In baseball, sign stealing is the act of observing the signs being signaled by the opposing catcher to the pitcher or a coach, and the subsequent relaying of those signals to members of one's own team. Signs are stolen with the intent of gaining advance knowledge of the upcoming pitch and communicating it to the batter, thereby giving them an advantage. Legal sign stealing typically involves the signs being observed by a runner on second base and then relayed to the batter through some sort of gesture.  Illegal sign stealing involves mechanical or electronic technology; the rules regarding this have become more stringent over time and continue to evolve.

Sign stealing has been in practice almost since the game's origin in the 19th century, and has continued to be used in recent times.

Legality
According to the unwritten rules of baseball, stealing the signs that are given by the third base coach, or those of the catcher by a baserunner on second base, is acceptable, and it is up to the team giving the signs to protect them so they are not stolen. Even so, pitchers may retaliate when they believe their signs are being stolen with a brushback pitch. On the other hand, a batter peeking in to see the catcher's signs is not tolerated. Signs from catcher to pitcher are considered more "sacred" than signs from a third base coach to a batter.

Stealing signs is not necessarily a violation of Major League Baseball's (MLB) rulebook; it depends how the signs are stolen. At the December 1961 Winter Meetings, the National League banned the use of a "mechanical device" to steal signs. The use of electronic equipment is not specifically forbidden by MLB rules, but in 2001, Sandy Alderson, while serving as executive vice president for baseball operations of MLB, issued a memorandum stating that teams cannot use electronic equipment to communicate with each other during games, especially for the purpose of stealing signs. Before the 2019 season, in an effort to reduce illegal sign stealing, MLB commissioner Rob Manfred instituted specific prohibitions on where teams could position cameras and how instant replay officials can communicate with managers.

Notable incidents

19th century
The oldest recorded instance of a team attempting to steal signs dates back to 1876, when the Hartford Dark Blues hid a person in a shack to tip off their hitters when the pitcher would throw a curveball. In 1897, George Stallings, the manager of the Philadelphia Phillies, instructed backup catcher Morgan Murphy to hide in a clubhouse beyond center field with a binocular and a telegraph in order to alert Stallings to what pitch the opposing catcher was calling. In 1900, Murphy was again used to steal signs, relaying them to Phillies base coach Pearce Chiles, who stood on a buried box containing a wired buzzer. Murphy relayed coded messages to Chiles in the form of electrical buzzes about what pitch was coming, which Chiles communicated to batters by stomping on the ground. Murphy sent one buzz for a fastball, two buzzes for a curveball, and three buzzes for a changeup. During a game on September 17, 1900, the Cincinnati Reds discovered the buried electrical box used by Chiles. No action was taken against anyone involved in these early sign stealing incidents.

20th century

In the 1903 baseball anthology How to Play Base Ball, compiled by Boston sportswriter Tim Murnane, catcher Malachi Kittridge of the Boston Beaneaters wrote: "I give my signs to the pitcher while in a squatting position to prevent the other side from calling the turn."

Three members of the 1951 New York Giants admitted to stealing signs by using a telescope to win the National League pennant that season—the admission came 50 years later, in 2001. The Giants rallied from  games behind in the final 10 weeks of the season to win the pennant over the Brooklyn Dodgers using this technique. Bobby Thomson, who hit the "Shot Heard 'Round the World", denied being tipped off to that pitch.

On May 26, 1959, despite the Milwaukee Braves' bullpen stealing catcher Smokey Burgess's signs, Pittsburgh Pirates pitcher Harvey Haddix threw 12 perfect innings before losing the game in the 13th. The only Braves player not to accept the signs was Hank Aaron.

In March 1962, newly acquired New York Mets pitcher Jay Hook accused his previous team, the 1961 National League champion Cincinnati Reds, of stealing signs throughout the season with help from former Reds pitcher Brooks Lawrence, stationed inside Crosley Field's scoreboard. Lawrence denied the charge, and Reds manager Fred Hutchinson, when asked if he would either confirm or deny the allegation, replied simply, "No. No comment." Forty years later, Hook's story was indirectly corroborated by another member of the 1961 Reds, pitcher-author Jim Brosnan, who discussed the disappointing home-field performance by Reds hitters during the 1961 World Series, despite having Lawrence "up in the left-centerfield scoreboard, stealing every sign the Yankee catchers gave."

21st century
Technology has been a component in most recent sign stealing incidents.

2017 Houston Astros scandal

After the 2019 season, Mike Fiers alleged that the 2017 Houston Astros used technology to illegally steal their opponents' signs and relay them to their hitters. MLB and the Astros opened an investigation into the allegation, and it was expanded to encompass the 2018 and 2019 seasons. On January 13, 2020, Rob Manfred announced that MLB's investigation confirmed that the Astros illegally used a video camera system to steal signs during their 2017 and 2018 seasons. The organization was penalized with a $5 million fine, forfeiture of first- and second-round draft picks in 2020 and 2021, and the suspension of general manager Jeff Luhnow and field manager A. J. Hinch for one year; Luhnow and Hinch were subsequently fired by the team the same day. Three days after the Astros penalties were announced, the New York Mets and Carlos Beltrán (an Astros player at the time of the scandal) mutually parted ways. Beltrán had been hired as the team's new manager on November 1, 2019, so at the time of the announcement he had never managed a game for the team. Beltrán was the only player specifically named in MLB's report on the Astros scandal. While he was not directly linked to any prohibited activity, he was one of several Astros players who met during that season to discuss improvements in their sign stealing.

2017 Boston Red Sox: Apple Watch
During the 2017 season, the Boston Red Sox were fined by MLB for using an Apple Watch to relay stolen signs to hitters in games against the New York Yankees. On September 15, 2017, commissioner Rob Manfred had said in regards to the investigation into Boston's illicit use of an Apple Watch: "I have received absolute assurances from the Red Sox that there will be no future violations of this type."

On February 4, 2020, MLB Network journalist Peter Gammons reported that former Red Sox player Chris Young told him that he was the mastermind of the Red Sox' Apple Watch scheme, telling him "I started the whole Apple Watch thing. I got it from when I was with the Yankees." Young later denied this, and Gammons retracted his comments via Twitter. SportsNet New York (SNY) revealed that Young had been interviewed by MLB officials as part of the 2017 investigation against the Red Sox and that multiple sources told the sports news agency that Young was in fact a leader of the team's 2017 Apple Watch scheme.

The same year, a phone conversation between Yankees pitching coach Larry Rothschild and replay room officials revealed that the Yankees engaged in sign stealing which resulted in the Yankees being fined. A 2017 letter from commissioner Manfred to Yankees general manager Brian Cashman, made public in 2022, indicated the Yankees were fined $100,000 for their sign-stealing practices.

2018 Boston Red Sox: video replay
On January 7, 2020, the Red Sox were implicated in another sign stealing scandal after three unnamed team members told The Athletic that the Red Sox had used their replay room to steal signs of opposing teams during the 2018 season. On January 13, 2020, Manfred stated that he would determine the appropriate punishment for Red Sox manager Alex Cora, who was also implicated in the Astros scandal, when the investigation was completed. The next day, Cora and the Red Sox mutually agreed to part ways; Dave Dombrowski, the general manager who hired Cora, was dismissed from the Red Sox before the 2018 sign stealing scandal was made public.

On April 22, 2020, commissioner Manfred issued his report from the investigation, determining that the Red Sox replay operator had "utilized the game feeds in the replay room" to decode sign sequences but those actions were "limited in scope and impact", as the decoding only happened during some occurrences of the opposing team having a runner on second base and were not known to "then-Manager Alex Cora, the Red Sox coaching staff, the Red Sox front office, or most of the players". The video replay operator was suspended for the 2020 season and the team forfeited their second-round selection in the 2020 MLB draft. Cora was separately suspended for a year for his actions in the Houston Astros sign stealing scandal.

Reactions to sign stealing

Former MLB executive David Samson and Fox Sports Radio's Jonas Knox have said they believe this type of cheating is widespread throughout the sport.

Prior to the 2022 MLB season, the league announced that teams could use PitchCom, a wireless communication system that allows the catcher to request pitches without using visible signals.

Notable sign stealers
Many players and coaches throughout baseball history have been considered adept at sign stealing. These include Del Baker, Joey Amalfitano, and Joe Nossek.

Pitcher Al Worthington had a religious objection to sign stealing, and quit both the 1959 Giants and the 1960 White Sox because of the teams' sign stealing.

Manager Whitey Herzog was known to complain about other teams stealing signs.  After a game where the Brewers were found to be sign stealing using their mascot Bernie Brewer, he reportedly said, "Maybe we should put a Texas Ranger or somebody out there and shoot a gun or something when a curveball is coming," referring to the incident.

See also
Cheating in baseball
Gamesmanship
Spygate

References

Further reading

Cheating in baseball
Baseball terminology
Major League Baseball controversies

Sign stealing


Prospekt Vernadskogo (, ) is a Moscow Metro station in the Prospekt Vernadskogo District, Western Administrative Okrug, Moscow. It is on the Sokolnicheskaya line, between Yugo-Zapadnaya and Universitet stations. Built in 1963, it conforms to the standard pillar-trispan design which was used for virtually all Metro stations in the 1960s. The station has pillars faced in yellowish Ural marble and walls tiled with stripes of yellow and blue. The vestibule on the north-east end of the platform contains a bust of the station's namesake, Vladimir Vernadsky. The architects were Ivan Taranov and Nadezhda Bykova.

Passengers can transfer to Prospekt Vernadskogo on the Bolshaya Koltsevaya line.

