Ashley Nicolette Frangipane ( ; born September 29, 1994), known professionally as Halsey ( ), is an American singer and songwriter. Noted for her distinctive singing voice, she has received several awards including three Billboard Music Awards, a Billboard Women in Music Award, an American Music Award and nominations for three Grammy Awards. She was included on Time annual list of the 100 most influential people in the world in 2020.

Halsey was born and raised in New Jersey. Gaining attention from self-released music on social media platforms, she was signed by Astralwerks in 2014 and released her debut EP, Room 93, later that year. She released her debut studio album, Badlands, in 2015. The album was later certified Double Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), as were its tracks "Colors" and "Gasoline".

In 2016, Halsey was featured on The Chainsmokers' single "Closer", which topped the charts in over 10 countries, and was later certified 14× Platinum by the RIAA. Her second studio album, Hopeless Fountain Kingdom (2017), consisted of more "radio-friendly" music than her previous releases; its singles "Now or Never" and "Bad at Love", both reached the top 20 of the Billboard Hot 100, with the latter peaking in the top five. In 2018, she released the single "Eastside" alongside Benny Blanco and Khalid, which reached the top ten on the Billboard Hot 100. That same year, she was moved to Capitol Records.

Halsey's third studio album, Manic (2020), became her best selling album worldwide, while its lead single "Without Me" became her most successful single as a lead artist. Her fourth studio album, If I Can't Have Love, I Want Power (2021), moved away from her previous sound in favor of a darker industrial sound; described by Halsey as "the album [she] always wanted to make", it was produced by Nine Inch Nails members Trent Reznor and Atticus Ross and received generally positive reviews. In 2023, Halsey left Capitol, following a controversy surrounding the release of the non-album single "So Good" the previous year.

In 2020, Billboard reported that Halsey has sold over 1 million albums and received over 6 billion streams in the United States.  Aside from music, she has been involved in suicide prevention awareness, sexual assault victim advocacy, and racial justice protests.

Early life
Ashley Nicolette Frangipane was born in Edison, New Jersey, on September 29, 1994, the daughter of Nicole and Chris Frangipane. Her parents dropped out of college after her mother discovered that she was pregnant with her. Halsey's mother works as an emergency medical technician (EMT), while her father manages a car dealership. Her mother is of Italian and Hungarian descent, whereas her father is mostly African American with some distant Irish ancestry. She has two younger brothers named Sevian and Dante. She played the violin, viola, and cello, before taking up playing the guitar when she was 14 years old. She grew up listening to Alanis Morissette, Justin Bieber, and Brand New. Throughout her childhood, her family moved frequently, as her parents worked many jobs. By the time she became a teenager, she had enrolled in six schools. She was raised Catholic.

Frangipane was bullied at school, and her suicide attempt at the age of 17 led to her being hospitalized for nearly three weeks. Following this, she was diagnosed with bipolar disorder, with which her mother was also diagnosed. She began using drugs soon after, saying her bipolar disorder caused her to become an "unconventional child". When she was 17, she became romantically involved with a man who was 24 and resided near Halsey Street station in Brooklyn, from which she took her stage name. She said, "That's where I first start[ed] writing music and where I started to feel like I was a part of something bigger than my town in middle of nowhere New Jersey. Halsey is kind of like a manifestation of all the exaggerated parts of me, so it's like an alter ego." In 2012, she graduated from Warren Hills Regional High School in Washington, New Jersey.

After graduating, Frangipane enrolled in the Rhode Island School of Design, but she withdrew due to financial hardship and instead attended community college. She eventually dropped out of community college and was kicked out by her parents, who she said "just didn't agree with a lot of things about [her]". Soon after, she lived in a basement in Lower Manhattan with a group of "degenerate stoners" she knew through her then-boyfriend. When she was not living there, she occasionally lived in one of New York's many homeless shelters, and she considered prostitution as a way to make money. When describing this period of her life, she has said, "I remember one time I had $9 in my bank account, and bought a four-pack of Red Bull and used it to stay up overnight over the course of two or three days, because it was less dangerous to not sleep than it was to sleep somewhere random and maybe get raped or kidnapped." She would occasionally stay with her maternal grandmother during this time.

Career

2012–2014: Career beginnings
Frangipane started writing music when she was 17, and in 2012, she began posting videos to social media sites such as YouTube and Kik, and in particular Tumblr, under the username se7enteenblack. She became known for a parody of Taylor Swift's song "I Knew You Were Trouble", inspired by Swift's relationship with Harry Styles. She then wrote a follow-up song about their relationship, which was posted online in early 2013. In early 2014, Frangipane went to a party and met a "music guy" who asked her to collaborate on a song with him because he liked her voice. The result, a song about her ex-boyfriend, titled "Ghost", was posted by Frangipane on SoundCloud several weeks after it was recorded. Within hours, the song gained online popularity and she was subsequently contacted by several record labels, with the song eventually charting and going on radio. She signed with Astralwerks, feeling that they gave her more creative freedom than other labels that contacted her.

Following this, Frangipane played numerous acoustic shows in different cities under several stage names. She chose Halsey as her permanent stage name because it is an anagram of her first name and is also a reference to the Halsey Street station of the New York City Subway in Brooklyn, a place where she spent a lot of time as a teenager. She also stated Halsey was the most popular name she used. Having written poems for years, Halsey began writing more serious songs as a way to promote them. Music became her "confessional approach" and a form of therapy after the difficult life she had endured.

2014–2016: Badlands and breakthrough

Halsey began touring with The Kooks in August 2014 and performed various original songs. She released her debut extended play, Room 93, on October 27, 2014. The EP charted in the lower regions of the US Billboard 200 and at number three on the Top Heatseekers chart. She then began work on her debut studio album and performed songs from it at South by Southwest in 2015, where she was the most tweeted-about performer of the night. She embarked on a co-headlining tour with Young Rising Sons in March, and in June, she became the opening act for Imagine Dragons during the North American leg of their Smoke + Mirrors Tour (2015).

Halsey's debut studio album, Badlands, was released on August 28, 2015. She described Badlands as a concept album about a dystopian future society known as "The Badlands", which was a metaphor for her mental state at the time, stating that each song meant something different to her. Halsey wrote all of the songs on the album when she was 19, while production was handled by a number of producers, including then-boyfriend, Norwegian producer Lido. The album was described by Halsey as not having a "proper radio hit". It received positive reviews from music critics, with Joe Levy of Rolling Stone citing Halsey as a "new Tumblr popstar with a knack for sticky imagery". Badlands debuted at #2 on the Billboard 200 albums chart in the US, selling 115,000 copies in its first week, of which 97,000 were pure album sales. The album found success in several other countries, including Australia, Canada, and New Zealand, where the album debuted in the top three. It was further promoted by Halsey's Badlands Tour (2015–16), and her spot as the opening act for select dates of The Weeknd's The Madness Fall Tour (2015).

Badlands was certified two-times Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for U.S. sales of 2,000,000 units. Four singles were released from the album: "Ghost", "New Americana", "Colors", and "Castle", all of which were certified Platinum in the US. The latter three singles achieved minor commercial success: "New Americana" reached number 60 on the US Billboard Hot 100, "Castle" was rerecorded for the soundtrack of the 2016 film The Huntsman: Winter's War. "Gasoline" was not released as a single and was only included on the deluxe version of Badlands, but became one of the album's most popular tracks and was certified Platinum in the US.

Halsey was featured on the song "The Feeling" by Justin Bieber for his fourth studio album, Purpose (2015). The song was not officially released as a single, though it entered the top forty of the Billboard Hot 100 and was certified Gold in the US and Silver in the United Kingdom. In February 2016, Halsey was one of four female performers to partner with MAC cosmetics for their Future Forward line; she released a lipstick named after herself. The senior vice president and group creative director of the company, James Gager, said, "It feels like a great thing to be able to support artists who are breaking through but aren't necessarily at the top top, to push them forward." In May 2016, Halsey released the song "Tokyo Narita (Freestyle)", produced by Lido. The song was a standalone track that served as a promotional single for both her and Lido. In July 2016, she collaborated with 26 other artists for the charity single "Hands", which was a tribute for the victims of the Pulse nightclub shooting.

On July 29, 2016, Halsey was featured as a vocalist on the Chainsmokers' single "Closer", a song she also cowrote. The track achieved major commercial success: it topped the Billboard Hot 100 for 12 consecutive weeks, topped the charts of 12 other countries, sold more than 15 million units worldwide, and is one of the most streamed songs on Spotify. The official lyric video for "Closer" was released on YouTube on July 29, 2016, and has since garnered over two billion views. Billboard magazine noted Halsey's solo verse as a favorable part of the song, and the song earned her a Grammy Award nomination for Best Pop Duo/Group Performance.

2017–2018: Hopeless Fountain Kingdom
Halsey announced work on her second studio album prior to the release of Badlands, with progress on the record continuing throughout 2016 and 2017. In January 2017, she released the single "Not Afraid Anymore"; it appears on the soundtrack of the film Fifty Shades Darker (2017). "Now or Never" was released on April 4 as the lead single from her second studio album. The song debuted at number 52 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and later peaked at number 17. It was certified 2× Platinum by the RIAA. "Now or Never" also reached the top 20 of Australia and Malaysia, and sold 500,000 units outside of the US. Two promotional singles were also made available prior to the release of the album: "Eyes Closed" and "Strangers"'.

