A blazar is an active galactic nucleus (AGN) with a relativistic jet (a jet composed of ionized matter traveling at nearly the speed of light) directed very nearly towards an observer. Relativistic beaming of electromagnetic radiation from the jet makes blazars appear much brighter than they would be if the jet were pointed in a direction away from Earth. Blazars are powerful sources of emission across the electromagnetic spectrum and are observed to be sources of high-energy gamma ray photons. Blazars are highly variable sources, often undergoing rapid and dramatic fluctuations in brightness on short timescales (hours to days). Some blazar jets appear to exhibit superluminal motion, another consequence of material in the jet traveling toward the observer at nearly the speed of light.

The blazar category includes BL Lac objects and optically violently variable (OVV) quasars. The generally accepted theory is that BL Lac objects are intrinsically low-power radio galaxies while OVV quasars are intrinsically powerful radio-loud quasars. The name "blazar" was coined in 1978 by astronomer Edward Spiegel to denote the combination of these two classes.

In visible-wavelength images, most blazars appear compact and pointlike, but high-resolution images reveal that they are located at the centers of elliptical galaxies.

Blazars are important topics of research in astronomy and high-energy astrophysics. Blazar research includes investigation of the properties of accretion disks and jets, the central supermassive black holes and surrounding host galaxies, and the emission of high-energy photons, cosmic rays, and neutrinos.

In July 2018, the IceCube Neutrino Observatory team traced a neutrino that hit its Antarctica-based detector in September 2017 to its point of origin in a blazar 3.7 billion light-years away. This was the first time that a neutrino detector was used to locate an object in space.

Structure

Blazars, like all active galactic nuclei (AGN), are thought to be powered by material falling into a supermassive black hole in the core of the host galaxy. Gas, dust and the occasional star are captured and spiral into this central black hole, creating a hot accretion disk which generates enormous amounts of energy in the form of photons, electrons, positrons and other elementary particles. This region is relatively small, approximately 10−3 parsecs in size.

There is also a larger opaque toroid extending several parsecs from the black hole, containing a hot gas with embedded regions of higher density. These "clouds" can absorb and re-emit energy from regions closer to the black hole. On Earth, the clouds are detected as emission lines in the blazar spectrum.

Perpendicular to the accretion disk, a pair of relativistic jets carries highly energetic plasma away from the AGN. The jet is collimated by a combination of intense magnetic fields and powerful winds from the accretion disk and toroid. Inside the jet, high energy photons and particles interact with each other and the strong magnetic field. These relativistic jets can extend as far as many tens of kiloparsecs from the central black hole.

All of these regions can produce a variety of observed energy, mostly in the form of a nonthermal spectrum ranging from very low-frequency radio to extremely energetic gamma rays, with a high polarization (typically a few percent) at some frequencies. The nonthermal spectrum consists of synchrotron radiation in the radio to X-ray range, and inverse Compton emission in the X-ray to gamma-ray region. A thermal spectrum peaking in the ultraviolet region and faint optical emission lines are also present in OVV quasars, but faint or non-existent in BL Lac objects.

Relativistic beaming

The observed emission from a blazar is greatly enhanced by relativistic effects in the jet, a process called relativistic beaming. The bulk speed of the plasma that constitutes the jet can be in the range of 95%–99% of the speed of light, although individual particles move at higher speeds in various directions.

The relationship between the luminosity emitted in the rest frame of the jet and the luminosity observed from Earth depends on the characteristics of the jet. These include whether the luminosity arises from a shock front or a series of brighter blobs in the jet, as well as details of the magnetic fields within the jet and their interaction with the moving particles.

A simple model of beaming illustrates the basic relativistic effects connecting the luminosity in the rest frame of the jet, Se, and the luminosity observed on Earth, So:  So is proportional to Se × D2, where D is the doppler factor.

When considered in much more detail, three relativistic effects are involved:

 Relativistic aberration contributes a factor of D2. Aberration is a consequence of special relativity where directions which appear isotropic in the rest frame (in this case, the jet) appear pushed towards the direction of motion in the observer's frame (in this case, Earth).
 Time dilation contributes a factor of D+1. This effect speeds up the apparent release of energy. If the jet emits a burst of energy every minute in its own rest frame, this release would be observed on Earth as much more frequent, perhaps every ten seconds.
 Windowing can contribute a factor of D−1 and then works to decrease boosting. This happens for a steady flow because there are then D fewer elements of fluid within the observed window, as each element has been expanded by factor D. However, for a freely propagating blob of material, the radiation is boosted by the full D+3.

