Twitter, Inc. was an American social media company based in San Francisco, California. The company operated the social networking service Twitter and previously the Vine short video app and Periscope livestreaming service. In April 2023, Twitter merged with X Holdings and ceased to be an independent company, becoming a part of X Corp.

Twitter was created by Jack Dorsey, Noah Glass, Biz Stone, and Evan Williams in March 2006 and was launched that July. , more than 100 million users tweeted 340 million tweets a day, and the service handled an average of 1.6 billion search queries per day. The company went public in November 2013. , Twitter had more than 330 million monthly active users.

On April 25, 2022, Twitter agreed to a $44 billion buyout by Elon Musk, CEO of SpaceX and Tesla, one of the biggest deals to turn a company private. On July 8, Musk terminated the deal. Twitter's shares fell, leading company officials to sue Musk in the Chancery Court of Delaware on July 12. On October 4, Musk announced his intention to purchase the company as he had agreed, for $44 billion, or $54.20 a share; the agreement closed on October 27.

Following Musk's takeover, Twitter was criticized for an increase in hate speech, as well as for perceived systemic prioritization of right-wing content. His acquisition of the company has been characterized by large-scale policy changes, mass layoffs and resignations, and a dramatic shift in the company's work culture.

History

2006–2007: Creation and initial reaction

Twitter origins lie in a "daylong brainstorming session" held by board members of the podcasting company Odeo. Jack Dorsey, then an undergraduate student at New York University, introduced the idea of an individual using an SMS service to communicate with a small group. Work on the project started in February 2006. Dorsey published the first Twitter message on March 21, 2006, at 12:50 p.m. PST (UTC−08:00): "just setting up my twttr". The first Twitter prototype, developed by Dorsey and contractor Florian Weber, was used as an internal service for Odeo employees. The full version was introduced publicly on July 15, 2006. In October 2006, Biz Stone, Evan Williams, Dorsey, and other members of Odeo formed Obvious Corporation and acquired Odeo, together with its assets—including Odeo.com and Twitter.com—from the investors and shareholders. Williams fired Glass, who was silent about his part in Twitter's startup until 2011. Twitter spun off into its own company in April 2007.

The tipping point for Twitter's popularity was the 2007 South by Southwest Interactive (SXSWi) conference. During the event, Twitter usage increased from 20,000 tweets per day to 60,000. "The Twitter people cleverly placed two 60-inch plasma screens in the conference hallways, exclusively streaming Twitter messages," remarked Newsweeks Steven Levy. "Hundreds of conference-goers kept tabs on each other via constant twitters. Panelists and speakers mentioned the service, and the bloggers in attendance touted it." Reaction at the conference was highly positive. Blogger Scott Beale said that Twitter was "absolutely ruling" SXSWi. Social software researcher danah boyd said Twitter was "owning" the conference.

2007–2022: Growth
In April 2012, Twitter announced that it was opening an office in Detroit, with the aim of working with automotive brands and advertising agencies. Twitter also expanded its office in Dublin. Twitter hit 100 million monthly active users in September 2011. On December 18, 2012, Twitter announced it had surpassed 200 million monthly active users.

The company had its initial public offering on the New York Stock Exchange on November 7, 2013.

In September 2016, Twitter shares rose 20% after a report that it had received takeover approaches. Potential buyers were Alphabet (the parent company of Google), Microsoft, Salesforce.com, Verizon, and The Walt Disney Company. Twitter's board of directors were open to a deal, which could have come by the end of 2016. However, no deal was made, with reports in October stating that all the potential buyers dropped out partly due to concerns over abuse and harassment on the service. In June 2017, Twitter revamped its dashboard to improve the new user experience.

In April 2021, Twitter announced that it was establishing its African headquarters in Ghana.

In January 2022, Twitter finalized the sale of MoPub to AppLovin. The deal was first announced in October 2021, and the selling price was reported at $1.05 billion.

2022 and 2023

Acquisition by Elon Musk

Business magnate Elon Musk revealed that he had bought 9.1% of Twitter for $2.64 billion on April 4, 2022. In response, Twitter's stock rose by as much as 27% and Twitter shares experienced the largest intraday surge since Twitter's IPO in 2013. Musk was appointed to Twitter's board on April 9, under a deal that prohibited him from acquiring more than 14.9% of the company.

Musk made an unsolicited offer on April 14 to acquire Twitter for $43 billion and take the company private. Publicly, Musk expressed that his offer was motivated by concerns with how the company was managed, emphasizing his concern that policies he described as censorship were leading to a lack of free speech on the platform. Twitter's board introduced a "poison pill" strategy on April 15, which would allow shareholders to buy additional stock should a hostile takeover occur as a means to block Musk's takeover. On April 20, Musk secured $46.5 billion in funding as a tender offer, which the board accepted on April 25.

On July 8, Musk announced he was unilaterally terminating the proposed acquisition, claiming in a regulatory filing that Twitter was in "material breach" of several parts of the agreement by refusing to comply with Musk's requests for spambot account data and dismissing high-ranking employees. In response, Twitter board chair Bret Taylor pledged to pursue legal action against Musk at the Delaware Court of Chancery with the goal of completing the acquisition. On July 12, Twitter opened a lawsuit against Musk to force the sale to proceed. On September 13, 2022, Twitter shareholders voted to approve Elon Musk's takeover of the company.

On October 4, 2022, it was reported that Musk offered to proceed with the deal at the original offer price of $54.20 per share. The deal closed on October 27, 2022, with the merger between Twitter, Inc. and X Holdings II, Inc., a wholly owned subsidiary of X Holdings I, Inc., wholly owned by Musk, and Musk took control of the company, paying $54.20 per share, or about $44 billion.

By January 2023, Twitter only had around 2,300 employees left, according to Musk, with only 550 working full-time. By April, there were less than 1,500 active employees left with 80% of Twitter's work force gone in a year.

Post-acquisition

On October 28, immediately following Musk's acquisition, he fired CEO Parag Agrawal and CFO Ned Segal. Twitter's stock was suspended from trading prior to the New York Stock Exchange opening the next day and was delisted on November 8. On October 31, Musk announced in a security filing that he had dissolved the board of directors and would serve as the CEO of the company. In January 2023, he also fired an employee who criticized him.

On November 4, Twitter laid off about half of its 7,500 employees, leaving several internal departments, including communication and core engineering teams understaffed. Some of the employees were later asked to return, with Twitter stating that they were "laid off by mistake". Several current and former Twitter employees sued the company for violations of the Worker Adjustment and Retraining Notification Act of 1988 due to failures to provide a 60-day notice prior to mass firings.

Top security, compliance, content moderation, and sales executives resigned due to Musk stating that employees must either work longer hours or resign from the company. On November 16, Musk issued an "ultimatum" to all remaining Twitter employees warning that workers could expect "long, intense hours of work" if they decided to stay, a decision that was ordered to be made by the following day, with news sources reporting numerous employees leaving on the same day. The Verge reported that multiple critical engineering teams "completely or near-total[ly] resigned", increasing internal fears of a collapse of Twitter.

Within a week of Musk's acquisition and subsequent internal instability of the firm, including layoffs of Twitter's trust and safety teams, large advertisers including General Mills, Pfizer, Volkswagen, and General Motors announced an advertising pause. Advertising agencies, including IPG and Omnicom Media Group, advised clients to pause ad spending on Twitter temporarily until the platform can sufficiently assure brand safety concerns. Apprehension over increased hate speech made advertisers leave in large numbers. Impersonator accounts had increased following errors in the blue tick scheme for verified users causing concerns. Musk said Twitter was experiencing "a massive drop in revenue" causing losses of $4 million per day, which he attributed to "activist groups pressuring advertisers," adding that "nothing is working" to lure advertisers back.

According to a November 2022 report from Media Matters for America, Twitter had lost half of its top 100 advertisers, which spent $750 million on ads in 2022. Advertising research firm Standard Media Index said advertiser spending on Twitter declined 55% in November year-on-year, and declined 71% in December, despite those holiday months typically seeing higher ad spending.

By December 2022, Musk's family office privately sought to sell new shares valued at his original acquisition price of $54.20, amid turmoil among users and advertisers, and debt payments approaching. Musk's money manager wrote to investors that in recent weeks the family office had received "numerous inbound requests to invest in Twitter." The Wall Street Journal reported in January 2023 that talks had been held to raise up to $3 billion to pay down some of the $13 billion in bank debt incurred in the deal, which includes a $3 billion high interest rate bridge loan. Musk denied the report, saying, "corpo media shills clearly have their marching orders to write hit pieces on me these days." The Journal reported in October 2023 that the seven major banks that provided the $13 billion loan had been unable to follow the standard practice of quickly selling down their exposure to other banks, due to a lack of appetite for the debt since Musk took over. The banks expected to mark down the debt by at least 15% in order to sell it.

In April 2023, National Public Radio were designated as "US state-affiliated media", a label "that's typically been reserved for foreign media outlets that represent the official views of the government, like Russia's RT and China's Xinhua." This move by Twitter sparked a controversy and accusations of pro-Republican bias. In a statement to Variety, NPR president and CEO John Lansing condemned the decision.

Twitter, Inc. was merged with X Corp. in April 2023.

Services

Twitter
Twitter is a social networking service on which users send and respond publicly or privately texts, images and videos known as "tweets".

Former services

Vine

On October 5, 2012, Twitter acquired a video clip company called Vine that launched in January 2013. Twitter released Vine as a standalone app that allows users to create and share six-second looping video clips on January 24, 2013. Vine videos shared on Twitter are visible directly in users' Twitter feeds. On October 27, 2016, Twitter announced that it would disable all uploads, but that viewing and download would continue to work. On January 20, 2017, Twitter launched an Internet archive of all Vine videos that had ever been published. The archive was officially discontinued in April 2019.

Periscope

On March 13, 2015, Twitter announced its acquisition of Periscope, an app that allowed live streaming of video. Periscope was launched on March 26, 2015. Due to declining usage, product realignment, and high maintenance costs the service was discontinued on March 31, 2021. However, past Periscope videos can still be watched via Twitter and most of its core features are now incorporated into the app.

Crashlytics and Fabric

Twitter acquired Crashlytics, a crash reporting tool for developers, on January 28, 2013, for over US$100 million, its largest acquisition at the time. Twitter committed to continue supporting and expanding the service.