References

External links

Description of the station on Metro.ru (in Russian)
Description of the station on Mymetro.ru (in Russian)
KartaMetro.info — Station location and exits on Moscow map (English/Russian)

Moscow Metro stations
Railway stations in Russia opened in 1963
Sokolnicheskaya Line
Bolshaya Koltsevaya line
Railway stations located underground in Russia

Prospekt Vernadskogo (Sokolnicheskaya line)


Isobutane, also known as i-butane, 2-methylpropane or methylpropane, is a chemical compound with molecular formula HC(CH3)3. It is an isomer of butane. Isobutane is a colorless, odorless gas.
It is the simplest alkane with a tertiary carbon atom. Isobutane is used as a precursor molecule in the petrochemical industry, for example in the synthesis of isooctane.

Production
Isobutane is obtained by isomerization of butane.

Uses
Isobutane is the principal feedstock in alkylation units of refineries. Using isobutane, gasoline-grade "blendstocks" are generated with high branching for good combustion characteristics. Typical products created with isobutane are 2,4-dimethylpentane and especially 2,2,4-trimethylpentane.

Solvent
In the Chevron Phillips slurry process for making high-density polyethylene, isobutane is used as a diluent. As the slurried polyethylene is removed, isobutane is "flashed" off, and condensed, and recycled back into the loop reactor for this purpose.

Precursor to tert-butyl hydroperoxide
Isobutane is oxidized to tert-butyl hydroperoxide, which is subsequently reacted with propylene to yield propylene oxide. The tert-butanol that results as a by-product is typically used to make gasoline additives such as methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE).

Miscellaneous uses
Isobutane is also used as a propellant for aerosol spray cans.

Isobutane is used as part of blended fuels, especially common in fuel canisters used for camping.

Refrigerant
Isobutane is used as a refrigerant. Use in refrigerators started in 1993 when Greenpeace presented the Greenfreeze project with the former East German company . In this regard, blends of pure, dry "isobutane" (R-600a) (that is, isobutane mixtures) have negligible ozone depletion potential and very low global warming potential (having a value of 3.3 times the GWP of carbon dioxide) and can serve as a functional replacement for R-12, R-22 (both of these being commonly known by the trademark Freon), R-134a, and other chlorofluorocarbon or hydrofluorocarbon refrigerants in conventional stationary refrigeration and air conditioning systems.

As a refrigerant, isobutane poses a fire and explosion risk in addition to the hazards associated with non-flammable CFC refrigerants. Substitution of this refrigerant for motor vehicle air conditioning systems not originally designed for isobutane is widely prohibited or discouraged.

Vendors and advocates of hydrocarbon refrigerants argue against such bans on the grounds that there have been very few such incidents relative to the number of vehicle air conditioning systems filled with hydrocarbons.

Nomenclature
The traditional name isobutane was still retained in the 1993 IUPAC recommendations, but is no longer recommended according to the 2013 recommendations. Since the longest continuous chain in isobutane contains only three carbon atoms, the preferred IUPAC name is 2-methylpropane but the locant (2-) is typically omitted in general nomenclature as redundant; C2 is the only position on a propane chain where a methyl substituent can be located without altering the main chain and forming the constitutional isomer n-butane.

References

External links
International Chemical Safety Card 0901
NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards

Alkanes
Butane
E-number additives
Propellants
Refrigerants

Isobutane


The iRobot Transphibian is a man-portable, fin-powered AUV and bottom-crawler that can autonomously insert itself into the water and operate in a very shallow area. The fins enable the robot to navigate with 6 degrees of freedom, even in surge, to avoid obstacles and maneuver in tight spaces. In military operations the robot is more usually referred to as a UUV.

The Transphibian can carry a wide array of payloads and is designed for mine detection, harbor defense and surveillance. It employs a hybrid navigation system that allows it to operate in both shallow surf zones and in deeper waters.

The Transphibian was initially developed by the Nekton Corporation in Durham, North Carolina. iRobot acquired Nekton in September, 2008.

References

External links
 iRobot Corporation: Transphibian
 Overview of iRobot's entry into UUV market
 Article on Transphibian while under Nekton development

Unmanned underwater vehicles
IRobot
2000 robots

IRobot Transphibian


Mandé or Manding is a region between southern Mali and eastern Guinea. The Hunters from Wagadou (or Ouagadou) founded Mandé, the Mandingo country, notably the mythical ancestors Kontron and Sanin, at the origin of the Malinké and Bambaras hunter brotherhood. This country was famous for the large number of animals and game that it sheltered, as well as its dense vegetation. A very popular hunting ground. The Camara (or Kamara) are considered to be the oldest family to have lived in Mandé, after having left, due to the drought, Ouallata, a region of Wagadou, in the south-east of present-day Mauritania. They founded the first village of Mandé, Kirikoroni, then Kirina, Siby, Kita. Many of the families that make up the Mandingo community were born in Mande. Mandé is the province from which the Mali Empire started, under the leadership of Soundiata Keïta.

Ethnic groups in Africa
History of Mali

Mandé people


Martha Scott Gilmore (born c. 1974) is an American planetary geologist. She is the George I. Seney Professor of Geology and Director of Graduate Studies at Wesleyan University.

Early life and education
Gilmore passed a high school equivalency exam at the age of 14 and applied to Franklin & Marshall College's geology and astronomy program. After graduating college, she earned her PhD from Brown University in 1998 and worked at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory as a postdoctoral researcher.

Career
Gilmore taught at Washington and Lee University for a year before joining the faculty at Wesleyan University in July 2000. That year, Gilmore and her research team published "Strategies for autonomous rovers at Mars" as they began developing a software that would allow the Mars rover to identify minerals and take samples.

As an associate professor of earth and environmental sciences, Gilmore received a grant from NASA to fund her study "Mapping and Structure Analysis of Fold Belts in Tessera Terrain, Venus" with Phil Resor. While sitting on NASA's Inner Planets Panel Membership team, she published "Remote sensing and in situ measurements for delineation and assessment of coastal marshes and their constituent species."

In May 2014, Gilmore was promoted to full professor of earth and environmental sciences. The following year, she collaborated with Patrick Harner to publish "Visible–near infrared spectra of hydrous carbonates, with implications for the detection of carbonates in hyperspectral data of Mars." Their article suggested that hydrous carbonate minerals might be relevant on Mars. Later that year, Gilmore was selected to join NASA's investigation teams; Deep Atmosphere Venus Investigation of Noble gases, Chemistry, and Imaging (DAVINCI) mission and The Venus Emissivity, Radio Science, InSAR, Topography and Spectroscopy mission (VERITAS) mission. Her research team received $3 million to conduct an in-depth concept design studies. Both mission concepts were resubmitted for Discovery funding in 2019 and in February 2020 were among the four missions selected as finalists, each receiving $3 million for further development.

By October 2019, Gilmore received funding by NASA to conduct her research on the habitability of Venus. In the following months, she would conduct run studies at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center to explain how the mission would address the scientific priorities of the Decadal Survey and NASA.

Notes

References

External links

CV

1972 births
Living people
20th-century American geologists
Brown University alumni
Washington and Lee University faculty
American women geologists
Wesleyan University faculty
American women academics
Franklin & Marshall College alumni
21st-century American geologists
20th-century American academics
21st-century American academics
20th-century American women scientists
21st-century American women scientists
Astrogeologists

Martha Gilmore


Chicken 65 is a spicy, deep-fried chicken dish originating from Hotel Buhari, Chennai, India, as an entrée, or quick snack. The flavour of the dish can be attributed to red chillies, but the exact set of ingredients for the recipe can vary. It is prepared using boneless chicken and is usually served with an onion and lemon garnish. Vegetarian variants like "Paneer 65" or "Gobi 65" use paneer or cauliflower instead. While the name "Chicken 65" is universally used to refer to the dish, there are many different theories claiming its origins.

Origins
Although Chicken 65 is well established as being the invention of A. M. Buhari of the Buhari Hotel chain, its popularity as a dish has spawned several myths about its origin and name. One account claims that the dish emerged as a simple meal for Indian soldiers in 1965. Another account claims that it is a dish containing 65 chili peppers devised by an enterprising hotelier. It is also claimed to relate to a requirement for the meat to be from 65-day-old chickens. Still others claim that it means 65 pieces of chicken.

See also

 List of chicken dishes
 List of deep-fried foods

References

Deep fried foods
Indian chicken dishes

Chicken 65


Red Dragon is a psychological horror novel by American author Thomas Harris, first published in 1981. The story follows former FBI profiler Will Graham, who comes out of retirement to find and apprehend an enigmatic serial killer nicknamed "the Tooth Fairy". The novel introduces the character Dr. Hannibal Lecter, a brilliant psychiatrist and cannibalistic serial killer whom Graham reluctantly turns to for advice and with whom he has a dark past. The title refers to the figure from William Blake's painting The Great Red Dragon and the Woman Clothed in Sun.

The novel was adapted as a film, Manhunter, in 1986, which featured Brian Cox as Hannibal "Lecktor". Directed by Michael Mann, the film received mixed reviews and fared poorly at the box office, but it has since developed a cult following.

After Harris wrote a sequel to the novel, The Silence of the Lambs (1988), that was turned into a highly successful film of the same name in 1991, Red Dragon found a new readership. The film featured Anthony Hopkins in the role of Hannibal Lecter, for which he won an Oscar for Best Actor in 1991. Due to the success of the film and its sequel, Red Dragon was remade as a film directed by Brett Ratner in 2002, this time bearing the title of the original novel and with Hopkins playing Lecter. Elements of the novel also influenced the NBC television series Hannibal, while the plot was adapted as the second half of the series' third season.