The record, Hopeless Fountain Kingdom, finally came out on June 2. It consisted of more "radio friendly" songs in comparison to her previous work, which she attributed to her desire to prove she was "more than capable" of creating "radio-ready" music. Much like her debut, Hopeless Fountain Kingdom is a concept album that revolves around a pair of lovers in a tale based on Romeo and Juliet; the project was inspired by her breakup with Lido. The album also focuses on Halsey's bisexuality and on bisexual characters. Hopeless Fountain Kingdom debuted atop the Billboard 200 and the Canadian Albums Chart. First-week sales in the US were of 106,000 units, with 76,000 being pure album sales. Similar to her debut, Hopeless Fountain Kingdom was certified Platinum by the RIAA. Due to its rise to number one, Halsey became the first woman to achieve a number one album in the US in 2017. To promote the record, Halsey embarked on the Hopeless Fountain Kingdom World Tour, which began on September 29, 2017, her twenty-third birthday. The artist also performed surprise DJ sets at Emo Nite in Los Angeles in 2017.
The second single from Hopeless Fountain Kingdom, "Bad at Love", was released on August 22. The song peaked at number five in the US, which made it her highest peak as a lead artist at the time. It was certified 4× Platinum by the RIAA, and sold more than 300,000 records outside the US. In December, Halsey's collaboration with then-boyfriend G-Eazy, "Him & I", was released, and later peaked at number 14 on the Billboard Hot 100 and achieved a 2× Platinum certification by the RIAA in the US. The song also reached the top ten of 13 other countries' charts. Halsey also collaborated with the band Thirty Seconds to Mars on the song "Love Is Madness", from their 2018 album America.

On January 13, 2018, Halsey was featured as a musical guest on the American television variety show Saturday Night Live, where she performed "Bad at Love" and "Him & I", with G-Eazy. On March 15, she released "Alone", together with a new version featuring American rapper Big Sean and British rapper Stefflon Don. It was released as the third and final single from Hopeless Fountain Kingdom, and a music video came out in April. "Alone" was certified Platinum by the RIAA and reached number one on Billboard's Dance Club chart, though it only peaked at number 66 on the Billboard Hot 100. Halsey sang with Khalid on Benny Blanco's debut single "Eastside", which was released on July 12, along with a music video discussing various parts of Halsey's life. The song peaked at number nine on the Billboard Hot 100 and topped the charts of five other countries. It was certified 2× Platinum in the US, and sold over one million units outside the country. Also in the same year, she appeared in two films: she voiced Wonder Woman in Teen Titans Go! To the Movies, and cameoed as herself in A Star Is Born, directed by Bradley Cooper. Halsey was also a key advisor on the US version of The Voice in its fifteenth season.

2018–2021: Manic and If I Can't Have Love, I Want Power
After the release of Hopeless Fountain Kingdom, Halsey was "upstreamed" to Capitol Records, Astralwerks' parent company. Her debut single on the label, "Without Me", was released on October 4, 2018. She stated that the song was very personal to her. On October 29, the official music video for "Without Me" was released, featuring a "G-Eazy lookalike", following their second breakup. This song went on to become Halsey's most successful single as a lead artist to date, becoming her first solo number-one single on the Billboard Hot 100. It topped the chart for two non-consecutive weeks and remained in the top five for 22 weeks. It also reached the top three of the UK, Malaysia, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and Ireland. The song has been certified 9× Platinum in the US, 2× Platinum in the UK, 8× Platinum in Australia, and 9× Platinum in Canada. Due to "Without Me" reaching number one on the Billboard Hot 100, Halsey became the eighth woman to achieve multiple number ones on the chart during the 2010s.

The singer made several releases and collaborated with various artists during the first several months of 2019, including a remix of "Without Me", featuring American rapper Juice WRLD on January 9, the song "11 Minutes" with Yungblud (featuring Travis Barker) on February 14, with the accompanying music video released on February 22, and the song "Boy with Luv" with Korean boy band BTS on April 12, the music video for which became the most–viewed music video within its first 24 hours on YouTube, with 74.6 million views. On April 19, she and 29 other musical acts were featured on the Lil Dicky song "Earth", a charity single about climate change awareness.

On February 9, Halsey again appeared on Saturday Night Live, this time as both host and musical guest. Her performance was praised, with ratings for the show rising and a younger audience watching. In March, she announced that her third studio album would be released in 2019. The album is titled Manic, and was eventually released on January 17, 2020. On May 17, 2019, Halsey issued the single "Nightmare", which debuted and peaked at number fifteen on the US Hot 100. On September 13, 2019, she released the single "Graveyard". On September 23, 2019, Halsey announced the Manic World Tour, in support of her third studio album. The first leg of the tour took place in Europe between February and March 2020. She released a promotional single, "Clementine", on her birthday, September 29, 2019.  On January 25, 2020, she again appeared on Saturday Night Live, where she performed two songs from Manic: "You Should Be Sad" and "Finally // Beautiful Stranger". She also appeared in a few sketches.

In December 2019, Halsey appeared on the Bring Me the Horizon EP Music to Listen To.... The band's vocalist, Oli Sykes, later teased additional collaborations; one of them was revealed a month later to be the Oli Sykes and Jordan Fish-produced song "Experiment on Me", from the soundtrack of the superhero film Birds of Prey (2020), which was released on February 7, 2020. A collaboration with Marshmello titled "Be Kind" was released on May 1, with the music video premiering on June 27. On June 25, 2020, Halsey announced that her first book of poetry, entitled I Would Leave Me If I Could, was available for preorder. The same year, she also released her first live album, Badlands (Live from Webster Hall), on August 28.

On August 27, 2021, Halsey released her fourth studio album, If I Can't Have Love, I Want Power, with little prior promotion. Produced by Nine Inch Nails members Trent Reznor and Atticus Ross, it received critical acclaim. Leading up to the album's release, a companion film of the same name was screened at select IMAX theaters; it was later released on HBO Max on October 7. The album was further supported by the single "I Am Not a Woman, I'm a God". If I Can't Have Love, I Want Power debuted at number 2 on the Billboard 200 chart and would become certified Gold by the RIAA in February 2023, but due to a lack of a hit single, had a shorter stay on the charts than her previous albums.

2022–present: "So Good" release controversy and departure from Capitol
In January 2022, Halsey wrote and produced a song, titled "So Good". When the song was withheld from release due to Capitol needing to test the song's "virality", Halsey posted a TikTok video criticizing Capitol Records on May 22, 2022, for not being allowed to release "So Good" without an "accompanying campaign or TikTok video to make it go viral." Five days prior, without the approval of Capitol, Halsey played a snippet of her song in a TikTok video. In the days following her post, questions arose regarding whether or not Capitol was going to take legal action against her. Music industry attorney Erin M. Jacobson mentioned in an article by TIME that "it is rare that a label would sue one of its own artists, especially when the label plans to continue working with that artist. Further, using such a short piece of the record could also be seen as a promotional use." Capitol Records eventually conceded on May 31, 2022, amid criticism and scrutiny from a variety of music artists, and set a release date for the song of June 9, 2022. Although some believed that the release controversy was a marketing stunt, Halsey maintained that it was not fake. Many news outlets commented on the increasing nature, and problem, of pressures for TikTok virality on musicians by record labels.

On February 24, 2023, Halsey released "Die 4 Me". The song is an updated and extended cut of Halsey's verse on the Post Malone song "Die for Me".

On April 15, 2023, Variety announced that Halsey and Capitol Records had parted ways. On June 14, 2023, it was announced that Halsey had signed to Columbia Records. On June 21-22, 2023, Halsey performed two string ensemble shows in Newark, New Jersey, at New Jersey Performing Arts Center, performing an orchestra version of some of her discography. She performed the songs "Ya'aburnee" and "Bells in Santa Fe", from If I Can't Have Love, I Want Power live for the first time. In partnership with Hard Rock Live, she scheduled three more orchestra shows, June 24 in Hollywood, Florida; June 30 in Gary, Indiana; and July 2 in Wheatland, California.

Artistry

Influences
During Halsey's childhood, her mother listened to the Cure, Alanis Morissette, and Nirvana, while her father listened to the Notorious B.I.G., Slick Rick, Bone Thugs-n-Harmony, and Tupac Shakur. She has said that their musical tastes have been a great influence on her. She was "really influenced" by Matty Healy's lyrical approach stating: "His lyrical content is a lot of dialogue, a lot of places. It's very descriptive and it creates this honest, authentic image."

In addition, she has called Panic! at the Disco the "band that changed [her] fucking life" and credits Lady Gaga for giving her the strength to be herself.  She has also mentioned a Long Island rock band, Brand New, as both an influence and a favorite of hers, once changing her biography on Instagram to "The Devil and God Are Raging Inside Me", a reference to their third album. Halsey has cited Taylor Swift as a huge reason why she always insists on writing her own music. Her other influences include Mick Jagger, David Bowie, Bob Dylan, Jimi Hendrix, Christina Aguilera, Marilyn Manson, Beck, Kanye West, Amy Winehouse, the Weeknd, Alex Turner, Bright Eyes, and the Wonder Years.

Halsey credits Dolores O'Riordan as her major vocal influence, saying "Dolores O'Riordan was a massive influence for me. I grew up listening to the Cranberries with my mother and learned so much about having an unconventional singing voice. Dolores taught me how to use my voice in a manner that was emotive, even if I wasn't classically skilled... Her voice was beautiful to me. And she was a fierce badass trailblazing woman in the rock landscape... Always an inspiration to me...".

The artist has said "There's plenty of musicians that I love and respect, but I think that I'm the most inspired by cinema." Filmmakers who have influenced her include Quentin Tarantino, Harmony Korine, and Larry Clark.

Music style and themes

Halsey is noted for her distinctive "indie" style of singing, which has garnered controversial feedback. She sings with an accent different from her speaking voice. She is known as a pop, electropop, synth-pop, art pop,, alternative rock, alternative pop, R&B, indie pop, and alternative R&B artist.
The New York Times Jon Caramanica noted, "Halsey arrived as part of a slew of female pop rebels who emerged in the wake of Lorde's early-2010s recalibration of the genre's operating hierarchies." When speaking of Badlands, Billboard stated, "Halsey's larger-than-life vision combines the synthy darkness of Lorde, the neon-pop chutzpah of Miley Cyrus and the flickering film noir of Lana Del Rey."

