The Trnovo Bridge () is a bridge crossing the Gradaščica River in Ljubljana, the capital of Slovenia. It is located in front of Trnovo Church at the end of Karun Street () to the south of the city centre and is a continuation of Emona Street (). It connects the neighborhoods of Krakovo and Trnovo, the oldest Ljubljana suburbs, known for their market gardens and cultural events. A bridge has stood on the site since the late 17th century. The modern bridge was built between 1928 and 1932 by the constructor Matko Curk upon the plans of the architect Jože Plečnik. It is distinguished by its width and the trees that it bears. It is the most prominent object of Plečnik's renovation of the banks of the Gradaščica. Since August 2021, the Trnovo Bridge has been inscribed as part of Plečnik's legacy on the UNESCO World Heritage List.

Architecture
The iron-concrete bridge, designed as a public space, has a roughly square platform with a width of . It is supported from below by a stone arch. Each of its corners is capped with a small pyramid, a signature motif of Plečnik's, designed in the same way as the spires of the church. The mid-span features a pair of Art-Deco male sculptures. The bridge is among the rare with live trees. Two rows of birches divide the pedestrian and vehicle lanes, intentionally obscuring the bridge silhouette. They are complemented by a balustrade of vase-like elements and a row of short columns at each side. There is also a statue of Saint John the Baptist, the patron of the church, at the center of the bridge. It was designed by Nikolaj Pirnat. On the opposite side stands a slender obelisk with a lamp. It has been dedicated to Sigmund Zois, a naturalist and patron of science and arts. On the Krakovo side, a stone tablet with the inscription KRAKOVU 'to Krakovo' is mounted on the face of the bridge. On the Trnovo side, there is a stone tablet that reads TRNOVU 'to Trnovo'.

References

External links

Bridges in Ljubljana
Bridges completed in 1932
Jože Plečnik buildings
Bridges over the Gradaščica
Arch bridges in Slovenia
20th-century architecture in Slovenia

Trnovo Bridge


The Huckleberry Trail is a multipurpose trail that measures almost 15 miles (24 km) in length in Montgomery County, Virginia, connecting the towns of Blacksburg and Christiansburg.  The trail is  wide with an asphalt surface.

The trail takes its name from the former rail alignment used by the Virginia Anthracite Coal and Railway Company. Nicknamed the "Huckleberry," the moniker was introduced by the railroad's passengers, who would pick huckleberries alongside the tracks during the railroad's frequent service interruptions and breakdowns.

History

With passenger service ending in 1958 and the subsequent abandonment of the line in 1967, the former railroad right-of-way remained unused until the idea of its conversion to a pedestrian trail arose in the 1980s. In February 1990, Montgomery County approved what would be named the Huckleberry Trail as the county's first bikeway.

In July 1991, Friends of the Huckleberry, a non-profit organization was formed to work with local governments to fundraise, acquire land, and construct the trail. After a successful grassroots fundraising campaign for the trail's construction, in October 1993 the Commonwealth Transportation Board awarded the Huckleberry project $453,424 towards its construction.

Originally scheduled to commence construction in early 1994, delays resulting from ADA accessibility and prehistoric archaeological sites along the trail's path resulted in some adjustments to its route. Additionally, higher costs from the construction of a tunnel and enhanced emergency vehicle access caused the project to run out of its initial funds and be placed on hold. After these delays and the securing of additional funding, construction began on the initial  segment between the Montgomery-Floyd Regional Library in Blacksburg and the intersection of Hightop and Merrimac Roads in Merrimac on April 5, 1996. Although the trail was used by the public before this date, it officially opened in a ribbon-cutting ceremony on December 7, 1996.

Immediately following the completion of the initial phase, bidding for the construction of the second phase began with an initial completion date estimated for late 1997. However, estimated costs for the completion of the second segment came in well over budget, resulting in the project being pushed back until additional funding could be secured. With Blacksburg, Christiansburg and Montgomery County all contributing additional funding, construction of the second phase was completed in late 1998, with the ribbon-cutting ceremony occurring on December 1, 1998. The completed trail cost $1.4 million, with federal transportation grants covering about $690,000 of the total cost.

On June 1, 2000, the Huckleberry Trail's success was recognized by the federal government when it was named one of the nation's 2,000 Community Millennium Trails.

On June 29, 2015, the Huckleberry Trail's Renva Knowles Bridge opened, crossing over Peppers Ferry Road near the New River Valley Mall, and the path was extended south to Cambria Street in Christiansburg, with a spur connecting the Huckleberry Trail to the Christiansburg Recreation Center via Cambria Street and North Franklin Street.

In 2016-2017, the section of the Huckleberry Trail between the Virginia Tech Montgomery Executive Airport and Route 460 was realigned in connection with the Southgate Connector project, which realigned the road between Virginia Tech and Route 460. The new alignment provided a more direct connection between Huckleberry Trail and the Virginia Tech campus.

On June 20, 2019, a section extending to Blacksburg's Heritage Community Park and Gateway Trail was completed. Gateway Trail connects to trail system in the George Washington and  Jefferson National Forests. With this connection, the Huckleberry Trail is part of a paved and natural surface trail network that is approaching 60 miles in length.

Friends of the Huckleberry continues to work with local governments and private partners to raise funds to continue expanding the trail.

Route description

The Huckleberry Trail consists of three segments. The original portion of the Huckleberry Trail runs between downtown Blacksburg and Christiansburg.  Once the original section was completed, the trail was expanded and now consists of the original portion and two additional segments known as Huckleberry North and Huckleberry South. Together, the three segments are almost 15 miles (24 km) in length.

The original Huckleberry Trail starts in downtown Blacksburg on Draper Road at the Montgomery-Floyd Regional Library.  The trail heads south, crossing Southgate Drive, and continuing until it reaches the edge of the Virginia Tech Montgomery Executive Airport. From there, the trail heads north back to Southgate Drive and the Virginia Tech campus, then runs southwest through an underpass to a traffic circle at Route 460.

From the traffic circle west of Route 460, the main Huckleberry Trail parallels Route 460 and runs southeast to the Slate Branch of Stroubles Creek, then follows Slate Branch south to the unincorporated community of Merrimac. The trail crosses Merrimac Road and passes through the Coal Mining Heritage Park. Continuing south, it crosses over the Norfolk Southern Railway operated railway owned by the Virginia Passenger Railway Authority, enters a road cut, and passes behind the New River Valley Mall. It crosses Peppers Ferry Road on the Renva Knowles Bridge and continues along Cambria Street and North Franklin Street to the Christiansburg Recreation Center.

Before the terminus at the Christiansburg Recreation Center, at the intersection of Providence Boulevard, a one-mile segment heads south towards the Christiansburg High School.  This segment is identified as "Huckleberry South."

From the traffic circle west of Route 460, Huckleberry North heads northeast through the Hethwood neighborhood, crosses Prices Fork Road, and then continues north to Glade Road. North of Glade Road, it enters Heritage Community Park, which is a former farm. Paths through the park connect the Huckleberry Trail to Gateway Trail and the George Washington Jefferson National Forest.

Coal Mining Heritage Park

Near the village of Merrimac, the Huckleberry Trail passes through the  Coal Mining Heritage Park, which features equipment and part of the foundations of an abandoned coal mine. The park is located on the site of the former Merrimac Mine, which closed in the 1930s. In addition to the coal mine, the site formerly hosted a coal tipple, a hotel, a general store, and residential housing for the miners. The Coal Mining Heritage Park was planned by a collaboration between the Anthropology Program at Radford University, the Montgomery County Planning Office, the Coal Mining Heritage Association of Montgomery County, and the Virginia Department of Historic Resources. It officially opened on September 9, 2000. Located within the park is the Coal Mining Loop Trail, a  path which opened on November 17, 2010.

References

External links

 Friends of the Huckleberry, Inc.
Huckleberry Trail Montgomery County Parks & Recreation
 Coal Mining Heritage Park, Montgomery County Parks & Recreation
 Merrimac Coal Mining Heritage Park Project, 1999-2000
 Huckleberry Trail at TrailLink

Rail trails in Virginia
Protected areas of Montgomery County, Virginia
Bike paths in Virginia

Huckleberry Trail


The Radisson Collection Hotel, Royal Copenhagen is a historic hotel in Copenhagen, Denmark.

History
The hotel was designed by Danish architect and designer Arne Jacobsen for the airline Scandinavian Airlines System (SAS). It was opened on July 1, 1960 by King Frederick IX and Queen Ingrid as the Royal Hotel. It was also known as the SAS Royal Hotel. The hotel was renamed the Radisson SAS Royal Hotel in 1994, when SAS signed a joint marketing agreement with Radisson Hotels. When SAS and Radisson ceased the marketing agreement in February 2009, the hotel remained with Radisson and was renamed the Radisson Blu Royal Hotel. On March 6, 2018 it was renamed Radisson Collection Hotel, Royal Copenhagen.

At its completion the hotel was the largest in Denmark. At 69.60 meters in height, it was the first skyscraper in Copenhagen, and until 1969, the tallest high-rise building in Denmark. In 2009, it was the country's seventh-highest tower.

Design
The entire hotel – from the exterior façade through to the stainless-steel cutlery used in the restaurant and the Swan and Egg chairs gracing the lobby – was designed by the Danish architect Arne Jacobsen. Since most of his work has been replaced by corporate standard fabrics and furniture, the hotel has been referred to as Jacobsens' Lost Gesamtkunstwerk. Only a single room has been kept in the original design. It has all of the original, green furniture and the wood panels on the wall. This room, with the number 606, is no longer available for booking but guests can request a tour.