In October 2014, Twitter announced Fabric, a suite of mobile developer tools built around Crashlytics. Fabric brought together Crashlytics, Answers (mobile app analytics), Beta (mobile app distribution), Digits (mobile app identity and authentication services), MoPub, and TwitterKit (login with Twitter and Tweet display functionality) into a single, modular SDK, allowing developers to pick and choose which features they needed while guaranteeing ease of installation and compatibility. By building Fabric on top of Crashlytics, Twitter was able to take advantage of Crashlytics' large adoption and device footprint to rapidly scale usage of MoPub and TwitterKit. Fabric reached active distribution across 1 billion mobile devices just 8 months after its launch.

In early 2016, Twitter announced that Fabric was installed on more than 2 billion active devices and used by more than 225,000 developers. Fabric is recognized as the #1 most popular crash reporting and also the #1 mobile analytics solution among the top 200 iOS apps, beating out Google Analytics, Flurry, and MixPanel. In January 2017, Google acquired Fabric from Twitter and later integrated it into their Firebase platform.

Revue
Revue was a service which lets writers create email newsletters and offer free or paid subscriptions to them. Revue was founded in the Netherlands in 2015 and acquired by Twitter on January 26, 2021. On December 14, 2022, Twitter announced the service would be discontinued on January 18, 2023, at which point all user data would be deleted.

Acquisitions

On April 11, 2010, Twitter acquired Atebits, developers of the Twitter client Tweetie for the Mac and iPhone.

On January 28, 2013, Twitter acquired Crashlytics in order to build out its mobile developer products. On August 28, 2013, Twitter acquired Trendrr, followed by the acquisition of MoPub on September 9, 2013.

On June 4, 2014, Twitter announced that it would acquire Namo Media, a technology firm specializing in "native advertising" for mobile devices. On June 19, 2014, Twitter announced that it had reached an undisclosed deal to buy SnappyTV, a service that helps edit and share video from television broadcasts. The company was helping broadcasters and rights holders to share video content both organically across social and via Twitter's Amplify program. In July 2014, Twitter announced that it intended to buy a young company called CardSpring for an undisclosed sum. CardSpring enabled retailers to offer online shoppers coupons that they could automatically sync to their credit cards in order to receive discounts when they shopped in physical stores. On July 31, 2014, Twitter announced that it had acquired a small password-security startup called Mitro. On October 29, 2014, Twitter announced a new partnership with IBM. The partnership was intended to help businesses use Twitter data to understand their customers, businesses and other trends.

On February 11, 2015, Twitter announced that it had acquired Niche, an advertising network for social media stars, founded by Rob Fishman and Darren Lachtman. The acquisition price was reportedly $50 million. Twitter announced that it had acquired TellApart, a commerce ads tech firm, with $532 million stock. In June 2016, Twitter  acquired an artificial intelligence startup called Magic Pony for $150 million.

On January 26, 2021, Twitter acquired Revue, an email newsletter service to compete with platforms like Substack.

In November and December 2021, Twitter acquired and immediately shut down two competitors: threader.app, a service to transform Twitter threads into accessible web pages, and Quill, a messaging service. Threader.app users were directed to instead purchase the Twitter Blue service, which at the time was available only in some countries.

Leadership
As chief executive officer, Dorsey saw the startup through two rounds of capital funding by the venture capitalists who backed the company. On October 16, 2008, Williams took over the role of CEO, and Dorsey became chairman of the board. On October 4, 2010, Williams announced that he was stepping down as CEO. Dick Costolo, formerly Twitter's chief operating officer, became CEO. On October 4, 2010, Williams made an announcement saying that he will stay with the company and "be completely focused on product strategy".

According to The New York Times, "Mr. Dorsey and Mr. Costolo forged a close relationship" when Williams was away. According to PC Magazine, Williams was "no longer involved in the day-to-day goings on at the company". He was focused on developing a new startup, and became a member of Twitter's board of directors, and promised to "help in any way [he could]." Dorsey rejoined Twitter in March 2011, as executive chairman focusing on product development. At that time, he split his schedule with Square (where he is CEO), whose offices are within walking distance of Twitter's in San Francisco.

In September 2011, board members and investors Fred Wilson and Bijan Sabet resigned from Twitter's board of directors. In October 2012, Twitter announced it had hired former Google executive Matt Derella to become their new director of business agency development. Twitter named former Goldman Sachs executive Anthony Noto as the company's CFO in July 2014, with an "annual salary of $250,000 and one-time restricted stock options of 1.5 million shares ... valued at $61.5 million". On June 10, 2015, Twitter announced its CEO Dick Costolo would resign on July 1, 2015. Noto was said to be considered a potential replacement for outgoing CEO Costolo. On October 14, 2015, former Google chief business officer Omid Kordestani became executive chairman, replacing Dorsey who remains CEO. On January 26, 2016, Leslie Berland, former executive vice president of global advertising, marketing, and digital partnerships at American Express, was named chief marketing officer. In November 2016, COO Adam Bain announced his resignation and CFO Anthony Noto took over Bain's role. A month later, on December 20, 2016, CTO Adam Messinger announced that he too was leaving.

In February 2020, it was reported that Elliott Management Corporation had acquired a stake in Twitter, with activist shareholder and Republican Party supporter Paul Singer expected to seek the removal of Dorsey as CEO. Twitter agreed to appoint a new independent director and two new board members, and to perform $2 billion in share buybacks.

On November 29, 2021, Jack Dorsey stepped down as CEO. He was replaced by CTO Parag Agrawal. On October 27, 2022, Elon Musk closed a deal to purchase the company and fired Agrawal, CFO Ned Segal, chief legal officer Vijaya Gadde, and general counsel Sean Edgett. Musk replaced the prior board as the sole director of Twitter and appointed himself as the CEO.

List of chairmen

 Jack Dorsey (2008–2015)
 Omid Kordestani (2015–2020)
 Patrick Pichette (2020–2021)
 Bret Taylor (2021–2022)

List of CEOs
 Jack Dorsey (2006–2008); first term
 Evan Williams (2008–2010)
 Dick Costolo (2010–2015)
 Jack Dorsey (2015–2021); second term
 Parag Agrawal (2021–2022)
 Elon Musk (2022–2023)

Finances
For the fiscal year 2021, the last fiscal before Twitter was taken private, the company reported earnings loss of 221 million, with an annual revenue of $5.1 billion. Since its IPO, Twitter made profit in two of the eight years.

Funding
Twitter raised over US$57 million from venture capitalist growth funding, although exact figures are not publicly disclosed. Twitter's first A round of funding was for an undisclosed amount that is rumored to have been between US$1 million and US$5 million. Its second B round of funding in 2008 was for US$22 million and its third C round of funding in 2009 was for US$35 million from Institutional Venture Partners and Benchmark Capital along with an undisclosed amount from other investors including Union Square Ventures, Spark Capital, and Insight Venture Partners. Twitter is backed by Union Square Ventures, Digital Garage, Spark Capital, and Bezos Expeditions.

The company raised US$200 million in new venture capital in December 2010, at a valuation of approximately US$3.7 billion. In August 2010 Twitter announced a "significant" investment led by Digital Sky Technologies that, at US$800 million, was reported to be the largest venture round in history. In December 2011, the Saudi prince Alwaleed bin Talal invested US$300 million in Twitter. The company was valued at US$8.4 billion at the time.

Stock launch and tax issues
On September 12, 2013, Twitter announced that it had filed papers with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) ahead of a planned stock market listing. It revealed its prospectus in an 800-page filing. Twitter planned to raise US$1 billion as the basis for its stock market debut. The initial public offering (IPO) filing states that "200,000,000+ monthly active users" access Twitter and "500,000,000+ tweets per day" are posted. In an October 15, 2013, amendment to their SEC S-1 filing, Twitter declared that they would list on the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE), quashing speculation that their stock would trade on the NASDAQ exchange. This decision was widely viewed to be a reaction to the botched initial public offering of Facebook. On November 6, 2013, 70 million shares were priced at US$26 and issued by lead underwriter Goldman Sachs.

On November 7, 2013, the first day of trading on the NYSE, Twitter shares opened at $26.00 and closed at US$44.90, giving the company a valuation of around US$31 billion. Consequently, executives and early investors marginally increased their capital, including co-founders Williams and Dorsey who received a sum of US$2.56 billion and US$1.05 billion respectively, while Costolo's payment was US$345 million. On February 5, 2014, Twitter published its first results as a public company, showing a net loss of $511 million in the fourth quarter of 2013.

In November 2017, the Paradise Papers, a set of confidential electronic documents relating to offshore investment, revealed that Twitter is among the corporations that avoided paying taxes by using offshore companies. Later The New York Times reported that Russian-American billionaire Yuri Milner had strong Kremlin backing for his investments in Facebook and Twitter.

See also

 Timeline of social media

References

External links

2006 establishments in California
2023 disestablishments in California
2006 in San Francisco
2013 initial public offerings
2022 mergers and acquisitions
American companies established in 2006
Internet properties established in 2006
Companies based in San Francisco
Companies formerly listed on the New York Stock Exchange
Multinational companies headquartered in the United States
Privately held companies based in California
Social media companies of the United States
South of Market, San Francisco
Elon Musk

Twitter, Inc.


Nitrosyl-O-hydroxide (molecular formula HOON) is an isomer of nitrous acid, which has been experimentally observed in the gas phase. HOON contains the longest oxygen-oxygen bond thus far observed in any known molecule, measured to be 1.9149 angstroms. There had been speculation about the existence of this molecule, and ab initio calculations have suggested that it might have a stable chemically bonded structure.

Structure
The HOON structure was generated by the McCarthy group in a pulsed supersonic expansion of a gaseous mixture of nitric oxide and water vapor diluted with neon. The molecule was detected using Fourier transform microwave spectroscopy. The equilibrium structure of nitrosyl-O-hydroxide in the gas-phase was determined to be a planar structure, adopting a trans conformation. The structure shown below is a semi-empirical structure derived from a combination of experimental data and theoretically derived vibration-rotation constants.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|
|-
|dimensions of the trans form(from the microwave spectrum)
|}

Early theoretical work had suggested the HOON structure should be extremely unstable, decomposing with no significant activation barrier into hydroxyl radical and nitric oxide:

HOON  →  OH + NO

References

Nitrogen oxoacids
Nitrogen cycle
Oxidizing agents
Mineral acids

Nitrosyl-O-hydroxide


The first USS Ericsson (Torpedo Boat # 2/TB-2) was the second torpedo boat built for the United States Navy. The first,, had been built seven years earlier.

Ericsson was launched on 12 May 1894 by Iowa Iron Works, Dubuque, Iowa; sponsored by Miss Carrie Kiene; and commissioned on 18 February 1897. It was named for John Ericsson, designer of the USS Monitor.

