

See also
Manx Electric Railway Stations
Groudle Glen Railway
Groudle Glen

References

Sources

 Manx Electric Railway Stopping Places (2002) Manx Electric Railway Society
 Island Images: Manx Electric Railway Pages (2003) Jon Wornham
 Official Tourist Department Page (2009) Isle Of Man Heritage Railways

Railway stations in the Isle of Man
Manx Electric Railway
Groudle Glen Railway
Geoglyphs
Hill figures
Railway stations opened in 1893

Groudle Glen railway station


The Parabellum MG 14 was a 7.92 mm caliber World War I machine gun built by Deutsche Waffen und Munitionsfabriken. It was a redesign of the Maschinengewehr 08 machine gun (itself an adaptation of the Maxim gun) system intended for use on aircraft and zeppelins. Like the earlier Vickers machine gun, it used a toggle action that broke upwards rather than downwards, the opposite way to the MG 08, making for a much more compact receiver. The fusee spring was replaced with an internal spring design, the breech block was completely different and the spent cartridges dropped out the bottom of the receiver, rather than being ejected forward through a hole under the breech from the receiver. There appears to be no action or receiver parts interchangeable with the MG 08. The MG 08's belt-style ammunition feed was enclosed in a drum, the recoil casing was lightened and the cooling jacket was modified for air- instead of water-cooling. The rate of fire was 700 rounds/minute. The belt was reduced to 30 mm in width.

 An MG 14 was used in the early development of the German version of the gun synchroniser by Anthony Fokker. The MG 14 was used with the first version of the pioneering Fokker Stangensteuerung synchronizer on the five Fokker M.5K/MG pre-production prototypes for the Fokker E.I. However, the limited supplies of the weapon were more urgently needed for observers in reconnaissance aircraft and defensive gunners aboard Zeppelins and heavier-than-air bombers and it was reserved for flexible mounts where its combination of light weight and high rate of fire were most useful. The weapon was also temperamental when used on the M.5K/MG, as noted by Otto Parschau.

The MG 14 and subsequent MG 14/17 did make one important contribution to the fixed forward-firing LMG 08 and LMG's 08/15 guns, in that their 30mm wide cloth ammunition belt was compatible with those weapons, The fixed forward-firing guns used fixed ammunition feed guides and judging by surviving photographs, the belts were used exclusively by the Deutsche Luftstreitkräfte for all fixed forward-firing guns. The belts can be readily identified by two grommets (instead of three for the wider MG 08 and MG 08/15 belts used by ground forces) and the lack of extended brass tab (also used by the MG 08 and MG 08/15 ground guns). This not only reduced weight and bulk but it also allowed for much lighter and smaller empty belt chutes, which came out of all LMG 08's and LMG 08/15's and led down into storage bins in the aircraft. At least three versions survive, a water cooled, an air cooled and a 14/17 version with a 3x telescopic sight.

Users

 : during the Polish–Soviet War
 : around 115 used by the Latvian Army as the Parabellum machine gun (by April 1936)

References

Bibliography
 Williams, Anthony G. and Emmanuel Gustin. Flying Guns: World War I and its Aftermath 1914–32. Ramsbury, Wiltshire: Airlife, 2003. .
 First World War.com

Further reading

External links

 Mitrailleuse Parabellum MG 13. Mitrailleuse d'aviation Parabellum LMG 14. Mitrailleuse d'aviation LMG 14/17.
 IWM: Parabellum M1913 & MG 13
 IWM: Parabellum M1913 [2nd issue] & Parabellum l.MG 14
 Forgotten Weapons - Parabellum 1914/17: Germany's Ultimate Aircraft Maxim

7.92×57mm Mauser machine guns
Machine guns of Germany
Medium machine guns
World War I aircraft guns

Parabellum MG 14


Cheri Merritt Barry is an American politician and former mayor of Meridian, Mississippi. She is the first woman to hold that position.

Biography
Cheri Merritt grew up in Meridian, where she was a graduate of Lamar High School in 1973.  She continued her education at the University of Mississippi, where she graduated in 1977.

Shortly after graduation, she married Rick Barry, who is a County Attorney.  They have three children, Jennifer Barry Fowler, Jay Barry and Merritt Barry.

Cheri Barry has spent a good part of her professional career in public service.  It began with the Lafayette County welfare system, where her focus was on children and geriatric abuse victims. She later worked with the Lauderdale County Welfare Department.

From 1998 to 2001, Barry taught in the Meridian Public Schools system. She then served as the Executive Director of the American Red Cross Key Chapter from 2001 until her election as mayor. The American Red Cross Key Chapter serves Clarke, Kemper, Lauderdale, Neshoba, Newton and Scott Counties in Mississippi.

Barry narrowly defeated Democratic challenger Percy Bland to become the first female mayor of Meridian, Mississippi. She won by a margin of only 293 votes.

On Tuesday, July 7, 2009, shortly after her first City Council meeting, Barry vowed to make good on a campaign promise to have the community more involved in the governing process. "What I want to do is involve this community and give ownership back to the residents of Meridian," she said. "I want their input. I want their ideas."

The mayor receives a salary of $80,000 per year, making her the fifth highest paid city employee in Meridian.

On June 4, 2013, Barry lost her bid for re-election to Percy Bland by a margin of 4,514 votes for Barry to 5,479 votes for Bland. Bland took office on July 1, 2013.

Municipal Projects

Meridian Law Enforcement Center

On November 16, 2010, Mayor Barry and the Meridian City Council approved an order that authorized the execution of amendment to agreement for professional services between Watkins Development, LLC and the City of Meridian.

On June 7, 2011, Mayor Barry and other local officials held a ground-breaking for the Meridian Law Enforcement Center.

In June 2012, after a delay in construction, Mayor Barry announced the official approval to move forward with the Meridian Law Enforcement Center, and detailed the proposed financial structure for the city project.

On March 19, 2014, Watkins Development was charged with securities fraud for transferring more than $500,000 in public funds to  the Meridian Law Enforcement Center project from the account of Retro Metro LLC, which was formed to renovate the Metrocenter Mall in Jackson, Mississippi.

On November 20, 2014, The Chancery Court of Hinds County, First Judicial District, ordered Watkins Development, LLC and David Watkins, Sr. to pay more than $650,000 in restitution, penalties, and interest for violations of the Mississippi Securities Act.

On June 28, 2016, the Mississippi Court of Appeals rendered a decision that reinstated the 2014 Secretary of State final order for the fraudulent transfer of funds to the Meridian Law Enforcement Center project.

References

Mayors of Meridian, Mississippi
Women mayors of places in Mississippi
Mississippi Republicans
University of Mississippi alumni
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)
21st-century American women

Cheri Barry


Bertrand d'Argentré (or Argentraeus) (19 May 1519 in Vitré, Ille-et-Vilaine – 13 February 1590) was a Breton jurist and historian.

Argentraeus was born the son of Pierre d'Argentré, seneschal of Rennes, and the nephew of historian Pierre Le Baud. After studies of law in Bourges, he was named seneschal of Vitré in 1541 and seneschal of Rennes in 1547. Dismissed from that post, he was named head of the présidial court of Rennes in 1582 instead, but refused to leave Brittany even when offered coveted court positions in Paris.

In his judicial capacity, he frequently clashed with other jurisdictions such as that of the Parlement, which he considered ignorant of Breton customs. His principal legal work is the influential Nouvelle coutume de Bretagne (1580), a compilation of customary Breton law. In that work, D'Argentré fought against the influence of French and Roman law, which he considered overly procedural and inquisitive, unmerciful to the weak, and detrimental to individual liberty.

His work as a historian also emphasised the historical independence of Brittany. The Estates of Brittany commissioned him in 1580 to write a Histoire de Bretagne, which was promptly seized on the order of Henry III for "indignities against King and realm". The book was only allowed to appear in 1588, with extensive censorship of sensitive passages relating to the history of French-Breton relations. However, clandestine reprints of the unedited work remained widely available.

He was also well known for his considerable collection of books that formed one of the largest private libraries of Renaissance France.

In 1589, he supported the insurrection of the Duke of Mercœur, was persecuted by the French authorities and died one year later.