Halsey's music focuses on her personal experiences and telling a story. She writes about relationships with other women in her music as a way of solidifying her bisexuality.

Videos and stage
The biggest influence on her live performances is Adam Lazzara, the frontman of Taking Back Sunday, as she said, "One of the most inspiring things I've ever seen is watching [Taking Back Sunday] live and watching Adam use that microphone as a prop and I thought yep, I'm gonna do that."

Public image

In her early career, Halsey drew criticism for allegedly calling herself "tri-bi" in an interview, due to her being biracial, bipolar, and bisexual. In a 2016 interview with Rolling Stone, she criticized the label as a trivializing way to describe her. Halsey became most known for her signature dyed blue hair in her early career. She sparked controversy in 2016 after several fan interactions, some involving the artist kissing underage fans.

In June 2017, Halsey received backlash for collaborating with Quavo, an artist who has made homophobic remarks. She stated she has never spoken to Quavo, and continued to say that she would not put "a lot of people" in her songs. She criticized Iggy Azalea for her "complete disregard for black culture". She also criticized Demi Lovato for, in Halsey's view, treating bisexuality as taboo in the song "Cool for the Summer".

Halsey has described herself as an "in-between role model" and an "inconvenient woman", due to her music and style. She stated in 2017 that although she passes as white, she is a black woman and proud of her heritage. She was included on Forbes 30 Under 30 list, and appeared on the cover of magazines such as Billboard, Paper, and Playboy. She has appeared in advertisements for Jeep, Beats Electronics, and ModCloth. At other times, she has been described as a feminist icon. She has also been called the "voice of her generation". Her relationship with G-Eazy gathered significant media attention due to rumors of drug use, arrest, cheating, and G-Eazy's feuds with other artists.

While much of her music is labeled as pop, Halsey has long identified as an alternative artist, stating she can do pop collaborations without being considered a pop artist, similar to Kendrick Lamar. She states she is only classified as pop because she is a woman. In 2019, she called herself "the anti-popstar" and stated she does not care how people identify her music, as long as it connects with them.

Activism
During the 2016 presidential election, Halsey was an avid supporter of Bernie Sanders and urged fans to vote for him. In July 2016, she and 26 other artists were featured on the charity single "Hands", which was a tribute to the victims of the Pulse nightclub shooting. During the 2020 Democratic presidential primaries, Halsey further endorsed Sanders on March 11, 2020, urging fans to vote for him via social media and a promotional video collaborating with the Sanders campaign.

As a result of her own attempted suicide at age 17, Halsey took part in the mental health and suicide prevention awareness campaign called "I'm Listening", which was hosted by radio network Entercom and broadcast live on September 10, 2017.

Halsey identifies as a feminist. Following the 2017 Women's March, she sent out a tweet that promised to donate one dollar to Planned Parenthood for every retweet it received. She ended up donating $100,000 to the organization. Halsey delivered a speech to more than 200,000 protesters at the 2018 Women's March. Instead of a traditional speech, she performed a five-minute poem titled "A Story Like Mine", in which she told personal stories of sexual assault and violence throughout her life. Her personal narrative included accompanying her best friend to Planned Parenthood after she had been raped, her personal account of sexual assault by neighbors and boyfriends, and women sexually assaulted by Olympic doctor Larry Nassar. She completed her speech by requesting all—"Black, Asian, poor, wealthy, trans, cis, Muslim, Christian"—sexual assault victims to listen and support each other. AJ Willingham of CNN opined in a headline that "Halsey's Women's March speech moved people around the world." In March 2018, Halsey protested alongside numerous other celebrities at March for Our Lives in Washington, D.C. In May 2018, she criticized Ivanka Trump over Twitter, complaining that she was too relaxed while her father, then-president Donald Trump, hurt immigrant children.

In November 2018, Halsey performed at the Victoria's Secret Fashion Show alongside numerous other artists, but in December she criticised the company for its lack of inclusion of transgender models in its various shows, stating, "as a member of the LGBT+ community, I have no tolerance for a lack of inclusivity. Especially not motivated by stereotype." Later that month, she performed her hit song "Without Me" on The Voice and was criticized for "sensually" dancing with backup dancer Jade Chynoweth. Many perceived the backlash as homophobic, including Halsey herself who defended the performance. In a January 2019 interview with Glamour, she advocated for a stronger presence of women in music. In April 2019, she and 29 other musical acts were featured on the charity single "Earth", which raises climate change awareness. In May 2020, Halsey, alongside Yungblud, joined protests in Los Angeles for racial justice in the wake of the murder of George Floyd.

In June 2020, she launched The Black Creators Fund, founded to provide financial support, resources, and a platform to black creators.

Personal life

Relationships
Halsey is openly bisexual. Prior to her music career, she dated a woman. In March 2021, she announced that she uses both "she/her" and "they/them" pronouns.

Halsey dated English musician Matty Healy until 2015. She met him at a concert by his band The 1975, of whom she said she was a huge fan. She has said that he was influential when she first started writing music. From 2015 to 2016, she dated Norwegian producer Lido, who helped produce Badlands and inspired Hopeless Fountain Kingdom. In 2017, she began dating American rapper G-Eazy. They had met at a party that year and found musical common ground for their collaboration "Him & I", which discussed their love and lifestyle. They broke up in July 2018, though their relationship was on-and-off-again until ending that September. She later confirmed that her 2018 song "Without Me" is partially about this relationship. She dated English musician Yungblud from November 2018 to September 2019, and American actor Evan Peters from October 2019 to March 2020.

In June 2021, Halsey's son with Turkish-American screenwriter Alev Aydin was born. The couple amicably separated at an unknown date; in April 2023, Halsey filed for primary physical custody of their 21-month-old son so she could take him on tour with her, as well as requesting joint legal custody and joint expenses with Aydin. The two co-parent, with Halsey also requesting that Aydin have reasonable visitation rights and the ability to make health and education decisions for their son.

In 2023, Halsey started dating actor Avan Jogia.

Health
Since the beginning of her career, Halsey has been open about her health issues. Discussing her career in 2015, she described herself as "just this fucked-up stoner kid who made it".

Halsey has bipolar disorder. She was diagnosed with the mental disorder at age 17, and said that her mother also has it. At that age, she attempted suicide, which is what led to her diagnosis and a 17-day admission to a psychiatric hospital. Not long after her suicide attempt, she began having success in the music industry. She said that singing and performing helped her manage the symptoms she experiences. Despite the struggles she has faced as a result of this mood disorder, she has stated that she embraces being bipolar, because it makes her "really empathetic". On December 11, 2021, Halsey informed fans via Twitter that she was diagnosed with ADHD in high school, and that she assumed she just grew out of it; however, she is now medicated for it as a result of seeking mental health treatment during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Halsey was diagnosed with endometriosis in 2016, and went public with it on Twitter. She attributes a miscarriage she suffered in 2015 to her endometriosis, originally stating in 2016 that it was due to her hectic touring schedule. Only hours after she realized she was having a miscarriage, she went on stage to perform during a tour, because she did not want to hurt her career by missing a performance. She chronicled her struggles with endometriosis on the talk show The Doctors in April 2018, where she revealed she was going to freeze her eggs.

Also in 2018, Halsey spoke openly about her endometriosis and the pain it causes at the Blossom Ball, which is run by the Endometriosis Foundation of America. She said at the event, "Sometimes I'm bloated, I'm on an IV, I'm sick, I'm on medicine, and I'm backstage, terrified that I'm going to bleed through my clothes in the middle of my show." She told the event's attendees that she wanted to speak out about her condition, because the media often portrays her as having perfect physical health despite her health struggles. In January 2017, she underwent surgery in an attempt to lessen the pain caused by the condition. She has not disclosed what type of surgery she underwent.

Halsey is gluten intolerant. On August 14, 2019, she revealed on Twitter that she had quit smoking cigarettes after a decade.

Halsey has been diagnosed with Ehlers–Danlos syndrome, Sjögren syndrome, mast cell activation syndrome, and POTS (postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome).

Discography

 Badlands (2015)
 Hopeless Fountain Kingdom (2017)
 Manic (2020)
 If I Can't Have Love, I Want Power (2021)

Filmography

Music videos

Film

Television

Web

Tours
Headlining
 Badlands Tour (2015–2016)
 Hopeless Fountain Kingdom World Tour (2017–2018)
 Manic World Tour (2020)
 Love and Power Tour (2022)

Co-headlining
 The American Youth Tour (2015) (with Young Rising Sons)

Opening act
 Imagine Dragons Smoke + Mirrors Tour (2015)
 The Weeknd The Madness Fall Tour (2015)

Awards and nominations

See also

 LGBTQ culture in New York City
 List of people with bipolar disorder
 List of artists who reached number one in the United States
 List of artists who reached number one on the U.S. dance chart
 List of artists who reached number one on the Billboard Mainstream Top 40 chart

Notes

References

External links

1994 births
American activists with disabilities
Activists from New Jersey
African-American feminists
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American women pop singers
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Bisexual singers
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Living people
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Halsey (singer)


Anny Divya (born 1987) is an Indian pilot.

Early life
Anny was born into a Telugu speaking family. Her father served in the Indian Army. The family lived near the army base camp in Pathankot in the Indian state of Punjab. After her father retired, their family settled down in Vijayawada, Andhra Pradesh, where Anny attended school.

Career
After completing her schooling at age 17, she enrolled at Indira Gandhi Rashtriya Uran Akademi (IGRUA), the flying school in Uttar Pradesh. At 19 she completed her training and started her career with Air India. She travelled to Spain for training and flew a Boeing 737. At age 21 she was sent to London for further training, where she started flying the Boeing 777. She also holds an LLB degree from Rizvi Law College of University of Mumbai.