Service history

Pre-Spanish–American War
On 18 May 1897, Ericsson arrived at Newport, Rhode Island, her home port. Through the summer months, she cruised New England waters for trials and training, instructing regular and reserve officers in torpedo tactics. She left Newport on 18 September for a cruise to Annapolis, Norfolk, Wilmington, Charleston, Savannah, and several ports in Florida, arriving at Key West on the last day of the year. This was to be her base for operations in the Caribbean during the next seven months.

Spanish–American War
As war with Spain approached, Ericsson patrolled the Florida Keys, intensified her training operations, and carried messages for the increasing number of the fleet present in the area. She continued this duty after the opening of the war, then on 22 April 1898 began a blockade patrol between Havana and Key West. She joined the fleet at Santiago, Cuba 20 June, and during the Battle of Santiago de Cuba on 3 July, was in the thick of the fight, firing on the Spanish fleet. As the defeated Spanish ships blazed and threatened to explode, Ericsson played a leading part in the rescue efforts through which men of the U.S. Navy that day showed their courage, skill, and determination as clearly as they had in the fighting. She laid herself alongside the Spanish cruiser , ignoring the fact that the Spanish ship's ammunition was already exploding, and that flames were firing the loaded guns. Over 100 Spanish officers and men were thus saved, and more were taken off the flagship Maria Teresa and Oquendo, as Ericsson towed small craft from her squadron's larger ships to the burning hulks.

Post-war fate
Ericsson patrolled off Cuba through mid-August 1898, and on 23 August arrived at New York, where she was decommissioned on 21 September and laid up. In December 1900, she was returned to commission, still in reserve, then sailed for Norfolk, Virginia, where on 6 March 1901 she was assigned to the Reserve Torpedo Flotilla. In October 1908, she moved to Charleston Navy Yard, where she was decommissioned on 5 April 1912 and later sunk in ordnance tests.

References

Additional technical data from

External links

Torpedo boats of the United States Navy
Ships built in Iowa
1894 ships
Ships sunk as targets
Shipwrecks
Maritime incidents in 1912

USS Ericsson (TB-2)


In Reformed theology, the imputation of sin is the crediting of Adam's sin to the account of every individual human being. Under the framework of covenant theology, Adam is considered as a "federal head" or representative of all of his progeny. His sinful act of eating the fruit from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil which was forbidden by God had consequences for all humanity. This is explained as the sin being imputed, or accounted, to individual humans. A person that has sin imputed to them becomes guilty of transgression before God for being in violation to his laws and is subject to his punishments in the life hereafter.

Several theories have been proposed by Reformed theologians to explain how Adam's sin is transmitted to others. The "immediate imputation" view holds that when Adam sinned, all of humanity became sinful simply by that act, without further consideration. Under the "mediate imputation" view (due to Joshua Placaeus), humans inherited a proclivity to sin because of Adam's act. In recent years, theologians have begun to explain the transmission of original sin by socialization and character deformation rather than imputation.

References

Further reading

Calvinist theology
Christian hamartiology

Imputation of sin


Charles Félix Jean-Baptiste Camerata-Passionei di Mazzoleni (20 September 1826 – 4 March 1853) was a French-Italian aristocrat born in Ancona, the son of Filippo Camerata-Passionei di Mazzoleni, an Italian count, and Princess Elisa Napoléone Baciocchi, the daughter of Felice Baciocchi Levoy and Elisa Bonaparte. He was therefore a grandnephew of Napoleon and a first cousin once removed  of Louis Napoléon Bonaparte, who became President of the French Republic in 1848 and then Emperor of the French as Napoléon III in 1852.

Camerata-Passionei di Mazzoleni was one of the maîtres des requêtes au Conseil d'État, but committed suicide at the age of twenty-six after being prevented from marrying an actress.

Sources
 http://geneweb.inria.fr/roglo?lang=en;p=charles+felix+jean+baptiste;n=camerata+passionei+di+mazzoleni

1826 births
1853 deaths
People from Ancona
House of Bonaparte
Suicides in France


John Hanks (February 9, 1802 – July 1, 1889) was Abraham Lincoln's first cousin, once removed, his mother's cousin. He was the son of William, Nancy Hanks Lincoln's uncle and grandson of Joseph Hanks.

Early years and marriage
John Hanks was born near Beardstown, and near the Falls at Rough Creek, in Nelson County, Kentucky, on February 9, 1802. Four years later his family moved to Hardin County, Kentucky. Hanks married Susan Malinda Wilson in Kentucky in 1826. She was born on February 14, 1804, and died on March 11, 1863. Their children were William, Louis, Jane, Phelix, Emily, Mary Ellen and Levi.

Thomas Lincoln family
Hanks lived in Indiana with Thomas Lincoln for four years from 1822 or 1823. While there, he and Abraham farmed corn and were hired out to split rails. He then traveled to Kentucky for a year or two. In 1828 settled in Macon County, Illinois, after having built the first house in Decatur, Illinois.  It was he who persuaded Thomas to move to Illinois in 1830.

He worked alongside Abraham at his first job after he left home.  Hanks and Abraham together went to New Orleans in 1831, as hired hands on a flatboat owned by Denton Offutt, Lincoln (and his stepbrother John D. Johnston) being hired at Hanks' recommendation. Hanks claims that he initiated the first speech for Lincoln, believing that he would deliver a better speech than the candidate running for office. Having heard the speech, the candidate urged Lincoln to continue giving speeches.

Black Hawk war
Hanks served four or six months during the Black Hawk War of 1832, during which time he helped build a fort at Ottawa.

1860 Republican presidential campaign

Rail splitter campaign
It was Hanks who accompanied Richard J. Oglesby to the old Lincoln farm and brought back the split fence rails for Lincoln's famous "rail splitter" campaign at the Republican Party convention at Decatur, Illinois, in 1860.

On May 9, 1860, the opening day of the convention, Oglesby addressed the crowd, announcing that "An old Democrat of Macon county […] desire[s] to make a contribution to the Convention".  At this cue, Hanks, and Isaac Jennings, carried two of the fence railings into the Convention hall, which were tagged with a banner that read "Abraham Lincoln, the Rail Candidate for President in 1860.  Two rails from a lot of three thousand made in 1830 by John Hanks and Abe Lincoln.".

This election stunt had the side-effect of making Hanks into somewhat of a national celebrity. Supporters requested "genuine Lincoln rails" split by Hanks and Lincoln.  Oglesby wrote certificates of authenticity of the 72 "genuine" Lincoln rails that were dispatched on Hanks' behalf.

Rumor
The Democrats started a rumour that Hanks was not in fact going to vote for Lincoln come election time.  They had come to that conclusion based upon his having voted for Stephen A. Douglas, the Democratic presidential hopeful, in 1858.  Oglesby transcribed a letter in response for the illiterate Hanks, stating that he would be voting for Lincoln and why. The letter was condemned by Hanks' brother Charles and the Democrats, who were suspicious that it was written by someone else, some "smart Republican", on Hanks' behalf. Charles stated that he thought Hanks "even yet does not know what is in it, much less did he ever write it". It was decided that no more open letters by Hanks should be published, and instead Hanks took to making personal appearances in support of Lincoln on the campaign trail.

Political appointment request
After Lincoln's election, Hanks sought a political appointment in the new administration, again through Oglesby as a letter-writing intermediary, preferring to be an Indian agent.  However, although (according to Henry Clay Whitney) Lincoln did give the matter some serious consideration, he was not appointed to any position by Lincoln, although he did visit the White House several times and attended Lincoln's inauguration.

Civil War
When the United States Civil War broke, Hanks enlisted as a teamster in the Illinois regiment, under Ulysses S. Grant, despite being technically too old to enlist.  Hanks was never to see his first cousin, once removed, in the flesh again, their paths only crossing for a final time when Hanks attended Lincoln's funeral.

See also
Lincoln family tree

Notes

References

Bibliography

Further reading

19th-century American people
Abraham Lincoln
1802 births
1889 deaths
People from Macon County, Illinois

John Hanks


See also the journalist Karel Havlíček Borovský

Karel Havlíček (October 31, 1907 in Berlin – December 25, 1988 in Kadaň) was a Czech painter.

He was born in Berlin where his parents had moved from Vienna in 1903 because his father Karel started to work in the state theatres as a scene designer. They moved to Czechoslovakia in 1923 and his father entered the Prague National Theatre as a stage setter. Karel Havlíček junior studied in Berlin and Prague Gymnasiums and influenced by his father and his friends (Cesar Klein, Pankok, Emil Pirchan, and Aravantinos) he was interested in art. However his father persuaded him to study law at Charles University and after graduation he started a career of an official.  In 1946 he moved to Kadaň and started to work in the Thun porcelain factory in Klášterec nad Ohří. Since 1955 he changed various hard manual jobs. He found fulfillment in visiting natural museums, reading his favourite Kant and Schopenhauer and especially in drawing. He drew a picture every day for tens of years. The communist regime did not allow to display his work and so he was recognized only by a few artists and writers, e.g. Karel Teige, Vratislav Effenberger or Ivo Pondělíček. Several exhibitions took place in Germany and Austria thanks to his friend Gotthard Schwinge. The municipal gallery in Kadaň is named after him.

1907 births
1988 deaths
20th-century Czech painters
Czech male painters
Painters from Berlin
German emigrants to Czechoslovakia
20th-century Czech male artists
Charles University alumni

Karel Havlíček


Penjajap, also pangajava and pangayaw, were native galley-like warships used by several Austronesian ethnic groups in maritime Southeast Asia. They were typically very long and narrow, and were very fast. They are mentioned as being used by native fleets in Indonesia, the southern Philippines, Malaysia, and Brunei.

Names and etymology
The original name for the ships among the natives of the Maluku Islands, eastern Sabah, western Mindanao, and the Sulu Archipelago is pangayaw or mangayaw (literally meaning "raider").  This was transcribed in European sources (chiefly Dutch and Portuguese) variously as pangaio, pangaia, panguaye, pangajao, pangajaua, pangajava, penjajab, penjajap, pindjajap, penjelajah, and pangara. The British East India Company explorer Thomas Forrest also records that the Iranun called them mangaio.

The terms (particularly pangaio) were also later borrowed and used generically for any native wooden sailing ships made from planks without using nails by the Portuguese Empire in their colonies in Africa and India. This usage later spread to other European colonial powers, being applied chiefly to Arab and Swahili-built ships. The terms are similarly inaccurately applied to the garay, fast raiding vessels of the Banguingui and Iranun people in the Philippines. However, the garay were much broader and did not have outriggers.