Plot
In 1975, Will Graham, a brilliant profiler of the FBI, captured the serial killer Hannibal Lecter, a world-renowned psychologist who artistically killed and ate his victims. However, Graham suffered serious injuries from the encounter and retired afterward. Five years later, in 1980, a serial killer nicknamed "The Tooth Fairy" stalks and murders seemingly random families during sequential full moons. He first kills the Jacobi family in Birmingham, Alabama, then the Leeds family in Atlanta, Georgia, in both cases breaking into the family home at night, shooting the parents and children, and then having intercourse with the mother's body after she dies, leaving a distinctive bite pattern on her body. Two days after the Leeds murders, agent Jack Crawford, Graham's mentor, goes to Graham's Marathon, Florida residence and pleads for his assistance; Graham reluctantly agrees.

After looking over the crime scenes, Graham realizes that the killer posed the family's bodies as an audience during the rape, and accurately predicts the FBI will find the killer's fingerprints on the victims' eyes. He also discovers a stakeout location where the killer watched the home from a nearby wood and discovers a chinese character carved into a tree: a mahjong symbol known as the red dragon. Having reached a dead end, Graham realizes he must visit Lecter and seek his help to capture "the Tooth Fairy." Lecter, locked in a maximum security cell in the Baltimore State Hospital for the Criminally Insane, offers enigmatic clues to the killer's pathology and cruelly taunts Will that the reason he caught Lecter is because that they are alike, disturbing Graham and causing him to cut the meeting short.

"The Tooth Fairy" is revealed (to the readers) to be the production chief of a St. Louis film processing firm named Francis Dolarhyde. He is a disturbed individual obsessed with the William Blake painting The Great Red Dragon and the Woman Clothed in Sun (which the book misnames as The Great Red Dragon and the Woman Clothed with the Sun). Born with a severe cleft palate, Dolarhyde believes himself weak and deformed despite having had corrective surgery. He is unable to control his violent, sexual urges, and believes that murdering people—or "changing" them, as he calls it—allows him to more fully "become" an alternate personality he calls the "Great Red Dragon", after the dominant character in Blake's painting. Flashbacks reveal that his sociopathy is born from the systematic abuse he suffered as a child at the hands of his sadistic grandmother who raised him after his mother abandoned him as an infant.

As Graham investigates the case, he is hounded by Freddy Lounds, a sleazy tabloid reporter, who publishes an article about Graham consulting Lecter. Dolarhyde, reading the article, writes a fan letter to Lecter, asking for a response. Frederick Chilton, the head of the institute and Lecter's self-styled nemesis, discovers the letter hidden in Lecter's cell with Dolarhyde's instructions for how to contact him removed. After significant forensic analysis, the FBI deduce that Lecter has placed a coded personal ad in Lounds' tabloid, the National Tattler, but are unable to break the code before the publishing deadline, and Graham reluctantly allows the ad to run. Lounds becomes aware of the correspondence and tries to trick Graham into revealing details of the investigation by posing as the killer but is found out and arrested. When the code is finally broken, it reveals Lecter has given Graham's address to the killer and tells him to save himself by killing the family. Graham's wife, Molly, and his stepson are evacuated, causing significant tension in his marriage.

Hoping to lure the Red Dragon into a trap, Graham gives Lounds an interview in which he deliberately mischaracterizes the killer as an impotent homosexual, which includes clues to Graham's location. This infuriates Dolarhyde, but instead of pursuing Graham, he kidnaps Lounds. Gluing Lounds to a wheelchair, Dolarhyde forces him to recant the allegations on tape, bites off his lips and sets him on fire, leaving his maimed body outside his newspaper's offices. Lounds dies from his injuries soon afterward, and the tape of his assault is sent to his newspaper and the FBI. Graham receives a letter from Lecter, congratulating him on his indirect murder of Lounds.

At about the same time, Dolarhyde falls in love with a blind co-worker named Reba McClane, which conflicts with his homicidal urges. In beginning a relationship with McClane, Dolarhyde resists the Dragon's "possession" of him as it urges him to kill McClane; he goes to the Brooklyn Museum, beats a museum secretary unconscious, and eats the original Blake watercolor of The Red Dragon.

As the full moon nears, an increasingly desperate Graham realizes that the killer knew the layout of his victims' houses from their home movies, which were developed at the same film processing lab. Dolarhyde's job gives him access to all home movies that pass through the company. When he sees Graham interviewing his boss, Dolarhyde realizes that they are on to him and goes to see McClane one last time. He finds her breaking up with her previous boyfriend, Ralph Mandy, to be with Dolarhyde; McClane grants Mandy's request for a final kiss goodbye. Enraged with jealousy, Dolarhyde kills Mandy. He kidnaps McClane and, having taken her to his house, sets the place on fire. He says he intends to kill her and then himself, but finds himself unable to shoot her. The shotgun fires, and McClane hears a body hits the floor. McClane escapes just before the house explodes. Graham later comforts her, telling her that there is nothing wrong with her and that the kindness and affection she showed Dolarhyde probably saved lives.

Believing Dolarhyde is dead, Graham's family moves back to the Florida home. However, Dolarhyde shows up at the house and after a violent struggle, stabs Graham in the face before being fatally shot by Molly. Graham survives the attack, but he is left with permanent facial scars and it is implied that Molly will leave him. As he recovers, Crawford explains how Dolarhyde faked his death. The dead man in Dolarhyde's house was a gas station attendant he'd had an altercation with; Dolarhyde had brought the man's body to his house to stage his own death, using McClane as a witness. Crawford intercepts a letter to Graham from Lecter, which bids him well and hopes that he isn't too disfigured, and destroys it in an incinerator.

During his recovery, Graham has a flashback to a visit he made to Shiloh, the site of a major battle in the American Civil War, shortly after apprehending (and in the process, killing) Garrett Hobbs, a serial killer he investigated before Hannibal Lecter.  Graham has an epiphany about the indifference of nature and decides that it is not nature that is haunted by events, as he had thought when visiting Shiloh before, but men who are haunted.

Characters

 Will Graham
 Francis Dolarhyde
 Jack Crawford
 Hannibal Lecter
 Freddy Lounds
 Reba McClane
 Ralph Mandy
 Molly Graham
 Willy Graham

Origin
Red Dragon is Thomas Harris's second novel, after Black Sunday. As part of his research for the book he attended classes and talked to agents at the FBI Behavioral Science Unit in Quantico, Virginia, during the late 1970s. He learned about serial killers, offender profiling and the role of the FBI in serial killer investigations. After his father became terminally ill, Harris stayed for 18 months at an isolated shotgun-style house where he worked on the book. The rural setting helped him visualize both the character of Hannibal Lecter and the Leeds murder house depicted in the story. The book is dedicated to his father.

Reception
Thomas Fleming in The New York Times gave the book a generally favorable review. He compared the development of the story to the gradual acceleration of a powerful car, but complained that the explanation for Dolarhyde's behavior, trauma in his youth, was too mechanistic. James Ellroy has described Red Dragon as 'the best pure thriller I've ever read' and cited it as an influence on his own novel Killer on the Road. In a 1981 article for the Washington Post, horror author Stephen King praised it as "probably the best popular novel to be published in America since The Godfather."

Dave Pringle reviewed Red Dragon for Imagine magazine, calling it "an excellent thriller about a man who murders whole families with the aid of his grandmother's false teeth (I kid not)."

Adaptations
 The first film, released in 1986 under the title  Manhunter, was written and directed by Michael Mann and focused on FBI Special Agent Will Graham, played by William Petersen. Lecter (renamed Lecktor) was played by Brian Cox.
 In 1996, Chicago's Defiant Theatre produced a full stage version of the novel at the Firehouse theatre, adapted and directed by the company's artistic director, Christopher Johnson. The production included projected home movies as were described in the novel, including reenacting the violent murders. Dolarhyde's inner dragon was personified by an actor in an elaborate, grotesque costume and seduces the killer to continue on his violent path.
 The second film, which used the title Red Dragon, appeared in 2002. Directed by Brett Ratner and written by Ted Tally (who also wrote the screenplay for The Silence of the Lambs), it starred Edward Norton as Graham and Anthony Hopkins as Lecter.
 Elements from the novel influenced the NBC TV adaptation Hannibal, which first aired in 2013. Graham is played by Hugh Dancy, and Lecter is played by Mads Mikkelsen. Though set in the 2010s, the series begins prior to the events of Red Dragon, reimagining Graham's and Lecter's early encounters during the former's tenure with the FBI and the events following his fatal shooting of Garret Jacob Hobbs. The plot of the novel itself was adapted for the second half of the series' third season, with Richard Armitage cast as Francis Dolarhyde and Rutina Wesley as Reba McClane.

References

1981 American novels
Fiction set in 1978
Hannibal Lecter novels
American thriller novels
American novels adapted into films
Dell Publishing books
G. P. Putnam's Sons books
Novels about the Federal Bureau of Investigation
Novels about serial killers
Novels set in the 1970s
Novels set in Florida
Novels set in Atlanta
Novels set in Birmingham, Alabama
Novels set in Brooklyn
Novels set in St. Louis

Red Dragon (novel)


The spatharii or spatharioi (singular: ; , literally "spatha-bearer") were a class of Late Roman imperial bodyguards in the court in Constantinople in the 5th–6th centuries, later becoming a purely honorary dignity in the Byzantine Empire.

History

Originally, the term was probably applied to both private and imperial bodyguards. The original imperial spatharioi were probably or later became also the eunuch cubicularii (Greek: koubikoularioi), members of the sacrum cubiculum (the imperial "sacred chamber") charged with military duties. They are attested from the reign of Emperor Theodosius II (r. 408–450), where the eunuch Chrysaphius held the post. The existence of the specific title of spatharokoubikoularios for eunuchs in 532 probably suggests the existence by then of other, non-eunuch, spatharioi in imperial service. The various generals and provincial governors also maintained military attendants called spatharioi, whilst those of the emperor were distinguished with the prefix basilikoi ("imperial ones"). The officer leading the imperial spatharioi held the title prōtospatharios ("first spatharios"), which became a separate dignity probably in the late 7th century.