References

Living people
1987 births
Women from Punjab, India
Air India
Indian women aviators

Anny Divya


New Texas was a colony established in São Paulo state, Brazil by remnants of the Confederacy after their surrender in the American Civil War. The New Texas colony's leader was Frank McMullen.

Background
Following the end of the American Civil War, many former Confederates desired to flee the now-unified United States of America. This inclination was fueled by resentment towards and perceived oppression by their new leaders, along with a conviction that the economic and political conditions of the South would be slow to improve during the era of Reconstruction. For some, they chose to flee to another country in hopes of preserving their former way of life, including slavery, but as immigration was an expensive action, not all were able to participate. In addition to this, several Confederate leaders (including General Robert E. Lee) discouraged individuals from leaving the country. One popular destination for these displaced citizens was Brazil due to the fact slavery was still legal, resulting in up to 20,000 people emigrating from the South.

Initial settlement
In 1865, Frank McMullen left for Brazil with 154 former citizens of the Confederacy in hopes of starting a successful colony. They were hoping to take advantage of the lax immigration laws of Brazil at the time. The Emperor of Brazil at the time, Dom Pedro II, actively encouraged Confederate immigration; there were efforts to provide financial assistance and land to the incoming Southerners. McMullen decided to start his settlement on a 50 square-leagues plot of land South of São Paulo, leading to the official foundation of New Texas.

See also
 Americans in Brazil
 Confederados
 Confederate colonies

References

American diaspora in South America
1867 establishments in Brazil
Social history of the American Civil War
19th century in Brazil
Confederate expatriates
American expatriates in Brazil

History of São Paulo (state)
Settlement schemes in South America

New Texas


SSAWS, pronounced  and officially known as , was an indoor ski slope in Funabashi, Chiba, Japan. The name was an acronym of "Spring Summer Autumn Winter Snow".

Constructed by Mitsui at a cost of US$400 million, the ski slope opened on July 15, 1993. With a structural height of 100 meters (translating to a skiable vertical drop of 80 m), a width of 100 m and a length of 500 m, it was the largest indoor ski slope in the world at the time. The complex had three ski courses—20.1° for skilled skiers, 15° for intermediate, and 10° for beginners — and two ski lifts.

The ski slope was designed to break even by 2018 by attracting 1.3 million visitors yearly, who would pay ¥4,300 (~US$50) for 2 hours of lift time and spend a total of $70 on average. However, the opening of the ski slope came shortly after the end of the Japanese asset price bubble, and original estimates soon proved too optimistic, with the number of visitors dropping from one million in the first year to 700,000 in the second. With an annual operating cost of US$40 million, SSAWS sustained losses averaging US$16.7 million/year.

SSAWS closed on September 30, 2002. In 2003, the structure was demolished to make way for Japan's first large-format IKEA store, which opened on the site on April 24, 2006.

References

External links

Webcam captures from inside the complex on www.indoorsnow.com

Ssaws
Ssaws
Ssaws
Ssaws
Sports venues in Chiba Prefecture
1993 establishments in Japan
Buildings and structures demolished in 2003
Funabashi
Defunct sports venues in Japan

SSAWS


Logic translation is the process of representing a text in the formal language of a logical system. If the original text is formulated in ordinary language then the term natural language formalization is often used. An example is the translation of the English sentence "some men are bald" into first-order logic as . The purpose is to reveal the logical structure of arguments. This makes it possible to use the precise rules of formal logic to assess whether these arguments are correct. It can also guide reasoning by arriving at new conclusions.

Many of the difficulties of the process are caused by vague or ambiguous expressions in natural language. For example, the English word "is" can mean that something exists, that it is identical to something else, or that it has a certain property. This contrasts with the precise nature of formal logic, which avoids such ambiguities. Natural language formalization is relevant to various fields in the sciences and humanities. It may play a key role for logic in general since it is needed to establish a link between many forms of reasoning and abstract logical systems. The use of informal logic is an alternative to formalization since it analyzes the cogency of ordinary language arguments in their original form. Natural language formalization is distinguished from logic translations that convert formulas from one logical system into another, for example, from modal logic to first-order logic. This form of logic translation is specifically relevant for logic programming and metalogic.

A major challenge in logic translation is determining the accuracy of translations and separating good from bad ones. The technical term for this is criteria of adequate translations. An often-cited criterion states that translations should preserve the inferential relations between sentences. This implies that if an argument is valid in the original text then the translated argument should also be valid. Another criterion is that the original sentence and the translation have the same truth conditions. Further suggested conditions are that a translation does not include additional or unnecessary symbols and that its grammatical structure is similar to the original sentence. Various procedures for translating texts have been suggested. Preparatory steps include understanding the meaning of the original text and paraphrasing it to remove ambiguities and make its logical structure more explicit. As an intermediary step, a translation may happen into a hybrid language. This hybrid language implements a logical formalism but retains the vocabulary of the original expression. In the last step, this vocabulary is replaced by logical symbols. Translation procedures are usually not exact algorithms and their application depends on intuitive understanding. Logic translations are often criticized on the grounds that they are unable to accurately represent all the aspects and nuances of the original text.

Definition
A logic translation is a translation of a text into a logical system. For example, translating the sentence "all skyscrapers are tall" as  is a logic translation that expresses an English language sentence in the logical system known as first-order logic. The aim of logic translations is usually to make the logical structure of natural language arguments explicit. This way, the rules of formal logic can be used to assess whether the arguments are valid.

Understood in a wide sense, a translation is a process that associates expressions belonging to a source language with expressions belonging to a target language. For example, in a sentence-by-sentence translation of an English text into French, English sentences are linked to their French counterparts. The hallmark of logic translations is that the target language belongs to a logical system. Logic translations differ from regular translations in that they are mainly concerned with expressing the logical structure of the original text and less with its concrete content. Regular translations, on the other hand, take various additional factors into account pertaining to the content, meaning, and style of the original expression. For this reason, some theorists, like Peregrin and Svoboda,  have argued that it is not a form of translation. They tend to use other terms, such as "formalization", "symbolization", and "explication". This opinion is not shared by all logicians and some, like Mark Sainsbury (philosopher), argue that successful logic translations preserve all the original meaning while making the logical structure explicit.

Discussions on logic translations usually focus on the problem of expressing the logical structure of ordinary language sentences in a formal logical system. The term also covers cases where the translation happens from one logical system into another.

Basic concepts

Various basic concepts are employed in the study and analysis of logic translations. Logic is interested in correct reasoning, which happens in the form of inferences or arguments. An argument is a set of premises together with a conclusion. An argument is deductively valid if it is impossible for its conclusion to be false if all its premises are true. Valid arguments follow a rule of inference, which prescribes how the premises and the conclusion have to be structured. A prominent rule of inference is modus ponens, which states that arguments of the form "(1) p; (2) if p then q; (3) therefore q" are valid. An example of an argument following modus ponens is: "(1) today is Sunday; (2) if today is Sunday then I don't have to go to work today; (3) therefore I don't have to go to work today".

There are different logical systems for assessing which arguments are valid. For example, propositional logic only focuses on inferences based on logical connectives, like "and" or "if...then". First-order logic, on the other hand, also includes inferential patterns belonging to expressions like "every" or "some". Extended logics cover further inferences, for example, in relation to what is possible and necessary or regarding temporal relations.

This means that logical systems usually do not capture all inferential patterns. This is relevant for logic translation since they may miss patterns for which they were not intended. For example, propositional logic can be used to show that the following ordinary language argument is correct: "(1) John is not a pilot; (2) John is a pilot or Bill is a poet; (3) therefore Bill is a poet". However, it fails to show that the argument "(1) John is a pilot; (2) therefore John can aviate" is correct since it is unable to capture the inferential relation between the terms "Pilot" and "can aviate". If a logical system is applied to cases beyond its limited scope, it is unable to assess the validity of natural language arguments. The advantage of this limitation is that the vagueness and ambiguity of natural language arguments are avoided by making some of the inferential patterns very clear.

Formal logical systems use precise formal languages to express their formulas and inferences. In the case of propositional logic, letters like  and  are used to represent simple propositions. They can be combined into more complex propositions using propositional connectives like  to express that both propositions are true and  to express that at least one of the propositions is true. So if  stands for "Adam is athletic" and  stands for "Barbara is athletic", then the formula  represents the claim that "Adam is athletic, and also Barbara is athletic". First-order logic also includes propositional connectives but introduces additional symbols. Uppercase letters are used for predicates and lowercase letters stand for individuals. For example, if  stands for the predicate "is angry" and  represents the individual Elsa, then the formula  expresses the proposition "Elsa is angry". Another innovation of first-order logic is the use of quantifiers like  and  to represent the meanings of terms like "some" and "all".

Types
Logic translations can be classified based on the source language of the original text. For many logic translations, the original text belongs to a natural language, like English or French. In this case, the term "natural language formalization" is often used. For example, the sentence "Dana is a logician and Dana is a nice person" can be formalized into propositional logic using the logical formula . A further type of logic translation happens between two logical systems. This means that the source text is composed of logical formulas belonging to one logical system and the goal is to associate them with logical formulas belonging to another logical system. For example, the formula  in modal logic can be translated into first-order logic using the formula .

Natural language formalization

Natural language formalization starts with a sentence in natural language and translates it into a logical formula. Its goal is to make the logical structure of natural language sentences and arguments explicit. It is mainly concerned with their logical form while their specific content is usually ignored. Logical analysis is a closely related term that refers to the process of uncovering the logical form or structure of a sentence. Natural language formalization makes it possible to use formal logic to analyze and evaluate natural language arguments. This is especially relevant for complex arguments, which are often difficult to evaluate without formal tools. Logic translation can also be used to look for new arguments and thereby guide the reasoning process. The reverse process of formalization is sometimes called "verbalization". It happens when logical formulas are translated back into natural language. This process is less nuanced and discussions concerning the relation between natural language and logic usually focus on the problem of formalization.