Works
 L'histoire de Bretaigne, des roys, ducs, comtes et princes d'icelle: l'établissement du Royaume, mutation de ce tiltre en Duché, continué jusques au temps de Madame Anne dernière Duchesse, & depuis Royne de France, par le mariage de laquelle passa le Duché en la maison de France. Jacques du Puys, 1588.
 Coustumes générales des pays et duché de Bretagne, Paris, Nicolas Buon, 1608 (rédigé en 1568)
Advis sur le partage des nobles (1570)
Commentaires (sur l'Ancienne Coutume de Bretagne), on various topics (1576, 1584)
Aitiologia (1584), summary of the debates about the reformation of the Breton customary law.
 L'Histoire de Bretaigne, des rois, ducs, comtes, et princes d'icelle, depuis l'an 383 jusques au temps de madame Anne Reyne de France dernière Duchesse. Troisième édition revue et augmentée par messire Charles d'Argentré. Paris, by Nicolas Buon (1618).

External links
 Read the digitized book: Coustumes generales du pays et duché de Bretagne on Cujas Library website.

References

 Malcolm Walsby,'The library of the Breton jurist and historian Bertrand d'Argentré in 1582' in M. Walsby and N. Constantinidou (eds) Documenting the Early Modern Book World: Inventories and Catalogues in Manuscript and Print (Leiden: Brill, 2013) 117-140.

1519 births
1590 deaths
People from Vitré, Ille-et-Vilaine
16th-century French lawyers
Writers from Brittany
French male writers

Bertrand d'Argentré


Hotel El Convento is a small hotel in Old San Juan, Puerto Rico, in what was a Carmelite convent, adjoining the San Juan Cathedral square. The cathedral is the second-oldest cathedral in the Western Hemisphere. Hotel El Convento is the oldest member of the Historic Hotels of America. It was also named the premier Small Luxury Hotel in Puerto Rico by the Small Luxury Hotels of the World organization.

History
In 1646, construction began on the Carmelite convent, through a petition by King Philip IV of Spain. The Monasterio del Señor San José de la Orden de nuestra Señora del Carmen (Monastery of Our Lady Carmen of San Jose) was founded in 1651 by Doña Ana Lanzós, a wealthy widow who donated her money and her magnificent residence (a large double sloped tiled roof) in the street that since then bears her name: de las Monjas. Historian María de los Ángeles Castro tells us that the delay in the arrival of a nunnery was due to economic reasons but also for lack of defense since the fortifications of the city were not yet complete. Three nuns brought especially from Santo Domingo served as founders.

The building was expanded between 1854 and 1861 after the original building was torn down. Governor Fernándo Norzagaray y Escudero personally helped to raise the necessary funds and inspected the work daily. Certain elements stand out in the facade of the chapel, beside the entrance, the pair of Tuscan columns, the two towers and the latticed choir arch. The frieze above the door is interrupted for a legend that never was placed. The building was closed from 1903 to 1959 and then sold. During its conversion to a hotel the two towers were removed as was the cross that identified the site as a convent.

In 1959, under the auspices of Operation Bootstrap, Robert Woolworth started the renovation to turn it into the El Convento Hotel. It reopened in 1962 to the stars of the day, including Rita Hayworth, offering a tranquil, European-style alternative to the glitzy hotels lining the Condado strip.

In the 1990s, El Convento underwent a $14 million renovation by a team led by Hugh Andrews and Jorge Rosselló, who also remodeled other hotels such as La Concha, and the Condado Vanderbilt Hotel. It was rechristened as Hotel El Convento, a 4-star small luxury hotel with five stories, a central courtyard where a 300-year old Níspero fruit tree still stands, a pool and Jacuzzi on the fourth-floor terrace, and great views of Old San Juan, maintaining the same high standard of luxury and style. Other notable present-day features of this boutique-style hotel include a 24-hour fitness center, a daily manager's wine and cheese reception, Patio del Níspero open-air restaurant, 24-hour hospitality bar, five versatile meeting rooms, library, business center, herb garden, a beach club featuring beach privileges in Condado and Isla Verde beaches, and more.

In 2005, it was described as "an elegant 55-room inn in a former Carmelite convent."

Hotel El Convento is an Old San Juan institution with more than 365 years of tradition, making it the oldest member of the Historic Hotels of America. It was also named the premier Small Luxury Hotel in Puerto Rico by the Small Luxury Hotels of the World organization.

Notables guests
Some of the hotel's notable guests over the years include:
Truman Capote
Pablo Casals, there is a suite named for him
Ernest Hemingway
Gloria Vanderbilt, there is a suite named for her
Lorenzo Lamas

See also
 List of hotels in Puerto Rico

References

External links

Official site

1962 establishments in Puerto Rico
Hotels in San Juan, Puerto Rico
Old San Juan, Puerto Rico
Historic Hotels of America

Hotel El Convento


Andrew Hsia (; born 24 December 1950) is a Taiwanese politician who is a vice chairman of the Kuomintang. He was minister of the Mainland Affairs Council from February 2015 to May 2016, and was chairman of the Association of Foreign Relations (AFR) from 2017 to 2022. Since 2023, he continues to serve on the AFR Board as managing supervisor.

Education
Hsia obtained his bachelor's degree in law from Fu-Jen Catholic University in 1972, master's degree in diplomacy from National Chengchi University in 1976, master's degree in international law from University of Oxford in the United Kingdom (UK) in 1980 and master's degree in law from University College London in the UK in 1981.

Career

ROC Representative to the United States
In mid of August 2005, Hsia protested to the United Nations (UN) for naming the People's Republic of China (PRC) as one of the founding member of the UN that signed the United Nations Charter during an exhibition commemorating 60th anniversary of the UN, instead of the Republic of China (ROC). He stressed that in 1945, it was the ROC who were the China, since PRC was only founded in 1949.

ROC Representative to India
After being appointed ROC representative to India in June 2007, Hsia said that he hoped to work on securing India's support for Taiwan's membership in the World Health Organization of the United Nations. He also would focus on trade, tourism and technological exchanges between the two.

ROC Foreign Affairs Deputy Ministry
Hsia resigned from his post in August 2009 after a cable was disclosed by a newspaper stating that the Ministry of Foreign Affairs had instructed all of the ROC representative offices around the world to decline all forms of foreign aid in the aftermath of Typhoon Morakot.

ROC Representative to Indonesia
During his term as the ROC representative to Indonesia, Hsia actively promoted bilateral exchanges between Taiwan and Indonesia in the field of trade, culture and education. He was involved in the joint development of Morotai Island of North Maluku province and an industrial park in Jakarta.

2013 Jakarta International Defense Dialogue
Commenting on the barring of the Taiwanese delegation to attend the 3rd Jakarta International Defense Dialogue (JIDD) in Jakarta in March 2013, Hsia said that he was not pleased with the incident since this conference is about regional security and Taiwan is certainly one of the major player. The Taipei Economic and Trade Office in Jakarta demanded an explanation from the Government of Indonesia regarding the incident.

Indonesia, represented by the JIDD organizing committee chairperson, responded by saying that the Ministry of Defense of Indonesia had received a verbal complaint from the Chinese Embassy asking them to discourage the Taiwanese delegates from attending the conference.

ROC National Defense Deputy Ministry
On 22 October 2013, Premier Jiang Yi-huah named Hsia to fill in the position of Deputy Minister of the National Defense, in which Hsia will be tasked to oversee arms procurement policies.

The position had been vacated for more than 2 months since 1 August 2013 when then-Deputy Minister of National Defense Andrew Yang was promoted to the Minister position after the resignation of then-Minister of National Defense Kao Hua-chu due to the death scandal of army corporal Hung Chung-chiu.

Jiang said that the decision to choose him for this position was made after consultation with President Ma Ying-jeou, Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Ministry of National Defense.

Vice Chairman of the Kuomintang
During a visit to the People's Republic of China in February, he met with Song Tao, director of the Taiwan Affairs Office, and Wang Huning, fourth-ranking member of the Politburo Standing Committee of the Chinese Communist Party. During the visit, Wang said that "Taiwan independence is incompatible with peace and runs counter to the well-being of Taiwan compatriots".

References

1950 births
Living people
Taiwanese Ministers of Foreign Affairs
Taiwanese Ministers of National Defense
Representatives of Taiwan to Indonesia
Representatives of Taiwan to India
Fu Jen Catholic University alumni

Andrew Hsia


August Zaleski (13 September 1883 – 7 April 1972) was a Polish economist, freemason, politician, and diplomat. Twice Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Poland, he served as President of Poland-in-exile.

Life and career
August Zaleski was born in Warsaw on 13 September 1883. In 1901 he graduated from a gymnasium in Praga and became librarian to the Krasiński family, but later moved to London, where he graduated with a master's degree from the London School of Economics. He was unable to return to Poland during World War I and, in 1917, started giving lectures in Polish in London. Around that time he also became interested in freemasonry and was one of the collaborators of the Polish National Committee, the institution which was to become the Polish representative to the Triple Entente. As such, he was one of Roman Dmowski's envoys to assure English politicians that Józef Piłsudski's Polish Legions had sided with the Central Powers in order to combat Russia, not the West.