Shades of green dominate the entire design. Jacobsen, who was also working as a landscape architect 1955-1960, pursued a "modern garden" theme. He implemented this theme using green textiles and furniture combined with "organic shapes" and rigid geometric forms.

Jacobsen has created several furniture, lighting and textile designs. Some models were later adopted into mass production and have become design classics, which are exhibited in museums worldwide. Others, however, remained unique pieces.

During the design phase sketches of the building were published in Danish newspapers. Critics feared a destruction of the traditional skyline of Copenhagen. The building was compared to a punch card. Jacobsen's response was, "it's funny, for that is actually what it looks like when the windows are open on a hot summer's day." Another term used was introduced by Jacobsen's former associate Erik Møller, who called it the "glass cigarbox". The promoter of the international style, Philip C. Johnson, said it was the worst copy of Lever House. Jacobsen responded: "At least, it came in first when they held a competition for the ugliest building in Copenhagen."

Structure

The structure is twenty stories high and a defining characteristic of Copenhagen's skyline. The structure was inspired by  New York  Park Avenue structures, namely Skidmore, Owings %26 Merrill's Lever House. The building's sense of lightness emanates from its Lever House-inspired form with a two-story base supporting its lofty "punch card" tower.

The reinforced concrete frame structure erected in the tower has a curtain wall of aluminum profiles and transparent green and gray anodized glass. The windows can be opened to the inside stories in all. The horizontal distance between the aluminum profiles is 60 cm. Vertical take turns green glass followed by 168 cm 120 cm window is installed. The curtain wall construction Jacobsen at the three-story City Hall was first used in 1955 Rødovre Denmark. The hotel façade differs only from the City Hall by the light-green colour of the intermediate elements and some slightly different proportions.

Location
It is located in the heart of the city, in the Vesterbro district, close to Tivoli and Copenhagen Central Station. On a road island outside the hotel is the "Freedom Statue", commemorating the abolition of serfdom in Denmark.

Gallery

References

External links
 Official Website
 Pictures from a reconstruction of one of the Royal Hotel rooms

Arne Jacobsen buildings
Hotel buildings completed in 1960
Hotels in Copenhagen
Radisson Hotels
Hotels established in 1960
Modernist architecture in Copenhagen
Vesterbro, Copenhagen
Skyscrapers in Denmark
Skyscraper hotels
Rezidor Hotel Group


Flat bones are bones whose principal function is either extensive protection or the provision of broad surfaces for muscular attachment.  These bones are expanded into broad, flat plates, as in the cranium (skull), the ilium (pelvis), sternum and the rib cage.
The flat bones are: the occipital, parietal, frontal, nasal, lacrimal, vomer, sternum, ribs, and scapulae.

These bones are composed of two thin layers of compact bone enclosing between them a variable quantity of cancellous bone, which is the location of red bone marrow. In an adult, most red blood cells are formed in flat bones. In the cranial bones, the layers of compact tissue are familiarly known as the tables of the skull; the outer one is thick and tough; the inner is thin, dense, and brittle, and hence is termed the vitreous (glass-like) table. The intervening cancellous tissue is called the diploë, and this, in the nasal region of the skull, becomes absorbed so as to leave spaces filled with air–the paranasal sinuses between the two tables.

Ossification in flat bones

Ossification is started by the formation of layers of undifferentiated connective tissue that hold the area where the flat bone is to come. On a baby, those spots are known as fontanelles. The fontanelles contain connective tissue stem cells, which form into osteoblasts, which secrete calcium phosphate into a matrix of canals. They form a ring in between the membranes, and begin to expand outwards. As they expand they make a bony matrix.

This hardened matrix forms the body of the bone. Since flat bones are usually thinner than the long bones, they only have red bone marrow, rather than both red and yellow bone marrow (yellow bone marrow being made up of mostly fat). The bone marrow fills the space in the ring of osteoblasts, and eventually fills the bony matrix.

After the bone is completely ossified, the osteoblasts retract their calcium phosphate secreting tendrils, leaving tiny canals in the bony matrix, known as canaliculi. These canaliculi provide the nutrients needed for the newly transformed osteoblasts, which are now called osteocytes. These cells are responsible for the general maintenance of the bone.

A third type of bone cell found in flat bones is called an osteoclast, which destroys the bone using enzymes. There are three reasons that osteoclasts are normally used: the first is for the reparation of bones after a break. They destroy sections of bone that protrude or make reformation difficult. They are also used to obtain necessary calcium that osteoclasts are used is for growing. As the bone grows, its shape changes. The osteoclasts dissolve the part of the bone that must change.

Additional images

References

Flat bone


Francis Michael "Whitey" Wistert (February 20, 1912 – April 23, 1985) was an American football and baseball player. He played college football and college baseball at the University of Michigan.  Wistert was the first of the three Wistert brothers—he was succeeded by Albert and Alvin—who were named All-American tackles at Michigan and later inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame. He was elected to the College Football Hall of Fame in 1967.

During his time at Michigan, Wistert played on three consecutive Big Ten Conference football championships teams, including two that won back-to-back national championships. He was also Big Ten Conference MVP in baseball in college and later played for the Cincinnati Reds of the Major League Baseball. The Wistert brothers all wore jersey No. 11 at Michigan and are among the seven players who have had their numbers retired by the Michigan Wolverines football program. Their number will be put back into circulation starting on November 10, 2012 before a Michigan home game against the Northwestern Wildcats as part of the Michigan Football Legend program. The Legends program was discontinued in July 2015, and the numbers again permanently retired.

Early years
Wistert was born in 1912 in Chicago.  His parents, Kazimir J. Wistert and Josephine (Shukis) Wistert, immigrated to the United States from Lithuania in 1894 and were married at Chicago in 1907.  His father was a policeman in Chicago from at least 1910 to 1927.  At the time of the 1920 United States Census, Wistert's family lived at 5647 Waveland Avenue in Chicago's 27th Ward and consisted of parents, Kazimir and Josephine, and five children: Josephine (age 11), Isabelle (age 10), Francis (age 7), Evelyn (age 6), and Alvin (age 3-1/2).

Wistert's father was shot while on duty and pursuing a robbery suspect in July 1926.  By the spring of 1927, Wistert's father, who had served in the U.S. Army from 1898 to 1901, was disabled due to "chest emphysema with draining sinus" and was admitted to the U.S. National Home for Disabled Volunteer Soldiers in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. He died in June 1927 when Whitey was 15 years old.

At the time of the 1930 United States Census, Wistert's family continued to live at 5647 Waveland Avenue in Chicago. The household at that time consisted of Wistert's mother, Josephine, and five children: Josephine (age 22, employed as a bookkeeper), Francis (age 18, employed as a tube maker for a radio company), Evelyn (age 16, employed as a "saleslady" at a variety store), Alvin (age 13), and Albert (age 8).

College athletics
After graduating from Chicago's Schurz High School in 1929,  Wistert attended the University of Michigan where he was a star athlete in both football and baseball from 1931 to 1933.

The Wistert brothers of Michigan
Wistert was the first of three brothers to play for Michigan. The other two are Al Wistert and Alvin Wistert. All three Wistert brothers wore number 11 for the Wolverines football team, and all three were All-Americans. Interviewed by The Detroit News in 2004, Alvin recalled: "And if I'm not mistaken I think this is unprecedented in the annals of college football: that three brothers all would go to the same school, all played football. All played tackle, all wore the same number 11, all made All-American. Two of us played on four national championship teams. And all were inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame."

The Wistert brothers grew up on the northwest side of Chicago and were the sons of a Lithuanian family. Their father was a Spanish–American War veteran who was later killed in the line of duty while working for the Chicago Police Department. According to brother Alvin Wistert, their father "was born Casmir Vistertus and he Anglicized it when he came to America to Wistert."

The story of the Wistert brothers at Michigan began when Whitey's Carl Schurz High School classmate John Kowalik was invited to visit the University of Michigan. At the time, Whitey Wistert "was working in a factory building Majestic radios." Kowalik took Whitey with him on his visit to Ann Arbor, and according to Alvin, "that's how it started: the Wisterts of Michigan."

Football
As a football player, Wistert played for consecutive undefeated national championship teams in 1932 and 1933   and was a consensus All-American in 1933.   The 1934 University of Michigan yearbook, the Michiganensian, included the following quote from Grantland Rice: "Wistert was unanimously selected as the best tackle in the Middle-West this year.  He was the key to Michigan's defensive line play.  He was a sure tackler and it was next to impossible to fool him on trick maneuvers.  He was keen, quick, and accurate in diagnosing plays."

Wistert and Chuck Bernard were the leaders of the 1933 offensive line when the team went 7–0–1 with a tie to the Minnesota Golden Gophers.

One of Wistert's teammates on the 1932 and 1933 Michigan football teams was future U.S. President Gerald Ford.  In an interview in the February 1974 issue of "Michigan Alumnus", Wistert said of Ford: "He was a real good competitor – a real bulldog type. Even during a losing year, he was voted MVP by his teammates. They felt he was one guy who could stay and fight for a losing cause."

In 1936, he was a member Michigan football coaching staff under Coach Harry Kipke.

Baseball
Wistert also earned varsity letters in baseball three years and was selected as the Most Valuable Player in the Big Ten Conference in 1934.  The 1934 Michiganensian yearbook reports that the final game of the baseball season was a 4–0 shutout by Wistert against the University of Chicago Maroons.  "Wistert, for the Wolves, allowed only five well-scattered hits during the game.  Although Whitey Wistert walked four men, he more than off-set this by striking out nine of the Maroons to face him."  Wistert also pitched a four-hitter against Ohio State.