The success of applications of formal logic to natural language requires that the translation is correct. A formalization is correct if its explicit logical features fit the implicit logical features of the original sentence. The logical form of ordinary language sentences is often not obvious since there are many differences between natural languages and the formal languages used by logicians. This poses various difficulties for formalization. For example, ordinary expressions frequently include vague and ambiguous expressions. For this reason, the validity of an argument often depends not just on the expressions themselves but also on how they are interpreted. For example, the sentence "donkeys have ears" could mean that all donkeys (without exception) have ears or that donkeys typically have ears. The second translation does not exclude the existence of some donkeys without ears. This difference matters for whether a universal quantifier can be used to translate the sentence. Such ambiguities are not found in the precise formulations of artificial logical languages and have to be solved before translation is possible.

The problem of natural language formalization has various implications for the sciences and humanities, especially for the fields of linguistics, cognitive science, and computer science. In the field of formal linguistics, for example, Richard Montague provides various suggestions for how to formalize English language expressions in his theory of universal grammar. Formalization is also discussed in the philosophy of logic in relation to its role in understanding and applying logic. If logic is understood as the theory of valid inferences in general then formalization plays a central role in it since many of these inferences are formulated in ordinary language. Logic translation is needed to link formal systems of logic to arguments expressed in ordinary language. A related claim is that all logical languages, including highly abstract ones like modal logic and many-valued logic, have to be "anchored in the structures of natural language". One difficulty in this regard is that logic is usually understood as a formal science, but a theory of its relation to empirical matters pertaining to ordinary languages goes beyond this purely formal conception. For this reason, some theorists like Georg Brun identify a pure branch of logic and contrast it with applied logic, which includes the problem of formalization.

Some theorists draw the conclusion from these considerations that informal reasoning takes precedence over formal reasoning. This would imply that formal logic can only succeed if it is based on correct formalization. For example, Michael Baumgartner and Timm Lampert hold that "there are no informal fallacies" but only "misunderstanding of informal arguments expressed by inadequate formalizations". This position is rejected by Jaroslav Peregrin and Vladimír Svoboda, who argue that informal reasoning is not always accurate and may be corrected through the application of formal logic.

An alternative to formalization is to use informal logic, which analyzes the cogency of natural language arguments in their original form. This has many advantages by avoiding the difficulties associated with logic translations but it also comes with various drawbacks. For example, informal logic lacks the precision found in formal logic for distinguishing between good arguments and fallacies.

Examples
For propositional logic, the sentence "Tiffany sells jewelry, and Gucci sells cologne" can be translated as . In this example,  represents the claim "Tiffany sells jewelry",  stands for "Gucci sells cologne", and  is the logical conjunction corresponding to "and". Another example is the sentence "Notre Dame raises tuition if Purdue does", which can be formalized as .

For predicate logic, the sentence "Ann loves Ben" can be translated as . In this example,  stands for "loves",  stands for Ann and  stands for Ben. Other examples are "some men are bald" as , "all rivers have a head" as , "no frogs are birds" as , and "if Elizabeth is a historian, then some women are historians" as .

Problematic expressions
For various natural language expressions, it is not clear how they should be translated and the right translation may differ from case to case. The vagueness and ambiguity of ordinary language, in contrast to the precise nature of logic, is often responsible for these problems. For this reason, it has proven difficult to find a general algorithm to cover all cases of translation.  For example, the meaning of basic English expressions like "and", "or", and "if...then" can vary from context to context. The corresponding logical operators in symbolic logic (, , ), on the other hand, have very precisely defined meanings. In this regard, they only capture some aspects of the original meaning.

The English word "is" poses another such difficulty since it has many meanings. It can express existence (as in "there is a Santa Claus"), identity (as in "Superman is Clark Kent"), and predication (as in "Venus is a planet"). Each one of these meanings is expressed differently in logical systems like first-order logic. Another difficulty is that quantifiers are often not explicitly expressed in ordinary language. For example, the sentence "emeralds are green" does not directly state the universal quantifier "all", i.e. "all emeralds are green". However, some sentences with a similar structure, such as the "children live next door", imply the existential quantifier "some", i.e. "some children live next door".

A closely related problem is found in some valid natural language arguments whose most obvious translations are invalid in formal logic. For example, the argument "(1) Fury is a horse; (2) therefore Fury is an animal" is valid but the corresponding argument in formal logic from  to  is invalid. One solution is to add to the argument an additional premise stating that "all horses are animals". Another is to translate the sentence "Fury is a horse" as . These solutions come with new problems of their own. Further problematic expressions are definite descriptions, conditional sentence, and attributive adjectives, as well as mass nouns and anaphora.

Translation between logics
A further type of logic translation takes place between logical systems. A translation between two logical systems can be defined in a formal sense as a mathematical function. This function maps sentences of the first system to sentences of the second system while obeying the entailment relations between the original sentences. This means that if a sentence entails another sentence in the first logic, then the translation of the first sentence should entail the translation of the second sentence in the second logic. This way, a translation from one logic to another represents the formulas, proofs, and models of the first logic in terms of the second. This is sometimes referred to as conservative translation. It contrasts with rough translation, which only maps the sentences of the first logic to sentences of the second logic without regard to their entailment relations.

A preliminary of logic translations is that there is not one logic but many logics. These logics differ from each other concerning the languages they use as well as the rules of inference they see as valid. For example, intuitionistic logic differs from classical logic since it rejects certain rules of inference, such as the double negation elimination. This rule states that if a sentence is not not true, then it is true, i.e. that  follows from . One way to translate intuitionistic logic into non-intuitionistic logic is by using a modal operator. This is based on the idea that intuitionistic logic expresses not just what is true but what is knowable. For example, the formula  in intuitionistic logic can be translated as  where  is a model operator expressing that the following formula is knowable.

Another example is the translation of modal logic to regular predicate logic. Modal logic contains additional symbols for possibility () and necessity () not found in regular predicate logic. One way to translate them is to introduce new predicates, such as the predicate R, which indicates that one possible world is accessible from another possible world. For example, the modal logic expression  (it is possible that p is true in the actual world) can be translated as  (there exists a possible world that is accessible from the actual world and p is true in it).

Translations between logics are relevant for metalogic and logic programming. In metalogic, they can be used to study the properties of logical systems and the relations between them. In logic programming, they make it possible for programs limited to one type of logic to be applied to many additional cases. With the help of logic translations, programs like Prolog can be used to solve problems in modal logic and temporal logic even though Prolog does not natively support these logical systems. A closely related issue concerns the question of how to translate a formal language like Controlled English into a logical system. Controlled English is a controlled language that limits grammar and vocabulary with the goal of reducing ambiguity and complexity. In this regard, the advantage of Controlled English is that every sentence has a unique interpretation. This makes it possible to use algorithms to translate them into formal logic, which is generally not possible for natural languages.

Criteria of adequate translations
Criteria of adequate translations specify how to distinguish good from bad translations. They determine whether a logical formula accurately represents the logical structure of the sentence it translates. This way, they help logicians decide between competing translations of the same sentence. Various criteria are discussed in the academic literature. According to various theorists, like Peregrin and Svoboda, the most basic criterion is that translations should preserve the inferential relations between sentences. This principle is sometimes called the criterion of syntactic correctness or the criterion of reliability. It stipulates that if an argument is valid in the original text then the translated argument is also valid. One difficulty in this regard is that the same sentence may form part of several arguments, sometimes as a premise and sometimes as a conclusion. A translation of a sentence is only correct if in all or nearly all these cases, the inferential relations are preserved. According to the view of holism, this implies that one cannot evaluate sentence translations individually. This position holds that the correctness of a translation of one sentence depends on how other sentences are translated to ensure correspondence in the inferential relations. This view is rejected by atomists, who claim that the correctness of sentence translations can be assessed individually.

A closely related criterion focuses on the truth conditions of sentences. A truth condition of a sentence is what the world must be like for that sentence to be true. This criterion states that for adequate translations, the truth conditions of the original sentence are identical to the truth conditions of the translated sentence. The mere fact that the sentence and its translation have the same truth value is not sufficient. Instead, it implies that whenever one is true, the other is also true, i.e. they have to have the same truth value in all possible circumstances. This criterion is not universally accepted and it has been criticized based on the claim that logical formulas do not have truth conditions. According to this view, the symbols they use are meaningless by themselves and only have the purpose of expressing the logical form of a sentence without implying any concrete content. Another problem with this approach is that all tautologies have the same truth conditions: they are true independently of the circumstances. This would imply that any tautology is a correct translation of any other tautology.

Besides these core criteria, various additional criteria are often discussed in the academic literature. Their goal is usually to exclude bad translations that nonetheless comply with the other criteria. For example, according to the first two criteria, the sentence "it rains" could be formalized as  or as . The reason is that both formulas have the same truth conditions and the same inferential patterns. However, the second formula is a bad translation. One additional criterion is that translations should not include symbols that do not correspond to expressions in the original sentence. According to it, the translation of "it rains" should not include the symbol for logical negation () since a corresponding expression is not found in the original sentence.

Another criterion holds that the order of symbols in the translation should reflect the order of the expressions in the original sentence. For example, the sentence "Pete went up the hill and Quinn went up the hill" should be translated as  and not as . A closely related criterion is the principle of transparency, which states that translations should aim to be similar to the original expression. This concerns, for example, that a translation reflects the grammatical structure of the original sentence as closely as possible. The principle of parsimony states that simple translations (i.e. logical formulas that use as few symbols as possible) are to be preferred. One way to test whether a formalization is correct is to translate it back into natural language and see if this second translation matches the original.