In 1918, when Poland regained her independence, Zaleski proved to be a skilled diplomat and served in various posts in Polish embassies in Switzerland, Greece, Italy and was one of the Polish envoys to the League of Nations. After the May Coup d'État of 1926 he sided with the camp of Marshal Józef Piłsudski and, until 1932, held the post of minister of foreign affairs in two subsequent governments.

In June 1932, Zaleski was attending a session of the League of Nations in Geneva when he found himself thrust in the middle of the crisis in Danzig as he learned that the destroyer ORP Wicher had been sent into the harbour of the Free City of Danzig (modern Gdańsk, Poland) without the permission of the Senate of the Free City. Although Zaleski had not been personally informed that the Wicher was going to Danzig, he put up an able defence of Poland in the League Assembly and Council. In talks with the Secretary-General Sir Eric Drummond, in exchange for an undertaking that Poland would not send the Wicher back to Danzig when the German battleship Schlesien was scheduled to visit, a confrontation that would potentially cause a German-Polish war, Zaleski wanted the League to pressure the Free City to resolve the port d'attache issue governing the right of the Polish Navy to use Danzig harbour and managed to obtain a resolution satisfactory to Poland. Zaleski's offer was taken and Drummond successfully pressured the Free City into settling the port d'attache issue in a manner favourable to Poland.

Between 1928 and 1935, Zaleski was a member of the Polish Senate. At the end of his term, he retired from active politics and became chairman of Bank Handlowy (Commercial Bank), one of the best-known Polish banks of the time. He held that post until the invasion of Poland (1939), when he successfully evacuated his company's assets first to France and then the United Kingdom.

In exile, August Zaleski again became minister of foreign affairs, this time in the government of General Władysław Sikorski. In June 1947, Zaleski was named president of the Polish government in exile. Initially supported by much of the Polish diaspora (Polonia), he named General Tadeusz Bór-Komorowski as prime minister. However, by the end of his seven-year term, Zaleski was facing opposition and was at odds with much of the political elite. His response was to extend his term and name Stanisław Cat-Mackiewicz as prime minister. Many Poles in exile (Bór-Komorowski and Władysław Anders amongst them) considered this unlawful and created the Council of Three in response. It was a temporary triumvirate which held the role of the president of Poland until Zaleski properly resigned his post. However in reality, for almost twenty years, the Council and Zaleski both claimed the position simultaneously.

Death and legacy
August Zaleski died in London on 7 April 1972. Among his papers two conflicting nominations for his successor were found: one naming Stanisław Ostrowski and the other one, perhaps forged, naming Juliusz Nowina-Sokolnicki. The Council of Three accepted the former and disbanded. In November 2022, the remains of Zaleski, Ostrowski, and Władysław Raczkiewicz, and were moved from the cemetery at Newark-on-Trent in England to the mausoleum for emigree presidents at the Temple of Divine Providence in Warsaw.

Zaleski's papers pertaining to his diplomatic work and Polish life during and after World War II are held in the collection of the Hoover Institution.

References

Footnotes

Sources

Biography

Further reading

1883 births
1972 deaths
Writers from Warsaw
People from Warsaw Governorate
Sanacja politicians
Presidents of Poland-in-exile
Government ministers of Poland
Senators of the Second Polish Republic (1928–1930)
Senators of the Second Polish Republic (1930–1935)
Ambassadors of Poland to Germany
Ambassadors of Poland to Greece
Ambassadors of Poland to Switzerland
People of the Polish May Coup (pro-Piłsudski side)
Polish Freemasons
Polish economists
20th-century Polish historians
Polish male non-fiction writers
Polish emigrants to the United Kingdom
Polish anti-communists
Alumni of the London School of Economics

August Zaleski


Ali Hamza Ahmad Suliman al-Bahlul (born September 11, 1969) is a Yemeni citizen who has been held as an enemy combatant since 2002 in the United States Guantanamo Bay detention camp. He boycotted the Guantanamo Military Commissions, arguing that there was no legal basis for the military tribunals to judge him.

He was convicted in November 2008 of performing media relations for Osama bin Laden, the founder of al-Qaeda, and sentenced to life imprisonment, after a jury of nine military officers deliberated for less than an hour.

The United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit overturned most of his convictions on January 25, 2013.  In October 2016, a divided D.C. Circuit affirmed Bahlul's final remaining conviction, which was for criminal conspiracy. In October 2017, the U.S. Supreme Court denied Bahlul's petition for a writ of certiorari.

Background
Joint Task Force Guantanamo counter-terrorism analysts describe Ali Hamza Ahmad Suliman al-Bahlul as al Qaeda's public relations director. He is alleged to have created propaganda videos glorifying attacks against the United States. He set up a satellite receiver for Osama bin Laden, the leader of the terrorist organization, to listen to live radio coverage of the September 11, 2001 attacks in the United States.

He faced charges before the first Guantanamo military commissions, before the United States Supreme Court ruled that they were unconstitutional under existing executive authority. In 2004, he was held in solitary confinement.

Official status reviews
Following the ruling of the Supreme Court of the United States in Rasul v. Bush the Department of Defense was instructed to set up a system where Guantanamo captives would be informed as to why they were being held. The DoD set up the Office for the Administrative Review of Detained Enemy Combatants (OARDEC). OARDEC conducted annual reviews from 2004 to 2008. Scholars at the Brookings Institution, led by Benjamin Wittes, listed the captives still
held in Guantanamo in December 2008, according to whether their detention was justified by certain
common allegations:

Ali Hamza Ahmad Suliman al-Bahlul  was listed as one of the captives who:
 had faced charges before a military commission.
 the military alleges were members of either al Qaeda or the Taliban and associated with the other group.
 "The military alleges ... traveled to Afghanistan for jihad."
 "The military alleges that the following detainees stayed in Al Qaeda, Taliban or other guest- or safehouses."
 "The military alleges ... took military or terrorist training in Afghanistan."
 "The military alleges ... fought for the Taliban."
 "The military alleges ... served on Osama Bin Laden's security detail."
  was a member of the "al Qaeda leadership cadre".
 is "currently at Guantánamo who have been charged before military commissions and are alleged Al Qaeda leaders."
 is one of "36 [captives who] openly admit either membership or significant association with Al Qaeda, the Taliban, or some other group the government considers militarily hostile to the United States."
 is one of the captives who had admitted "being [an] Al Qaeda leader."

Charged before a military commission

Bahlul faced charges before a Guantanamo military commission prior to the United States Supreme Court ruling in Hamdan v. Rumsfeld (2006) that the Bush Presidency lacked the constitutional authority to create military commissions that, without adequate justification, substantially deviated from the rules of procedure and evidence applicable at U.S. courts-martial.
He was indicted along with Ibrahim Ahmed Mahmoud al Qosi.

Lieutenant Commander Philip Sundel, his first military defense attorney, described the difficulty in getting a security clearance for a translator to talk to his client. Sundel told CBS News: "There's virtually no chance he can get a fair trial."

Bahlul asked Peter Brownback, the president of the commissions, if he could represent himself. Al Bahlul and the question of whether detainees should be able to represent themselves were featured in the October 2007 issue of the Yale Law Journal in an article by Matthew Bloom entitled: "'I Did Not Come Here To Defend Myself': Responding to War on Terror Detainees' Attempts To Dismiss Counsel and Boycott the Trial". His most recent military lawyer is Major Thomas Fleener.

After the Supreme Court ruling, Congress passed the Military Commissions Act of 2006, to authorize military commissions at Guantanamo to hear and judge detainee cases. On February 9, 2008, Bahlul and Ibrahim Ahmed Mahmoud Al Qosi were charged before military commissions.

Carol Rosenberg of the Miami Herald, reported that Bahlul would be allowed to represent himself before the newly authorized military commissions, although he was not previously allowed to do so before the Presidentially authorized commissions. David McFadden of the Associated Press reported that only three reporters covered Bahlul's trial, associated with the Miami Herald, the Associated Press, and Reuters. The new law authorized detainees to represent themselves by choice.

Testimony of members of the "Buffalo Six"
In late October 2008, three of the men from the group known as the "Buffalo Six" testified at Bahlul's Guantanamo military commissions. They testified on having been shown a two-hour video that Bahlul produced.

Conviction
On November 3, 2008, Bahlul was convicted of conspiring with al-Qaeda, soliciting murder and providing material support for terrorism. At his sentencing, he admitted he was a member of al-Qaeda, and was sentenced to life imprisonment. Through a translator, Bahlul said, "We will fight government that governs America[; we] are the only ones on Earth who stand against you."