Honors
Wistert was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame in 1967, one year before his brother Albert.  In 1981, he was named to the University of Michigan Hall of Honor in the fourth class of inductees alongside his brothers.  Only five Michigan football players earned this honor before him.

Professional baseball
Wistert had a short cup of coffee in Major League Baseball, appearing in three games for the Cincinnati Reds between September 11, 1934 and September 25, 1934.  In two appearances as a pitcher, Wistert allowed only one run in eight innings, for a career ERA of 1.13.  The only career earned run he ever allowed came off the bat of a 17-year old phenom who was also a Chicago Public Schools alum in Phil Cavarretta of his hometown Chicago Cubs, who hit his first career home run in the 2nd inning of a 1-0 Reds loss. In three plate appearances, he went hitless and struck out twice.  Although he only played briefly at the major league level, Wistert played five years of professional baseball.  Fellow 1933 Michigan Wolverines football All-American, Ted Petoskey also debuted for the Reds in September 1934.

Late life
After retiring from sports, Wistert became a New York lawyer.  He went on to become a vice-president of an industrial relations firm in Toledo, Ohio. He served in the United States Navy as a lieutenant during World War II.

See also

 1932 Michigan Wolverines football team
 1933 Michigan Wolverines football team
 List of Michigan Wolverines football All-Americans
 University of Michigan Athletic Hall of Honor

References

External links

1912 births
1985 deaths
All-American college football players
American football tackles
United States Navy personnel of World War II
American people of Lithuanian descent
Cincinnati Reds players
College Football Hall of Fame inductees
Fort Worth Cats players
Major League Baseball pitchers
Michigan Wolverines baseball players
Michigan Wolverines football coaches
Michigan Wolverines football players
Nashville Vols players
New York (state) lawyers
People from Painesville, Ohio
Players of American football from Chicago
Toronto Maple Leafs (International League) players
Wilmington Pirates players
United States Navy officers
Baseball players from Chicago
20th-century American lawyers
Carl Schurz High School alumni
Military personnel from Illinois

Whitey Wistert


The Christianization of sites that had been pagan  occurred as a result of conversions in early Christian times, as well as an important part of the strategy of  ("Christian reinterpretation") during the Christianization of pagan peoples. The landscape itself was Christianized, as prominent features were rededicated to Christian saints, sometimes quite directly, as when the island of Oglasa in the Tyrrhenian Sea was christened Montecristo.

Early Christianity
In the first centuries of Christianity churches were either house churches in whatever houses were offered for use by their owners, or were shrines on the burial-sites of martyrs or saints, which following the usual classical practice were invariably on the (then) edges of cities - the necropolis was always outside the polis.  In Rome the early basilica churches of St. Peter's, Saint Paul Outside the Walls and San Lorenzo fuori le Mura, all follow this pattern.  This distinction was gradually broken down, perhaps earliest in Roman Africa, as relics of the saints came to be kept in city-centre churches. By the 6th century bishops were often buried inside their cathedral, and other Christians followed.

Given the plethora of worship locations for various cults, many had fallen into disuse well before the rise of Christianity. The establishment of a third century Roman military camp in the temple complex at Luxor demonstrates an ongoing process of adaptive re-use. Obsolete temples often had their stone elements repurposed for use in new construction.

After the Peace of the Church, the old pagan temples continued to function but gradually fell into disuse, and were finally all closed by the decrees of Theodosius I at the end of the 4th century.  Initially they were shunned by Christians, perhaps because of their pagan associations, but also because their shape did not suit Christian requirements: "To the early Church, only one sort of building seemed suitable for christianization: the basilica", which had previously always been a secular type of building.

Ancient Rome and Greece

Rome
In Rome itself, numerous buildings including pagan temples and other sites were converted into churches, and several major archeological sites owe their preservation to this. On the Roman Forum alone, the Curia Iulia or Roman Senate building (Sant'Adriano in Foro), the Temple of Antoninus and Faustina (San Lorenzo in Miranda), and the Temple of Romulus (Santi Cosma e Damiano) were transformed into churches, and the churches of San Giuseppe dei Falegnami and San Pietro in Carcere were built above the Mamertine Prison nearby, where Sts. Peter and Paul were reputed to have been held.

The Pantheon in Rome was once a temple dedicated to the Roman gods and it was converted to a Roman Catholic church dedicated to St. Mary and the Martyrs.
Eventually the prime sites of the pagan temples were very often occupied for churches, the church of Santa Maria sopra Minerva (literally Saint Mary above Minerva) in Rome, Christianized about 750, being simply the most obvious example. The Basilica of Junius Bassus was made a church in the late fifth century. However this process did not really begin in Rome itself until the 6th and 7th centuries, and was still under way during the Renaissance, when the Pantheon (which had been made a church in the 7th century) and Santa Maria degli Angeli e dei Martiri and San Bernardo alle Terme made from parts of the enormous Baths of Diocletian.

One of the most richly adorned churches, the Basilica di San Clemente, was, according to Christian tradition, built on top of Titus Flavius Clemens's private home, as he had allowed early Christians to worship in his home, due to having pro-Jewish sympathies. The conversion of pre-Christian places of worship, rather than their destruction, was particularly true of temples of Mithras, a religion that had been the main rival to Christianity during the 2nd and 3rd centuries, especially among the Roman legions. An early 2nd century Mithraeum stands across the Roman street from the house and can be visited.  Other Mithraea have been excavated under churches, such as Santa Prisca, and Santo Stefano Rotondo.

Several churches, especially in Rome, are said to have been built on the sites of the earlier burial places of martyrs in the catacombs of Rome or elsewhere.  The sanctification of burial places, and placing tombs inside churches, was a novelty of Christianity, and a break with pagan tradition, where burials were regarded as unclean, and usually only allowed beyond a set distance from a  city's walls.

Vatican
St. Peter's Basilica, the church of the Vatican, is traditionally located at the burial place of Simon Peter, and most scholars parties agree that the basilica was built on top of a large necropolis on the Vatican Hill.  In 1939, an excavation underneath the grottoes which lie directly under the current Basilica, uncovered several surviving Roman mausoleums from the necropolis, and in the area directly under the high altar, below the grottoes, the excavators found a structure resembling a temple that they named the aedicula (meaning little temple).

Greece
In Greece, the occupation of pagan sites by Christian monasteries and churches was ubiquitous. Hellenic Aphrodisias in Caria was renamed Stauropolis, the "City of the Cross".

Allison Franz argues that it was only after temples ceased to be regarded as serious cult sites that they were later converted to churches. "So it was by virtue of necessity rather than in token of a victorious faith that the temples of the old dispensation became the province of the new."

Exceptions to this are the conversion of the Askepieion in Athens around 529, and both the Hephaisteion and Athena's temple at the Parthenon, during the seventh century, reflecting possible conflict between Christians and non-Christians. In Byzantine times, the Parthenon became the Church of the Parthenos Maria (Virgin Mary), or the Church of the Theotokos (Mother of God). It was the fourth most important pilgrimage in the Eastern Roman Empire after Constantinople, Ephessos and Thessalonica.

Middle Ages
Cassiodorus, the court secretary to the Ostrogoth Theodoric the Great, described in a letter written in A.D. 527, a fair held at a former pagan shrine of Leucothea, in the still culturally Greek region of south Italy, which had been Christianized by converting it to a baptistery (Variae 8.33).

Sulpicius Severus, in his Vita of Martin of Tours, wrote, "wherever he destroyed heathen temples, there he used immediately to build either churches or monasteries", and when Benedict of Nursia took possession of the site at Monte Cassino, he began by smashing the sculpture of Apollo and the altar that crowned the height. Montmartre (originally Mons Martis, "Mount of Mars", later re-interpreted as Mons martyris, "Mountain of the martyr") was the site of one of the oldest surviving Christian churches in France - Saint Pierre was earlier a mercurii monte - a high place dedicated to Lugus, a major Celtic deity (and one that the Romans viewed as a homology of Mercury).

In Francia, the site chosen for the abbey of Luxueil were the ruins of a well-fortified Gallo-Roman settlement, Luxovium, that had been ravaged by Attila in 451, and was now buried in the dense overgrown woodland that had filled the abandoned site over more than a century; the place still had the advantage of the thermal baths ("constructed with unusual skill", according to Columbanus' early biographer, Jonas of Bobbio) down in the valley, which still give the town its name of Luxeuil-les-Bains. Jonas described it further: "There stone images crowded the nearby woods, which were honoured in the miserable cult and profane former rites in the time of the pagans". With a grant from an officer of the palace at Childebert's court, an abbey church was built within the heathen site and its "spectral haunts".

The Notre-Dame du Taur (Our Lady of the Bull), cathedral church of Toulouse, which is famous for the Encierro festival of running bulls, is thought by archaeologists to possibly be a converted temple of Mithras, whose myth focused on the tauroctony, the killing of a sacred bull. Among the country people (pagani) as Jean Seznec observed that euhemerist dismissal by Christian writers of pagan deities as once having been human was insufficient cause to abandon old ways: "in country districts, the chief obstacle to Christianity was offered by the tenacious survival of anthropomorphic cults; here the problem became one of still further humanizing the divinities of springs, trees and mountains, in order to rob them of their prestige".

Samuel J. Barish found further examples of the transition from miraculous springs to baptisteries from Gregory of Tours (died c. 594) and Maximus, Bishop of Turin (died c. 466).