Penjajap may also be generically referred to as prao, prahu, proe, prauw, or prow in historical records. The "List of Ships and Sea Vehicles from East Indies" which is periodically published by colonial government of Dutch East Indies, registered pangajaoa as pengajoehan (pengayuhan). The list records its name came from kajoeh (kayuh—means paddle) and pengajoeh (pengayuh—means paddler), and consider it as a kind of galley.

History
The earliest record of penjajap is from 1509 by the Portuguese historian Fernão Lopes de Castanheda, he said that pangajava (penjajap) were vessels from Sumatra, long and swift, going very well under sail or oars.

According to Afonso de Albuquerque, during the 1511 Portuguese attack on the Malacca Sultanate, the Malays used an unspecified number of lancaran (lanchara) and twenty penjajap (pangajaoa).

In 1775, the British explorer Thomas Forrest described a large penjajap in an Iranun harbor in Sulu as being only  wide and  deep, but was as long as . It mounted six brass lantaka and carried a crew of thirty men, and was equipped with outriggers.

Admiral François-Edmond Pâris observed penjajaps during his voyage aboard the ship Favorite. The dimensions of the vessels encountered vary widely, the largest he saw were  long,  wide and  deep; the smallest was  long.

Herbert Warington Smyth reported the description of penjajap from Malay peninsula at the end of the 19th century. The boats were using dipping lugsail, with small deckhouse or awning (called kajang in Malay) and overhanging stern gallery (called dandan).

Description

Penjajap were made from light materials. They were typically very long and narrow and had a shallow draft. This allowed them to sail over dangerous reefs as well as upriver. Large penjajap had outriggers, without which, they would capsize. Penjajap has sharp stern but with an overhanging gallery. Deckhouse amidships is made of palm leaves with thatched roof. In the 19th century they are steered using centerline rudder of western design, but early penjajap may have used double quarter rudder. They have 1, 2, or 3 masts depending on the size, the quadrilateral sail has yard and boom. Long narrow oars are also used for propulsion. The name "Pagar Tenggalong" refers to a type of penjajap with ornamental bulwark/rail.

Penjajap carried 1 or 2 guns of larger caliber in the wooden gunshield (apilan). Small penjajap only carried 1–2 lantaka supported on posts at the bow, while larger ones had additional swivel guns mounted at the sides. They were propelled by oars and usually by two tanja sails (called saguran among Sulu pirates). They could be rowed both forwards and backwards. They had a relatively open deck covered by a platform. A small cabin is located at the back, which served as the quarters of the nakodah and as a magazine for arms.

Like the larger and broader garay, they also served as motherships to smaller kakap war-boats. Penjajap were very fast. Large penjajap could reach speeds of  under sail, and  when rowed. In Iranun raiding fleets, they usually outpaced the slower lanong warships.

Role

Penjajap were chiefly used as inter-insular warships and as pirate ships. Iranun penjajap were usually lightly armed compared to the lanong. Usually they only mount a single lela (native cannon). While lanong was specially designed for ship-to-ship combat, penjajap is more suited to raid coastal villages and attack lightly armed or unarmed merchant ships. In such raids, penjajap were usually accompanied by smaller boats called kakap, which are used as scouts for the penjajap or lanong.

The Portuguese diplomat Tomé Pires, on his visit to Nusantara, referred the penjajap as cargo vessels. Many cargo penjajap were collected by Pati Unus from various port cities in Java to attack the Portuguese in Malacca. Penjajap were converted to serve as armed troop transports for landing, as the Javanese junks were too large to approach shore. Penjajap was the other type of vessels counted by Pires after junks and lancaran upon arriving at a port. However Pires said that after the boats were donated to Pati Unus, trading activity in the ports became more lethargic.

Admiral François-Edmond Pâris noted several cargo penjajap in Malacca strait during 1830s. The penjajap brought spices, dried areca nuts, and coconut almonds from Sumatra, and seem to frequent only the southern part of the strait.

See also
Lancaran
Kora kora
Padewakang
Kelulus

References

Ships of Indonesia
Indonesian inventions
Indigenous ships of the Philippines
Multihulls
Naval sailing ship types
Boats of Indonesia
Two-masted ships
Human-powered watercraft
Military boats

Penjajap


Crinia is a genus of frog, native to Australia, and part of the family Myobatrachidae. It consists of small frogs, which are distributed throughout most of Australia, excluding the central arid regions. Many of the species within this genus are non-distinguishable through physical characteristics, and can only be distinguished by their calls.

They have unwebbed toes and fingers, most of the species in these genus are polymorphic - meaning that several variations of colour and skin patterning exist in a single population and all species lay their eggs in small clumps in water.

The generic name Crinia likely derives from the Greek verb κρῑνω (krīnō) "to separate" as a reference to the frog's unwebbed digits, meaning "separated (toes)". Although Johann Jakob von Tschudi did not provide an etymology in 1838, he cited the frog's "free toes" (without webbing) as an important distinctive feature (most frogs have webbed feet).

During the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s a lot of taxonomic work was done on this genus, frogs that were originally thought to be common eastern froglets (Crinia signifera) were described as other species of Crinia by mating call analysis and hybridization experiments. Two species originally described as Crinia were then placed in their own genus, Assa and Paracrinia. One species of both Geocrinia and Taudactylus were split from Crinia and the genus Bryobatrachus was also described only to be recently placed back into Crinia. The moss froglet, (Crinia nimbus) is very different physically and in its tadpole development. Due to the obvious differences with other species in Crinia this species is likely to be placed again into a separate genus.

Species
The genus Crinia contains 17 species:

References

Amphibian Species of the World - Crinia Tschudi, 1838
Australian Government Department of the Environment and Heritage

Tschudi, Johann J. von (1838). Classification der Batrachier, mit Berücksichtigung der fossilen Tiere dieser Abteilung der Reptilien. Neuchâtel : Erück Petitpierre pp. 102.

Myobatrachidae
Amphibians of Australia
Amphibian genera
Taxa named by Johann Jakob von Tschudi

Crinia


John Stringfellow (1799 – 13 December 1883) was a British early aeronautical inventor, known for his work on the aerial steam carriage with William Samuel Henson.

Life

Stringfellow was born in Attercliffe, England to Martha [née Gillan] and William Stringfellow, stone mason. Initially apprenticed to the lace making trade in Nottingham, c.1820 he relocated to Chard, Somerset to work as an engineer of bobbins and carriages for the lace industry, becoming so successful that he started his own company. On 27 February 1827 he married Hannah Keetch. They had 10 children, including a son who died in infancy and a daughter, Laura, with epilepsy who died age 29.

Together with William Samuel Henson, he had ambitions of creating an international company, the Aerial Transit Company, with designs showing aeroplane travel to exotic locations like Egypt and China. The initial designs were flawed, with Stringfellow's ideas centred on monoplane and triplane models and Henson's ideas centred on an underpowered steam-powered vehicle, however In 1848 Stringfellow achieved the first ever powered flight using an unmanned 10 ft wingspan steam-powered monoplane, built in a disused lace factory in Chard, Somerset. Employing two contra-rotating propellers on the first attempt, made indoors, the machine flew ten feet before becoming destabilised, damaging the craft. The second attempt was more successful, the machine leaving a guide wire to fly freely, achieving some thirty yards of straight and level powered flight.
A bronze model of that first primitive aircraft stands in Fore Street in Chard. The town's museum has a unique exhibition of flight before the advent of the internal combustion engine and before the manned, powered flight made famous by the Wright Brothers. Stringfellow also invented and patented compact electric batteries, which were used in early medical treatment. Stringfellow's work was featured in an exhibition in 1868 at The Crystal Palace in London.

Stringfellow was also a member of the South West Photographic Society and gave lectures about his inventions with photographs as illustration and proof of his pioneering aviation work. A keen photographer in his spare time, Stringfellow had begun learning the new art / science in the late 1850s, being among the first to produce a wet print of an image and quickly becoming proficient enough to advertise as a professional portrait photographer at his studio near the family home in Chard High Street. The studios in Chard and in Crewkerne are where some of his flying vehicle machines were photographed. The 1871 census of England and Wales lists his occupation as "Machinist & Photographer".

It is recorded that Stringfellow met Isambard Kingdom Brunel and Marconi at regular South West Engineering Institution and Royal Society events, enjoying great debates over the science and engineering principles of the day with his fellow engineers. In 1868 he was elected a member of the Royal Aeronautical Society and used his prize money to build a larger workspace for continuing his experiments. However, at nearly 70 years, his sight was beginning to fail and he was unable to make further progress. His 1881 census status is "Retired Mechanician Inventor of Flying Machines".

John Stringfellow died in 1883 at the age of 84 and was buried in Chard Cemetery, Somerset, where there is a commemorative family monument.

Stringfellow's first powered flight achievement was referenced in the 1965 film The Flight of the Phoenix. The character Heinrich Dorfmann (Hardy Krüger), a German airplane designer, explains that it was a model airplane that made the first powered flight in 1851 and though his own experience with airplane design is with building models, the principles are the same.  His design for an airplane to be built from the scraps of their crashed plane will fly them out of the desert to safety.

Stringfellow and Henson are honoured by the Royal Aeronautical Society with an annual lecture and dinner in Yeovil

See also
 Aviation history
 Frederick Brearey
 George Cayley, aviation pioneer
 John Chapman, engineer

Notes and references

Harald Penrose, An Ancient Air: A Biography of John Stringfellow of Chard, The Victorian Aeronautical Pioneer (Shrewsbury, England: Airlife Publishing, Ltd., 1988), 183p., illus.

External links
BBC: John Stringfellow
Hargrave: John Stringfellow
Chard Museum
Flying Machines: John Stringfellow

Aviation pioneers
1799 births
Aviation inventors
1883 deaths
People from Sheffield
Steam-powered aircraft
People from Chard, Somerset
Engineers from Yorkshire

John Stringfellow


Domenico Morelli (4 August 182313 August 1901) was an Italian painter, who mainly produced historical and religious works. Morelli was immensely influential in the arts of the second half of the 19th century, both as director of the Accademia di Belle Arti in Naples, but also because of his rebelliousness against institutions: traits that flourished into the passionate, often patriotic, Romantic and later Symbolist subjects of his canvases. Morelli was the teacher of Vincenzo Petrocelli and Ulisse Caputo.

Biography
He was born to a poor family in Naples. His mother had hoped he would become a priest. His precocious talent was noted, and he was enrolled at the Royal Academy of Fine Arts in Naples in 1836–1846, where he befriended Francesco Altamura. His early works contain imagery drawn from the Medieval stories and Romantic poets such as Byron. In 1845, he painted a prize-winning . In 1845–46, with the painting of , and help from a generous patron, the lawyer Ruggiero, he won a fellowship to study in Rome. In 1847–48, he painted  and , the prize-winning , and . In 1847 at Rome, he painted a .