Isolation from the other captives
Rosenberg has reported that, following his conviction, Al-Bahlul was separated from the other captives. She said that the Department of Defense (DOD) justified the isolation because the "Geneva Conventions ... forbids convicts from being held with war prisoners."  The government insists that it can detain Bahlul indefinitely, although without a conviction he may be moved out of isolation.

Appeal
Rosenberg in the Miami Herald reported that Bahlul's military defense attorneys filed a 50-page appeal of his sentence on grounds of free speech. The appeal was the second filed with the Court for Military Commission Review. Bahlul had boycotted his military commission, so no defense was mounted. He also refused to participate in the appeal.

Rosenberg reported that the Obama Presidency has proposed a change to the process of appeals of the rulings and verdicts of military commissions. The proposed changes would have such appeals first heard by the Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces, which Rosenberg noted was a 58-year-old institution. In the current process, there is no appeal to rulings of the Court of Military Commission Review. Under the proposed changes, appeals could be taken up to the United States Supreme Court.

Jane Sutton, reporting for Reuters, wrote that when Al-Bahlul's conviction was overturned it implied the highest profile trials, those against Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, and four other conspirators, also seemed more likely to face similar challenges.
Al-Bahlul's was the second of the seven Guantanamo convictions to be overturned, so far. Salim Ahmed Hamdan, who had only been convicted of "providing material support for terrorism" had his conviction overturned in 2012. Three of the other five individuals to be convicted had also only been convicted of "providing material support for terrorism".

In July 2014, the United States Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit sitting en banc vacated Bahlul's material support and solicitation convictions as unconstitutional under the ex post facto clause.  A panel of the D.C. Circuit vacated Bahlul's remaining conspiracy conviction in June 2015.  Judge Judith W. Rogers, joined by David S. Tatel, found that conspiracy is not a crime under the international law of war, with Judge Karen L. Henderson writing a forceful 85-page dissent.

On September 25, 2015, the D.C. Circuit vacated its June judgment and granted the Government's petition for rehearing en banc.  The Circuit specifically directed the rehearing would consider the standard of appellate review and as to if Congress's attempts to define and punish war crimes transgresses the Article III powers of courts.

On October 20, 2016, the full D.C. Circuit voted 6–3 to affirm Bahlul's conspiracy conviction.  Circuit Judge Brett Kavanaugh, wrote the four-judge plurality opinion for Judges Henderson, Janice Rogers Brown, and Thomas B. Griffith, finding that Congress can make crimes triable before military commissions even if those crimes are not internationally recognized war crimes.  Judges Patricia Millett and Robert L. Wilkins, voted to affirm Bahlul's conviction but did not join the plurality's opinion, each writing that the case should be decided on more narrow grounds.  Judge Rogers, joined by Judges Tatel and Nina Pillard dissented, writing that the plurality's broad reading was making "room for a new constitutional order."  One year later, the Supreme Court of the United States denied Bahlul's petition for a writ of certiorari without comment, with Justice Neil Gorsuch taking no part in considerations.

References

External links
 "Life sentence for al-Qaeda propagandist fails to justify Guantánamo trials", Andy Worthington, 3 November 2008
 "Who Are the Remaining Prisoners in Guantánamo? Part One: The "Dirty Thirty"", Andy Worthington, 15 September 2010

1969 births
Yemeni extrajudicial prisoners of the United States
Detainees of the Guantanamo Bay detention camp
Living people
People from Al Hudaydah Governorate
Prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment by the United States military

Ali al-Bahlul


A secundative language is a language in which the recipients of ditransitive verbs (which takes a subject and two objects: a theme and a recipient) are treated like the patients (targets) of monotransitive verbs (verbs that take only one object),  and the themes get distinct marking. Secundative languages contrast with indirective languages, where the recipient is treated in a special way.

While English is mostly not a secundative language, there are some examples. The sentence John gave Mary the ball uses this construction, where the ball is the theme and Mary is the recipient.

The alternative wording John presented Mary with the ball is essentially analogous to the structure found in secundative languages; the ball is not the direct object here, but basically a secondary object marked by the preposition with. In German, the prefix be- (which is sometimes likened to an applicative voice) can be used to change the valency of verbs in a similar way: In John schenkte Mary den Ball, the theme Ball is the direct object and the recipient Mary the indirect object (in the dative case); in John beschenkte Mary mit dem Ball, the recipient Mary is now the direct object and the theme Ball is now an oblique argument (an oblique dative) marked by the preposition mit.

Terminology
This language type was called dechticaetiative in an article by Edward L. Blansitt, Jr. (from Greek dekhomai 'take, receive' and an obscure second element, unlikely kaitoi 'and indeed'), but that term did not catch on. They have also been called anti-ergative languages and primary object languages.

Usage
Ditransitive verbs have two arguments other than the subject: a theme that undergoes the action and a recipient that receives the theme (see thematic relation). In a secundative language, the recipient of a ditransitive verb is treated in the same way as the single object of a monotransitive verb, and this syntactic category is called primary object, which is equivalent to the indirect object in English. The theme of a ditransitive verb is treated separately and called secondary object, which is equivalent to the direct object.

English is not a true secundative language, as neither the theme nor recipient is primary, or either can be primary depending on context.

A true secundative construction is found in West Greenlandic, the direct object of a monotransitive verb appears in the absolutive case:

In a ditransitive sentence, the recipient appears in absolutive case and the theme is marked with the instrumental case:

Similarly, in Lahu, both the patient of a monotransitive verb and the recipient of a ditransitive verb are marked with the postposition thàʔ:

In secundative languages with passive constructions, passivation promotes the primary object to subject.  For example, in Swahili:

the recipient Fatuma is promoted to subject and not the theme zawadi 'gift'.

Use in English
Many languages show mixed indirective/secundative behavior. English, which is primarily indirective, arguably contains secundative constructions, traditionally referred to as dative shift. For example, the passive of the sentence

John gave Mary the ball.

is

Mary was given the ball by John.

in which the recipient rather than the theme is promoted to subject.  This is complicated by the fact that some dialects of English may promote either the recipient (Mary) or the theme (the ball) argument to subject status, and for these dialects '

The ball was given Mary by John.

(meaning that the ball was given to Mary) is also well-formed.  In addition, the argument structure of verbs like provide is essentially secundative: in

The project provides young people with work.

the recipient argument is treated like a monotransitive direct object.

Notes

See also
 Object (grammar)
 Dative
 Ergativity
 Ditransitive verb
 Morphosyntactic alignment

References
 Blansitt, E.L. Jr. (1984). "Dechticaetiative and dative". In Objects, F. Plank (Ed.), 127–150. London: Academic Press.
 Comrie, Bernard (1975). "Antiergative." Papers from the 11th Regional Meeting of the Chicago Linguistic Society, R. E. Grossman, L. J. San, & T. J. Vance (eds.), 112-121.
 Dryer, Matthew S. (1986). "Primary objects, secondary objects, and antidative." Language 62:808-845.
 Haspelmath, Martin (2013). "Ditransitive Constructions: The Verb 'Give'." In: Dryer, Matthew S. & Haspelmath, Martin (eds.)  The World Atlas of Language Structures Online. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.  (Available online at , Accessed on 2014-03-02.)
 LaPolla, Randy (1992). "Anti-ergative Marking in Tibeto-Burman." Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area 15.1(1992):1-9.
 Malchukov, Andrej & Haspelmath, Martin & Comrie, Bernard (eds.) (2010). Studies in ditransitive constructions. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton.
 Trask, R. L. (1993). A Dictionary of Grammatical Terms in Linguistics Routledge,

Linguistic typology

Secundative language


(JUM) is a privately owned Japanese art museum in Matsumoto, Nagano Prefecture. It holds over 100,000 Japanese woodblock prints, regarded as the world's largest collection of this form of art.

The Japan Ukiyo-e Museum was established in 1982 by Tokichi Sakai, a member of the Sakai merchant family, who have practiced business in Matsumoto for generations. It is based on collections of ukiyo-e owned by the family. The first items were collected by Yoshitaka Sakai (1810–69), paper wholesaler and art patron, and his son and grandson. Over the years, the collection has grown to include not only historical prints, but also many contemporary prints by Japanese artists. Items from this collection have been exhibited in Europe, North America, the Middle East, South America, and elsewhere in East Asia.