Britain and Northern Europe
In Britain, the legendary King Lucius, was reported by Geoffrey of Monmouth, the often unreliable Christian chronicler, to have deliberately converted all the old temples to churches. The historical actuality is nowhere more forthrightly discussed than in the famous letter from Pope Gregory I to Mellitus, about to join Augustine of Kent among the Anglo-Saxons:

A tradition grew that St Peter upon Cornhill church in London was founded by Lucius in AD 199. Interestingly the high altar of the church is sited directly above the potential site of a pagan shrine room (aedes), within the great roman London basilica. it would make the church contemporaneous to the possible Romano-British church at Silchester, similarly built adjacent to the Roman Basilica and most likely pre-Constantine in age.

Some caution may be exercised in this respect however, as other research suggests it very rare for early english christian churches to be founded in pagan temples, and that when temples were turned into churches, this occurred later, in the late sixth century onwards.  Historians seem to be more confident that early english christian churches met in private homes and villas belonging the wealthy.

Several Roman pagan sites in Britain may have been converted to Christian use in the 4th Century, such as the Temple of Claudius in Roman Colchester and two of the seven Romano-Celtic Temples in the town, all of which underwent restructuring in the 300s AD and around which have been found early Christian symbols such as the Chi Rho.

The British Isles and other areas of northern Europe that were formerly druidic are still densely punctuated by holy wells and holy springs that are now attributed to some local saint. An example of the pre-Christian water spirit is the melusina.

In Britain and many other parts of Europe trees were also sometimes seen as sacred or the home of tree spirits. When Britain was Christianized this resulted in a change of the landscape. In some instances sacred groves were destroyed to discourage belief in tree spirits. One of the most famous of these was the Irminsul, whose ancient location is no longer known (though it may have been located at Externsteine), was obliterated by Charlemagne. Another major ancient holy tree was Thor's Oak, which was deliberately desecrated and destroyed by a Christian missionary named Winfrid (later canonised as Saint Boniface).

In Britain and the Celtic northwest of Europe, the divinities of springs were transformed into local saints who were often venerated only at the location of their "holy well".

Iberian Peninsula

Sometime toward the end of the fifth century, an abandoned "mithraeum" near present-day Motaro, was rebuilt as a church.

During the Spanish Reconquista Christian populations were often brought to an area with the goal of re-establishing a Christian base, one that would be loyal to the Crown of Castile and whose culture would supplant that of the invading Moorish and Arab peoples; for example Murcia. During the process of Christianization, many of the conquered city's mosques were destroyed or reconverted into Catholic churches since most of the mosques were built on the sites of pre existing Christian structures. Typically the great Friday mosques were reconverted into cathedrals, such as the Great Mosque of Cordoba reconverted into a cathedral in 1236, as it was a church before the Arab-Muslim invasion.

Santiago de Compostela is a major site of Christian pilgrimage, and said in Christian tradition to originate as the burial place of Saint James the Great; pilgrims traditionally follow the Way of St. James until they reach the Cathedral, but then, having visited the church, continue to Cape Finisterre. The continuation to Cape Finisterre is regarded by historians as unjustifiable for Christian reasons, but Finisterre has a prominent pre-Christian significance, it was considered to literally be the edge of the world (hence the name finisterre, meaning end of the world), due to it seeming to be the westernmost point of Europe (in reality, even though it juts out to the west, the more subtle Cabo da Roca holds the honour). In pre-Christian times, the souls of the dead were believed to trace their way across all Europe to Finisterre and follow the sun across the sea, and their route, the Santa Compaña, became a significant pilgrimage throughout south western Europe. Santiago de Compostela itself was held to be the place where the dead gathered together, and where their paths finally all joined together for the final stretch of the journey; one possible etymology of Compostela is burial ground, suggesting that even the name derives from the pre-Christian belief.

During the Reconquista and the Crusades, the cross served the symbolic function of physical possession that a flag would occupy today. At the siege of Lisbon in 1147, when a mixed group of Christians took the city, "What great joy and what a great abundance there was of pious tears when, to the praise and honor of God and of the most Holy Virgin Mary the saving cross was placed atop the highest tower to be seen by all as a symbol of the city's subjection."

New World
The Spanish in the New World converted many Native American temples into churches, following their procedure in Spain against Muslim mosques. The Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral was built on an Aztec temple. Few Native American sites in North America could compare with the pyramid temples of Mexico and Central America. Often the Christianized site in Spanish America gives no indication of its former use, as at the site of a pyramid shrine to the god Huitzilopochtli that was dismantled to provide stone for the Franciscan monastery that now houses the Museo Nacional de las Intervenciones.

Balkans
During the Ottoman conquest of the Balkans in the 15th century, many churches were converted into mosques with a minaret added, in the 19th century many former church-mosques were re-converted into churches and their minarets destroyed, such as the Church of Prophet Elijah (Thessaloniki). After the Christian Balkan states obtained independence from the Muslim Ottoman Empire, they destroyed Ottoman mosques. In many cases the minarets of the mosques were destroyed while the mosque itself was converted into a church or left to decay. The Sveti Sedmochislenitsi Church in Sofia was a 15th-century abandoned Ottoman mosque, converted into a church in the 19th century. In Croatia the only three remaining mosques from the Ottoman period, those in Đakovo, Klis and Drniš, have been converted or re-converted into Catholic churches.

South Asia

During the British colonial period, some non-Christian sites were converted into use for Christians.

The Tomb of Anarkali, built in 1615, was temporarily converted into an Anglican church dedicated to St. James in 1851 (after being used as a clerical office), until a church was built for the congregation in 1891. Today, it serves its original purpose, as a tomb.

The Tomb of Nawab Sayyed Khan in Peshawar, built in 1651 for the Mughal governor of the Peshawar and Kabul region, was converted into a chapel for use by missionaries, and remains in use as such to this day.

In the Pakistani village of Maraka, Punjab, Sikh converts to Christianity have repurposed their shrine of Baba Gur Bakshi - a follower of Guru Nanak, into a Christian site.

See also
Conversion of non-Islamic places of worship into mosques
Conversion of non-Hindu places of worship into temples
Christianization of saints and feasts
Christianity and other religions
Christianization

Notes

References

Literature
Curran, John 2000. Pagan City and Christian Capital. (Oxford)  . Reviewed by Fred S. Kleiner in Bryn Mawr Classical Review 20
Kaplan, Steven 1984 Monastic Holy Man and the Christianization of Early Solomonic Ethiopia (in series Studien zur Kulturkunde)
Kerenyi, Karl, Dionysus: Archetypal Image of Indestructible Life 1976.
Lavan, Luke, and Mulryan, Michael, 2011. The Archaeology of Late Antique 'Paganism'. Brill
MacMullen, Ramsay, Christianizing the Roman Empire, AD 100 – 400 Yale University Press (paperback, 1986 )

Trombley, Frank R., 1995. Hellenic Religion and Christianization c. 370-529 (in series Religions in the Graeco-Roman World) (Brill)
Vesteinsson, Orri, 2000. The Christianization of Iceland: Priests, Power, and Social Change 1000-1300 (Oxford:Oxford University Press)

External links

Jorge Quiroga and Monica R. Lovelle, "Ciudades atlánticas en transición: La "ciudad" tardo-antigua y alto-medieval en el noroeste de la Península Ibérica (s.V-XI)" from Archeologia Medievale vol xxvii (1999), pp 257–268 Christianizing Late Antique Roman sites from the 6th century onwards.
The Fountain of Cassiodorus at the Coscia di Stalettì The site known as "Fountain of Cassiodorus" in the area of the Vivarium monastery witnesses the Christianization of a pagan shrine dedicated to silvan gods, whose cult is attested by Cassiodorus in ''Institutiones' 1.32.2.'
Sceptical account of the remains under St Peter's Basilica
Catholic apologist account of the remains under St Peter's Basilica

Christian buildings and structures in the Roman Empire
Christianization of Europe
Church buildings
Conversion of non-Christian religious buildings and structures into churches
Former mosques
Former synagogues
Palaeo-Christian architecture
Religious places

Christianized sites


Crandon is a town in Forest County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was 650 at the 2010 census. The City of Crandon is located adjacent to the town.

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of , of which  is land and , or 5.56%, is water.

Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 614 people, 238 households, and 177 families residing in the town. The population density was 18.2 people per square mile (7.0/km2). There were 443 housing units at an average density of 13.1 per square mile (5.1/km2). The racial makeup of the town was 96.91% White, 0.33% Black or African American, 1.63% Native American, and 1.14% from two or more races. 0.33% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.

There were 238 households, out of which 35.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 63.0% were married couples living together, 8.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 25.6% were non-families. 22.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.58 and the average family size was 3.03.

In the town, the population was spread out, with 26.9% under the age of 18, 6.2% from 18 to 24, 30.1% from 25 to 44, 22.8% from 45 to 64, and 14.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females, there were 106.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 110.8 males.

The median income for a household in the town was $33,375, and the median income for a family was $37,813. Males had a median income of $28,750 versus $18,984 for females. The per capita income for the town was $14,933. About 9.2% of families and 11.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 18.1% of those under age 18 and 13.1% of those age 65 or over.

Transportation

Airport
Crandon is served by the Crandon/Steve Conway Municipal Airport (Y55).  Located three miles southwest of the city, the airport handles approximately 30,600 operations per year, with roughly 91% general aviation and 9% air taxi. The airport has a 3,550 foot asphalt runway with approved GPS approaches (Runway 12–30).