By the early 8th century, these titles had lost their original military connotations and become honorific titles. The title of spatharios ranked initially quite high, being awarded for instance by Emperor Justinian II (r. 685–695) to his friend and future emperor Leo III the Isaurian (r. 717–741). It gradually declined, however, and in the Klētorologion of 899, it occupies the seventh-highest place in the hierarchy of ranks for non-eunuchs, above the hypatos and below the spatharokandidatos. According to the Klētorologion, the insignia of the dignity was a gold-hilted sword. At the same time, the term oikeiakos spatharios still designated a bodyguard of the imperial oikos ("household"), as distinct from the basilikoi spatharioi who now were the holders of the honorary dignity. The term ceased to be used in these contexts after circa 1075, and by the time Anna Komnene wrote her Alexiad in the early 12th century, a spatharios was held to be completely insignificant.

Other occurrences
 In the Lex Alemannorum (79.7), a spatharius is a swordsmith.
 In medieval Moldavia, the Spătar was the keeper of the royal sword and bludgeon, commander of the cavalry and second-in-command of the army after the voivode.
 Ælfric of Eynsham glosses spatharius as "sword-bearer": "swyrd-bora. Id est, Ensifer."
 In the 12th century, the Milites Ordinis Militaris S. Jacobi de la Spatha, a Portuguese chivalric order, were known as Spatharii.

See also
Rynda
Honourable Corps of Gentlemen at Arms

References

Sources

Further reading

Byzantine court titles
Guards units of the Byzantine Empire
Medieval bodyguards

Spatharios


The Shanghai–Hangzhou railway, also known as the Huhang railway (), is a double-track railroad in eastern China between Shanghai and Hangzhou in Zhejiang Province. Its name in Chinese, the Huhang Line, is named after the railway's two terminal cities: Shanghai, whose Chinese character abbreviation is hu, and Hangzhou. The line is  long and was built from 1906 to 1909. Cities along the route include Shanghai, Jiaxing and Hangzhou. The line now forms part of the Shanghai–Kunming railway.

Line history
In 1898, the Qing government of China granted to Britain a concession to build a railway between Shanghai and Hangzhou. This concession drew strong domestic opposition against foreign ownership of railways. In 1905, the Qing government's railway construction policy shifted in favor of local provincial governments. Jiangsu and Zhejiang provinces received approval to build the Shanghai–Hangzhou railway and raised 4.84 and 3.88 million silver dollars, respectively, for the project through chartered companies. Construction began in September 1906 on the western (Hangzhou–Fengjing) section and in February 1907 on the eastern (Fengjing–Shanghai) section. The western section entered into operation in April 1909, the two sections were joined together in June and through-train operation began in July. The line was  in length.

After the Xinhai Revolution, the national government purchased the railway from the two province-chartered companies, and in 1915, the line was extended in Shanghai to join with the Shanghai–Nanjing railway at the Shanghai North railway station.

During World War II, the line was bombed and rebuilt by the Japanese occupying forces. In the Chinese Civil War, Nationalist forces destroyed 16 bridges on the line to stall the Communist advance on Shanghai in the spring of 1949. Service was restored on August 1, 1949, and the bridges were fully rebuilt in 1950. The line was electrified from 2004 to 2006. In 2007, during the Sixth Railway Speed-Up Campaign, the line was organized into the Shanghai–Kunming railway.

Rail connections
 Shanghai: Beijing–Shanghai railway
 Hangzhou: Xiaoshan–Ningbo railway, Xuancheng–Hangzhou railway, Zhejiang–Jiangxi railway

See also

 List of railways in China

References

Railway lines in China
Rail transport in Zhejiang
Rail transport in Shanghai
Railway lines opened in 1909

Shanghai–Hangzhou railway


Thomas William Coke, 1st Earl of Leicester (6 May 175430 June 1842), known as Coke of Norfolk or Coke of Holkham, was a British politician and agricultural reformer. Born to Wenman Coke, Member of Parliament (MP) for Derby, and his wife Elizabeth, Coke was educated at several schools, including Eton College, before undertaking a Grand Tour of Europe. He returned to Britain and married. When his father died he inherited a 30,000-acre Norfolk estate. Returned to Parliament in 1776 for Norfolk, Coke became a close friend of Charles James Fox, and joined his Eton schoolmate William Windham in his support of the American colonists during the American Revolutionary War. As a supporter of Fox, Coke was one of the MPs who lost their seats in the 1784 general election, and he returned to Norfolk to work on farming, hunting, and the maintenance and expansion of Holkham Hall, his ancestral home.

Coke was again returned to Parliament in 1790, sitting continuously until 1832, and he primarily spoke on matters of local interest, such as the Corn Laws. His second focus was on civil liberties, and he spoke out against the government's response to the Peterloo Massacre and similar events. Described as the "greatest commoner in England", he chose the passage of the Great Reform Act 1832 as the moment to retire, later being made Earl of Leicester in July 1837. After a short illness, Coke died on 30 June 1842, and was succeeded as Earl by his son Thomas. Coke's main legacy was as an agricultural reformer, not as a politician; he has historically been credited with sparking the British Agricultural Revolution through the reforms he made to farming on his estates. Later historians have questioned this, however, noting that the developments credited to him are most likely the work of other individuals; nevertheless, he has still been described as "the real hero of Norfolk agriculture".

Early life and education
Coke was born on 6 May 1754 in London, to Wenman Coke (originally Wenman Roberts) and Elizabeth Chamberlayne. The Cokes were a landowning family of Derbyshire, originally from Norfolk, Wenman representing Derby as one of its two Members of Parliament, and as such Coke was born into a wealthy, estate-owning family; one of his first memories was "being held up to a window to watch a fox being cornered and killed by hounds". Little is known of Coke's father; Wenman is described as a shy person who "saw little company and lived much out of the world; his habits were those of a country gentleman, bending his mind to agriculture, moderately addicted to field sports and more than either, to reading in which he passed many hours; firm in his principles which were those of the old Whig; amiable in his disposition mild in his manners, he was beloved of his friends". The family's prospects improved significantly in 1759 when Coke was five, when his great-uncle, Thomas Coke, 1st Earl of Leicester, died. The cause of Thomas's death is not certain, although there are chances it was a duel, but the result was that upon the death of Thomas's wife Margaret, Wenman inherited a substantial Norfolk estate, including Holkham Hall, a "Palladian masterpiece". Margaret studiously avoided the rest of the family, vowing to outlive Wenman simply to ensure that he did not inherit the estate. In the event she died in 1775, one year before Wenman, who thereby inherited.

Few records exist of Thomas Coke's early years, although it is known that he was educated in Longford, Derbyshire, before going to a school in Wandsworth run by French settlers. In 1765 he was sent to Eton College, where he was joined by William Windham, a close friend in his later life. Coke was apparently happy at Eton, and was excellent at field sports; on one occasion 70 snipes he had killed were found in his room, and on another, he narrowly avoided being punished for shooting a pheasant in Windsor Great Park. He was not particularly interested in his academic studies, but by the time he left Eton in 1771 Coke had developed a close circle of friends and connections from the landowning class, and practical skills to deal with his future estates. After leaving school he undertook a Grand Tour of Europe, financed by his father and his great-aunt (who offered him £500 not to go to a university, regarding them as dens of vice). Coke visited France and Italy, where he witnessed the marriage of the Young Pretender to Princess Louise of Stolberg-Gedern; Louise apparently fell in love with Coke, preferring the similarly aged Englishman to her 52-year-old alcoholic husband.

Career
By the time Coke returned to Britain, plans were already under way for him to enter Parliament. When an election was called in 1774, Weman stood for the seat of Norfolk, with his son asked to stand in his place for Derby. Coke was not particularly enthusiastic about this, and withdrew when his opponent discovered he was under 21, the requisite age to stand for Parliament. With his father elected, Coke travelled with him to London, meeting members of the British high society. His sister Elizabeth and her husband James Dutton were also visiting, with Dutton's sister Jane, and Coke fell in love with her. Wenman was not impressed when Coke asked him to let them be married, as he had picked out the daughter of a baronet for his son, but with the intercession of Wenman's friend Harbord Harbord, he finally consented to their marriage, which was solemnized on 5 October 1775.

The new couple lived in Godwick Manor, their peace disturbed in 1776 when Wenman's health began to fail. He finally died on 10 April after "a constipation which medicine could not remove", leaving Coke in charge of a 30,000-acre estate at the age of 22. Soon after his father's death, Harbord and other senior Whigs visited Coke and asked him to stand for Norfolk in his father's stead. Coke was not enthusiastic, not seeing himself as a politician and hoping to enjoy his new estates and wealth, but after his visitors pointed out a Tory might otherwise replace him "my blood chilled all over me from my head to my foot, and I came forward". On 12 April he issued a manifesto to the Norfolk electorate, soon returning to campaign, and after being unanimously nominated on 27 April he was elected in May.

Entry to Parliament

Little is known of Coke's early career in Parliament; he spoke relatively infrequently, and the parliamentary session was dissolved soon after his election. During that summer, however, he struck up a relationship with Charles James Fox, a soon-to-be famous Whig politician noted for his outspoken and flamboyant lifestyle. Coke later recounted that "When I first went into Parliament I attached myself to Fox and clung to him through life. I lived in the closest bond of friendship with him." The period was one of economic stability and political calm under Lord North, which ended due to the American Revolution and resulting American Revolutionary War. Coke was noted for his support of the American colonists; as a strong supporter of the 1688 Glorious Revolution and the resulting Bill of Rights 1689, he felt that the support of the espoused principles of justice and tolerance in Britain and overseas was his duty as a British subject, and saw no conflict between his position as a supporter of the colonists and his patriotism. Following the Battles of Saratoga, it became clear that any victory in America would be long and expensive, and in an attempt to raise funds King George III asked subjects to donate. In Norwich, a meeting was held in January 1778 for this purpose; it raised £4,500 in less than an hour. Windham and Coke attended this meeting, Windham making an impassioned speech pointing out that the campaign had so far resulted only in "disappointment, shame and dishonour", and that "peace and reconciliation with America" was the only option. Windham, Coke and their supporters then withdrew to a nearby pub, where they drafted a petition to the king from "the Nobility, Gentry, Clergy, Freeholders and Inhabitants of the County of Norfolk". This was presented to Parliament by Coke on 17 February 1778, signed by 5,400 people from Norfolk. George III took this as a personal insult, and as a result, disliked Coke until his death.