The museum features curated exhibits, a movie detailing the history of Ukiyo-e, and a gift shop. The museum's main building was designed by the architect Shinohara Kazuo (1925–2006) and extended in 1995 by the architect Haba Kuniharu. It is located next to the Matsumoto Open Air Architectural Museum.

References

Art museums and galleries in Japan
Museums in Nagano Prefecture
Art museums established in 1982
1982 establishments in Japan
Ukiyo-e Museum
Matsumoto, Nagano

Japan Ukiyo-e Museum


Porpoise is a tradename for scuba developed by Ted Eldred in Australia and made there from the late 1940s onwards. The first Porpoise was a closed circuit oxygen rebreather, and the following models were all single hose open circuit regulators.

Rebreather
The Porpoise oxygen rebreather was developed by Ted Eldred in the late 1940s and early 1950s. Some were made and used for sport diving, but they did not go into full production. It was worn on the back without a casing. The bag was between the canister and valve assembly and the diver's back. It had two wide breathing tubes running to a mouthpiece, which had a shutoff valve to keep water out when it was not in the mouth. It appeared in three versions: MK1, MK2, MK3. It had a special valve that both breathing tubes ran through that was activated by surrounding pressure; when the diver went deeper than was safe for pure oxygen it restricted (not stopped) the supply of breathing gas, to warn the diver to go to shallower depth. (Before open-circuit scuba was readily available in Australia, many Australian sport divers used war-surplus Siebe Gorman Salvus rebreathers.)

Single-hose open-circuit scuba regulator

This was the first single-hose open-circuit scuba made in the world. Ted Eldred in Melbourne in Australia started designing it in 1948 to "design around" the Cousteau-Gagnan aqua-lung patent, and to get rid of air supply restrictions that affected early Cousteau-Gagnan-type aqua-lungs. He started making it commercially in 1952. The Royal Australian Navy adopted it. It was the origin of single-hose scuba regulators. It was much used by Australian scuba divers. The picture shows the CA-1, a set with one cylinder with its valve at the bottom, strapped directly to the back with rucksack-type straps without backpack plate or buoyancy aid, with a single-hose regulator-mouthpiece which could be strapped in. The tank was inverted so that the diver could reach the regulator mounted reserve handle. The head strap was intended to keep the demand valve from falling well below the diver, if dropped from the mouth. The high-pressure regulator screwed into the side of the cylinder valve like welding equipment of today; there was no A-clamp. Versions of it were made for the Australian Navy until 1976, and the last one known to be sold to the public was sold in that year. About 12,000 Porpoise units of all models were produced. About 50 Porpoises still exist. Only a few of these early models are known today, the rarest being the CA-2, made for use with two tanks.

See also

References
Historical Diving Times No.36 Summer 2005
Historical Diving Times No.38 Winter 2006

External links
Link to page with images about Ted Eldred's oxygen rebreather

Underwater breathing apparatus
Rebreathers
Diving equipment manufacturers

Porpoise (scuba gear)


The PA-25 Pawnee is an agricultural aircraft produced by Piper Aircraft between 1959 and 1981. It remains a widely used aircraft in agricultural spraying and is also used as a tow plane, or tug, for launching gliders or for towing banners. In 1988, the design rights and support responsibility were sold to Latino Americana de Aviación of Argentina.

Design and development
Most agricultural aircraft before 1949 were converted military aircraft and it was in that year that Fred Weick, based at Texas A&M University, designed a dedicated agricultural aircraft: the AG-1.  The AG-1 first flew on 1 December 1950.

During 1953, Fred Weick was approached by Piper to become a consultant on the agricultural version of the PA-18, the PA-18A, in particular to design and test a distributor for dust and seeds. A few weeks later, Piper sponsored Texas A&M University to design a dedicated agricultural aircraft based on the AG-1 but to use as many PA-18A and PA-22 components as possible.  The resulting design, the AG-3, was smaller than the AG-1 and had a steel tube fuselage which was fabric covered. The AG-3 was a single-seat, low-wing monoplane with the wings braced to the fuselage with struts. It had a conventional landing gear with a tailwheel and was powered by a 135 hp engine. The single seat was placed high in the fuselage to give the best visibility and an 800 lb-capacity hopper was fitted in front of the cockpit.

The AG-3 made its maiden flight in November 1954. The aircraft's flying tests were successful and, in 1957, Weick was invited to join Piper at Vero Beach, and the AG-3 was renamed the PA-25 Pawnee.  The engine was upgraded to a 150 hp Lycoming O-320-A1A engine. Two pre-production aircraft were built at Vero Beach in 1957 and production started at Lock Haven, Pennsylvania, in May 1959.

In 1962, another prototype was built at Vero Beach with a 235 hp Lycoming O-540-B2B5 engine and production aircraft were produced at Lock Haven from 1962. In 1964, the Pawnee B was introduced with a larger hopper and improved dispersal gear. The Pawnee C of 1967 was fitted with oleo shock-absorbers and other improvements; also in 1967, a 260 hp variant was introduced.

Early models of the Pawnee had a single fuel tank located between the agricultural hopper and the engine.  The National Transportation Safety Board recommended to Piper Aircraft that the early model PA-25's with a fiberglass fuel tank be retrofitted with a rubber fuel cell to minimize the chance of catastrophic failure and fire resulting from a crash.

In 1974, the Pawnee D was introduced, with the fuel tanks moved from the fuselage to the wings; the 260 hp variant was also available with either a fixed pitch or constant-speed propeller. Although still the same design as the "D", the 1980 and 1981 production aircraft were marketed as the Pawnee.  The final production aircraft was completed at Lock Haven on 22 March 1981, the last of 5,167 Pawnees.

A useful design aspect was the ability to carry a mechanic on a jump seat fitted in the hopper to assist with operations at remote stations.

On April 15, 1988, Piper Aircraft, Inc. officially sold the PA-25 series aircraft to Latino Americana de Aviación S.A in Argentina.  The sale included all drawings, engineering data, parts inventory, tools, catalogs, and manuals.  All support of any nature became the responsibility of the new owners.

In 2019, Australia's Civil Aviation Safety Authority formally approved the issuing to eTugs of Certificates of Airworthiness in the Limited category for the purpose of glider towing. An etug is a PA-25 where the Lycoming engine has been replaced with a General Motors LS automotive engine. The advantages for glider towing, compared to a Lycoming powered PA-25, include a greater rate of climb, reduced fuel consumption, the elimination of shock cooling (since the LS is water-cooled rather than air-cooled) and a less costly maintenance regime.

Variants
AG-3
Prototype built at Texas A&M University.

PA-25-150 Pawnee
Initial production version fitted with a  Lycoming O-320 engine. Payload of  powders or  liquids.

PA-25-235 Pawnee B
Fitted with a  Lycoming O-540-B2B5 six-cylinder engine. The Pawnee B featured a larger hopper and an increased payload of .

PA-25-235 and PA-25-260 Pawnee C
The Pawnee C was an upgraded version of the 'B' model and was available with a 235hp or a 260hp high compression version of the O-540 engine and either a fixed pitch or constant speed propeller. The fuselage of the Pawnee C featured a quickly detachable 'turtledeck' panel to ease the rinsing out of spilt corrosive agents from the fuselage structure and to facilitate servicing and inspection of components housed in the rear section of the fuselage.

PA-25-235 and PA-25-260 Pawnee D
The Pawnee D was also powered by a Lycoming O-540 of 260hp but featured fuel tanks fitted in the outer wings and metal covered ailerons and flaps. From 1980 it was known as the PA-25-235 Pawnee.

eTug
A modified PA-25 powered by a General Motors LS automotive engine driving a three-bladed propeller. Other differences include a belted propeller speed reduction unit.

Accidents and incidents
9 August 1974 a crop-spraying Pawnee was involved in a fatal mid-air collision in Norfolk, UK with a Royal Air Force McDonnell Douglas F-4M Phantom FGR.2.