Example
Consider a jet with an angle to the line of sight θ = 5° and a speed of 99.9% of the speed of light. The luminosity observed from Earth is 70 times greater than the emitted luminosity. However, if θ is at the minimum value of 0° the jet will appear 600 times brighter from Earth.

Beaming away
Relativistic beaming also has another critical consequence. The jet which is not approaching Earth will appear dimmer because of the same relativistic effects. Therefore, two intrinsically identical jets will appear significantly asymmetric. In the example given above any jet where θ > 35° will be observed on Earth as less luminous than it would be from the rest frame of the jet.

A further consequence is that a population of intrinsically identical AGN scattered in space with random jet orientations will look like a very inhomogeneous population on Earth. The few objects where θ is small will have one very bright jet, while the rest will apparently have considerably weaker jets. Those where θ varies from 90° will appear to have asymmetric jets.

This is the essence behind the connection between blazars and radio galaxies. AGN which have jets oriented close to the line of sight with Earth can appear extremely different from other AGN even if they are intrinsically identical.

Discovery
Many of the brighter blazars were first identified, not as powerful distant galaxies, but as irregular variable stars in our own galaxy. These blazars, like genuine irregular variable stars, changed in brightness on periods of days or years, but with no pattern.

The early development of radio astronomy had shown that there are many bright radio sources in the sky. By the end of the 1950s, the resolution of radio telescopes was sufficient to identify specific radio sources with optical counterparts, leading to the discovery of quasars. Blazars were highly represented among these early quasars, and the first redshift was found for 3C 273, a highly variable quasar which is also a blazar.

In 1968, a similar connection was made between the "variable star" BL Lacertae and a powerful radio source VRO 42.22.01. BL Lacertae shows many of the characteristics of quasars, but the optical spectrum was devoid of the spectral lines used to determine redshift. Faint indications of an underlying galaxy—proof that BL Lacertae was not a star—were found in 1974.

The extragalactic nature of BL Lacertae was not a surprise. In 1972 a few variable optical and radio sources were grouped together and proposed as a new class of galaxy: BL Lacertae-type objects. This terminology was soon shortened to "BL Lacertae object", "BL Lac object" or simply "BL Lac". (The latter term can also mean the original individual blazar and not the entire class.)

, a few hundred BL Lac objects were known. One of the closest blazars is 2.5 billion light years away.

Current view
Blazars are thought to be active galactic nuclei, with relativistic jets oriented close to the line of sight with the observer.

The special jet orientation explains the general peculiar characteristics: high observed luminosity, very rapid variation, high polarization (compared to non-blazar quasars), and the apparent superluminal motions detected along the first few parsecs of the jets in most blazars.

A Unified Scheme or Unified Model has become generally accepted, where highly variable quasars are related to intrinsically powerful radio galaxies, and BL Lac objects are related to intrinsically weak radio galaxies. The distinction between these two connected populations explains the difference in emission line properties in blazars.

Other explanations for the relativistic jet/unified scheme approach which have been proposed include gravitational microlensing and coherent emission from the relativistic jet. Neither of these explains the overall properties of blazars. For example, microlensing is achromatic. That is, all parts of a spectrum would rise and fall together. This is not observed in blazars. However, it is possible that these processes, as well as more complex plasma physics, can account for specific observations or some details.

Examples of blazars include 3C 454.3, 3C 273, BL Lacertae, PKS 2155-304, Markarian 421, Markarian 501 and S5 0014+81. Markarian 501 and S5 0014+81 are also called "TeV Blazars" for their high energy (teraelectron-volt range) gamma-ray emission.

In July 2018, a blazar called TXS 0506+056 was identified as source of high-energy neutrinos by the IceCube project.

See also
 Galaxy formation and evolution
 List of plasma physics articles
 Seyfert galaxy

Notes

External links

 AAVSO High Energy Network
 Blazar Monitoring List, Purdue University
 Expanding Gallery of Hires Blazar Images
 NASA:Blazars Artist Conception Video
 NASA Cosmic Fog
 NASA Gamma Ray Census
 Video May 13 2013, NASA's Fermi Shows How Active Galaxies Can Be-Blazars
 TED talk on blazars by Jedidah Isler
 Astronomers Just Found a Radio Galaxy That Turned Into a Blazar

Active galaxy types

Blazar


Svein Borkhus (born 21 November 1955) is a Norwegian politician for the Labour Party.