The problem of the criteria of adequate translations is often not discussed in detail in introductions to logic. One reason for this is that some theorists, like Herbert E. Hendry, see logic translation as an art or an intuitive practice. According to this view, it is based on a practical skill learned from experience with many examples and guided by some rough rules of thumb. This outlook implies that there are no strict rules of adequate formalization. Critics of this idea argue that without clear criteria of adequate translations it is very difficult to decide between competing formalizations of the same sentence.

Translation procedures
Various logicians have proposed translation procedures employing several steps to arrive at correct translations. Some only constitute rough guidelines to help translators in the process while others consist of detailed and effective procedures covering all the steps needed to arrive at a translation. In either case, they are usually not exact algorithms that could be blindly followed but rather tools to simplify the process.

Preparatory steps may be taken within natural language before the actual translation starts. An initial step is often to understand the meaning of the original text, for example, by analyzing the claims made in it. This includes identifying which arguments are made and whether a claim acts as a premise or as a conclusion. At this stage, a common recommendation is to paraphrase the sentences to make the claims more explicit, remove ambiguities, and highlight their logical structure. For example, the sentence "John Paul II is infallible" could be paraphrased as "it is not the case that John Paul II is fallible". This can involve identifying truth-functional connectives, like "and", "if...then", or "not", and decomposing the text accordingly. Each of the units analyzed this way is an individual claim that is either true or false. A closely related step is to group the individual expressions into logical units and classify them according to their logical role. In the sentence above, for example, "is fallible" is a predicate and the expression "it is not the case that" corresponds to the logical connective for negation.

Once these preparations are done, some theorists, like Peregrin and Svoboda, recommend translation into a hybrid language. Such hybrid expressions already contain a logical formalism but retain regular names for predicates and proper names. For example, the sentence "All rivers have heads" could be translated as . The idea behind this step is that the regular terms still carry their original meaning and thereby make it easier to understand the formulas and to see how they relate to the original text. The natural language vocabulary is usually not precisely defined and therefore lacks the exactness demanded by formal logic. As a last step, these regular terms are then replaced by logical symbols. For the expression above, this would result in the formula . This way, the connection to the ordinary language meanings is cut. The formulas become a purely formal expression of the logical structure of the original text and any specific content is removed.

The formalization of a full argument consists in several steps since the argument is made up of several propositions. Once the translation is complete, the formal tools of the logical system, such as its rules of inference, can be employed to assess whether the argument is valid.

Criticism
Criticism of logic translations is primarily focused on the limitations and the range of valid applications, as well as the way they are discussed in academic literature. Logic translation is a widely accepted and utilized process in logic and other fields, even among theorists who criticize aspects of it. In some cases, individual logic translations are criticized based on the claim that they are unable to accurately represent all the aspects and nuances of the original text. For example, logical vocabulary is usually unable to capture things like sarcasm, indirect insinuation, or emphasis. In this regard, many aspects of the meaning of the original expression that go beyond truth value, validity, and logical structure are frequently ignored. On the level of informal inferences, there are various expressions that cannot easily be represented using the precise but limited languages of formal logic. For these reasons, it is sometimes controversial whether a specific logic translation is correct. When a logic translation is used to defend the conclusion of a natural language argument, one way to undermine such a defense is to claim that the logic translation is incorrect. This implies that insights gained from the formal logical analysis do not carry any weight for the original argument.

Another type of criticism is not directed at logic translations themselves but at how they are discussed in many standard works and courses of logic. In this regard, theorists like Georg Brun, Peregrin, and Svoboda argue that such works do not provide a proper discussion of the role and limitations of logic translations. Instead, it is claimed that they merely treat this topic as a side note. They may provide a few examples but their main focus is on the formal systems themselves. This way, there is no in-depth discussion of how these systems are applied to ordinary arguments.

See also
Common Logic
Double-negation translation
Standard translation

Notes

References

Citations

Sources

 (for an earlier version, see: )

Logic
Semantics
Translation

Logic translation


Tobacco cultivation and exports formed an essential component of the American colonial economy. It was distinct from rice, wheat, cotton and other cash crops in terms of agricultural demands, trade, slave labor, and plantation culture. Many influential American revolutionaries, including Thomas Jefferson and George Washington, owned tobacco plantations, and were hurt by debt to British tobacco merchants shortly before the American Revolution.  For the later period see History of commercial tobacco in the United States.

Early cultivation
The use of tobacco by the native Americans dates back centuries as a sacred plant with immense healing and spiritual benefits.  They consumed tobacco through pipes.  The Europeans had never seen tobacco before and quickly learned it from the natives.

John Rolfe

In 1612, John Rolfe arrived in Jamestown to find the colonists there struggling and starving. He had brought with him a new species of tobacco known as nicotiana tabacum. This species was preferable to the native nicotiana rustica as it was much smoother. It is unknown where John Rolfe got the seeds for this new species of tobacco, as the sale of the seeds to a non-Spaniard was punishable by death. However, this new nicotiana tabacum proved to be very popular in England and the first shipment was sent in 1614. By 1639, 750 tons of tobacco had been shipped to England.

Cultivation methods

In the period of 1619 to 1629, the average tobacco farmer was expected to produce 712 pounds of tobacco in a year. By the period of 1680 to 1699, the output per worker was 1,710 pounds of tobacco in a year. These increases in productivity were brought about primarily from relocation and better farming techniques. While early tobacco cultivation techniques were relatively rudimentary, colonial farmers quickly developed more efficient techniques. Tobacco will wear out the soil in just a few years and this necessitated farmers to relocate from coastal areas up rivers in the Chesapeake Bay area. Production was further increased by the use of slave labor on larger farms. On the frontier, hired help would both farm the tobacco and protect farms from Indian raids.

Expansion of trade
In 1621, King James prohibited the production of tobacco in England, limiting its growth to the colonies in America. While it would take many years for this to take effect, it influenced other policies.  In reaction to this, the colonies would pass legislation like the Tobacco Inspection Act of 1730 in Virginia as a way to control the production of tobacco and raise its price. Legislation was also passed as a way of ensuring that low-quality trash tobacco was not being shipped or used for the payment of taxes. This series of legislation on both sides of the Atlantic to exert control over the tobacco industry would continue until the American Revolution.

Chesapeake Consignment System
As the English increasingly used tobacco products, tobacco in the American colonies became a significant economic force, especially in the tidewater region surrounding the Chesapeake Bay. Vast plantations were built along the rivers of Virginia, and social/economic systems were developed to grow and distribute this cash crop. In 1713, the General Assembly (under the leadership of Governor Alexander Spotswood) passed a Tobacco Act requiring the inspection of all tobacco intended for export or for use as legal tender. In 1730, the Virginia House of Burgesses standardized and improved quality of tobacco exported by establishing the Tobacco Inspection Act of 1730, which required inspectors to grade tobacco at 40 specified locations. Some elements of this system included the enslavement and importation of African people to grow crops. Planters filled large hogsheads with tobacco and conveyed them to inspection warehouses.

The tobacco economy in the colonies was embedded in a cycle of leaf demand, slave labor demand, and global commerce that gave rise to the Chesapeake Consignment System and Tobacco Lords. American tobacco farmers would sell their crops on consignment to merchants in London, which required them to take out loans for farm expenses from London guarantors in exchange for tobacco delivery and sale. Further contracts were negotiated with wholesalers in Charleston or New Orleans to ship the tobacco to London merchants. The loan was then repaid with profits from their sales.

American planters responded to increased European demand by expanding the size and output of their plantations. The number of man-hours needed to sustain larger operations increased, which forced planters to acquire and accommodate additional slave labor. Furthermore, they had to secure larger initial loans from London, which increased pressure to produce a profitable crop and made them more financially vulnerable to natural disasters.

Slave labor on tobacco plantations

Aftermath of Legalization of Chattel Bondage in 1660s
Following the legalization of chattel slavery, slaves slowly and steadily replaced white indentured servants. Native American slaves were also sought after, but dwindling Native population at the end of the 17th century turned focus onto African slaves. Between 1675 and 1695, 3000 black slaves were brought in to the region. In 1668, ratio of white servants to black slaves were around 5-to-1. By 1700, most plantations in Chesapeake had more black slaves than servants.

Slave boom in the 1700s
The slave population in the Chesapeake increased significantly during the 17th century due to the demand for cheap tobacco labor and a dwindling influx of indentured servants willing to migrate from England. In this century, it is estimated that the Chesapeake African slave population increased from 100,000 to 1 million – a majority of the enslaved workforce and about 40% of the total population. Slaves were not imported to the Chesapeake after 1775, but slave populations continued to increase through 1790 because most were forced by their masters to produce large numbers of offspring.

Before the slave boom, Chesapeake tobacco plantations were characterized by a "culture of assimilation", where white planters worked alongside their black slaves and racial boundaries were less distinct. As slaveholding increased, intense racial contrasts emerged and all-black labor units supervised by white planters came to replace mixed-race units. Unwritten race-based sumptuary laws, which would later become Jim Crow laws, became common social fixtures in Northern and Southern colonies.

For the many farmers who seized the opportunity in the profitable tobacco enterprise, financial and personal anxiety mounted amidst stiff competition and falling prices. Some historians believe that these anxieties were redirected onto subordinates in the field, which exacerbated already strained racial relations. Planters pushed slaves to their physical limits to ensure a superior crop. Slaves, meanwhile, realized that the quality of a crop depended on their effort and began "foot-dragging", or collectively slowing their pace in protest of the planters' extreme demands. Farmers racialized foot-dragging, portraying it as an inherent personality trait of slaves. William Strickland, a wealthy colonial tobacco planter, remarked:
Nothing can be conceived more inert than a slave; his unwilling labor is discovered in every step he takes; he moves not if he can avoid it; if the eyes of the overseer are off him, he sleeps…all is listless inactivity; all motion is evidently compulsory.
Tensions between slaves and planters occasionally escalated enough to bring work in the field to a standstill. When this occurred, masters often punished insubordinate slaves with physical violence such as lashings and whippings until they resumed their tasks.