Specifications (PA-25-235 Pawnee)

Data from: Macdonald Aircraft Handbook

General characteristics
 Crew: One
 Capacity: 150 US gal (568 L) or 1,500 lb (545 kg) of chemicals
 Length: 24 ft 9 in (7.55 m)
 Wingspan: 36 ft 2 in (11.02 m)
 Height: 7 ft 2 in (2.19 m)
 Wing area: 183 ft2 (17.0 m2)
 Empty: 1,457 lb (662 kg)
 Loaded: 2,900 lb (1,317 kg)
 Maximum takeoff: 2,900 lb (1,317 kg)
 Powerplant: 1 x Lycoming O-540-B2B5, 235 hp (175 kW)

Performance
 Maximum speed: 107 kts or 124 mph (188 km/h)
 Range: 300 miles (500 km)
 Service ceiling: 13,000 ft (3,963 m)
 Rate of climb: 630 ft/min (192 m/min)(at MTOW)
 Wing loading: 15.9 lb/ft2 (77.5 kg/m2)
 Power/Mass: 0.0810 hp/lb (0.133 kW/kg)

See also
Related development:
Texas A&M College AG-1
Gippsland Aeronautics PA-25-235/A9 'Fatman'
Piper PA-36 Pawnee Brave

Comparable aircraft:
Aero Boero 260AG
Air Tractor AT-300
Ayres Thrush
CallAir A-9
Cessna 188 AgWagon
 Embraer EMB-202 "Ipanema"
Grumman Ag Cat
 PZL-106 Kruk
 PZL-Mielec M-18 Dromader
 Zlin Z-37 Čmelák

Notes

Bibliography

 Green, William. Aircraft Handbook. London. Macdonald & Co. (Publishers) Ltd., 1964.
Peperell, Roger and Smith, Colin. Piper Aircraft and their forerunners Tonbridge, Kent, England Air-Britain 1987.
 Taylor, John W. R. Jane's All the World's Aircraft 1962–63. London: Sampson Low, Marston & Company, Ltd., 1962.

External links

 PA-25 Pawnee fliegerszene.de

Pawnee
Single-engined tractor aircraft
Low-wing aircraft
1950s United States agricultural aircraft
Glider tugs
Aircraft first flown in 1957

Piper PA-25 Pawnee


William Hayhurst (December 31, 1887 – May 19, 1975) was a farmer, principal, teacher, businessman and a Canadian federal politician. He was born in Lyvennet Mill, Morland, England.  Married Edna Mattern.  Father of William LeRoy Hayhurst (born May 25, 1925; died February 27, 2011), Dea Crompton and Grace Lanctot (died August 13, 1998).

Hayhurst first ran a seat in the House of Commons of Canada in the 1930 Canadian federal election as a Liberal candidate in the Wetaskiwin district. He was defeated by Incumbent William Irvine, finishing last in a field of three candidates.

Hayhurst ran again in the 1935 Canadian federal election, this time under the Social Credit banner in the Vegreville district.  Hayhurst's nomination as the Social Credit candidate was controversial.  At the time, the Vegreville Social Credit organization had a two-stage nomination process: delegates elected three candidates at a nomination meeting, one of whom was later chosen by an advisory board.  Paul Lesiuk, a teacher of Ukrainian background, actually received the greatest number of votes, but the board decided to give the nomination to Hayhurst, the second-place candidate.  Many Ukrainian members of Social Credit opposed this decision, and refused to support Hayhurst in the general election.  He narrowly defeated Co-operative Commonwealth Federation incumbent Michael Luchkovich in a hotly contested five-way race.  Social Credit had little presence outside Alberta in this period, and Hayhurst sat as an opposition MP.

Anthony Hlynka, Hayhurst's successor as MP for Vegreville, described him as a "polite, intelligent and well-read" man who "carried out his duties as an MP quite well, but [...] had a difficult time representing a riding in which eighty per cent of the population was of other than British origin".  He occasionally made parliamentary statements in support of Ukrainian national aspirations, but had difficulty communicating with his constituents.  Many Ukrainian members of the Social Credit party asked him to seek re-election in Athabaska rather than run again in Vegreville in the 1940 federal election.  He ignored this advice, and let his name stand at the Vegreville Social Credit nomination meeting in September 1939.  The result was an unexpected embarrassment: he finished last in a field of five candidates on the first ballot, and was automatically eliminated.

After his nomination defeat, Hayhurst belatedly decided to seek the Social Credit nomination in Athabaska.  He won the nomination, but lost to Liberal Joseph Miville Dechene in the general election.  Hayhurst officially appeared on the ballot as the candidate of the New Democracy party, an affiliate of Social Credit. He died in Edmonton in 1975.

References

External links

1887 births
Members of the House of Commons of Canada from Alberta
Social Credit Party of Canada MPs
New Democracy (Canada) candidates in the 1940 Canadian federal election
1975 deaths

William Hayhurst


Prelude (Toccata) and Fugue in (C or) E major, BWV 566 is an organ work written by Johann Sebastian Bach probably during his 4 month-stay at Lübeck  or afterwards in the winter of 1705–1706. It comprises five sections and is an early work in grand form of Bach.

Its compositional form resembles that of Praeludia by Danish-German composer Dieterich Buxtehude. The first section alternates manual or pedal cadenzas with dense suspended chords. The second is a charming fugue with much repetition following the circle of fifths. The third section is a brief flourish for manuals, ending with an even briefer pedal cadenza punctuated with 9-voice chords. The fourth section, in  time, is a second fugue with a rhythmic subject resembling the theme of the first fugue immediately followed by the fifth and final section that opens with a virtuous pedal-solo.

Bach also wrote a transposed version of the piece in C major (BWV 566a), to play on organs tuned in meantone where E major would sound discordant due to the tuning of the organ (with a very sharp D). Various recordings of the C major version exist mainly on historic instruments, for example Ton Koopman's recording on the Schnitger organ in Hamburg's Jacobikirche, and Marie-Claire Alain's recording on the Silbermann organ at Freiberg Cathedral. Both have a high pitch leaving the "concert" pitch up to a tone higher than modern pitch, where the temperament is significantly unequal to merit playing it away from E major. Modern organs or those tuned to a more equal temperament do not have this need.

The C major version is known nowadays through manuscript copies by J. Tobias Krebs and J. Peter Kellner.

See also
 Other toccata and fugues

References

External links

 Prelude (Toccata) and fugue in C major BWV 566a
 Free download of BWV 566 recorded by James Kibbie on the 1736 Erasmus Bielfeldt organ in St. Wilhadi, Stade, Germany

Preludes by Johann Sebastian Bach
Fugues by Johann Sebastian Bach
Bach
Compositions for organ
Compositions in E major

Prelude (Toccata) and Fugue in E major, BWV 566


Tom Friend (born 3 May 1991) is an English cricketer. Friend is a right-handed batsman who bowls right-arm fast-medium. He was born in Newport, Isle of Wight, and was educated on the island at West Wight Middle School and Carisbrooke College, before attending Brockenhurst College on the mainland.

Friend played Second XI cricket for the Worcestershire Second XI in 2010. On 28 February 2011 it was announced that Friend had signed for the Unicorns for the 2011 Clydesdale Bank 40. It was in this competition that he made his List A debut against Lancashire. His maiden wicket, taken in this match, was Tom Smith. He made two further appearances in the competition against Essex and Lancashire, but he failed to take any further wickets.

While studying for his degree in Sport Development at University of Wales Institute, Cardiff, Friend made his debut in first-class cricket for Cardiff MCC University against Somerset at Taunton Vale Sports Club Ground in 2012. He made a further first-class appearance in that season against Warwickshire at Edgbaston.

References

External links

1991 births
Living people
Sportspeople from Newport, Isle of Wight
English cricketers
Unicorns cricketers
Cardiff MCCU cricketers
Alumni of Cardiff Metropolitan University
Shropshire cricketers
Herefordshire cricketers
Cricketers from the Isle of Wight

Tom Friend


Muhammad al-Tayyib ibn Kiran (; 1172/1758-1227/1812) was a Moroccan, religious scholar from Fes. He also played an active political role.

Ibn Kiran is the author of Risala bn Saud, a response, written at the request of the sultan mulay Slimane, to the manifesto of the Wahhabis. He has written several commentaries, including one on al-Ghazali's Ihya and another on the Alfiyya of Ibn Malik. He also wrote Iqd nafais alla-ali fi tahrik al-himam al-awali, a popular religious work. Ibn Kiran was a teacher at Al-Qarawiyyin University and the teacher of Ahmad Ibn Idris Al-Fasi and Muhammad ibn Ali as-Senussi.

See also
 Ahmad ibn 'Ajiba
 List of Ash'aris and Maturidis
 List of Sufis

References

Asharis
Sunni Sufis
Moroccan writers
1758 births
1812 deaths
Scholars from Fez, Morocco
Moroccan scholars
Moroccan Sufis
Moroccan Maliki scholars
18th-century Moroccan people
19th-century Moroccan people

Ibn Kiran


In mathematics, constructive analysis is mathematical analysis done according to some principles of constructive mathematics.