References

Towns in Forest County, Wisconsin
Towns in Wisconsin

Crandon (town), Wisconsin


Joseph Charles Grzenda (June 8, 1937 – July 12, 2019) was an American professional baseball relief pitcher. He played in Major League Baseball (MLB) for eight seasons (1961; 1964–1967; 1969–1972) for the Detroit Tigers, Kansas City Athletics, New York Mets, Minnesota Twins, Washington Senators and St. Louis Cardinals. Born in Scranton, Pennsylvania, he stood  tall and weighed . His professional career lasted for 20 seasons (1955–1974) and included 492 appearances in the minor leagues.

Career
Grzenda was a left-handed sidearm pitcher who pitched in 219 Major League games, all but three games as a relief pitcher. His best season statistics-wise was in 1971 for the Washington Senators, when he earned five victories with an excellent 1.92 earned run average (ERA). All told, he posted a 14–13 won–lost record and an even 4.00 earned run average in the big leagues, with 14 saves. In 308 innings pitched, he surrendered 323 hits and 120 bases on balls, and notched 173 strikeouts.

Not known for his hitting ability, Grzenda once grounded out to third base in RFK Stadium and received a standing ovation. On September 30, 1971, he became the last pitcher in the franchise's tenure at Washington, D.C., getting two outs in the top of the ninth inning before fans, knowing the team would be leaving for Dallas–Fort Worth after the season to become the Texas Rangers, stormed the RFK Stadium field, causing a forfeit. Thirty-four years later, when baseball returned to the nation's capital, Grzenda returned to the RFK field before the Washington Nationals' first home game, handing George W. Bush the ball he would use to throw out the first pitch.

As a fielder, Grzenda was charged with no errors during his eight-year career for a perfect 1.000 fielding percentage (6 putouts, 66 assists). In 1969 he made an appearance in the ALCS for the Minnesota Twins.

Grzenda died at his home in Covington Township, Pennsylvania, on July 12, 2019.

References

External links

1937 births
2019 deaths
American expatriate baseball players in Canada
American people of Polish descent
Birmingham A's players
Birmingham Barons players
Charleston Senators players
Denver Bears players
Detroit Tigers players
Durham Bulls players
Jamestown Falcons players
Johnson City Cardinals players
Kansas City Athletics players
Major League Baseball pitchers
Minnesota Twins players
Mobile A's players
New York Mets players
Oklahoma City 89ers players
Richmond Braves players
St. Louis Cardinals players
Baseball players from Scranton, Pennsylvania
Syracuse Chiefs players
Tulsa Oilers (baseball) players
Valdosta Tigers players
Vancouver Mounties players
Victoria Rosebuds players
Washington Senators (1961–1971) players
Winnipeg Goldeyes players

Joe Grzenda


Don Procopio is a two-act opera buffa by Georges Bizet with an Italian libretto completed in 1859, and first performed in 1906.

Background
Bizet spent 1857 to 1860 in Italy as winner of the Prix de Rome. Looking for inspiration for a work to send home, he found the subject for his opera buffa in a second-hand bookstall in Rome, writing home that the piece by Carlo Cambiaggio (1798–1880) was "an Italian farce in the manner of Don Pasquale". The words were a reduced version of I pretendenti delusi (1811) by Giuseppe Mosca (1772–1839).

Composition was sporadic over the winter of 1858–59; Bizet confessed that he was still trying to find his voice, although he intentionally aimed at an Italian style for this piece. The report from the Prix de Rome judges noted advances, but a later report signed by Ambroise Thomas criticised Bizet for sending an opéra bouffe as his first envoi and suggested he divert his attention away from this toward sacred music (although Bizet failed to submit a religious envoi of any sort from Rome).

Performance history

There are three printed scores of Don Procopio, a vocal score published in 1905 before the premiere, a full score and a second vocal score, all of which are misleading by failing to distinguish genuine Bizet from fake (entr'acte and recitatives). The second and third scores contain two airs for Don Procopio adapted from Bizet's songs; additional instruments were added to the scoring. The autograph score of Don Procopio was discovered in the papers left by Daniel Auber at his death in 1871 and it was acquired from the Auber family by the Paris Conservatoire in 1894.

The first production, in the revised edition by Charles Malherbe, was at the Salle Garnier in Monte Carlo on 10 March 1906, in a double-bill with Pagliacci. There were performances in Barcelona in 1907 and Rome in 1908. The original version was performed at the Théatre Municipal in Strasbourg on 6 February 1958. Lost and Found Opera presented the Australian premiere in June 2016 in Balcatta, Perth. Opera South (UK) presented what they believed was Bizet's pure composition at Charterhouse School in Godalming, Surrey, England, in October 2016.

A recording in Russian, conducted by Vladimir Yesipov, was issued by Melodiya in 1962. The opera has been broadcast (in Italian) by the BBC, and in 1975 by French Radio.

Roles

Synopsis
The plot is almost identical to Don Pasquale by Donizetti. Don Andronico, an old miser, wants to marry his niece Bettina to another miser, Don Procopio, because he is worried that a young man will spend all her money. Bettina is however in love with Colonel Odoardo. Assisted by her aunt Eusebia and brother Ernesto, she plans to thwart the old men. Procopio is terrified that Bettina appears to be a grasping spendthrift, and tries to get out of the marriage. When she insists that he do so, he abandons the contract and flees, and Andronico consents to the union of the young lovers.

Music
The music is a brilliant, youthful work, free of the influence of Bizet's teacher Charles Gounod; it is a vital and sparkling imitation of Don Pasquale. The familiar idiom is infused with original touches of harmony, orchestration and melodic turn. The ensembles are particularly successful in using all the stock devices of opera buffa: voices in thirds, staccato chord accompanying and repetition of words. Ernesto's "Non v'e signor" is an exact parallel of Malatesta's "Bella siccome un angelo" – in both, the baritone describes his sister's charms to the old man, in D-flat.

Bizet used several episodes in later works:
a 2/4 section in the first finale for the Carnival Chorus in act 2 of La jolie fille de Perth;
the chorus "Cheti piano!" for "Chante, chante encore" in act 1 of Les pêcheurs de perles;
"Sulle piume" for Smith's serenade in La jolie fille de Perth;
while the March in act 1 is taken from the finale of his Symphony in C of 1855.

References

External links

Recording (1999) with , Gabriela Kaminska, Iwona Kowalkowska, Olivier Heyte, Pierre-Yves Pruvot, Wojciech Parchelm, Bogdan Sliwa; Warsaw Chamber Opera, conductor: Didier Talpain; Naxos Records

Operas by Georges Bizet
Italian-language operas
Opera buffa
1859 operas
Opera world premieres at the Opéra de Monte-Carlo
Operas

Don Procopio


Anaerobic respiration is a form of respiration which does not use oxygen. Elements other than oxygen are used for electron transport. Common replacements for oxygen are nitrates, iron, manganese, sulfates, sulfur, fumaric acid and carbon dioxide. Escherichia coli uses nitrates and fumaric acid for respiration.

For the electron transport chain to work, there must be a final electron acceptor at the end of the chain. This allows electrons to pass through the chain. In aerobic organisms, this final electron acceptor is oxygen.  Molecular oxygen is a highly oxidizing agent and so it is an excellent acceptor. In anaerobes, other less-oxidizing substances such as sulphate (SO42−), nitrate (NO3−), sulphur (S) are used.  These terminal electron acceptors have smaller reduction potentials than O2, so less energy is released per oxidized molecule.  Anaerobic respiration is therefore less efficient than aerobic respiration except, of course, when oxygen is scarce or not apparent.

If there is no oxygen present, glycolysis is still able to happen.  Pyruvic acid is still produced, but instead of proceeding to the Krebs cycle, lactic acid is formed making small amounts of ATP.  An example of this is when exercising: if the body is not able to get enough oxygen to the muscles, they will make lactic acid.  This is what makes the muscles sore.

If oxygen is not used at all, the process is called fermentation. Examples of organisms using fermentation are lactic acid bacteria, and yeast. Yeast is a fungi, not bacteria.

The equation for anaerobic respiration in yeast and bacteria:

 Glucose -> Carbon dioxide + ethanol

The equation for anaerobic respiration in animals is:
glucose -> lactic acid (C6H12O6 -> 2C3H6O3)

After producing lactic acid more oxygen then in normal respiration is required to break it down (oxygen debt).

References

Cellular respiration

Anaerobic respiration


The Lockheed Propulsion Company was a division of the Lockheed Aircraft Corporation located at 1500 Crafton Avenue in the Mentone, California area northeast of Redlands, California, adjacent to the Santa Ana River, from 1961 to 1975. It developed, tested and produced solid rocket motors and propellant used in military and National Aeronautics and Space Administration applications.

The site consists of approximately 400 acres which was leased from the City of Redlands. The predecessor Grand Central Rocket Company facility was used for the production, testing and disposal of solid rocket propellant used in rocket engines. Lockheed used the facility for research and for production of solid fuel rockets for military and commercial use until 1974.

History
The Lockheed Propulsion Company was founded in 1952 as the Grand Central Rocket Company by Major C. C. Moseley, co-founder of Western Airlines and Charles E. Bartley, the inventor of rubber-based solid rocket fuel propellants.

The company announced on 22 December 1953, that a plant for manufacturing solid fuel rocket propellant would be built in the Redlands-Mentone area, and that negotiations with the Redlands City Council for 160 acres of city-owned land in East Lugonia were underway. The facility was expected to begin operation within 90 days. At the outset, 53 highly skilled technicians would be employed.