Differences between the Chesapeake and Deep South
In the Chesapeake and North Carolina, tobacco constituted a major percentage of the total agricultural output. In the Deep South (mainly Georgia and South Carolina), cotton and rice plantations dominated. Stark diversity in the geographic and social landscapes of these two regions contributed to differences in their respective slave cultures.

The Chesapeake had few urban centers relative to the South. Instead, multiple markets were established along tributaries. This facilitated the persistence of smaller tobacco farms because the cost of moving tobacco to market was kept reasonable. In the south, all economic activity was fed through a few heavily centralized markets, which favored large plantations that could bear the higher transportation costs. Differences in plantation size also owed significantly to the different demands of tobacco farming versus cotton and rice. Cotton and rice were cash crops, and cultivation was geared towards maximizing volume. Diminishing returns take effect on harvest quality past a certain threshold of labor investment. Tobacco, however, was considered to be more artisanal and craft-like, with limitless opportunities to improve yield and quality. Thus, the most profitable cotton and rice operations were large and factory-like, while tobacco profits hinged on skilled, careful, and efficient labor units.

Because of the diminished need for trained labor, families of slaves on cotton and rice plantations would often remain together, bought and sold as complete packages. Individual life expectancies were generally shorter because their skill set was less refined and workers were easily replaced if killed. Cotton and rice plantation owners employed a management technique called "tasking", in which each slave would receive around one-half acre of land to tend individually with minimal supervision. The weight of the yield from each slave's plot was interpreted as a direct reflection of the quality of his work.

In contrast, tobacco planters desired skilled male slaves, while women were mainly responsible for breeding and raising children. Family members were often estranged when women and children left to seek other work. Individual life expectancies for tobacco slaves were generally longer because their unique skills, honed over the course of many years in the field, proved indispensable to a planter's success. Tobacco planters favored a technique called "ganging", where groups of eight to twelve slaves worked fields simultaneously under the supervision of a white superior or a tenured slave. The hardest working slaves, called "pace-setters", were spread amongst the different groups as an example for those around them. Unlike tasking, ganging was amenable to supervision and quality control and lacked an inherent measure of individual effort.

Some contemporary scholars argue that the Chesapeake was a more hospitable environment for slaves. It was more common in the Chesapeake for a slave to work alongside his master, an arrangement unheard of in the strict vertical hierarchies of massive Southern plantations. Whites and blacks were more deeply divided in the Deep South, and tasking allowed slave owners to arbitrarily replace individuals who did not meet expectations. Others argue that it is disingenuous to romanticize one incarnation of slavery over another and that neither environment was "hospitable" despite these differences.

Colonial tobacco culture

A culture of expertise surrounded tobacco planting. Unlike cotton or rice, cultivating tobacco was seen as an art form, and buyers understood that behind every crop of good tobacco was a meticulous planter with exceptional skills. Tobacco shipments were "branded" with a signature unique to its planter before they were sent overseas, and guarantors regarded brands as a seal of approval from the planter himself. One planter proclaimed of his branded tobacco, "it was made on the plantation where I live and therefore as I saw to the whole management of it myself (sic), I can with authority recommend it to be exceedingly good." Even though not necessarily participate in the manual labor, planters took a great financial stake in their final product.

Furthermore, local reputation and social status varied with the quality of one's leaf. In his book Tobacco Culture, author T.H. Breen writes "quite literally, the quality of a man's tobacco often served as the measure of the man." Proficient planters, held in high regard by their peers, often exercised significant political clout in colonial governments. Farmers often spent excess profits on expensive luxury goods from London to indicate to others that their tobacco was selling well. Notably, Thomas Jefferson's Monticello estate was styled after the dwellings of a wealthy European aristocrat.

Economic impact of the early tobacco industry

Economic growth in the early colonies

Tobacco played a major role in the development of the early Chesapeake Colonies. With the early tobacco boom in Virginia and the expansion of trade with England, the value of tobacco soared and provided an incentive for a large influx of colonists. In Virginia, the rough climate made it difficult for the colonists to produce crops that were necessary for survival. Due to this difficulty, the colonists lacked a source of income and food. The colonists of Virginia began to grow tobacco. Tobacco brought the colonists a large source of revenue that was used to pay taxes and fines, purchase slaves, and to purchase manufactured goods from England. As the colonies grew, so did their production of tobacco. Slaves and indentured servants were brought into the colonies to participate in tobacco farming. It has been said that some colonies would have continued to fail had it not been for the production of tobacco. Tobacco provided the early colonies with an opportunity for expansion and economic success.

British mercantilism and monopolization of the tobacco trade
As early as 1621, only 14 years after the establishment of a colony in Virginia and just 9 years after John Rolfe discovered the economic potential of tobacco in America, British merchants were on the march in an attempt to control the tobacco trade. A measure was introduced into the British Parliament in 1621 with two major components: a restriction on tobacco importation from anywhere with the exception of Virginia and the British West Indies and an edict that tobacco was not to be grown and cultivated anywhere else within England. The objective of the merchants was to monopolize and control all means of tobacco distribution within Europe and throughout the world. By doing so it was possible to secure a stable return on investment for the American Colonies and profit tremendously within Europe. The British merchants influenced economies using the power of the nation-state to influence and  protect business interests. In exchange, taxes were levied in order to fund political interests. The bill that the merchants put forward in 1621 to Parliament was a classic example of the power and influence of mercantilism.

The measure passed the House of Commons although it was defeated in the House of Lords. Despite this defeat the measure eventually was pushed through by proclamation from King James. Ironically King James had very strong opinions against the use of tobacco, pointing to the ill health effects and social impact of those that used tobacco  Despite these grievances the King was then able to capture import duties on tobacco and in exchange monopoly power was granted to the merchants.

The measures also prevented any foreign ships from carrying colonial tobacco. This monopolization became extremely profitable and flourished during the 1600s. The economy of Virginia was extremely dependent on the tobacco trade. So much so that subtle shifts in demand and prices dramatically affected the Virginian economy as a whole. This led to several booms and busts related to tobacco. The price of tobacco dropped from 6.50 pennies per pound in the 1620s down to as low as .80 pennies per pound in the 1690s. This downward trending triggered a whole series of crop controls and government sponsored price manipulations throughout the 1600s to try to stabilize pricing, but to no avail.

Cash crop

By the mid 1620s tobacco became the most common commodity for bartering due to the increasing scarcity of gold and silver and the decreasing value of wampum from forgery and overproduction. In order to help with accounting and standardizing trade, colonial government officials would rate tobacco and compare its weight into values of pounds, shillings, and pence. The popularity of American tobacco increased dramatically in the colonial period eventually leading to English goods being traded  equally with tobacco.  Because England's climate did not allow for the same quality of tobacco as that grown in America, the colonists did not have to worry about scarcity of tobacco. This eventually led to tobacco being the main form of trade with England.

Imports of tobacco into England increased from 60,000 pounds in 1622 to 500,000 pounds in 1628, and to 1,500,000 pounds in 1639. Such dramatic growth in demand for tobacco eventually led to overproduction of the commodity, and in turn extreme devaluation of tobacco. To compensate for the loss of value, farmers would add dirt and leaves to increase the weight, but lowering the quality. From the 1640s to the 1690s the value of tobacco would be highly unstable, government officials would help stabilize tobacco by reducing the amount of tobacco produced, standardizing the size of a tobacco hogshead, and prohibiting shipments of bulk tobacco.  Eventually the tobacco currency would stabilize in the early 1700s but would be short lived as farmers started cutting back on growing tobacco. In the 1730s tobacco crops were being replaced with food crops as the colonies moved closer to revolution with England.

American Revolution and New Republic
American tobacco planters, including Jefferson and George Washington, financed their plantations with sizeable loans from London. When tobacco prices dropped precipitously in the 1750s, many plantations struggled to remain financially solvent. Severe debt threatened to unravel colonial power structures and destroy planters' personal reputations. At his Mount Vernon plantation, Washington saw his liabilities swell to nearly £2000 by the late 1760s. Jefferson, on the verge of losing his own farm, aggressively espoused various conspiracy theories. Though never verified, Jefferson accused London merchants of unfairly depressing tobacco prices and forcing Virginia farmers to take on unsustainable debt loads. In 1786, he remarked:
A powerful engine for this [mercantile profiting] was the giving of good prices and credit to the planter till they got him more immersed in debt than he could pay without selling lands or slaves. They then reduced the prices given for his tobacco so that…they never permitted him to clear off his debt.

The inability to pay what one owed was not just a financial failing, but a moral one. Planters whose operations collapsed were condemned as "sorry farmers" – unable to produce good crops and inept at managing their land, slaves, and assets. Washington excused his situation thusly:
Mischance rather than Misconduct hath been the cause of [my debt]…It is but an irksome thing to a free mind to be always hampered in Debt.

In conjunction with a global financial crisis and growing animosity toward British rule, tobacco interests helped unite disparate colonial players and produced some of the most vocal revolutionaries behind the call for American independence. A spirit of rebellion arose from their claims that insurmountable debts prevented the exercise of basic human freedoms.

Aftermath
Due to the Revolutionary War, Southern exports dropped by 39% from the upper South and almost 50% from the lower South. Lack of domestic market growth exacerbated  these effects and a stagnated tobacco industry failed to fully recover as cotton became the main cash crop of the south going forward.

According to historian Avery Craven, tobacco caused systematic soil depletion that shaped both agricultural development and the broader socio-economic order. Agriculture in Virginia and Maryland  relied on a single crop and exploitative practices, causing declining yields and exhausted lands. Land that had originally been highly fertile became useless and was abandoned on a wide scale. Planters realized the waste and knew they would have to move on to fresh land. The lack of proper plowing and cultivation methods led to destructive erosion, while continuous replanting depleted essential plant nutrients and encouraged harmful soil organisms. The failure to add organic matter or fertilizers worsened the situation. As a result, expansion became necessary to maintain productivity, leading to social, economic, and political conflicts, as well as a decline in living standards. Although some observers blamed slavery as a major cause, Craven discounts its role in soil exhaustion.