Coke also brought up the issue of the hunting game. During the late 18th century a series of laws were passed protecting a landowner's right to hunt, and giving severe penalties to poachers. On 27 February Coke, an enthusiastic hunter, suggested in Parliament that these laws be relaxed; "Combinations had been formed in the Country against the execution of these laws and some lives had been lost". Before any motion could be brought (it was not until 1827 that the laws were revised), the situation in America came up again. On 22 February, Henry Seymour Conway brought a motion asking the King to "listen to the humble prayer and advice of his faithful Commons, that the war on the continent of North America may no longer be pursued for the impractical purpose of reducing the inhabitants of that country to obedience by force". While the motion failed, it was again brought on 27 February, and passed. With this, Conway moved that "An humble address be presented to His Majesty"; George III replied that he would see them on 3 March at St James's Palace. It was then that "the most important and symbolic act of Coke's political career" occurred. As a Knight of the Shire, Coke had the right to appear in court dressed "in his boots" as opposed to in formal court dress; this he did, appearing in front of George III dressed in leather breeches, boots and spurs.

Eventually, the king began negotiations with the American colonies and accepted the resignation of Lord North – an action which would, eventually, lead to Coke leaving Parliament. A new government was formed in April 1782, with Lord Rockingham as Prime Minister and Fox and Lord Shelburne as Secretaries of State. Rockingham and Shelburne disagreed constantly, particularly over the situation in North America, and with Rockingham's death on 1 July Shelburne was made Prime Minister. At this the rest of the government resigned, and after a period of political chaos, the short-lived Fox-North Coalition was formed in April 1783. Coke was disgusted by this arrangement, describing it as a "revolting compact". An East India Bill, which created 7 commissioners to oversee India, brought chaos to the coalition. Controversially, the commissioners would be appointed by the government, not by the crown, which challenged what the King saw as his constitutional right. Defeated in the House of Lords, the bill was used by George III to overturn Fox's government and install a government led by William Pitt the Younger. Parliament was eventually dissolved on 25 March 1784, and thanks to Coke's long-standing support of Fox and his actions, the ensuing general election led to Coke losing his seat.

Norfolk work

In between his Parliamentary work, Coke and his wife had been maintaining and improving his estates since they took possession of it in April 1776. The cornerstone was Holkham House, a "temple to the arts" built by Coke's great uncle. Knowing that he did not have the same understanding of classical architecture and art, Coke mainly left it alone, instead focusing on the park and gardens.

A 2023 reappraisal of his contribution to the art collection discusses his addition of portraits by Thomas Gainsborough, Joshua Reynolds, Ramsay Richard Reinagle, George Hayter, Chester Harding, and John Opie. He also added sculpture by Joseph Nollekens, Richard Westmacott, Thomas Banks, and Francis Leggatt Chantrey.

The grounds had been laid out during the 1720s and 1730s, in a design which quickly became seen as old-fashioned. Coke had the lake massively expanded, shifting a total of 36,000 cubic yards of earth, and employed the gardener John Sandys from 1781. Sandys created several large pieces of woodland, planting over 7,000 trees on 22 acres near the Eastern Lodge, another ten acres near the lake, and four acres of marshland. In 1784 a further woodland expansion was undertaken, with 40 acres and 11,000 trees, and between 1785 and 1789 396,750 trees were planted on a further 179 acres. He retired in 1805 and was replaced a year later by James Loose, but continued to advise Coke on forestry matters. The library was also expanded, through the work of William Roscoe, who bought books including the Mainz Psalter for Coke between 1814 and 1842.

Coke also expanded the estate itself, incorporating farms around the House as their leases ended, and by 1800 the estate covered 3,500 acres. Samuel Wyatt was also employed from 1799 to 1805 to build new lodges at the entrance of the extended estate, and until 1806 also worked on a new kitchen garden; this covered six acres. Humphry Repton was employed to extend the lake yet again, and proposed building a boathouse and fishing pavilion, as well as a chain ferry leading to a "snug thatched cottage"; there is no evidence this proposal was ever approved. Most of the work was completed by 1810, and from then on Coke's attention turned to hunting game. The estate was explicitly designed with that in mind, and game books note between 1,300 and 2,500 partridges were killed most years. In 1822, Elizabeth, Coke's daughter, recorded that 800 birds were shot in one day.

Jane Dutton, Coke's wife, gave birth to their first child in 1777, a daughter named Jane. Two more daughters followed; Anne Margaret in 1779, and Elizabeth in 1795, before Jane's death in 1800. Jane was married to Charles Nevison Howard, Viscount Andover, on 21 June 1796, but on 11 January 1800 Andover died in a shooting accident on the Holkham estate. Jane remarried to Henry Digby in 1806, and they had 11 children.

Landlord and agriculturalist
As a landlord, Coke was a firm believer in the right and moral obligation of a landowner to improve the quality of life of those living on his estates. The roles of landlord and tenant were clearly set out by the late 18th century; the landlord was to provide fields, roads and buildings, while the tenant would provide the seed, implements and manual labour. Coke's estate included 54 farms when he inherited it, with excellent farm output. There were, however, significant debts as a result of his uncle's work on Holkham Hall, with the interest alone being £4,000 a year. He had some difficulties dealing with the people employed before he inherited the estates, and when the steward Ralph Cauldwell, appointed by Coke's uncle, retired in 1782, Coke failed to replace him until 1816. This replacement was Francis Blaikie, a Scottish man who had previously been employed as estate steward for Lord Chesterfield. Blaikie paid close attention to where farms were doing badly or could do better, but often struggled to deal with Coke. Coke lacked financial sense in matters other than the agricultural, on one occasion selling all his land near Manchester. It wasn't until 20 years later that Blaikie became aware of this, after receiving a query from the new owners about the mineral rights. Blaikie travelled to Manchester to meet the solicitor who had handled the sale, finding not only poorly drafted conveyances but that all the sold land had been rich in coal.

In the early 18th century, farmland was run through an open field system, which were commonly overstocked and made trying experimental methods very difficult; enclosed farms, on the other hand, were higher quality and useful for experimentation, with the result that they commanded a rent almost double a similarly sized open field. Compounding this problem, many of the enclosures were split up into strips, with the result that ownership was unclear. Between 1776 and 1816, Coke rapidly bought strips of land near his estates and had them enclosed. Much of this came during the Napoleonic Wars when grain prices (and therefore farming profits) peaked. Coke was influenced by "Turnip" Townshend, who had owned a nearby estate and promoted crop rotation and farm improvement. Along with enclosure, marling and improved grasses, Townshend's improvements resulted in "a course of husbandry utterly unlike that practised a hundred years ago".

Coke's big improvements came in two areas; grasses and husbandry. He pioneered the use of cocksfoot and lucerne as grass and feed respectively, with the result that by 1793 he was claiming to have 2,400 sheep in Holkham, as opposed to the 700 kept when he inherited the estates. The husbandry involved the milking comparisons of various types of cow, along with the first planting of Scottish turnips, which are "a good table vegetable being more palatable and nutritious and not so watery as the Norfolk variety". His prime area of experimentation was on the selective breeding for sheep. The most common sheep in the area was the Norfolk Horn, which was long-legged and slow to mature. Coke became a promoter of the English Leicester, a breed noted as fast-maturing and excellent when fed turnips. Coke cross-bred the two, with the resulting sheep being highly tame and superior to the pure Norfolk breed. Coke also bred cattle and used oxen for ploughing rather than horses, being the first to use them harnessed rather than yoked and winning a prize for his oxen in 1837.

Through sheep shearings, competitions and his contacts within the nobility, Coke soon spread his new ideas and breeds. Initially small events of local farmers, the shearings soon became 200-person formal dinners, rising to 300 people in 1821 and 700 soon after, with even the American ambassador Richard Rush attending in 1819, along with the French Consul and the Duke of Sussex. The Board of Agriculture was formed in 1793, with Coke sitting as one of the 30 "ordinary members" as a leading agriculturalist; he was made the Vice-President in 1805. The Board published a series of county reports for most of the United Kingdom, describing new farming measures being undertaken in various parts of the country.

Coke has been described as "the real hero of Norfolk agriculture", despite the fact that his land was so poor one critic is said to have remarked that "the thin sandy soil must be ploughed by rabbits yoked to a pocket knife". However, academics and writers dispute his importance. 19th and early 20th century historians held him to be the crucial figure of the British Agricultural Revolution, crediting him with inventing four-crop rotation. Naomi Riches describes this as an "error", and R. A. C. Parker, writing in the Economic History Review, states that "many of the innovations he is supposed to have introduced should be attributed to his predecessors in Norfolk"; however that "is not to deny the substantial contribution of Coke himself to the advance of farming technique in England".