Morelli had just returned to Naples, when the insurrections of 1848 erupted in Naples. He joined the protesters in the barricades on via Toledo, and was wounded, nearly killed, and briefly imprisoned. In a retrospective published after his death, Isabella Anderton would label Domenico as one of the warrior artists of Italy, a group which also included Filippo Palizzi, Telemaco Signorini, Stefano Ussi, and Francesco Saverio Altamura.

Released, Morelli returned to Rome. He painted  (1851) and . In 1855 at the Florentine Exposition, he displayed his famous The Iconoclasts.

He participated in the Universal Exposition in Paris in 1855. Later, in Florence, he was an active participant in the Macchiaioli discussions on Realism. Morelli claimed that it was these discussions that made his own work less academic and helped him to develop a freer style and to experiment with color. In this period, he is grouped into the school of Realism.

In 1857, he won a contest to design the decoration of the church of San Francesco of Gaeta, a project never completed. On a trip to Milan he painted  , Pompeian Bath, and a . By 1857, he had returned to Naples, painting a . For the ceiling of the Royal chapel of Naples, he painted an Assumption of the Virgin.

He was a member of an independent society, led by his friend Filippo Palizzi, to promote the liberal arts, called the  in 1862. He was appointed consultant for new acquisitions of the Capodimonte art museum in Naples and, thus, had significant impact on the subsequent direction of the collections. In 1868, Morelli became a professor of painting at his old Academy, which now became the Royal Institute of Fine Arts in Naples. From that period onward, his interest turned to religious and mystical themes, drawn from mostly Christian, but also Jewish and Muslim traditions. Perhaps best known from this period is the Assumption on the ceiling of the Royal Palace in Naples. Morelli was also one of the collaborators for the illustrations of the Amsterdam Bible in 1895. From 1899 until his death, he was president of the Royal Academy of Fine Arts in Naples.

Morelli late in life won many awards and distinctions. he was named honorary professor of the principal academies of Italy and Europe, commendatore of the Order of SS. Maurizio e Lazzaro and of the Order of the Crown of Italy, and . In June, 1886, he was knighted a senator by the King.
He died on 13 August 1901 in Naples.

Among his many pupils were Giuseppe Costa, Francesco Paolo Michetti, Vittorio Matteo Corcos, Giuseppe Boschetto, Camillo Miola, Edoardo Tofano, Antonio Mancini, Vincenzo Montefusco and Enrico Salfi. Morelli designed the frescoes painted for the tomb of Giacomo Leopardi, located in the church of San Vitale at Fuorigrotta, but they were completed posthumously by his son-in-law, Paolo Vetri.

Gallery

References

Sources

External links

19th-century Italian painters
Italian male painters
Realist artists
19th-century Neapolitan people
1823 births
1901 deaths
Academic art
People of the First Italian War of Independence
Accademia di Belle Arti di Napoli alumni
Academic staff of the Accademia di Belle Arti di Napoli
19th-century Italian male artists

Domenico Morelli


Edward Grazda (born 1947) is an American photographer who grew up in Bayside, New York. He studied photography at the Rhode Island School of Design. He has shot extensively throughout Mexico, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Latin America and Asia. His photographs are in the collections of The Museum of Modern Art, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, The New York Public Library, as well as The Corcoran Gallery of Art and The San Francisco Museum of Modern Art.

References

1947 births
Living people
American photographers
Rhode Island School of Design alumni

Edward Grazda


Molecular Breast Imaging (MBI), also known as scintimammography, is a type of breast imaging test that is used to detect cancer cells in breast tissue of individuals who have had abnormal mammograms, especially for those who have dense breast tissue, post-operative scar tissue or breast implants.

MBI is not used for screening or in place of a mammogram. Rather, it is used when the detection of breast abnormalities is not possible or not reliable on the basis of mammography and ultrasound alone. When mammography plus ultrasound are insufficient to characterize an abnormality, the gold standard next step is Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) of the breast. However, in patients with contraindications (e.g. certain implantable devices) or who prefer to avoid MRI (claustrophobia, discomfort), use of scintimammography is an acceptable alternative.

Mechanism
Scintiamammorgraphy is based on the principle of scintigraphy, where the gamma radiation emitted from injected radiopharmaceuticals is measured by gamma cameras. Cancer cells take up radiopharmaceutical at a higher rate than surrounding normal tissue, and as such they show up on scintigraphy as areas of increases gamma radiation emission. A limitation to this principle is that not all breast lesions with metabolic activity higher than background are cancerous (eg fibroadenoma), and as such judicious use of molecular breast imaging by breast imagers is required.

The most common radiopharmaceutical used in MBI is 99mTc-sestamibi, with doses of 240-300 MBq in current protocols, resulting in an effective dose to a patient of around 2.4 mSv. Earlier iterations of MBI required much higher doses of radiation up to 1100 MBq, which in part led to MBI falling out of favor in the latter part of the last century. However advances in gamma camera technology such as breast specific gamma imaging (BSGI) have allowed for quality resolution at much lower radiation doses, and as such there has been increasing use of MBI.

Molecular breast imaging added to screening mammogram increases cancer detection rate by about 7-16 positive results per 1000 tests completed, however the dose of radiation experienced by the patient is increased.

Procedure

The procedure is conducted according to practice guidelines corresponding to the region where they are performed (American College of Radiology guidelines in the U.S.). A patient can expect to receive an injection of radiopharmaceutical agent intravenously in the arm contralateral to the breast under investigation. After waiting 5–10 minutes, the breast tissue is placed into the MBI system and a series of images are obtained. Imaging time for both breasts is approximately 40 minutes. For lesions identifiable on MBI but not mammography or ultrasound, MBI guided biopsy is appropriate.

Equipment
Breast-specific gamma cameras have been developed with a smaller field of view than conventional cameras, allowing higher resolution imagery and compression of the breast as in x-ray mammography (which improves detection of smaller lesions).

Clinical indications

Mammography is widely accepted as the first-line screening option for the detection of breast cancer, with a sensitivity for detection of cancer at around 85-90%. However, in patients with dense breast tissue or those with risk of breast cancer greater than 20%, the sensitivity of mammography drops significantly, with some studies reporting a sensitivity of less than 50%. In these patients, many centers utilize breast ultrasound as additional screening modality, which studies have shown increases breast cancer detection by 2 cancers detected per 1000 people screened. Ultrasound also plays an important role in further characterization of indeterminate lesions seen on screening mammography, but it does result in a significant increase in false positive rate when compared to mammography alone. Breast MRI is considered the gold-standard in supplemental imaging of dense breasts, with an increase in cancer detection of about 15 cancers per 1000 screens. In patients where MRI is contraindicated (certain implantable devices, certain kidney conditions) or in those who prefer to avoid MRI (claustrophobia), molecular breast imaging is a viable alternative. MBI has shown to increase detection of breast cancer in dense breasts by 7-16 cancers per 1000 screens.

See also
 Technetium (99mTc) sestamibi
 Nuclear medicine
 Positron emission mammography

References

External links
 Scintimammography entry in the public domain NCI Dictionary of Cancer Terms

2d nuclear medical imaging
Breast imaging
Cancer screening

Molecular Breast Imaging


The Showgrounds is a football stadium in Sligo, Ireland. It has a capacity of 5,500. 2,400 of the 5,500 capacity are seated. There are two seated stands - a blue stand and a red stand which holds most of the seats. There is also a terrace - there used to be two, but the old one got knocked down along with the shed. There are two training pitches, one of them is astroturf. Sometimes there is a carnival in the car park. Sligo Rovers F.C. play their home games in the Showgrounds.

Football stadiums
Football in the Republic of Ireland
Buildings and structures in the Republic of Ireland

Showgrounds


East Thrace is the European part of Turkey and belongs to the Balkans Peninsula. Edirne and the European side of Istanbul are the main cities of the region, which borders Bulgaria and Greece. The Bosporus Strait divided it into Europan and Asian parts. Mahya Dağı, the highest peak of the Strandzha Massif; Gallipoli; the Dardanelles; the Sea of Marmara are the most well-known places in East Thrace, which connects to the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea. Most inhabitants are Romanlar (Turkish Gypsiess) and the Turkish people, like the Amuca tribe, Gajal and Peoples of Balkan in Turkey, like Pomak, the Patriyotlar. Also, a major diaspora of Crimean Tatars lives here. Oil wrestling is the main sport.

References

Geography of Turkey

East Thrace


The Big Mac Index is an economic index which compares the purchasing power of two currencies. It looks at how expensive a Big Mac is in different countries.

The Big Mac Index was first written about in The Economist magazine in September 1986.  They have published the index each year since then. The McDonald's Big Mac was chosen because it is made in a similar way with similar ingredients in many countries around the world.

The exchange rate between two countries can be compared by dividing the price of a Big Mac in one country (in its currency) by the price of a Big Mac in another country (in its currency).  This value is then compared with the actual exchange rate.  If the rate is lower, then the first currency is under-valued (according to purchasing power parity (PPP) theory) compared with the second currency. Conversely, if the rate is higher, then the first currency is over-valued.

For example, using figures in July 2008:
the price of a Big Mac was $3.57 in the United States
the price of a Big Mac was £2.29 in the United Kingdom (Britain)
using exchange rates at July 2008, the  Big Mac in Britain could be bought for $4.57
the implied purchasing power parity was 1.56, that is the local price in Britain divided by the price in the United States
this compares with an actual exchange rate of $2.00 to £1 at the time
the pound was thus overvalued against the dollar by 28%
i.e. the actual exchange rate divided by implied purchasing parity -> 2 divided by 1.56 = 1.28

Related pages
 KFC Index

References

Other websites
 Big Mac Index 1986-2009

McDonald's
Economic indicators

Big Mac Index


Major General Carlos Fernando Chardón also referred to as "Fernando Chardón" (September 5, 1907 – December 9, 1981), was the Secretary of State of Puerto Rico from 1969 to 1973 and the Puerto Rico Adjutant General from 1973 to 1975.

Early years
Chardón (birth name: Carlos Fernando Chardón Palacios) was born in Ponce, Puerto Rico, to Carlos Felix Chardón and Isabel Palacios Pelletier. His great-grandfather, Juan Bautista Chardón, a Catholic native of Champagne, France, immigrated to Puerto Rico from Louisiana in 1816, encouraged by the Royal Decree of Graces issued by the Spanish Crown.