He hails from a farm in Dalholen in Folldal. He became elected to Alvdal municipal council in 1987, joined the executive committee in 1991, served as deputy mayor from 1995 to 1999 and mayor from 1999 to 2007. He was also a member of Hedmark county council from 2003 to 2007. From 2007 to 2010 he was a member of the county cabinet, and from 2010 to 2011 he chaired the county cabinet. In 2011 he again became mayor of Alvdal.

References

1955 births
Living people
People from Folldal
People from Alvdal
Labour Party (Norway) politicians
Mayors of places in Hedmark

Svein Borkhus


Sweet Dreams or Sweet Dream may refer to:

Music

Albums
 Sweet Dreams (Are Made of This) (album), by Eurythmics, or the title song (see below)
 Sweet Dreams (Sword album)
 Sweet Dreams (soundtrack), from the 1985 film (see below)
 Sweet Dreams: The Anthology, by Roy Buchanan
 Sweet Dreams (La Bouche album), 1995 (for the title song see below)
 Sweet Dreams, by BZN

Songs
 "Sweet Dreams (Are Made of This)" by Eurythmics, also covered by Marilyn Manson
 "Sweet Dreams" (Air Supply song)
 "Sweet Dreams" (Alan Walker and Imanbek song)
 "Sweet Dreams" (Beyoncé song)
 "Sweet Dreams" (Don Gibson song), notable as a hit for Patsy Cline, as well as other covers such as Roy Buchanan's.
 "Sweet Dreams" (La Bouche song)
 "Sweet Dreams" (Vamps song)
 "Sweet Dreams", by Split Enz from Second Thoughts
 "Sweet Dreams", by Elvis Costello and the Attractions from Almost Blue
 "Sweet Dreams", by Tori Amos from Tales of a Librarian
 "Sweet Dreams", by Yes from Time and a Word
 "Sweet Dreams", by Holly Miranda from The Magician's Private Library
 "Sweet Dreams", by Probot from their eponymous album
 "Sweet Dreams", by Børns from Blue Madonna
 "Sweet Dreams!", by Exo-CBX from Blooming Days
 "Sweet Dreams", by Swing feat. Dr. Alban, 1995
 "Sweet Dream" (Alessia Cara song)
 "Sweet Dream" (Jethro Tull song)
 "Sweet Dream" (Universe Cowards song)
 "Sweet Dream", by Greg Page from his 1998 debut album
 "Sweet Dream", an English language version of the song "Sweet Sweet Sweet" by the Japanese pop group Dreams Come True, from their album The Swinging Star
 "Sweet Dreams", a song by Joey Badass from Summer Knights

Performers
 Sweet Dreams (1970s band), a UK group that had a hit with a cover of ABBA's "Honey, Honey"
 Sweet Dreams (1980s band), a UK group in the 1983 Eurovision Song Contest

Film and television
 Sweet Dreams (1981 film) or Sogni d'oro, a film directed by and starring Nanni Moretti
 Sweet Dreams (1985 film), a film based on the life of Patsy Cline
 Sweet Dreams (1996 film), a television film starring Tiffani-Amber Thiessen
 Sweet Dreams (2012 film), a documentary about a women's drumming troupe in Rwanda
 Sweet Dreams (2016 film), an Italian film directed by Marco Bellocchio
 Sweet Dreams (2023 film), a Dutch-Swedish film directed by Ena Sendijarević
 Strawberry Shortcake: The Sweet Dreams Movie, a 2006 computer-animated film
 "Sweet Dreams" (Frasier), a 1998 television episode
 "Sweet Dreams" (Glee), a 2013 television episode
 "Sweet Dreams" (Merlin), a 2009 television episode
 "Sweet Dreams" (Roseanne), a 1989 television episode
 Sweet Dreams, a 2000–2008 Food Network program hosted by Gale Gand

Literature
 Sweet Dreams (Dennett book), a book by Daniel Dennett
 Sweet Dreams (novel), a novel by Michael Frayn
 Sweet Dreams (novel series), a series of teen romance novels
 Sweet Dreams, a story collection by Sunny Leone

Other
 Sweet Dreams (aircraft) - The sole Pereira (Osprey ) GP-5 Unlimited/Super-sport class racing aircraft
 Sweet Dreams, a video game by Hanako Games

Sweet Dreams


Pseudorandomness is a process which has a result that seems to be random. Even if the result seems to be random, the process can be predicted.