In 1954, the company began operations at a 1,100 acre (?) site in the Mentone area. By 1956, the firm had 130 employees, and was expanding, said President Charles E. Bartley.

The U.S. Navy announced on 5 April 1956 that Grand Central Rocket Co. had been selected to build the solid-propellant third-stage rocket for Project Vanguard.

Local residents reported explosions at the plant on occasion. One such case occurred at 6:55 p.m., according to the Redlands police, on 24 January 1957. The San Bernardino Sheriff's office stated that it was just another "prepared test explosion." Company officials would not elaborate, saying only it was a controlled testing procedure.

The Redlands plant provided the ABL X-248 Altair third stage of the Vanguard 1 satellite launch vehicle in 1958. Vanguard 1 and this upper stage remain in orbit, making them the oldest still-in-orbit artificial satellites. Grand Central signed a contract to produce the solid rocket motor for the Project Mercury escape tower.  This motor was ultimately produced by Lockheed when the Redlands plant was sold to Lockheed Aircraft Corporation.

Grand Central was acquired by Lockheed in February 1960 to become the Lockheed Propulsion Company as a research and production facility of solid fuel rockets and solid rocket propellant.

On 8 September 1964, LPC President Robert F. Hurt launched a Zero Defects Program, aiming at a goal of defect-free performance in all phases of LPC operation. Representatives of Southern California firms supplying the company met at the Redlands headquarters on 16 September and were urged to pledge their support of the program. Copies of the Zero Defects Program were distributed to company representatives and were being sent to each of the company's major suppliers across the country.

Between 1966 and 1975, the Boeing Company sub-contracted with Lockheed Propulsion Company for propellants used in the AGM-69 short-range attack missile.

For the Apollo program, Lockheed Propulsion Company provided both the Launch Escape Motor and the Pitch Control Motor of the emergency escape tower atop the Apollo command module, using propellant made of polysulfides.

On 27 January 1972, the Marshall Spaceflight Center selected Aerojet-General, Lockheed Propulsion Company, Thiokol Chemical Company, and United Technology Center to study the use of 120-inch and 156-inch solid motors as part of the Space Shuttle booster package. Thiokol was ultimately selected as the solid rocket booster provider on 20 November 1973. In January 1974, Lockheed protested to the General Accounting Office (GAO) NASA's selection of Thiokol as designer of the SRB. Because of the protest, NASA issued Thiokol a 90-day study contract on 13 February so the firm could continue its work while GAO studied the situation. The study contract was extended again on 20 May for 45 days. In May 1975, NASA confirmed the Thiokol SRB contract.

With the end of the Apollo project contracts, and no orders for the Space Shuttle program, as well as the conclusion of the AGM-69 SRAM project, Lockheed Propulsion Company was closed and sold in 1975.

Environmental pollution

"In the 1980s, trichloroethylene (TCE), a solvent, was detected in four out of twelve groundwater wells sampled in the Redlands area. The Division of Drinking Water and Environmental Management (DDW) within the California Department of Health Services CDHS, directed that any drinking water wells which contained TCE at levels exceeding 5 parts per billion (ppb) or the maximum contaminant level (MCL), be taken off-line. In 1989, as a result of the TCE contamination, the California Regional Water Quality Control Board (CRWQCB), Santa Ana Region, and the Department of Toxic Substance Control (DTSC) provided funding for the installation of a Liquid Phase Granular Activated Carbon (GAC) groundwater treatment system to treat and clean the water from the TCE impacted wells. Subsequent investigations by the CRWQCB determined that Lockheed Martin Corporation (formerly Lockheed Propulsion Company) was the source of the TCE contamination. TCE had been the primary contaminant of concern emanating from the Lockheed site, until mid-1997 when the first tests for perchlorate in drinking water were performed."

In 1997, ammonium perchlorate was discovered in a number of domestic water supply wells that serve several water purveyors throughout San Bernardino and Riverside counties. Two of the wells in the City of Loma Linda's municipal drinking water system had been impacted by the perchlorate groundwater plume, originating from the Lockheed site. Perchlorate adversely affects human health by interfering with iodine uptake into the thyroid gland. In adults, the thyroid gland helps regulate the metabolism by releasing hormones, while in children, the thyroid helps in proper development.

Some 800 residents in the Redlands community subsequently filed suit against Lockheed, alleging that the groundwater contamination had caused health problems. The California Supreme Court, in a landmark ruling in 2003, however, found that the citizens of Redlands, had no basis for filing a class action toxic tort lawsuit against the Lockheed Martin Corporation. The ruling in Carrillo v. Lockheed Martin both clarified the terms upon which mass medical tort claims may be filed, and debunked the increasingly common notion that "medical monitoring" is always a reasonable response when people are exposed to hazardous chemicals.

Nonetheless, the Lockheed-Martin Corporation, successor to Lockheed Aircraft Corporation, has resisted efforts to make it pay for the clean-up of the contamination. Federal policies allowed for burning toxic chemical waste in open, unlined dirt pits during the 1970s, according to a lawsuit that Lockheed Martin Corp. filed against the U.S. government. Lockheed reported more than $500 million in liabilities companywide from "environmental matters," which include soil and groundwater contamination in Redlands and unrelated projects, according to SEC filings. In a suit filed on 1 July 2008, the company wants the government to pay past cleanup costs and to be held liable for future expenses. A Lockheed spokeswoman declined to comment on the company's lawsuit, filed Tuesday in federal court in the District of Columbia. The lawsuit doesn't say how much money the company is seeking.

References

.
Aerospace companies of the United States
Former defense companies of the United States
Manufacturing companies based in Greater Los Angeles
Companies based in San Bernardino County, California
Redlands, California
Technology companies based in Greater Los Angeles
Technology companies established in 1961
Technology companies disestablished in 1975
1961 establishments in California
1975 disestablishments in California
Defunct companies based in Greater Los Angeles
History of Redlands, California
Superfund sites in California
Water pollution in the United States

Lockheed Propulsion Company


Razvan Preotu (born August 11, 1999 in Toronto, Ontario) is a Canadian chess player who holds the Chess title of Grandmaster.

Early life, family, and education
Preotu is the son of Rene and Gabriela Preotu, who came to Canada from Romania in 1998. The family settled in Toronto, and moved to nearby Burlington, Ontario in 2003. Razvan graduated from Dr. Frank J. Hayden Secondary School in the summer of 2017 and completed his master's degree in computer science at The University of Texas at Dallas. He was awarded a chess scholarship and was a member of the university chess team for 6 years.

Chess career

Early years, coaches
Razvan's first coach was his father Rene, a class B / Category II player, who is also a FIDE chess Arbiter. His first organized tournament was at age seven—the Grade 2 Chess'n Math Association event in Toronto, in 2007. Razvan studied with National Master Michael Egorov, a Hamilton, Ontario resident. He then began to work online with Romanian Grandmaster George-Gabriel Grigore. Upon Grigore's retirement from coaching chess, Razvan worked with another Romanian GM Gergely Szabo, until summer 2016.

Early successes

Three straight national titles
Razvan won the Canadian Chess Challenge three consecutive times, for his grade 8, grade 9, and grade 10 years, in 2013, 2014, and 2015. This annual event, organized by the Chess'n Math Association, is Canada's national grade school championship, bringing together all of the provincial champions.

FM title
Upon attaining a FIDE rating of 2300, Razvan was awarded the FIDE Master (FM) title in 2013, at age 14.

International Master
Razvan scored his first International Master (IM) norm at the 2013 North American Open in Las Vegas. He earned his first win over a Grandmaster when he defeated Bator Sambuev, a Canadian Olympic team member, at the 2013 Guelph Pro-Am. He made his second IM norm at the 2014 World Open at Arlington, Virginia; this was also a Grandmaster norm. He attained his third and final required IM norm at the 2014 U.S. Masters and was awarded the title by FIDE later that year, as his FIDE rating had topped 2400.

Grandmaster
Razvan achieved his second GM norm at the 2014 SPICE Cup, in St Louis, Missouri. He made his third and final required GM norm at the 2016 World Open in Philadelphia. One final step still remained before he could formally be awarded the GM title: the minimum 2500 rating, and Razvan completed this with his draw against GM Gata Kamsky in round five of the 2016 Washington, D.C. International. Razvan was granted the GM title during the 2016 FIDE Congress at Baku, Azerbaijan, in early September 2016, becoming the second youngest Canadian-born GM.

Notable tournament results
Razvan played board one for Canada at the 2014 World Youth U16 Olympiad; Canada placed fifth. He won the U16 Canadian title in 2015 and placed sixth at the 2015 World Youth Chess Championship for U16. In January 2023, Preotu tied for first place with GM Olexandr Bortnyk at the Charlotte Open.  Razvan won the championship at the 2016 Calgary International, ahead of five GMs, becoming the first Canadian to win this title outright. He also won the 2018 Quebec Open with an undefeated 7.5/9, including wins over 2nd and 4th place GMs Edouard and Mikhalevskyi. In 2021 he qualified to the Chess World Cup in Sochi, Russia where he played against Nodirbek Yakubboev in the first round. Razvan was part of Team Canada at the 2018 Chess Olympiad, Batumi, Georgia, and 2022 Chess Olympiad, Chennai, India.  As of February 1, 2023, Razvan is currently the #2 ranked Canadian for FIDE rating, behind GM Eric Hansen.

Chess writer
He has written articles for Chess Canada magazine, and recently released a book.