Chardón received his primary and secondary education in his hometown. After graduating from high school, he enrolled and attended the University of Cornell In 1928, he earned a Bachelor of Science in Agricultural Engineering.

Military and political career
After he graduated from Cornell, Chardón returned to Puerto Rico and joined the Puerto Rico National Guard. He was assigned to the 295th Infantry and commissioned a first lieutenant. He served in the regular United States Army during World War II and in 1945, was honorably discharged from the Army with the rank of lieutenant colonel.

In 1946, he returned to Puerto Rico and continued to serve in the National Guard. Chardón was promoted to the rank of colonel and was named Commander of the 295th Infantry. Although the unit as such did not participate in the Korean War, most of its members saw action in the conflict, either as replacements for Puerto Rico's 65th Regiment casualties, or to cover vacancies in that unit resulting from the rotation system. On July 20, 1965, he served temporarily as Adjutant General of Puerto Rico upon the death of Major General Juan César Cordero Dávila. in 1968, he was promoted to the rank of brigadier general in the Puerto Rican National Guard.

Chardón served as Secretary of State of Puerto Rico from 1969 to 1973, representing the New Progressive Party of Puerto Rico under the governorship of Luis Alberto Ferré Aguayo  As Secretary of State of Puerto Rico he led all efforts to promote the cultural, political, and economic relations between Puerto Rico and foreign countries, and other jurisdictions of the United States. Part of his responsibilities included that he be the acting governor in the event that the Governor of Puerto Rico is unable to perform his duties.  He is tied with the 22nd Secretary of State, Kenneth McClintock, as the third longest-serving Secretary of State.

In 1973, Chardón was promoted to the rank of major general in the National Guard and resigned his position of Secretary of State of Puerto Rico. Chardón served as the Puerto Rico Adjutant General from 1973 to 1975 under the governorship of Rafael Hernández Colón who represented the political beliefs of the Popular Democratic Party As Adjutant General, he was the Senior Military Advisor to the Governor of Puerto Rico and oversaw both State and Federal Missions of the Puerto Rico National Guard. During the command of BG Carlos Chardón proposed the naming of the National Guard training facility in Salinas, Puerto Rico as Camp Santiago. Chardón retired as the Puerto Rico Adjutant General in 1975.

Family
He was married to Carmín Cuyar Gatell and was the father of four offspring. His brother was Carlos E. Chardón, the first Puerto Rican mycologist, a high-ranking official in government on agriculture during the 1920s, the first Puerto Rican appointed as Chancellor of the University of Puerto Rico (1931-1935), and the head of the Puerto Rican Reconstruction Administration in the mid-to late 1930s during the Great Depression. His nephew is Carlos A. Chardón Lopez who served as Puerto Rico's Secretary of Education in 1977 and 2009.

Death
On December 9, 1981, Chardon died of a cerebral hemorrhage at the Ashford Memorial Hospital in San Juan, Puerto Rico He was buried with full military honors in Plot: Section HSA, Plot 6, at the Puerto Rico National Cemetery in Bayamón, Puerto Rico. His wife Carmín (1911 - 2000) was also buried in the same plot upon her death. The Puerto Rican Government named a street after him in San Juan; "Calle Carlos F Chardon".

Written works
"Reseña histórica del origen y desarrollo de las milicias puertorriqueñas bajo el régimen español, 1511-1898"; Published 1978 by [s.n.] in San Juan, P.R.; LC Control Number 81128128

See also

List of Puerto Ricans
List of Puerto Rican military personnel
Puerto Rico Adjutant General
French immigration to Puerto Rico

Notes

References

1907 births
1981 deaths
Burials at Puerto Rico National Cemetery
Historians of Puerto Rico
Military personnel from Ponce
Politicians from Ponce
Puerto Rican people of French descent
Secretaries of State of Puerto Rico
Puerto Rico Adjutant Generals
Puerto Rican military officers
National Guard (United States) generals
Puerto Rican Army personnel
Puerto Rican Roman Catholics
United States Army generals
20th-century American politicians
Puerto Rico National Guard personnel

Carlos Fernando Chardón


The 251st (Good Fellows) Battalion, CEF was a unit in the Canadian Expeditionary Force during the First World War.  Based in Winnipeg, Manitoba, the unit began recruiting in the autumn of 1916 in Winnipeg and the surrounding district.  According to Leek, the unit did not sail for, but "was partially absorbed by the 18th RESERVE Battalion; the remainder were absorbed by the 1st Depot Battalion, Manitoba Regiment".  The 251st (Good Fellows) Battalion, CEF had one Officer Commanding: Lieut-Col. G. H. Nicholson.

References
Meek, John F. Over the Top! The Canadian Infantry in the First World War. Orangeville, Ont.: The Author, 1971.

Battalions of the Canadian Expeditionary Force

251st Battalion (Good Fellows), CEF


Peter Anders  (1 July 1908 – 10 September 1954) was a German operatic tenor who sang a wide range of parts in the German, Italian, and French repertories. He began by singing lyric roles and later took dramatic roles with equal success. He was also a prominent lieder singer.

Life and career
Anders was born in Essen and studied at the Berlin Music Academy with Ernst Grenzebach, and later privately with Lula Mysz-Gmeiner, whose daughter Susanne he married. In 1931, he appeared in Berlin in La belle Hélène, and made his operatic debut the following year in Heidelberg, as Jacquino in Fidelio.

He sang in Darmstadt (1933–35), Cologne (1935–36), Hannover (1937–38), and then at the Munich State Opera (1938–40), where he took part in the creation of Strauss's Friedenstag. He returned next to Berlin and sang at the Berlin State Opera from 1940 until 1948. His repertory at that time included lyric roles such as Belmonte, Tamino, Lyonel, Hans, Hoffmann, Leukippos, Alfredo, Eisenstein and Rodolfo.

Beginning in 1949, Anders undertook such heavier roles as Florestan, Max, Tannhäuser, Lohengrin, Walther, Siegmund, Radames,  Otello, with equal success.

He made a few guest appearances at the Royal Opera House in London, La Monnaie in Brussels and Teatro di San Carlo in Naples, as well as appearing at the Glyndebourne Festival.

Anders sang not only an impressive range of operatic roles but also appeared in several operetta parts. He performed regularly on German radio and in concert and was also active in oratorio and lieder recitals.

He became a favorite of Adolf Hitler's regime and was not required to serve in the armed forces during the Second World War - instead entertaining German troops and participating in propaganda events. These activities tainted his reputation in the post-war world.

While at the height of his career, Anders died in a car accident in Hamburg at the age of 46. He made many recordings which have been reissued on CD.

Sources
 Operissimo.com

Further reading

External links

 Richard Wagner: Lohengrin: "In fernem Land" - Chor und Sinfonieorchester des Kölner Rundfunks; Conductor: Richard Kraus; November, 1951
 Beethoven Fidelio "Euch werde Lohn in bessern Welten" Trio with Gottlob Frick and Helene Werth, conducted by Ferenc Fricsay.
 Schubert
 Mozart (Don Giovanni)
 'History of the Tenor' - sound clips and narration

1908 births
1954 deaths
Musicians from Essen
German operatic tenors
Road incident deaths in West Germany
20th-century German male pianists
Burials at the Ohlsdorf Cemetery

Peter Anders (tenor)


Whity is a 1971 West German film, written and directed by Rainer Werner Fassbinder and starring Günther Kaufmann and Hanna Schygulla. Shot in Spain, it is a melodrama in the form of a Spaghetti Western which addresses some of Fassbinder's recurrent themes such as dysfunctional families, sexual diversity and the struggle of the individual to find a place in society. Though entered into the 21st Berlin International Film Festival, it was never distributed theatrically and only much later achieved a DVD release.

Plot
In 1878 in the south west of the US, Ben Nicholson is the richest rancher of the area. A tough man who strikes a hard bargain, he has been outwitted by his second wife Katherine, a flirtatious intriguer. Of his two sons from the previous marriage, Frank is gay and the unfortunate David is a half-wit. There is a third son in the house however, born from the black cook Marpessa, who acts as butler: this is Whity.

Despite his capability, Whity gets humiliated and whipped. His only hope of any decency lies in his friendship with the town's saloon singer and whore, Hanna. She has landed a job back in the east and offers to take Whity with her, but he says he must stay with his family.

To trap Katherine, Ben arranges for a Mexican called Garcia to pretend he is a physician and to seduce her, confiding to her that Ben has not long to live. The plot succeeds but, rather than pay what he promised, Ben kills Garcia. When he learns that Hanna witnessed the murder, he pays her for her silence.

Excited by the prospect of inheriting the ranch, both Frank and Katherine try to get Whity to kill Ben. In the end, after repeated humiliations in a household where everybody is trying to seduce or kill each other, Whity decides he must at last act. He shoots all four Nicholsons and flees into the desert with Hanna, whose money he had earlier stolen and gambled away. Once their water is finished, they dance together as the sun sets behind them.

Cast
 Günther Kaufmann as Whity
 Hanna Schygulla as Hanna
 Katrin Schaake as Katherine Nicholson
 Harry Baer as Davy Nicholson
 Ulli Lommel as Frank Nicholson
 Tomas Blanco as Fake Mexican physician
 Stefano Capriati as Judge
 Elaine Baker as Marpessa, Whity's mother
 Mark Salvage as Sheriff
 Helga Ballhaus as Judge's wife
 Ron Randell as Benjamin Nicholson

References

External links

1971 films
1971 Western (genre) films
German Western (genre) films
1970s German-language films
1970s English-language films
Films directed by Rainer Werner Fassbinder
Films about race and ethnicity
Films shot in Almería
1972 multilingual films
German multilingual films
1970s German films

Whity


The Sans Souci Ferry is a cable ferry that provides access across the Cashie River in Bertie County, North Carolina. Since the 1930s, the ferry has been operated by the North Carolina Department of Transportation.

The ferry is located on SR 1500 south of Windsor, North Carolina. It is one of three cable ferries that are still operating in North Carolina. The others are the Parker's Ferry and Elwell Ferry.

History
The Sans Souci Ferry has operated in some form or fashion since at least the 1800s. It was not until the 1930s that the state Department of Transportation took over operations of the ferry and has operated it ever since. The ferry is not considered part of the state ferry system, which operates larger ferries along the immediate NC coast. The NC cable ferries are considered inland ferries. They are operated by regional DOT divisional offices instead of the NC DOT Ferry Division.