Further Parliamentary career

Coke was re-elected to Parliament in 1790, at a time of great political trouble. The French Revolution a year earlier had torn the Whig party in half, with Coke and Fox in the isolated minority who supported the revolutionaries as their acts became more brutal. With the declaration of war in 1793, an impact was finally felt in Britain with a rise in agricultural prices and rent. It also led to the establishment of local yeomanry forces to defend the country, something Coke opposed. This reduced his popularity in Norfolk and led to suspicions he might be a Jacobin, to the point where he was forced to publicly declare that he was not a Republican and "detested their principles". Eventually, in late September 1798, he raised the Holkham Yeoman Cavalry, commanding it as a Major, to defend against any invasion. This unit was dissolved in 1802 with the Peace of Amiens, but after war broke out again a year later more volunteer regiments were formed. Coke was notably absent from any preparations for defence, feeling that the risks of invasion were exaggerated, but was eventually persuaded by public opinion to reform the Yeoman Cavalry in 1803; it was again dissolved in 1805.

The French Revolution had split the Whigs into two factions, but as it progressed Fox's group in support of the revolutionaries began to dwindle. Coke stuck by Fox, and with the outbreak of the War, the split became finalised; Fox refused to accept that Britain need be involved in the conflict, as did Coke. In Parliament, Coke spoke out against the conflict, debating the motion to raise money for the war through a new tax in April 1794, and supporting Wilberforce's anti-war motion on 24 March 1795. He felt more comfortable with local matters, however, and his main concerns "were those of the agricultural interest", arguing against a new land tax and introducing a bill to shorten the shooting season, allowing for the production of more corn. Coke was again returned to Parliament in 1796, despite an anti-war and anti-government address to the electorate which was condemned as arrogant and dictatorial, but found on his return that the Foxites had agreed to withdraw from Parliamentary activity.

After Parliament was dissolved in June 1802, another election saw Coke again returned, although in a contested election that cost the candidates £35,000. With the death of William Pitt in 1806, the two Whig groups agreed to an alliance, which took the form of the Ministry of All the Talents; Fox was confirmed as Foreign Secretary, and Windham as Secretary for War and the Colonies. The government apparently offered Coke a peerage, which he refused, and primarily focused on the abolition of slavery, which was accomplished only after the death of Fox on 13 September 1806. Fox's death made Parliament lose some of its appeal to Coke, as they had been close friends. His attendance in the next two years was very limited, and the next occasion of note was his support of the Corn Laws, which were highly unpopular in Norfolk and led to him being physically attacked by a mob in 1815.

With the defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo, the wars in Europe ended, and the troops returned home. As a result, the nation underwent dramatic shifts due to rising unemployment as the economy shifted and the government began to pay off its debts incurred during 20 years of war. Agricultural prices slumped, and Coke became active in opposing tax increases which would impact on the farmers. In February 1816 he spoke out against income and malt tax, and in March attacked the property tax as "utterly at variance with civil liberty". An opponent of government excess in a time of unemployment and high taxation, he also voted against the army estimates and opposed the Civil List in May. With a County Meeting on 5 April 1817, Coke spoke on the King's intent on "overturning democracy and enslaving the country" by restricting freedom of speech and the press, suggesting that the government needed to be removed.

Returning to Parliament in 1818, he argued against the Royal Households Bill and introduced a Game Law Amendment Bill, which was defeated. Following the Peterloo Massacre and the government's introduction of a Seditious Meetings Prevention Bill, Coke accused the government of being "most strongly implicated in the events in Manchester", saying that the meeting would have been peaceful had it not been "interfered with by the officious agents of authority". The 1820s saw Coke speak far less; firstly, because of the continued Tory domination of Parliament, and secondly because of his remarriage. In 1822, at the age of 68 and after 21 years as a widower, he married Anne Keppel, the daughter of Lord Albemarle, and Coke's 18-year-old godchild. Anne had initially been brought to Holkham to partner with his nephew William, who due to Coke's lack of sons would inherit the estate, but they failed to get on. Anne and Coke's marriage was met with bemusement, and described as "absurd", but despite opposition took place on 26 February. Soon after the wedding, Anne became pregnant, and their son Thomas was born on 22 December.

In 1831, Coke's personal friend Earl Grey became Prime Minister; as a result, Coke's appearances in Parliament became more regular. He expressed delight at the Great Reform Act 1832, although he only spoke on the subject once, and chose its passage on 4 June 1832 as the appropriate moment to retire as an MP. As the "greatest commoner in England", Coke finally accepted a peerage in July 1837 (having been offered one six times before), becoming the Earl of Leicester. He took no pleasure in attending the House of Lords, however, describing it as "the hospital for incurables".

Death

Coke remained in the prime of life after his retirement; records show him killing 24 deer with 25 shots at the age of 79, and having another child three years later. A portrait painted of him which appears to be of a man 20 years younger, is according to Stirling "no flattering likeness", but instead completely accurate. After a short and painful illness while visiting his estate (and childhood home) at Longford Hall, Derbyshire, Coke died in the early hours of 30 June 1842 at the age of 88; his last words were reported to be "well, perhaps I have talked too much". The body lay in state for two days, with the funeral procession finally setting out on 7 July. It travelled through King's Lynn, where black flags of mourning were flown and thousands came to pay their respects. On the final leg of the journey, with a funeral procession two miles in length led by 150 Holkham tenants on horseback and followed by several hundreds of private carriages, 200 gentlemen on horseback, riding two abreast, and lastly, a long train of neighbours, tenants and yeomen, Coke was eventually buried at the family mausoleum in Tittleshall on 11 July. Immediately after Coke's death, a committee formed to create a monument to him; over a thousand subscribers contributed £5,000. The eventual Coke Monument, found in the grounds of Holkham Hall, was designed by William Donthorne and finally completed in 1851. Wilhelmina Stirling wrote a 2-volume Life of Thomas William Coke.

The earldom and the Holkham estate passed to his son Thomas.

Family

By his first wife Jane Dutton he had three daughters:

Lady Jane Elizabeth Coke (1777–1863), married first Charles Howard, Viscount Andover (1775–1800), son of John Howard, 15th Earl of Suffolk; married second Admiral Sir Henry Digby (1770–1842). They had two sons, including Edward Digby, 9th Baron Digby, and one daughter, the socialite and adventuress Jane Digby.
Lady Anne Margaret Coke (1779–1843), married Thomas Anson, 1st Viscount Anson. They had three sons and four daughters. One of whom was Thomas William Anson, 1st Earl of Lichfield.
Lady Elizabeth Wilhelmina Coke (1795–1873), married John Spencer Stanhope. They had two sons and four daughters. One son, Walter married Julia Buxton, daughter of Sir John Buxton, 2nd Baronet. One of their daughters, Elizabeth, married Rev. Richard St John Tyrwhitt.

With his second wife, Lady Anne Amelia Keppel (daughter of William Keppel, 4th Earl of Albemarle), they had four sons and one daughter:

Thomas William Coke, 2nd Earl of Leicester of Holkham (1822–1909)
Capt. Hon. Edward Keppel Coke (1824–1889). He was an M.P. for West Norfolk from 1847 to 1852. He married Diana Mary Blanche Georgiana Agar-Ellis, daughter of George James Welbore Agar-Ellis, 1st Baron Dover. They had no issue.
Henry John Coke (1827–1916). He married Lady Katherine Grey Egerton, daughter of Thomas Grosvenor Egerton, 2nd Earl of Wilton of Wilton Castle and Lady Mary Margaret Stanley on 22 July 1861. They had two sons and a daughter.
Lt.-Col. Hon. Wenman Clarence Walpole Coke (1828–1907). After his service in the Crimean War, he was elected an MP for East Norfolk. The Coke's Hartebeest was named after him. He never married.
Lady Margaret Sophia Coke (c. 1829–1868), married Sir Archibald Keppel Macdonald, 3rd Baronet, son of Sir James Macdonald, 2nd Baronet and Lady Sophia, daughter of William Keppel, 4th Earl of Albemarle. They had no issue.

References

Sources

External links

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Prince Akizzi was the ruler of Qatna in the fourteenth century BC. Prince Akizzi wrote three of the Amarna letters correspondence.

References
Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, 1990, Cambridge University Press for the Royal Asiatic Society 1990, p. 52
K. A. Kitchen, Ramesside Inscriptions, Blackwell Publishing 2000, p. 67
G. Maspero, 1904, History of Egypt, Part Four, Kessinger Publishing 2003, p. 278
William L. Moran, The Amarna Letters, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987

External links
Letters from Akizzi of Qatna

Amarna letters writers
Qatna
14th-century BC monarchs

Akizzi


Hendricus Theodorus Christiaan "Henk" Stoof (born 1962) is a professor in theoretical physics at Utrecht University in the Netherlands.  His main interests are atomic physics, condensed matter physics and many-body physics. He is a Fellow of the American Physical Society.

During the last ten years, the group of H.T.C. Stoof has been involved in the study of various aspects of the physics of ultracold atomic gases. In addition, they performed research on skyrmion lattices in the quantum Hall effect and collective modes in supersolid 4He. Below the results obtained from the study of degenerate Fermi gases are briefly summarized.

Already in 1996 they predicted that an atomic gas of 6Li (a fermionic isotope of lithium) becomes a Bardeen-Cooper-Schrieffer (BCS) superfluid at experimentally obtainable temperatures. They have also performed a detailed study of the superfluid behaviour of this gas below the critical temperature. Motivated by this work, at least six experimental groups from around the world, including the groups of R. Grimm, R.G. Hulet, D.S. Jin, and W. Ketterle, started trying to achieve the necessary conditions for the BCS transition in 6Li.
In the last seven years the study of superfluidity in Fermi gases has been at the center of attention of the ultracold atoms community. It is fair to say that the very successful experiments, that ultimately have led to the creation of the superconductor with, as a fraction of the Fermi energy, the highest critical temperature ever, have only been possible due to the use of so-called Feshbach resonances. These resonances were theoretically co-discovered by H.T.C. Stoof in the alkalis in 1993.
At that time, the full potential of a Feshbach resonance for studying the crossover from a BCS superconductor of Bose-Einstein condensed Cooper pairs to a Bose-Einstein condensate (BEC) of molecules was not realized yet, but this crossover is now well understood due to the strong connection between experiment and ab initio theory that is possible in this field. The group has made important contributions to the present understanding of how many-body physics affects the BEC-BCS crossover, and how to incorporate the two-body physics of the Feshbach resonance exactly into the many-body theory. Henk Stoof was elected as an APS Fellow for these contributions.