Introduction
The name of the subject contrasts with classical analysis, which in this context means analysis done according to the more common principles of classical mathematics. However, there are various schools of thought and many different formalizations of constructive analysis. Whether classical or constructive in some fashion, any such framework of analysis axiomatizes the real number line by some means, a collection extending the rationals and with an apartness relation definable from an asymmetric order structure. Center stage takes a positivity predicate, here denoted , which governs an equality-to-zero . The members of the collection are generally just called the real numbers. While this term is thus overloaded in the subject, all the frameworks share a broad common core of results that are also theorems of classical analysis.

Constructive frameworks for its formulation are extensions of Heyting arithmetic by types including , constructive second-order arithmetic, or strong enough topos-, type- or constructive set theories such as , a constructive counter-part of . Of course, a direct axiomatization may be studied as well.

Logical preliminaries
The base logic of constructive analysis is intuitionistic logic, which means that the principle of excluded middle  is not automatically assumed for every proposition. If a proposition  is provable, this exactly means that the non-existence claim  being provable would be absurd, and so the latter cannot also be provable in a consistent theory. The double-negated existence claim is a logically negative statement and implied by, but generally not equivalent to the existence claim itself. Much of the intricacies of constructive analysis can be framed in terms of the weakness of propositions of the logically negative form , which is generally weaker than . In turn, also an implication  can generally be not reversed.

While a constructive theory proves fewer theorems than its classical counter-part in its classical presentation, it may exhibit attractive meta-logical properties. For example, if a theory  exhibits the disjunction property, then if it proves a disjunction  then also  or . Already in classical arithmetic, this is violated for the most basic propositions about sequences of numbers - as demonstrated next.

Undecidable predicates
Consider a decidable predicate on the naturals, which in the constructive vernacular means  is provable, and let  be the characteristic function defined to equal  exactly where  is true.

A common strategy of formalization of real numbers is in terms of sequences or rationals, . For motivation, consider the sequence , which is monotone with values non-strictly growing between the bounds  and .
For the sake of demonstration, defining an extensional equality to the zero sequence , it follows that . Note that the symbol "" is used in several contexts here.

In the following, as is usual, assume the theories at hand are consistent. For any theory capturing arithmetic, there are many undecided and even provenly independent such statements . Two -examples are the Goldbach conjecture and the Rosser sentence of a theory. Consider any theory  with quantifiers ranging over primitive recursive, rational-valued sequences. Already minimal logic proves the non-contradiction claim for any proposition, and that the negation of excluded middle for any given proposition would be absurd. This also means there is no consistent anti-classical theory rejecting the excluded middle disjunction for any given proposition. Indeed, it holds that

This theorem is logically equivalent to the non-existence claim of a sequence for which the excluded middle disjunction about equality-to-zero would be disprovable. No sequence with that disjunction being rejected can be exhibited.
Now Gödel's theorems mean that there is an explicit sequence  such that for any fixed precision  proves the zero-sequence to be a good approximation to , but it can also meta-logically be established that  as well as . Here this proposition  again amounts to the proposition of universally quantified form.
If the theory is formulated over a logic accepting  then, without reference to the axioms of the particular theory and hand, trivially also

even if these disjunction claims then do not carry any information. In the absence of further axioms breaking the meta-logical properties, constructive entailment instead generally reflects provability. Taboo statements that ought not be decidable (if the aim is to respect the provability interpretation of constructive claims) can be design for definitions of a custom equivalence "" in formalizations below as well. For implications of disjunctions of yet not proven or disproven propositions, one speaks of weak Brouwerian counterexamples.

Order vs. disjunctions
The theory of the real closed field may be axiomatized such that all the non-logical axioms are in accordance with constructive principles. This concerns a commutative ring with postulates for a positivity predicate , with a positive unit and non-positive zero, i.e.,  and . In any such ring, one may define , which constitutes a strict total order in its constructive formulation (also called linear order or, to be explicit about the context, a pseudo-order). As is usual,  is defined as .

This first-order theory is relevant as the structures discussed below are model thereof. However, this section thus does not concern aspects akin to topology and relevant arithmetic substructures are not definable therein.

As explained, various predicates will fail to be decidable in a constructive formulation, such as these formed from order-theoretical relations. This includes "", which will be rendered equivalent to a negation. Crucial disjunctions are now discussed explicitly.

Trichotomy
In intuitonistic logic, the disjunctive syllogism in the form  generally really only goes in the -direction. In a pseudo-order, one has

and indeed at most one of the three can hold at once. But the stronger, logically positive law of trichotomy disjunction does not hold in general, i.e. it is not provable that for all reals,

See analytical . Other disjunctions are however implied based on other positivity results, e.g. . Likewise, the asymmetric order in the theory ought to fulfill the weak linearity property  for all , related to locatedness of the reals.

The theory shall validate further axioms concerning the relation between the positivity predicate  and the algebraic operations including multiplicative inversion, as well as the intermediate value theorem for polynomial.
In this theory, between any two separated numbers, other numbers exist.

Apartness
In the context of analysis, the auxiliary logically positive predicate

may be independently defined and constitutes an apartness relation. With it, the substitute of the principles above give tightness

Thus, apartness can also function as a definition of "", rendering it a negation. All negations are stable in intuitionistic logic, and therefore

The elusive trichotomy disjunction itself then reads

Importantly, a proof of the disjunction  carries positive information, in both senses of the word. Via  it also follows that . In words: A demonstration that a number is somehow apart from zero is also a demonstration that this number is non-zero. But constructively it does not follow that the doubly negative statement  would imply . Consequently, many classically equivalent statements bifurcate into distinct statement. For example, for a fixed polynomial  and fixed , the statement that the 'th coefficient  of  is apart from zero is stronger than the mere statement that it is non-zero. A demonstration of former explicates how  and zero are related, with respect to the ordering predicate on the reals, while a demonstration of the latter shows how negation of such conditions would imply to a contradiction. In turn, there is then also a strong and a looser notion of, e.g., being a third-order polynomial.

So the excluded middle for  is apriori stronger than that for . However, see the discussion of possible further axiomatic principles regarding the strength of "" below.

Non-strict partial order
Lastly, the relation  may be defined by or proven equivalent to the logically negative statement , and then  is defined as . Decidability of positivity may thus be expressed as , which as noted will not be provable in general. But neither will the totality disjunction , see also analytical .

By a valid De Morgan's law, the conjunction of such statements is also rendered a negation of apartness, and so

The disjunction  implies , but the other direction is also not provable in general. In a constructive real closed field, the relation "" is a negation and is not equivalent to the disjunction in general.

Variations
Demanding good order properties as above but strong completeness properties at the same time implies . Notably, the MacNeille completion has better completeness properties as a collection, but a more intricate theory of its order-relation and, in turn, worse locatedness properties. While less commonly employed, also this construction simplifies to the classical real numbers when assuming .

Formalization

Rational sequences
A common approach is to identify the real numbers with non-volatile sequences in . The constant sequences correspond to rational numbers. Algebraic operations such as addition and multiplication can be defined component-wise, together with a systematic reindexing for speedup. The definition in terms of sequences furthermore enables the definition of a strict order "" fulfilling the desired axioms. Other relations discussed above may then be defined in terms of it. In particular, any number  apart from , i.e. , eventually has an index beyond which all its elements are invertible.
Various implications between the relations, as well as between sequences with various properties, may then be proven.

Moduli
As the maximum on a finite set of rationals is decidable, an absolute value map on the reals may be defined and Cauchy convergence and limits of sequences of reals can be defined as usual.

A modulus of convergence is often employed in the constructive study of Cauchy sequences of reals, meaning the association of any  to an appropriate index (beyond which the sequences are closer than ) is required in the form of an explicit function . Such a modulus may be considered for a sequence of reals, but it may also be considered for all the reals themselves, in which case one is really dealing with a sequence of pairs.

Bounds and suprema
Given such a model then enables the definition of more set theoretic notions. For any subset of reals, one may speak of an upper bound , negatively characterized using . One may speak of least upper bounds with respect to "". A supremum is an upper bound given through a sequence of reals, positively characterized using "". If a subset with an upper bound is well-behaved with respect to "" (discussed below), it has a supremum.

Bishop's formalization
One formalization of constructive analysis, modeling the order properties described above, proves theorems for sequences of rationals  fulfilling the regularity condition . An alternative is using the tighter  instead of , and in the latter case non-zero indices ought to be used. No two of the rational entries in a regular sequences are more than  apart and so one may compute natural numbers exceeding any real. For the regular sequences, one defines the logically positive loose positivity property as , where the relation on the right hand side is in terms of rational numbers. Formally, a positive real in this language is a regular sequence together with a natural witnessing positivity. Further, , which is logically equivalent to the negation . This is provably transitive and in turn an equivalence relation. Via this predicate, the regular sequences in the band  are deemed equivalent to the zero sequence. Such definitions are of course compatible with classical investigations and variations thereof were well studied also before. One has  as . Also,  may be defined from a numerical non-negativity property, as  for all , but then shown to be equivalent of the logical negation of the former.