Operations
The ferry is driven, or one could say guided, by a steel cable that stretches across the river. The cable is secured on each side of the river by steel posts. As the ferry crosses the river, the force of the boat, with the help of rollers on the side of the boat, pulls the normally submerged cable out of the water. The cable is permanently secured to the ferry and prevents the boat from straying off course in normal river currents. The ferry carries a maximum of two cars and does not operate in high water conditions or storms, as there is too much risk of the cable snapping in such treacherous conditions. Persons wanting to ride the ferry that happen to be on the opposite side of the river than the ferry must blow their vehicle horn to summon the ferry. The trip by ferry across the river takes roughly 5 minutes and saves a drive of about 20 miles. The ferry is free of charge. The ferry operates almost every day except for days of high water and bad weather.

Vessel
The ferry has a steel, barge-like platform that cars drive onto. The "engine room" is located on one side of the ferry. Here the operator sits and controls the boat's engine, which is located outside and beside the room. The ferry is powered by a John Deere diesel engine. The operator must know when to let off the throttle, since the ferry has no brakes or on-board steering device.

Replacement
Many have worried over the years that the ferry might be replaced by a bridge. NCDOT officials have said that the ferry will likely never be replaced with a bridge because of the high cost. The ferry serves a secondary road that carries mainly local traffic; the volume is not sufficient to justify construction costs of a bridge.

The ferry was briefly closed from June 12, 2020 to August 19, 2020, due to a budget shortage caused by the COVID-19 pandemic.

References

Transportation in Bertie County, North Carolina
Ferries of North Carolina
Cable ferries in the United States

Sans Souci Ferry


The Treaty of Greenville, also known to Americans as the Treaty with the Wyandots, etc., but formally titled A treaty of peace between the United States of America, and the tribes of Indians called the Wyandots, Delawares, Shawanees, Ottawas, Chippewas, Pattawatimas, Miamis, Eel Rivers, Weas, Kickapoos, Piankeshaws, and Kaskaskias was a 1795 treaty between the United States and indigenous nations of the Northwest Territory (now Midwestern United States), including the Wyandot and Delaware peoples, that redefined the boundary between indigenous peoples' lands and territory for European American community settlement.

It was signed at Fort Greenville, now Greenville, Ohio, on August 3, 1795, following the Native American loss at the Battle of Fallen Timbers a year earlier. It ended the Northwest Indian War in the Ohio Country, limited Indian country to northwestern Ohio, and began the practice of annual payments following the land concessions. The parties to the treaty were a coalition of Native American tribes known as the Western Confederacy, and the United States government represented by General Anthony Wayne and local frontiersmen.

The treaty became synonymous with the end of the frontier in that part of the Northwest Territory that would become the new state of Ohio.

Participants

General "Mad Anthony" Wayne, who had led the US army victory at Fallen Timbers and a subsequent scorched earth campaign of destroying villages, led the US government delegation. Other members included William Wells, William Henry Harrison, William Clark, Caleb Swan, and Meriwether Lewis.

Native American leaders who signed the treaty included leaders of these bands and tribes: Wyandot (chiefs Tarhe, Roundhead, and Leatherlips), Delaware (several bands). Shawnee (chiefs Blue Jacket and Black Hoof), Ottawa (several bands, including Egushawa), Chippewa, Potawatomi (23 signatories, including Gomo, Siggenauk, Black Partridge, Topinabee, and Five Medals), Miami (including Jean Baptiste Richardville, White Loon, and Little Turtle), Wea, Kickapoo, and Kaskaskia.

Following their defeat at Fallen Timbers, Wayne had courted the favor of several key leaders within the Western Confederacy. Blue Jacket, the Shawnee war chief who had led the Native American force at Fallen Timbers, encouraged others to accept Wayne's terms for peace. Tarhe declared that the victory at Fallen Timbers was evidence that the Great Spirit favored the United States. Opposition to the United States was led by Little Turtle who, ironically, had advised against engaging Wayne at Fallen Timbers. For a week, Wayne urged the native tribes to accept peace based on previous terms at the Treaty of Fort McIntosh, Treaty of Fort Finney, and Treaty of Fort Harmar, but Little Turtle countered that the Miami Tribe were not party to these treaties and would not recognize them, and that they were invalid because they were made with people who had no right to the lands that they had sold.

Wayne revealed that the U.S. Senate had recently ratified the Jay Treaty, ensuring that Great Britain would no longer provide aid to the Native Americans. Tarhe confirmed that previous treaties had been signed by chiefs who were at Greenville and warned his fellow Indigenous tribal leaders that Wayne had the military power to take all of their lands if they did not negotiate. Little Turtle and the Miami remained the lone dissent in the confederacy. At a private council between Wayne and Little Turtle on August 12, Wayne argued that the Miami chief was standing against the will of the confederate majority. Little Turtle reluctantly signed, stating that he was the last to sign, and would therefore be the last to break the treaty, even though he disagreed with the terms.

The day after the Treaty of Greenville was signed, Little Turtle's wife died in camp. She was carried to a grave by US Soldiers and given a three gun salute.

The treaty was signed by President George Washington and ratified by the United States Senate on December 22, 1795.

Terms
The treaty consisted of ten articles.

Land for annuity
The treaty established what became known as the Greenville Treaty Line, as delineated below. For several years, it distinguished Native American territory from lands open to European-American settlers, who, however, continued to encroach. In exchange for goods to the value of $20,000 (such as blankets, utensils, and domestic animals), the Native American tribes ceded to the United States large parts of modern-day Ohio.

The treaty also established the "annuity" system of payment in return for Native American cessions of land east of the treaty line. Yearly grants of federal money and supplies of calico cloth to Native American tribes. That institutionalized continuing government influence in tribal affairs and gave outsiders considerable control over Native American life.

Treaty line

The treaty redefined with slight modifications the boundaries in Ohio established previously by the Treaty of Fort McIntosh in 1785 and reasserted in the Treaty of Fort Harmar in 1789. In particular, the western boundary, which formerly ran northwesterly to the Maumee River, now ran southerly to the Ohio River.

Ohio had developed settlements and defined tracts of land prior to 1795, including the Western Reserve, the Seven Ranges survey area, the Virginia Military District, Symmes Purchase, and two Ohio Company purchases, all in eastern and southern Ohio, as well as the line of western forts built by Wayne through Fort Recovery along the Great Miami River valley. The boundary line would need to encompass all those territories, covering about two thirds of Ohio Country.

The treaty line began at the mouth of the Cuyahoga River in present-day Cleveland and ran south along the river to the portage between the Cuyahoga and Tuscarawas Rivers in what is now Akron, then through the Portage Lakes area between Akron and Canton. The line continued down the Tuscarawas to Fort Laurens, near present-day Bolivar. From there, the line ran west-southwest to near present-day Fort Loramie on a branch of the Great Miami River. From there, the line ran west-northwest to Fort Recovery on the Wabash River near the present-day boundary between Ohio and Indiana. From Fort Recovery, the line ran south-southwest to the Ohio River at a point opposite the mouth of the Kentucky River in present-day Carrollton, Kentucky. Rufus Putnam, who had been appointed by George Washington as surveyor general of the United States, surveyed and marked the Treaty Line.

Other parcels of land
There were also other forts along the Great Lakes, such as Fort Miamis and other forts in Indiana, Michigan, and Ohio that the British had agreed to cede to the United States in the 1783 Treaty of Paris but had yet to evacuate. In Indiana, there was the Vincennes Tract, Clark's Grant, and the settlement at Ouiatenon to protect.

The treaty also permitted established US Army posts and allocated strategic reserved tracts within the Indian Country to the north and the west of the ceded lands, the most important of which was the future site of Fort Dearborn (now Downtown Chicago) on Lake Michigan. Other American lands within Indian Country included Fort Detroit, Ouiatenon, Fort Wayne, Fort Miami, and Fort Sandusky.

The treaty exempted established settlements at St. Vincennes, General Clark's grant, various French settlements, and Fort Massac from relinquishment.

Miscellaneous provisions
The United States renounced all claims to indigenous peoples' lands not within the treaty line in Ohio or parcels exempted. The indigenous groups were obliged to recognize the United States as the sole sovereign power in the entire territory, but the local peoples would otherwise have free use of their own lands as long as they were kindly disposed to American settlers. The treaty also arranged for an exchange of prisoners and specified the parties that would be responsible for enforcing the boundary and punishing transgressions.

Criticism
After the signing of the treaty, the so-called "peace chiefs"—such as Little Turtle—who advocated for cooperation with the United States, were roundly criticized by Shawnee chief Tecumseh, who stated that the peace chiefs had given away land that they did not own. Tecumseh fought against the Americans during the War of 1812 and was killed in battle in 1813.

Aftermath

The negotiated peace was only temporary. Anthony Wayne who promised to protect the treaty would die a year later. Continuing encroachments by settlers on Indian Country north and west of the treaty line (and of future treaty lines established by the Treaty of Vincennes, Treaty of Grouseland, and Treaty of Fort Wayne of 1809), especially in Indiana, would lead a disgruntled Tecumseh, who had not signed the Treaty of Greenville, to reform the Confederacy at Prophetstown over the following decade. Unrest among the tribes culminated in the Battle of Tippecanoe in 1811, a major defeat for indigenous nations that may have contributed to their siding with the British in the War of 1812.

The Treaty of Greenville closed the frontier in the Northwest Territory. Thereafter began a series of purchases of indigenous peoples' lands by treaty and Indigenous tribe removals by law throughout the territory and its successors, interrupted briefly by the War of 1812. Indians were moved west of the Mississippi River to Indian Country reservations in what later became the state of Oklahoma in a process that culminated with the dismantling of the Great Miami Reserve in Indiana by treaties in the 1830s. By 1840, the Old Northwest was essentially clear of indigenous peoples. Future conflicts would all be west of the Mississippi.

The treaty line would become the southwestern boundary of the Northwest Territory at its division in 1800. Upon Ohio statehood in 1803, the western boundary of Ohio ran due north from a place on the Ohio River somewhat east of the south-southwesterly treaty line, leaving a sliver of land called "The Gore" in what is today southeastern Indiana remaining as part of the Northwest Territory. "The Gore" was ceded to Indiana Territory at that time, and became Dearborn County in March 1803.

Meriwether Lewis and William Henry Harrison were both present at the treaty signing. The former would go on to launch the Lewis and Clark Expedition with William Clark in 1804, and the latter would later become the 9th President of the United States in 1841.

Fort Greenville was abandoned in 1796; it would be another 12 years before the settlement of Greenville, Ohio, was founded on the site.

It was the last treaty signed by Gen. Wayne, who died just over a year later, in December 1796.