Books
 Michael Song, Razvan Preotu, Foreword by Evgeny Bareev. 2017. The Chess Attacker's Handbook.  Gambit Publications.

References

External links

1999 births
Living people
Canadian chess players
Canadian chess writers
Chess grandmasters
Writers from Toronto
Sportspeople from Toronto
Sportspeople from Burlington, Ontario
Canadian people of Romanian descent

Razvan Preotu


Wakesurfing is a water sport in which a rider trails behind a boat, riding the boat's wake without being directly pulled by the boat. After getting up on the wake, typically by use of a tow rope, the wakesurfers will drop the rope, and ride the steep face below the wave's peak in a fashion reminiscent of surfing. Wakesurfers generally use special boards, designed specifically for wakes.

History

The origins of wakesurfing are a subject of contention, as various individuals and companies lay claim to its inception. Some assertions trace the roots of boat-surfing or wake-surfing back as far as the 1920s, but there is a lack of credible evidence to support these claims. Visual records and written media from the 1950s and 1960s depict surfers actively riding surfboards behind motorboats in ocean settings. During the mid-1960s, numerous surfboard manufacturers began asserting their involvement in crafting boards specifically designed for riding wakes.

The trend of riding surfboards behind boats persisted throughout the 1970s and 1980s. The boards used in this practice gradually evolved into shorter forms, mirroring the progression of shortboards in traditional surfing. As boards became shorter, practitioners drew inspiration from windsurfing and sailboarding by introducing foot-strapping devices on the boards to secure their feet. Utilizing tow ropes and making sharp turns and jumps off wakes gave rise to sports like skurfing, skiboarding, and eventually wakeboarding.

The increasing popularity of wakeboarding prompted advancements in watercraft technology to amplify the size of wakes. This development subsequently paved the way for wakesurfing to step into the spotlight. Numerous trailblazers in the sport, including but not limited to figures like Tim Lopes, Jerry Price, Jeff Page, Rick Lee, among others, are recognized for their pivotal roles in shaping modern wakesurfing. The first US design patent for a wakesurf board was granted to Alfonso Corona in 1997.

Dangers
With the rise of wakesurfing in recent years many individuals have attempted surfing behind boats ill-equipped to wakesurf. Boats with outboard motors or sterndrive propulsion are not suited for wake surfing and lead to heighted risk, possible maiming or even death. The only types of boats safe to surf behind are direct drive or V-drive boats, this is because the propeller is located far beneath the boat rather than behind the boat.

Another risk associated with ill-equipped boats is Carbon Monoxide Poisoning. Boats designed for wake surfing direct the boat exhaust downward into the propeller stream, pushing the exhaust far away from the rider.

Boat setup
Inboard ski or wakeboard boats are the most popular choice for this sport as the propeller is under the boat, and is less likely to make contact with the rider. Owners of inboard boats place ballast, such as water, lead weights, concrete, or other heavy objects in different sections of the boat in order to weight the boat down and create a larger wake. The best weight configuration for wakesurfing is to place the majority of the weight near the back corner side the surfer is surfing on. The deeper the boat is in the water, the bigger the wake will be overall. In addition, one will want to place a larger amount at the stern of the boat on the side which the rider is riding. This will ramp the wake up on the side the rider is riding and washout the opposite side. A rope length of 2.43 to 3.04 meters  (8 to 10 ft) is recommended. Wakesurf-intended ropes are generally 6.1 meters (20 ft) long, making it ideal for boats that have a tower set-up. Long ski and wakeboard ropes can become hazardous for wakesurfing, because it usually involves winding up the rope or tying unnecessary knots.

Notable wakesurfers
 Ashley Kidd, winner of the 2014 and 2015 World Wake Surf Championships (pro women's division)
 Jake Caster, winner of the 2017 World Wake Surf Championships (pro men's skim division), runner-up 2018 World Wake Surf Championships (pro men's skim division) and placed 3rd in 2019 World Wake Surf Championships (pro men's surf division)
Connor Burns, 2019 & 2018 World Champion Pro Men's wake surfer; 2017 World Champion Amateur Men's wake surfer.
Drew Danielo, 7X World Champion and recipient of the Legend Award at the 2019 World Championships.

Trick list
Many riders perform a wide array of maneuvers or specifically named 'tricks' while wakesurfing, with most owing their origins to surfing, skating (both vert and street) and snowboarding,  Some of the most well-known tricks are:

 Pumping – Turning up and down the face of the wake to gain speed.
 Stalling – Applying pressure to the back foot to slow down or "stall".
 Floater – When a rider and board "floats" on top of the wake.
 Lip slide – Just like a floater, but the board is sideways.
 Spray – Gouging into the face of the wake to create the water under the rider to explode and spray.
 Fire hydrant – Placing one hand on the board and taking the front foot off.
 Posing – Doing hand and body positions while riding for cool style points.
 Hang 5 – Rider extends front foot (toes) over front of board.
 Rail grabs – Grabbing the board's rail while the board is on the wake – one or both hands.
 Cutbacks – Bashing off the lip of the wake with the board – the more extreme and risky the better.
 Paddle back in – Going to the extreme rear of the wake, throwing down on the board and paddling back into the power zone. This can also be done by pulling the outside rail of the board to bring it back to the power zone.
 Tubing it – Throwing down on the board and sliding back into the tube until covered up – the deeper the better, and then popping out and standing back up on the board.
 Switch stance – Riding with the opposite foot forward.
 Airs – Launching off the lip with board into the air and landing back on the wake (toeside or heelside).
 One-hand grab air – Grabbing one rail of the board while the board is airborne above the wake.
 Double Grab Air – Grabbing both rails of the board while the board is airborne above the wake.
 Hang 10 – Rider extends both feet (toes) over end of board.
180 spin – Spinning 180 on the wake – Board and rider spin.
 360 spin – Spinning 360 on the face of the wake – Board and rider spin.
 540 spin – Rider spins continuously 1 1/2 times until they are riding switch stance forward.
 720 spin – Rider spins continuously 2 complete 360′s.
900 spin – Rider spins continuously 2 1/2 times until they are riding switch stance forward.
 Air 180 – Doing an air while spinning 180 the blind direction.
 180 air  - Doing and air and spinning a 180 in the air and landing in with a switch stance.
Body varial – Rider does an air and rotates 180º before landing back on the board. The board doesn't spin at all during this trick.
 180 shove it – Spinning just the board 180 under the rider's feet and landing with the board "backwards".
 360 shove it – Same as a 180 but you spin the board a full 360 under your feet. Note: rider does not spin only the board spins.
540 shove it – Rider does and air and uses his/her feet to spin the board a full 540º before landing back on the board.
 Big Spin – Same as a 360 shove-it, only the rider spins a 180 at the same time the board does a 360.

In popular culture
In 2013, Canadian musician Chris Hau recorded a video in which he plays a song on an acoustic guitar while wakesurfing.

In February 2015, Hunter Sims, a professional wakesurfer, received a world record for doing 106 shove-its.

Many celebrities have taken up the sport with P!nk, Julianne Hough, and Gus Kenworthy among the ones spending their summers trying the activity.

World Champion Skimboarder Austin Keen launched an interview series with celebrities wakesurfing in 2020. His first guest was Diplo.

References

External links

 Competitive Wake Surf Association
 World Wake Surf Championship
 www.prowakesurfer.com

Boardsports
Sports originating in Australia
Towed water sports
Articles containing video clips
Surfing

Wakesurfing


Erin Rachael Doherty (born 16 July 1992) is a British actress. She played the young Princess Anne in the third and fourth seasons of the Netflix drama The Crown, and Becky in the BBC/Amazon Prime drama Chloe (2022).

Early life and education
Doherty is of Irish heritage and from West Green, West Sussex. Doherty's parents divorced when she was 4 and she began acting in Sunday drama classes with her older sister Grace shortly after. She studied at Hazelwick School in Crawley, where she grew up. A talented footballer, Doherty played in midfield for and captained the Crawley Wasps and was scouted by Chelsea Women; she reached the age where she "had to commit" to either football or acting and chose the latter.

Doherty took a one-year course at the Guildford School of Acting (2011–12) before training at the Bristol Old Vic Theatre School (2012–15).

Whilst training, Doherty won the Stephen Sondheim Society Student Performer of the Year Award (SSSSPOTY) in 2015 for her rendition of "Broadway Baby" from the Sondheim musical Follies.

Theatre
Doherty is a frequent theatre actress. Since graduating from Bristol Old Vic Theatre School in 2015, she has appeared in a number of productions at some of London's leading theatres. Doherty's performances have consistently attracted positive reviews from leading theatre critics. Michael Billington named Doherty as 'one of the year's greatest discoveries' after her performance in My Name Is Rachel Corrie, a one-woman play about the activist Rachel Corrie. Doherty starred in Jack Thorne's play Junkyard, which led What's On Stage reviewer Kris Hallett to write "Doherty is the star here, and by rights will soon be a star full-stop". Her leading performance in Alan Ayckbourn's play The Divide at the Old Vic Theatre was described by Dominic Cavendish for The Daily Telegraph as having "star-wattage as bright as anything".

Career
Doherty's first television appearance was in a 2016 episode of Call the Midwife, followed by a role in the 2018 BBC miniseries Les Misérables.

In 2018, Doherty was a Screen International Star of Tomorrow, and an Evening Standard Rising Star.