See also
 History of Virginia
Tobacco Lords, merchants in Scotland

Tobacco colonies
 History of commercial tobacco in the United States
Plantation economy
Tobacco and Slaves (1986 book)

Notes

References and further reading
 Beer, George Louis. The origins of the British colonial system, 1578-1660 (1908) good coverage of imperial system of exploiting tobacco online

 Bradburn, Douglas. "The Visible Fist: The Chesapeake Tobacco Trade in War and the Purpose of Empire, 1690–1715." William and Mary Quarterly 68.3 (2011): 361-386. online
 Bradburn, Douglas M., and John C. Coombs. "SMOKE AND MIRRORS: Reinterpreting the society and economy of the seventeenth-century Chesapeake." Atlantic Studies 3.2 (2006): 131-157; argues the need to study regional tobacco cultures, trade with Caribbean, trade with the Indians, internal markets, shipbuilding, and western land development.
Breen, T. H. Tobacco Culture: the Mentality of the Great Tidewater Planters on the Eve of Revolution. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton UP (1985)

 Clemens, Paul GE. "Reimagining the political economy of early Virginia." William and Mary Quarterly 68.3 (2011): 393-397. online
 Coclanis, Peter A. "Tobacco Road: New Views of the Early Chesapeake." William and Mary Quarterly 68.3 (2011): 398-404. online
 Cogswell, Thomas. "'In the Power of the State': Mr Anys's Project and the Tobacco Colonies, 1626–1628." English Historical Review 123.500 (2008): 35-64; a failed  scheme for a transatlantic monopoly of Virginian and Bermudan tobacco.
Goodman, Jordan. Wholly Built Upon Smoke" Tobacco in History: The Cultures of Dependence. London: Routledge (1993).
Goodman, Jordan. Tobacco in History and Culture: An Encyclopedia (2 vol Thomason-Gale, 2005)
 Gray, Lewis Cecil. History of agriculture in the southern United States to 1860 (1933) vol 1 pp 213-276 online
 Hardin, David S.  " 'The Same Sort of Seed in Different Earths': Tobacco Types and Their Regional Variation in Colonial Virginia" Historical Geography (2006), Vol. 34, pp. 137-158.
 Harris-Scott, Steven Anthony. "Northern Virginia, A Place Apart: Bound Labor in Virginia's Northern Neck, 1645-1710" (PhD dissertation, George Mason U. 2016) online enslaved tobacco workers.
 Hirschfelder, Arlene B. Encyclopedia of Smoking and Tobacco  (Oryx, 1999)

 Hemphill, John M. Virginia and the English Commercial System, 1689–1733: Studies in the Development and Fluctuations of a Colonial Economy under Imperial Control (Garland, 1985).

 Kulikoff, Allan. Tobacco and Slaves: The Development of Southern Cultures in the Chesapeake, 1680–1800 (University of North Carolina Press, 1986) online

 Lorenz, Stacy L. " 'To Do Justice to His Majesty, the Merchant and the Planter': Governor William Gooch and the Virginia Tobacco Inspection Act of 1730" Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 108 (2000): 345–392. online

 McCusker, John J.,  and Russell R. Menard. The Economy of British America, 1607–1789 (University of North Carolina Press 1985)
 MacMillan, Ken. "Tobacco and the Economy of Empire." in The Atlantic Imperial Constitution: Center and Periphery in the English Atlantic World (Palgrave Macmillan US, 2011) pp. 85-111 online

 Menard, Russell R. "Plantation empire: How sugar and tobacco planters built their industries and raised an empire." Agricultural History 81.3 (2007): 309-332. https://doi.org/10.1215/00021482-81.3.309
 Menard, Russell R. "The tobacco industry in the Chesapeake colonies, 1617-1730: An interpretation." in The Atlantic Slave Trade (Routledge, 2022) pp. 377-445.
 Monroe, J. Cameron, and Seth Mallios. "A seventeenth-century colonial cottage industry: New evidence and a dating formula for colono tobacco pipes in the Chesapeake." Historical Archaeology 38 (2004): 68-82. online

 Morgan, Philip D. Slave Counterpoint: Black Culture in the Eighteenth-century Chesapeake and Lowcountry. (University of North Carolina Press, 1998). online
 Price, Jacob M. "The rise of Glasgow in the Chesapeake tobacco trade, 1707-1775." William and Mary Quarterly  (1954) pp: 179-199. in JSTOR
 Price, Jacob M. France and the Chesapeake: A History of the French Tobacco Monopoly, 1674–1791, and of its Relationship to the British and American Tobacco Trades (University of Michigan Press, 1973. 2 vols) online book review
 Rainbolt, John C. "The Case of the Poor Planters in Virginia for Inspecting and Burning Tobacco." Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 79 (1971): 314–321.
 Robert, Joseph C. The Story of Tobacco in America (UNC 1949), good short introduction.
Rutman, Anita H. "Still Planting the Seeds of Hope: The Recent Literature of the Early Chesapeake Region." The Virginia Magazine Jan. (1987)
 Ragsdale, Bruce A. "George Washington, the British tobacco trade, and economic opportunity in prerevolutionary Virginia." Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 97.2 (1989): 132-162. online
 Robert, Joseph C. The Story of Tobacco in America (UNC 1949) online good brief introduction to pre-1799 era pp 3-73.
 Salmon, Emily & Salmon, John. "Tobacco in Colonial Virginia" in Encyclopedia Virginia (2020) online.
 Walsh, Lorena S. "Summing the parts: implications for estimating Chesapeake output and income subregionally." William and Mary Quarterly 56.1 (1999): 53-94. online
 Walsh, Lorena S. Motives of Honor, Pleasure, and Profit: Plantation Management in the Colonial Chesapeake, 1607–1763 (2010) online.

Primary sources
 Billings, Warren M., ed. The old dominion in the seventeenth century: A documentary history of Virginia, 1606-1700 (U of North Carolina Press Books, 1975), pp 175–204. online

Colonization history of the United States
Tobacco in the United States
History of the Thirteen Colonies
History of tobacco

Tobacco in the American colonies


The relationship between Jews and Halloween is complicated, due to the Christian and pagan roots of Halloween. Many Jews in Western countries celebrate Halloween as a secular holiday. However, many Jews do not celebrate Halloween for religious or cultural reasons. Orthodox Jews typically do not celebrate Halloween, but liberal denominations of Judaism such as the Reform movement permit celebrating the holiday. The Jewish holiday of Purim has often been compared to Halloween, due to the wearing of costumes during the holiday.

Jewish celebration of Halloween

Many American Jews celebrate Halloween, disconnected from its Christian and pagan origins. American Jews who celebrate Halloween are likely to view it as a secular holiday, little different from Thanksgiving or the Fourth of July. Secular Jews and non-Orthodox Jews are more likely to celebrate Halloween. According to Kveller magazine, many if not the majority of American Jews consider Halloween to be "harmless fun". Many Jewish parents allow their children to wear costumes and go trick-or-treating during Halloween.

Religious views on Halloween
According to Alfred J. Kolatch in the Second Jewish Book of Why, in Judaism, Halloween is not permitted by halakha (Jewish religious law) because it violates Leviticus 18:3, which forbids Jews from partaking in non-Jewish customs. Trick-or-treating can be problematic for Jews who keep kosher, because some Halloween candies are not kosher. However, much of the popular candies in the United States are certified kosher.

Orthodox Judaism
Orthodox Judaism generally prohibits the celebration of Halloween. Modern Orthodox Jews typically do not celebrate Halloween. Some Modern Orthodox parents may allow certain leniencies such as allowing their children to eat kosher Halloween candy or visit haunted houses, but otherwise do not participate. Orthodox Rabbi Michael Broyde opposes Jewish celebration of Halloween because the holiday "plainly has in its origins religious beliefs that are foreign to Judaism" and that are "prohibited to us as Jews." Rabbi Broyde also acknowledged that the majority of Americans and American Jews who celebrate Halloween are not doing so for religious reasons. Rabbi Jack Abramowitz of the Orthodox Union has discouraged Jewish celebration of Halloween due to its "combination of Celtic, Roman and Christian" elements that are "distinctly non-Jewish", characterizing Halloween as a non-secular holiday.

Reform Judaism
The Union for Reform Judaism emphasizes that "informed choice" is the most important facet in whether Reform Jews do or do not celebrate Halloween. Reform Rabbi Jeffrey Goldwasser has said that "There is no religious reason why contemporary Jews should not celebrate Halloween."

Comparisons between Halloween and Jewish customs

Purim has sometimes been compared to Halloween, in part due to some observants wearing costumes, especially of Biblical figures described in the Purim narrative. The Purim custom of giving mishloach manot has been compared to the Halloween tradition of giving candy. Purim has sometimes been referred to as the "Jewish Halloween" or "anti-Halloween." However, some consider terms like "Jewish Halloween" to be a misnomer due to the major differences between the holidays.

Halloween and the Jewish holiday of Sukkot both occur during the fall in the Gregorian calendar, with Sukkot coming before Halloween. Sukkot is typically celebrated in September or October. Neighborhoods where both Jews and non-Jews live may have both sukkahs and Halloween decorations up during the months of September and October. In contrast to Halloween's focus on death, Sukkot is a celebration of life.

Many Jews observe Yizkor communally four times a year, which is vaguely similar to the observance of Allhallowtide in Christianity, in the sense that prayers are said for both "martyrs and for one's own family".

See also
Jewish assimilation
Jews and Christmas

References

Christianity and Judaism
Halloween
Jewish culture
Secular Jewish culture

Jews and Halloween