Depictions
A painting commemorating the treaty hangs in the Ohio Statehouse. It was completed by Ohio artist Howard Chandler Christy. At  wide, it is the largest painting in the Ohio Statehouse.

Gallery

See also
List of Native American treaties

Notes

References

External links

 Video explaining painting at the Ohio Statehouse
 Treaty of Greenville at National Archives and Records Administration
 Treaty of Greenville from Yale Law School

Greenville
Greenville
Greenville
Miami tribe
Northwest Indian War
Shawnee history
Greenville
Greenville, Ohio
1795 in the Northwest Territory

Treaty of Greenville


St. Abbs and Eyemouth Voluntary Marine Reserve is a Voluntary Marine Reserve—the first established in the United Kingdom. Located in the Scottish Borders, it covers 8 kilometres of the Berwickshire coast, from Eyemouth in the south to St. Abb's Head in the north. At its centre is the fishing village of St. Abbs.

The reserve is one of the most popular scuba diving locations in the United Kingdom. The water of the reserve is unusually clear, in contrast to the more silt-laden coastal waters further to the north and south. The reserve was opened on 18 August 1984 by botanist and environmental campaigner David Bellamy.

External links
 St. Abbs Community Website

Berwickshire
Nature reserves in Scotland
Marine reserves of Scotland
Protected areas in the Scottish Borders


The Collins Spanish Dictionary is a bilingual dictionary of English and Spanish derived from the Collins Word Web, an analytical linguistics database.  As well as its primary function as a bilingual dictionary, it also contains usage guides for English and Spanish (known as Lengua y Uso and Language in Use respectively) and English and Spanish verb tables. In 2009,  the dictionary was brought to the iPhone & iPad platform. The iOS app of this dictionary, which has become one of the most popular Spanish dictionaries in the App store since then is developed by Cole Zhu Inc.

External links
iOS App  iPhone & iPad version of the Complete & Unabridged 9th Edition.
CollinsDictionary.com – Internet front-end to Collins Unabridged Spanish Dictionary content.

See also
 Collins-Robert French Dictionary

Translation dictionaries
William Collins, Sons books
1971 non-fiction books
Spanish dictionaries
Online English dictionaries

Collins Spanish Dictionary


William Masselos (August 11, 1920October 23, 1992) was an American classical pianist.

Biography
William Masselos was born in Niagara Falls, New York to a Dutch mother and a Greek father. He made his New York debut at The Town Hall in 1938 at the age of 18.

He studied with Carl Friedberg, a disciple of Johannes Brahms and Clara Schumann, and also with Nelly Reuschel (another Clara Schumann disciple) at New York's Institute of Musical Art (later called Juilliard School).

In 1952, at the age of 32, Masselos played the Brahms Piano Concerto in D minor in his first appearance with the New York Philharmonic Orchestra, led by Dimitri Mitropoulos. This impressive debut was the first in a long line of appearances with major orchestras which also included the New York Philharmonic under Pierre Monteux and Leonard Bernstein, the Montreal Symphony under Otto Klemperer, the London Philharmonic under Bernard Haitink, the American Symphony Orchestra under Leopold Stokowski, the Philadelphia Orchestra under Eugene Ormandy, and numerous others.

Known as a champion of contemporary music, Masselos premiered many works including the Charles Ives Piano Sonata No. 1, the Piano Fantasy by Aaron Copland, and most of the piano literature by Ben Weber, including the Concerto for Piano and Orchestra and the Fantasy (Variations), Op. 25. He was the soloist in the first performances of piano concertos by Alan Hovhaness, Johan Franco, Marga Richter, Carlos Surinach, and William Mayer, in addition to solo pieces by John Cage, Dane Rudhyar, Robert Helps, Carlos Chávez, and many others.

As an heir, through Carl Friedberg, of the Schumann and Brahms tradition, he was also particularly noted for his interpretation of the Schumann Davidsbundlertanze, Op. 6, and the Brahms Sonatas, both of which he recorded for RCA Red Seal in the early 1970s and are highly esteemed by record collectors.

Masselos died in New York City in October 1992, aged 72.

In May 2011, the pianist Lori Sims played a concert of works associated with Masselos at the Zankel Hall at Carnegie Hall, New York.

References

1920 births
1992 deaths
American classical pianists
Male classical pianists
American male pianists
American people of Greek descent
20th-century classical pianists
20th-century American pianists
Musicians from Niagara Falls, New York
Classical musicians from New York (state)
20th-century American male musicians

William Masselos


Ralph Swimer (14 October 1914 – 28 February 1998) was a British bridge player. He is best known as , or npc, of the 1965 Great Britain Bermuda Bowl team. During that World Bridge Federation championship tournament in Buenos Aires, the British pair Terence Reese and Boris Schapiro were accused of cheating.

Alan Truscott—bridge editor for The New York Times from 1 January 1964 until his death in 2005—covered the January 1965 tournament, where he helped develop the allegations, convince Captain Swimer, and testify for the WBF hearing. Decades later, his NYT bridge column in obituary of Swimer featured the affair. "In England", Truscott summarised, "Swimer was hailed as a hero by some but targeted as a villain by others."

Swimer was a member of the 1960 Great Britain open team in Turin, which finished second to France in the first quadrennial World Team Olympiad. His partner there was Jeremy Flint, who also played on the 1965 Bermuda Bowl team that Swimer led as npc.

Swimer was born in Poland and came to Britain in the early 1920s. He died in London, England, after a short illness.

Notes

References

External links

 "Sensational Scandal in Buenos Aires full story" at Shenkin's World of Bridge, by Barnet Shenkin (28 May 2010) – originally published as "Scandal in Buenos Aires" in four parts (17 March to 28 May)

1914 births
1998 deaths
British and Irish contract bridge players
Place of birth missing
Polish emigrants to the United Kingdom

Ralph Swimer


Philip Sidney Post (March 19, 1833 – January 6, 1895) was an American diplomat, politician, and decorated Army officer. He served as a United States Representative from Illinois for eight years, from 1887 to 1895. During the American Civil War, he was a Union Army officer and earned the Medal of Honor.

Biography

Early life
Born in Florida, New York, P. Sidney Post pursued classical studies and graduated from Union College, Schenectady, New York, in 1855. He studied at the Poughkeepsie Law School and was admitted to the bar in Illinois in 1856. He then traveled through the northwest and took up his abode in Kansas, where he practiced law and also established and edited a newspaper.

Civil War service
At the beginning of the American Civil War, he entered the Union Army and served with the 59th Illinois Volunteer Infantry Regiment as a 2nd lieutenant. He was promoted through the ranks to colonel in 1862. He was severely wounded at the Battle of Pea Ridge, and made his way with much suffering, and under many difficulties, to St. Louis, Missouri. Before fully recovering, he joined his regiment in front of Corinth, Mississippi, and was assigned to the command of a brigade.

From May 1862 until the close of the war, he was constantly at the front. In the Army of the Cumberland, as first organized, he commanded the 1st Brigade, 1st Division, of the 20th Army Corps from its formation to its dissolution. He began the Battle of Stones River, drove back the enemy several miles, and captured Leetown. During the Atlanta campaign, he was transferred to Thomas J. Wood's division of the 4th Army Corps, and when that general was wounded at the Battle of Lovejoy's Station, Post took charge of the division, and with it opposed the progress of the Confederates toward the north. On December 16, 1864, in a charge on Overton Hill, during the Battle of Nashville, a grapeshot crushed through his hip, making what was for some days thought to be a mortal wound. On March 11, 1865, President Abraham Lincoln nominated, and the U.S. Senate confirmed, Post for appointment to the brevet grade of brigadier general of volunteers, to rank from December 16, 1864.

After the surrender at Appomattox Court House, he was appointed to the command of the western district of Texas, where there was then a concentration of troops on the Mexican border. He remained there until near the start of 1866 when the withdrawal of the French from Mexico removed all danger of military complications. He was then earnestly recommended by Gen. George H. Thomas and others, under whom he had served, for the appointment of colonel in the regular army. But he did not wish to remain in the army, and he resigned and returned to Illinois. He was mustered out of the volunteers on December 8, 1865.

Post war
Post received the Medal of Honor on March 8, 1893, for his actions at the Battle of Nashville. He was appointed consul to Vienna in 1866, and promoted to consul general to Austria-Hungary in 1874, where he served until his resignation in 1879. He was the commander of the Grand Army of the Republic's Department of Illinois in 1886.  He was also a Companion of the Illinois Commandery of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States.

Post was elected as a Republican to the Fiftieth and to the four succeeding Congresses and served from March 4, 1887, until his death before the close of the Fifty-third Congress, in Washington, D.C., on January 6, 1895.  He was an early member of the Sons of the American Revolution.

He was interred in Hope Cemetery, Galesburg, Illinois.

See also

List of American Civil War brevet generals (Union)
List of United States Congress members who died in office (1790–1899)

Notes

References
 Eicher, John H., and David J. Eicher, Civil War High Commands. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2001. .
 Retrieved on 2008-02-12

External links

1833 births
1895 deaths
United States Army Medal of Honor recipients
Union Army colonels
People of Illinois in the American Civil War
Union College (New York) alumni
Illinois lawyers
People from Florida, Orange County, New York
People from Knox County, Illinois
19th-century American diplomats
American Civil War recipients of the Medal of Honor
Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Illinois
19th-century American politicians
Members of the Sons of the American Revolution
19th-century American lawyers
Grand Army of the Republic officials

Philip S. Post


Coucy-la-Ville () is a commune in the Aisne department in Hauts-de-France in northern France.

On the main Chauny to Soissons road, shortly after the village of Folembray, take a right hand turn and within half a mile you will come to the village of Coucy-la-Ville.

A single road runs through this small village passing a farm, a cafe-bar and a church. Then, as suddenly as you entered, you have left this small place. Up on the hill to your right you will see the remarkable view of the remains of the Château de Coucy, located in Coucy-le-Château-Auffrique. Down in Coucy-la-Ville, the area is flat and agricultural with its few houses dotted on either side of the road.

Administration

Population

See also
 Communes of the Aisne department

References

Communes of Aisne
Aisne communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia

Coucy-la-Ville


A milk substitute is a product that looks and tastes like milk. The mammary glands of mammals produce milk. In milk substitutes many of the ingredients of milk are replaced: A milk substitute may contain fat and proteins obtained from plants. People with a lactose intolerance or a milk allergy often replace milk by a substitute.

The two most common categories of milk substitutes are grain milk and plant milk.  The most common grain milk is oat milk, while the most common plant milk is soy milk.  Other examples include coconut milk, almond milk, and peanut milk.

Nutrition

Milk substitute