Variations
The above definition of  uses a common bound . Other formalizations directly take as definition that for any fixed bound , the numbers  and  must eventually be forever at least as close.
Exponentially falling bounds  are also used, also say in a real number condition , and likewise for the equality of two such reals. And also the sequences of rationals may be required to carry a modulus of convergence. Positivity properties may defined as being eventually forever apart by some rational.

Function choice in  or stronger principles aid such frameworks.

Coding
It is worth noting that sequences in  can be coded rather compactly, as they each may be mapped to a unique subclass of . A sequence rationals  may be encoded as set of quadruples . In turn, this can be encoded as unique naturals  using the fundamental theorem of arithmetic. There are more economic pairing functions as well. For example, the sequence , or , may be used to compute Euler's number and with the above coding it maps to the subclass  of . While this example, an explicit sequence of sums, is a total recursive function to begin with, the encoding also means these objects are in scope of the quantifiers in second-order arithmetic.

Set theory

Cauchy reals
In some frameworks of analysis, the name real numbers is given to such well-behaved sequences or rationals, and relations such as  are called the equality or real numbers. Note, however, that there are properties which can distinguish between two -related reals.

In contrast, in a set theory that models the naturals  and validates the existence of even classically uncountable function spaces (and certainly say  or even ) the numbers equivalent with respect to "" in  may be collected into a set and then this is called the Cauchy real numbers. In that language, regular rational sequences are degraded to a mere representative of a Cauchy real. Equality of those reals is then given by the equality of sets, which is governed by the set theoretical axiom of extensionality. An upshot is that the set theory will prove properties for the reals, i.e. for this class of sets, expressed using the logical equality. Constructive reals in the presence of appropriate choice axioms will be Cauchy-complete but not automatically order-complete.

Dedekind reals
In this context it may also be possible to model a theory or real numbers in terms of Dedekind cuts. At least when assuming  or dependent choice, these structures are isomorphic.

Uncountability
Recall that the preorder on cardinals "" in set theory is the primary notion defined as injection existence. As a result, the constructive theory of cardinal order can diverge substantially from the classical one. Here, sets like  or some models of the reals can be taken to be subcountable.

That said, Cantors diagonal construction proving uncountability of powersets like  and plain function spaces like  is intuitionistically valid. Assuming  or alternatively the countable choice axiom, models of  are always uncountable also over a constructive framework. One variant of the diagonal construction relevant for the present context may be formulated as follows, proven using countable choice and for reals as sequences of rationals:
For any two pair of reals  and any sequence of reals , there exists a real  with  and .
Formulations of the reals aided by explicit moduli permit separate treatments.

According to Kanamori, "a historical misrepresentation has been perpetuated that associates diagonalization with non-constructivity" and a constructive component of the diagonal argument already appeared in Cantor's work.

Category and type theory
All these considerations may also be undertaken in a topos or appropriate dependent type theory.

Principles
For practical mathematics, the axiom of dependent choice is adopted in various schools.

Markov's principle is adopted in the Russian school of recursive mathematics. This principle strengthens the impact of proven negation of strict equality. A so-called analytical form of it grants  or . Weaker forms may be formulated.

The Brouwerian school reasons in terms of spreads and adopts the classically valid bar induction.

Anti-classical schools
Through the optional adoption of further consistent axioms, the negation of decidability may be provable. For example, equality-to-zero is rejected to be decidable when adopting Brouwerian continuity principles or Church's thesis in recursive mathematics. The weak continuity principle as well as  even refute . The existence of a Specker sequence is proven from . Such phenomena also occur in realizability topoi. Notably, there are two anti-classical schools as incompatible with one-another. This article discusses principles compatible with the classical theory and choice is made explicit.

Theorems
Many classical theorems can only be proven in a formulation that is logically equivalent, over classical logic. Generally speaking, theorem formulation in constructive analysis mirrors the classical theory closest in separable spaces. Some theorems can only be formulated in terms of approximations.

The intermediate value theorem
For a simple example, consider the intermediate value theorem (IVT).
In classical analysis, IVT implies that, given any continuous function f from a closed interval [a,b] to the real line R, if f(a) is negative while f(b) is positive, then there exists a real number c in the interval such that f(c) is exactly zero.
In constructive analysis, this does not hold, because the constructive interpretation of existential quantification ("there exists") requires one to be able to construct the real number c (in the sense that it can be approximated to any desired precision by a rational number).
But if f hovers near zero during a stretch along its domain, then this cannot necessarily be done.

However, constructive analysis provides several alternative formulations of IVT, all of which are equivalent to the usual form in classical analysis, but not in constructive analysis.
For example, under the same conditions on f as in the classical theorem, given any natural number n (no matter how large), there exists (that is, we can construct) a real number cn in the interval such that the absolute value of f(cn) is less than 1/n.
That is, we can get as close to zero as we like, even if we can't construct a c that gives us exactly zero.

Alternatively, we can keep the same conclusion as in the classical IVT—a single c such that f(c) is exactly zero—while strengthening the conditions on f.
We require that f be locally non-zero, meaning that given any point x in the interval [a,b] and any natural number m, there exists (we can construct) a real number y in the interval such that |y - x| < 1/m and |f(y)| > 0.
In this case, the desired number c can be constructed.
This is a complicated condition, but there are several other conditions that imply it and that are commonly met; for example, every analytic function is locally non-zero (assuming that it already satisfies f(a) < 0 and f(b) > 0).

For another way to view this example, notice that according to classical logic, if the locally non-zero condition fails, then it must fail at some specific point x; and then f(x) will equal 0, so that IVT is valid automatically.
Thus in classical analysis, which uses classical logic, in order to prove the full IVT, it is sufficient to prove the constructive version. From this perspective, the full IVT fails in constructive analysis simply because constructive analysis does not accept classical logic. Conversely, one may argue that the true meaning of IVT, even in classical mathematics, is the constructive version involving the locally non-zero condition, with the full IVT following by "pure logic" afterwards.
Some logicians, while accepting that classical mathematics is correct, still believe that the constructive approach gives a better insight into the true meaning of theorems, in much this way.

The least-upper-bound principle and compact sets
Another difference between classical and constructive analysis is that constructive analysis does not prove the least-upper-bound principle, i.e. that any subset of the real line R would have a least upper bound (or supremum), possibly infinite.
However, as with the intermediate value theorem, an alternative version survives; in constructive analysis, any located subset of the real line has a supremum.
(Here a subset S of R is located if, whenever x < y are real numbers, either there exists an element s of S such that x < s, or y is an upper bound of S.)
Again, this is classically equivalent to the full least upper bound principle, since every set is located in classical mathematics.
And again, while the definition of located set is complicated, nevertheless it is satisfied by many commonly studied sets, including all intervals and all compact sets.

Closely related to this, in constructive mathematics, fewer characterisations of compact spaces are constructively valid—or from another point of view, there are several different concepts that are classically equivalent but not constructively equivalent.
Indeed, if the interval [a,b] were sequentially compact in constructive analysis, then the classical IVT would follow from the first constructive version in the example; one could find c as a cluster point of the infinite sequence (cn)n∈N.

See also

 Computable analysis
 Constructive nonstandard analysis
 Heyting field
 Indecomposability (constructive mathematics)
 Pseudo-order

References

Further reading

Intuitionism

Constructive analysis


James Alan "Jim" Kerzman (March 2, 1947 – June 20, 2015) was an American farmer, rancher, and politician. He served in the North Dakota House of Representatives from 1991 to 2009.

Born in Minot, North Dakota, Kerzman lived on a farm near Emmet, North Dakota and then moved with his family to another farm in Mott, North Dakota where he lived with his family. He graduated from Assumption Abbey High School in Richardton, North Dakota. Kerzman then went to Dickinson State University and North Dakota State College of Science studying mechanics. Kerzman was involved with the rural electric cooperative. From 1991 until 2009, Kerzman served in the North Dakota House of Representatives and was a Democrat. Kerzman died in a tractor accident on his farm near Mott, North Dakota.

Notes

1947 births
2015 deaths
People from Hettinger County, North Dakota
People from McLean County, North Dakota
People from Minot, North Dakota
Dickinson State University alumni
North Dakota State College of Science alumni
Farmers from North Dakota
Accidental deaths in North Dakota
Farming accident deaths
Democratic Party members of the North Dakota House of Representatives

James Kerzman