In the last three years, the group of R.G. Hulet at Rice and the group of W. Ketterle at MIT have pioneered the experimental study of spin imbalance on the superfluid state. These experiments have especially concentrated on the strongly interacting or unitarity limit exactly at resonance where the attraction between the atoms is as large as quantum mechanics allows. Again, the group of H.T.C. Stoof made important contributions to this topic. For example, they were first to predict the topology of the universal phase diagram of this unitarity gas, that is now confirmed by the experiments and that contains a tricritical temperature below which the gas phase separates between an (almost) equal density superfluid and a polarized normal gas. Making use of renormalization group techniques, they are up to now the only theoretical group that has been able to accurately calculate this strong-coupling tricritical temperature from first principles. They believe that an important reason for the success in this area of physics is that they have a background in both the microscopic atomic physics and in the macroscopic condensed-matter physics. It is only through a combination of this knowledge that one can arrive at sophisticated many-body theories that can be directly compared with experiment without any fitting parameters.

External links
 Homepage H.T.C. Stoof

1962 births
Living people
21st-century Dutch physicists
Academic staff of Utrecht University
Eindhoven University of Technology alumni
People from Veldhoven

Hendricus Stoof


Jadu Gopal Mukherjee  (18 September 1886 – 30 August 1976) was a Bengali Indian revolutionary who, as the successor of  Jatindranath Mukherjee or Bagha Jatin, led the Jugantar members to recognise and accept Gandhi's movement as the culmination of their own aspiration.

Early life
Jadugopal or Jadu was born at  Tamluk in the district of Medinipur on the bank of the Rupnarayan River in West Bengal, where his father Kishorilal practised law and distinguished himself as a Kheyal singer. The family came from Beniatola in north Kolkata. Jadu's mother Bhubanmohini hailed from a Vaishnava family and transmitted in her children a spirit of devotion. Jadu's younger brother was to settle in the US and to be known in the West the famous writer and cultural scholar Dhan Gopal Mukerji. As an upper class student of the Duff School in Kolkata, Jadu learnt to think patriotically, thanks to one of his teachers. He became a member of the Kolkata Anushilan Party in 1905, attracted by its physical culture and, on the foil of the Partition, by its political climate. He writes in his autobiography that the single-handed fight of Bagha Jatin with a Royal Bengal tiger thrilled him and his friends in 1906, and he had an impression of belonging to a heroic epoch. After the F.A. examination, in 1908, Jadu entered the Calcutta Medical College. Fond of observing and analysing the rising tide of patriotism and the Government measures to repress them, Jadu preferred remaining aloof, confining himself to a couple of close friends.

First World War

Relief work during the 1913 Damodar floods brought Jadu close to Bagha Jatin and the latter's important associates. Busy cementing the regional units for organising an armed insurrection during the forthcoming War, Jatin designated Rash Behari Bose as the responsible for Upper India. Though jealous of Naren Bhattacharya's proximity with Jatin, Jadu received the charge of developing the external links, mainly with Taraknath Das in California and Virendranath Chattopadhyay in Germany. With the failure of the Indo-German Plan and Bagha Jatin's  sudden death in 1915, finding Atulkrishna Ghosh, the legitimate right-hand man of Jatin, plunged in a momentary despair, Jadu replaced him and asked the revolutionaries to disperse. During Jadu's absence, Bhupendra Kumar Datta maintained the leadership till his arrest in 1917.

Absconding leader comes home
Hiding in the hilly forests of Assam-Burma and Tibeto-Bhutan frontiers, Jadu was informed about the impact of the revolutionaries' activities on the Imperialists and about the question of a possible concession of constitutional reforms with the Rowlatt Act at the end of World War I. Returning home in 1921, Jadu obtained a special permission to sit for the Medical degree Examination and passed it with record results in 1922. After Gandhi's first failure, according to their initial contract, the Jugantar members worked under Deshbandhu Chittaranjan Das and Satyendra Chandra Mitra to form the alternative Swaraj movement and they declared their new programme by celebrating the 8th anniversary of Bagha Jatin's self-giving on 9 September 1923, from Bengal to Punjab.

After receiving a message from Lala Har Dayal, Pandit Ram Prasad Bismil went to Allahabad where he drafted the constitution of Hindustan Republican Association in the winter season of 1923 with the help of  Dr. Jadugopal Mukherjee and  Sachindra Nath Sanyal both of these revolutionaries were from Bengal. The basic name and aims of the organisation were typed on a Yellow Paper in Allahabad.

Alerted by this, the British authorities immediately arrested the radicals; arrested for the first time, Jadu was  detained under the State Prisoners' Regulation for four years. Released in 1927, he was externed from Bengal. Settled in Ranchi, he earned an outstanding reputation in TB treatment. He married Amiyarani Chaudhuri in 1934 and had two sons. At this juncture, he succeeded in bringing together the Jugantar and the Anushilan radicals, creating the short-lived federated Karmi-Sangha; under the pretext that Subhas Chandra Bose and the Jugantar leaders were indifferent to their efficiency, the members of the Anushilan put an end to this fusion.

Jadu took the initiative, in 1938, and announced that the Jugantar stopped existing as a Party distinct from the Congress, extending its full support to Gandhi. Arrested again for helping Gandhi to organise the Quit India movement, in 1942, he was released two years later. He disagreed with the Congress compromise on vital issues such as  complete independence and partition of India, and he resigned in 1947. He died in 1976.

References

Anushilan Samiti
Bengali politicians
1886 births
1976 deaths
Hindu–German Conspiracy
Scottish Church College alumni
University of Calcutta alumni
Bengali Hindus
Hindustan Socialist Republican Association
Indian independence activists from West Bengal

Jadugopal Mukherjee


A pseudanthium (Greek for "false flower") or flower head is a special type of inflorescence. Many flowers are grouped together to form a flower-like structure. The real flowers ("florets") are generally small and greatly reduced, but can sometimes be quite large (as in the sunflower flower head).

Pseudanthia are characteristic of the daisy and sunflower family (Asteraceae or Compositae). Their flowers are either ray flowers or disk flowers. The disk flowers in the center of the pseudanthium look like the centre of a normal flower. Flowers on the periphery have one large petal. This sytem is unique to this family. Either ray or disk flowers may be absent in some species: Senecio vulgaris lacks ray flowers and Taraxacum officinale lacks disk flowers. The pseudanthium has a whorl of bracts below the flowers.

At a glance, a pseudanthium (inflorescence) looks just like a normal flower, but closer inspection shows it is composed of multiple flowers. Thus, the pseudanthium represents an evolution of the inflorescence to a reproductive unit that may function in pollination like a single flower, at least in plants that are animal pollinated. The advantage of this "flower" is that it produces far more seeds than a normal flower, but needs only one act of pollination.

Related terms
Head
This is an equivalent term for flower head and pseudanthium when used in the botanical sense.

Capitulum (plural capitula)
Capitulum can be used as an exact synonym for pseudanthium and flower head. Its use is generally restricted to the Asteraceae family, though at least one source defines it as a small flower head. In addition to its botanical use as a term meaning flower head it is also used to mean the top of the sphagnum plant.

References

Flowers
Plant anatomy

Pseudanthium


Christina Eleonora Drakenhielm (1649–1712), was a Swedish noble and convert. Her conversion to Catholicism in 1664 was a scandal in contemporary Sweden, where the act was punishable by death.

Christina Eleonora Drakenhielm was the daughter of the noble Wilhelm Drakenhielm and Elsa von Brandt. She was described as defiant and unruly, and in 1664, she accompanied Maria Sofia De la Gardie to Aachen, where she was placed in a Catholic convent to be schooled in needlework, language and virtue.

In the abbey, however, the nuns convinced her to convert to the Catholic faith and join the order as a nun. De la Gardie tried to force the nuns to have her returned, and was even assisted by a diplomat of the German Roman Empire, but without success.

In 1669, however, Drakenhielm escaped from the convent and returned to Sweden herself. She was interrogated by bishop Zakarias Klingenstierna in Malmö, and renounced Catholicism and adopted Lutheranism. She was trialed, but spared from the death penalty by Charles XI 7 November 1670. After this, she married noble Erik Appelgren.

See also
 Brita Sophia De la Gardie
 Birgitta Holm (convert)

References
 Drakenhielm, släkt, urn:sbl:17641, Svenskt biografiskt lexikon (art av Bengt Hildebrand.), hämtad 2014-08-16.

Swedish Roman Catholics
Converts to Roman Catholicism from Lutheranism
1649 births
1712 deaths
Place of birth missing
People from the Swedish Empire
17th-century Swedish nobility
Swedish untitled nobility

Christina Eleonora Drakenhielm


Exiting Arm (stylized as ExitingARM) is the third studio album by American hip hop sextet Subtle. It was released on Lex Records in 2008. It is "the latest chapter in the story of Hour Hero Yes, the middle-class rapper whose rise and struggles are chronicled told on 2004's A New White and 2006's For Hero: For Fool."

Critical reception
At Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average score out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album received an average score of 75% based on 14 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews".

Christopher Bahn of The A.V. Club gave the album a grade of B, writing, "Musically, ExitingARM is just as layered, blenderizing beats, sampled electronic noise, and Doseone's easygoing, flowing words into a package that's sometimes electrifying and sometimes confounding." Eric Grandy of The Stranger said, "Throughout ExitingARM, frontman Doseone remains an inscrutable MC, quick-tongued and verbose, and an unassuming but surprisingly fluid singer, whispering melodies in multitracked reverb to contrast his sharper falsetto raps."