In 2019, Doherty appeared as Princess Anne in the third season of The Crown. She knew little about the princess before being cast, and consequently spent hours studying Anne's family history and life. Doherty made a point of only watching footage of the princess at the age she was portraying her, rather than interviews of Anne in later life. Anne's voice is very different from Doherty's, being much lower in pitch; the actress spent time carefully learning and mimicking it, finding that it "was the key into her psyche". Doherty reprised her role as Princess Anne in the fourth season of the series.

In 2022, Doherty is the protagonist in the BBC/Amazon Prime drama Chloe alongside Poppy Gilbert as Becky. She was also cast to portray Anne Askew in the psychological horror film Firebrand.

Personal life
Doherty is in a relationship with fellow actress Sophie Melville.

Filmography

Awards and nominations

References

External links

 CVGG Profile Erin Doherty

Living people
1992 births
English people of Irish descent
British television actresses
People educated at Hazelwick School
Alumni of Bristol Old Vic Theatre School
Alumni of the Guildford School of Acting
Actresses from Sussex
English film actresses
English lesbian actresses
People from Crawley
British people of Irish descent
English LGBT actors
21st-century English LGBT people
21st-century English actresses
Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series Screen Actors Guild Award winners

Erin Doherty


Mission Basilica San Diego de Alcalá () was the second Franciscan founded mission in The Californias (after San Fernando de Velicata), a province of New Spain. Located in present-day San Diego, California, it was founded on July 16, 1769, by Spanish friar Junípero Serra, in an area long inhabited by the Kumeyaay people. The mission and the surrounding area were named for the Catholic saint Didacus of Alcalá, a Spaniard more commonly known as San Diego. The mission was the site of the first Christian burial in Alta California. The original mission burned in 1775 during an uprising by local natives. San Diego is also generally regarded as the site of the region's first public execution, in 1778. Father Luis Jayme, California's first Christian martyr who was among those killed during the 1775 uprising against the mission, lies entombed beneath the chancel floor. The current church, built in the early 19th century, is the fifth to stand on this location. The mission site is a National Historic Landmark.

History
The former Spanish settlement at the Kumeyaay Nipawai lies within that area occupied during the late Paleoindian period and continuing  on into the present day by the Native society commonly known as the Diegueño; the name denotes those people who were ministered by the padres at Mission San Diego de Alcalá. Relatively, much is known about the native inhabitants in recent centuries, thanks in part to the efforts of Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, who explored the coast in the service of Spain. He documented his in the coastal villages he encountered along the Southern California coast in October 1542. Cabrillo was the first European to set foot in what is now the state of California and the first to encounter San Diego Bay. On the evening of September 28, 1542, the ships San Salvador and Victoria sailed into the harbor, whereupon Cabrillo christened it "San Miguel." During that expedition a landing party went ashore and briefly interacted with a small group of natives. Some sixty years later another Spanish explorer, Sebastián Vizcaíno, made landfall some ten miles from the present Mission site. Under Vizcaíno's command the San Diego, Santo Tomás, and frigate Tres Reyes dropped anchor on November 10, 1602, and the port was renamed "San Diego de Alcalá." It would be another 167 years before the Spanish returned to San Diego.

Ever since the voyages of Christopher Columbus, the Kingdom of Spain sought to establish missions to convert the pagans in Nueva España ("New Spain") to Roman Catholicism to save souls and to facilitate colonization of these lands. However, it was not until 1741—the time of the Vitus Bering expedition, when the territorial ambitions of Tsarist Russia towards North America became known—that King Philip V felt such installations were necessary in Upper California. In 1769, Visitador General José de Gálvez sent the expedition of Junípero Serra and Gaspar de Portolà to found missions and presidios at San Diego and Monterey (see Timeline of the Portolà expedition), thereby securing Spain's claim to the Pacific Coast harbors recommended by Cabrillo and Vizcaino. Two groups traveled from Lower California on foot, while a pair of packet ships (bearing supplies) traveled up the coast from the Baja California Peninsula.

The original mission church was destroyed by fire in 1775 during an uprising by local indigenous people. An estimated 800 "American Indians" pillaged the mission, burned it to the ground and massacred a blacksmith, a carpenter (mortally wounded), and Father Jayme, who became California's first Catholic Martyr. Father Jayme is buried next to the altar in the present church. Survivors of the night-long attack were one corporal and three Leather Jacket soldiers, one blacksmith, two children who were the son and nephew of the Presidio commandant, and Associate Pastor Father Vicente Fuster. Father Serra then returned to the site of the original structure in 1776 to oversee the rebuilding of the mission. However, the scarce amount of water and the difficulty of making the land until (feasible for preparing crops to be planted by plowing and fertilizing)  made the re-establishment of the mission a long and difficult process. From 1778 to 1795, the mission focused on horse and mule breeding, providing other missions in Alta and Baja California an average of 16 animals per year. After it was restored as a Catholic mission, Mission San Diego de Alcalá saw a record number of spiritual results recorded when 567 baptisms were performed, and neophytes numbered 908.

Rancho period (1834–1849)
On August 9, 1834, Governor Figueroa issued his "Decree of Confiscation". The missions were offered for sale to citizens, who were unable to come up with the price, so all mission property was broken up into ranchos and given to ex-military officers who had fought in the War of Independence against Spain. On June 8, 1846, Mission San Diego de Alcalá was given to Santiago Argüello by Governor Pío Pico "...for services rendered to the government."  After the United States annexed California, the Mission was used by the military from 1846 to 1862.

California statehood (1850–1900)
President Abraham Lincoln signed a proclamation on May 23, 1862, that restored ownership of the Mission proper to the Roman Catholic Church. When Mission San Diego de Alcalá was granted back to the Church, it was in ruins. In the 1880s Father Anthony Ubach began to restore the old Mission buildings.

20th century and beyond (1901 – present)
Father Ubach died in 1907 and restoration work ceased until 1931. In 1941, the Mission once again became a parish church, in what is still an active parish serving the Diocese of San Diego. In 1976, Pope Paul VI designated the Mission church as a minor basilica.

Mission San Diego de Alcalá is located within San Diego city limits, near the intersection of Interstate 8 and Interstate 15, and approximately one mile east of Snapdragon Stadium.

Other historic designations
 California Historical Landmark #242
 California Historical Landmark #784 – El Camino Real (starting point in Alta California)
 City of San Diego Historic Designation #113

Mission industries

The goal of the missions was, above all, to become self-sufficient in relatively short order. Farming, therefore, was the most important industry of any mission. Prior to the establishment of the missions, the native peoples knew how to utilize bone, seashells, stone, and wood for building, tool making, weapons, and much more.  The missionaries discovered that the Indians, who regarded labor as degrading to men, had to be taught industry in order to learn how to be self-supportive. The result was the establishment of a manual training school that comprised agriculture, the mechanical arts, and the raising and care of livestock. Everything consumed and otherwise utilized by the natives was produced at the missions under the supervision of the padres; thus, the neophytes not only supported themselves, but after 1811 sustained the entire military and civil government of California. Wheat, corn, wine grapes, barley, beans, cattle, horses, and sheep were the major crops at San Diego. In 1795, construction on a system of aqueducts was begun to bring water to the fields and the Mission (the first irrigation project in Upper California). The building manager was Fray Pedro Panto, who was poisoned by his Indian cook Nazario before the project was completed. In his testimony, in the trial that followed, Nazario stated that he had poisoned the friar due to constant beatings inflicted by Friar Panto.

The Mission San Diego was primarily supported from lands included in a Spanish royal land grant, encompassing roughly the eastern third of the current City of San Diego, as well as most of the cities of La Mesa and Lemon Grove. While not exact, its boundaries are roughly Interstate 805, Miramar Road, Route 125 (California), Skyline Drive and Division Street. Boundary Street (which parallels Interstate 805 in the neighborhood of North Park) lies directly on one portion of the boundary and draws its name from it.

Wine

The first vineyards planted in California were planted at the mission in 1769. Father Junípero Serra planted these initial vines. The vines were of the Mission variety, which were brought to Mexico in the 16th century. Unfortunately, the initial plantings did not survive, with Mission San Juan Capistrano having the first surviving plantings. By at least 1781, wine was being produced at the mission. One source claims that the vineyard on mission lands reached up to fifty thousand acres. The mission vineyards were around until at least 1823.

Gallery

See also

 Spanish missions in California
 List of Spanish missions in California
 Santa Ysabel Asistencia
 Presidio of San Diego
 USNS Mission San Diego (AO-121) – a Mission Buenaventura Class fleet oiler built during World War II.
 Union Station (San Diego)
 List of the oldest buildings in the United States
 Pueblo de San Diego

Notes

References

External links

Official Mission San Diego de Alcala website
 "Sociopolitical Aspects of the 1775 Revolt at Mission San Diego de Alcalá: an Ethnohistorical Approach" by Richard L. Carrico
 Spanish Wiki page with Fray Pedro Panto's biography
 Early photographs, sketches of Mission San Diego de Alcala, via Calisphere, California Digital Library
 Early History of the California Coast, a National Park Service Discover Our Shared Heritage Travel Itinerary
 Listing, photographs, and drawings at the Historic American Buildings Survey

San Diego de Alcala
1769 in Alta California
Museums in San Diego
Religious museums in California
Diego de Alcala
California Historical Landmarks
History of San Diego
History of San Diego County, California
Mission Valley, San Diego
San Diego River
National Historic Landmarks in California
National Register of Historic Places in San Diego
Churches on the National Register of Historic Places in California
1769 establishments in Alta California
Native American history of California
San Antonio–San Diego Mail Line
Stagecoach stops in the United States
Churches in San Diego
Junípero Serra
Spanish Colonial architecture in California

Mission San Diego de Alcalá