Pitchfork included it on the "Overlooked Records 2008" list.

Track listing

Personnel
Credits adapted from liner notes.

Subtle
 Dax Pierson – vocals, Ableton Live (synthesizer, programming)
 Alexander Kort – electric cello, acoustic cello, electric bass, acoustic bass
 Jordan Dalrymple – drums, guitar, synthesizer, vocals, programming
 Jeffrey "Jel" Logan – drum machine, drum programming
 Marty Kalani Dowers – woodwinds, synthesizer
 Adam "Doseone" Drucker – words, vocals, synthesizer, programming, artwork

Technical personnel
 Subtle – recording
 Jay Pellicci – mixing
 Mike Wells – mastering

References

External links

2008 albums
Subtle (band) albums
Lex Records albums

Exiting Arm


Crawford Hallock Greenewalt (August 16, 1902 – September 28, 1993) was an American chemical engineer who served as president of the DuPont Company from 1948 to 1962 and as board chairman from 1962 to 1967.

Early life

Crawford Hallock Greenewalt was born in Cummington, Massachusetts, the son of Frank Lindsay Greenewalt and Mary Hallock-Greenewalt, an inventor and pianist born in Beirut. In 1922, he earned a Bachelor of Science degree in chemical engineering from Massachusetts Institute of Technology, where he joined Theta Chi fraternity. He later became a Life Member of the MIT Corporation in 1951, and emeritus in 1977.

Career
While at DuPont, Greenewalt was a key figure in their development of nylon and their nuclear power program. He was awarded the Lavoisier Medal for Technical Achievement by the DuPont Company in 1991.

His widely varied interests included ornithology and high-speed photography via his friend Harold E. "Doc" Edgerton. Greenewalt published a book of 70 high-speed photographs of hummingbirds in 1960 (Greenewalt, C.H. 1960. Hummingbirds Doubleday & Co., Garden City, New York.). And later, Dimensional relationships for flying animals Washington. Smithsonian Institution, 1962. In 1968, he published Bird Song. Acoustics and Physiology Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C. He also served as president of the American Philosophical Society.

Greenewalt is the subject of the film The Uncommon Man: Crawford H. Greenewalt, produced by the Atomic Heritage Foundation.

Personal life
Greenewalt and his wife Margaretta (née Du Pont) had two sons, Crawford "Greenie" Greenewalt Jr. (1937-2012) and David Greenewalt, and daughter, Nancy L. Frederick. The younger Crawford was a professor of classical archaeology at the University of California, Berkeley who was among the leaders of the Archaeological Exploration of Sardis. David died in 2003.

He died in Wilmington, Delaware one day after having a stroke.

See also
John Mulchaey, holds the Crawford H. Greenewalt chair at the Carnegie Observatories, of which he is also the director

References

External links

1965 Audio Interview with Crawford Greenewalt by Stephane Groueff Voices of the Manhattan Project

In memoriam: Crawford H. Greenewalt
The Crawford Greenewalt Manhattan Project Diaries
 Finding aid for Crawford Greenewalt photograph collection at Hagley Museum and Library

1902 births
1993 deaths
People from Cummington, Massachusetts
DuPont people
American chemical engineers
William Penn Charter School alumni
MIT School of Engineering alumni
United States Army Science Board people
Manhattan Project people
20th-century American engineers
Member of the Mont Pelerin Society
20th-century American chemists

Crawford Greenewalt


Howard "Ben" or "Lefty" Bennett Mallonee (March 31, 1894 – February 19, 1978) was an American professional baseball player who played in seven games for the Philadelphia Athletics during the  season.
He was born in Baltimore, Maryland and died there at the age of 83.

He began his professional career in 1916 with the class D Blue Ridge League playing for the Chambersburg Maroons and the Hanover Hornets.  After his time in the major leagues, he returned to the minor leagues, playing for several more years.  His overall batting average in the minor leagues was .322.  His best year was in 1924 with the Richmond Colts of the class B Virginia League, when he had an batting average of .368 in 546 at bats.  He played his last season in the minor leagues with the Spartanburg, Greenville and Asheville of the South Atlantic League in 1929.

External links

Baseball players from Baltimore
Philadelphia Athletics players
Hanover Raiders players
1894 births
1978 deaths

Ben Mallonee


is a 1951 Japanese drama film directed by Mikio Naruse. The screenplay by
Kaneto Shindō is based on the novel Maihime by Yasunari Kawabata. It was Mariko Okada's debut film.

Plot
University professor Yagi and his wife Namiko, a former ballet dancer who now runs a ballet school, live in an unhappy marriage in their house in Kamakura together with their children Shinako and Takao. Namiko projects her unfulfilled dreams of a career as a dancer onto her daughter Shinako, who is a member of a ballet ensemble. Takehara, a long-time friend of Namiko who has been in love with her all these years, tries to talk her into leaving Yagi. When Namiko learns from Takao that Yagi has secretly been putting money on the side during their years of financial hardship, she considers giving up her marriage for Takehara.

Together with her friend and ensemble colleague Nozu, Shinako visits her former ballet teacher Kayama at his sickbed. Before he dies, Kayama urges Shinako to "dance as long as you've got legs". Determined not to give up her dream of becoming a ballerina like her mother did, Shinako later rejects Nozu's proposal. Namiko, after seeing her daughter perform in a staging of Swan Lake, decides against Takehara's offer to accompany him to a trip to Kansai and returns to Yagi.

Cast
 Sō Yamamura as Yagi
 Mieko Takamine as Namiko
 Mariko Okada as daughter Shinako
 Akihiko Katayama as son Takao
 Hiroshi Nihon'yanagi as Takehara
 Bontarō Miake as Numata
 Isao Kimura as Nozu
 Reiko Otani as Tomoko
 Heihachirō Ōkawa as Kayama
 Sadako Sawamura as Mitsue
 Momoko Tani with her ballet company

Reception
In her book on Mikio Naruse, film historian Catherine Russell rated Dancing Girl, although a lesser film than the director's Ginza Cosmetics and Repast (both too made in 1951), an "important transitional film" which deployed some of the "flamboyant melodramatic devices" of his 1930s films in a post-war narrative.

References

External links

1951 drama films
Japanese drama films
Japanese black-and-white films
Films based on Japanese novels
Films based on works by Yasunari Kawabata
Films directed by Mikio Naruse
Films with screenplays by Kaneto Shindo
Toho films
1950s Japanese films
Films set in Kamakura

Dancing Girl (1951 film)


The 1st Corps of the Belgian Army (), was a Belgian army corps active during First World War, Second World War, and the Cold War.

World War II
During the Belgian Campaign of 1940, it initially held defences at Liège but was forced to retreat by the German XVI Panzer Corps. The Battle of Fort Eben-Emael occurred along the Corps' defensive line. German planners had recognised the need to eliminate Fort Eben-Emael if their army was to break into the interior of Belgium. It decided to deploy airborne forces (Fallschirmjäger) to land inside the fortress perimeter using gliders. Using special explosives and flamethrowers to disable the defences, the Fallschirmjäger then entered the fortress. In the course of the battle, German infantry overcame the defenders of the I Belgian Corps' 7th Infantry Division in 24 hours.

Post-war service

During the Cold War, it served initially as an army of occupation in Germany and then as part of NATO's Northern Army Group (NORTHAG). The corps headquarters was initially established at Yser Caserne, Lüdenscheid, on 15 October 1946. Lieutenant General Jean-Baptiste Piron took command in November 1946. Corps headquarters moved to Haelen Caserne, Junkersdorf, Lindenthal, Cologne, in 1948.

During Exercise Battle Royal in September 1954, the Corps consisted of 1 (BE) Infantry Division and 16 (BE) Armoured Division with 1 Canadian Brigade and 46 Parachute Brigade (16th Airborne Division (United Kingdom)) under command.

The corps' 14th and 20th artillery battalions were supported by the 4th U.S. Army Field Artillery Detachment.  The detachment was co-located with the Belgian battalions, in quarters across the street from the Belgian Houthulst Kaserne, on Langenwiedenweg Strasse, Werl, West Germany.

In 1960 the 1st and 16th divisions were transformed into mechanised divisions of the "Landcent" type. That year, 1st Division at Bensberg consisted of 1st Infantry Brigade (Siegen), 7th Brigade (Spich), and 18th Armoured Brigade (Euskirchen), and 16th Armoured Division consisted of 17th Armoured Brigade (Duren), 16th Infantry Brigade (Ludenscheid) and 4th Infantry Brigade (Soest).

In 1966 the Belgian Army's active force was mechanised, and the force was reduced to two active-duty two-brigade divisions (in 1985, the 16th in Germany with the 4th Mechanised Brigade at Soest, and the 17th Armoured Brigade at Siegen, and the 1st in Belgium with the 1st Mechanised Brigade at Bourg Leopold and the 7th Mechanised Brigade at Marche, in the Ardennes region.) In 1985 there were also two reserve brigades, the 10th Mechanised and 12th Motorised.

In 1995, the corps merged with the 1st Mechanised Division and Paracommando Brigade to become the "Intervention Force". The corps' HQ was relocated from Germany back into Belgium in 1996.

See also

Belgian Forces in Germany

References

Bibliography

Further reading
David G. Haglund and Olaf Mager (eds), Homeward bound? : allied forces in the new Germany, Westview Press, 1992, .

External links
http://www.museum-bsd.de/museum-bsd/de/index.htm

Army units and formations of Belgium
Belgium
Military units and formations disestablished in 1995
Military units and formations of Belgium in World War II

I Corps (Belgium)