This near random process is important to online security. Because the result can be predicted, it is important that the "seed,"(or first input) and the process are kept hidden.

History
The creation of random numbers has many uses, mostly in statistics, and simulations. Before computers, researchers that needed random numbers would get them from dice, cards, roulette wheels,  etc, or by random number tables.

The first attempt to crate a large amount of random numbers was in 1927. This was when Cambridge University Press put out a list of 41,600 numbers made by L.H.C. Tippett. In 1947, the RAND Corporation created random numbers by simulating a roulette wheel using a computer. The results were published in 1955 with the title of, "A Million Random Digits with 100,000 Normal Deviates".

Unpredictability as "near random"
By using radioactive substances with radioactive decay,  or by tuning a radio between stations, near random numbers can be created for short amounts of time. The time needed to get these numbers led to a change. This was using these generated numbers as a "seed" instead of a result.  The less numbers created by this process, the more random the result would seem. Another compromise is to combine the timings between keystrokes of multiple people.

People's actions have been proven to be useful for Multi-factor authentication. Also, studies have shown that pseudo random numbers can sometimes be predicted. This becomes more difficult when in small amounts.

In computational complexity
In theoretical computer science, a distribution (set of numbers) is considered to be pseudorandom if it is similar enough to other sets. This idea of pseudorandomness is studied and has importance in cryptography.

Related pages

 Pseudorandom number generator
 Random

References

Further reading

 Donald E. Knuth (1997) The Art of Computer Programming, Volume 2: Seminumerical Algorithms (3rd edition). Addison-Wesley Professional,
 Oded Goldreich. (2008) Computational Complexity: a conceptual perspective. Cambridge University Press. .

Theoretical computer science

Pseudorandomness


The Byzantine Museum of Kastoria is a museum in Kastoria, Macedonia, Greece, dedicated to religious art from the area's late Byzantine and post-Byzantine periods.

Description
The museum stands at the highest point of the city, in Dexamenis Square (Platia Dexamenis), next to the Monuments Museum. It has been open since 1989. It has a collection of some 700 icons from the city's 75 Byzantine and post-Byzantine churches, and almost all of them have been restored and cleaned by the museum's conservators. Of this large collection, 35 icons are on permanent display. They date to the 12th to 17th centuries and are divided into six groups on the basis of their age and the atelier which produced them.

The most important icons are of: Elijah (12th century) in the severe Comnenian style; St. Nicholas (12th century) on a silver ground and surrounded by ten scenes from his life; Christ Pantocrator (14th century); Saints Cosmas and Damian (14th century); the Panagia Glykofiloussa and the Deposition from the Cross (late 14th century); the Man of Sorrows (15th century); an altar door (15th century) bearing a depiction of the Annunciation and busts of David and Solomon at the top; the Annunciation (16th century); the Christ Pantocrator (16th century) painted by a well-known icon-painter named Ioannis Permeniotis; the Panagia Hodegetria (16th century); and the Dormition of St Nicholas (16th century). In the semicircular part of the exhibition space are displayed three outstanding works by Kastorian ateliers: an icon of St. Paraskevi carrying her own head, and two altar doors with a representation of the Annunciation.

Until 1998, the museum ran an educational program for ten- to seventeen-year-olds titled "In the World of Byzantine Icons", and one of its aims for 2000 is to resume the program. It involved a guided tour of the museum and a detailed account of the stages of the making of an icon, accompanied by related activities and games.

Gallery

References

Citations

Sources

External links
 Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Sports / in Greek / Photogallery

Kastoria
Museums in Kastoria
Byzantine art
Museums established in 1989
1989 establishments in Greece

Byzantine Museum of Kastoria


Bittoo Boss is a 2012 Hindi comedy film directed by Supavitra Babul. The film features Pulkit Samrat and Amita Pathak in lead roles. It revolves around a man who records videos at weddings.

Synopsis
The movie is about a guy's journey (Pulkit Samrat) of a wedding videographer from Punjab who is young charming, ingenious calling himself a "Sexy Video Shooter".

Bittoo believes in spreading happiness through the beautiful moments he captures and keep watching for years and smile looking at them.

He falls in love with an educated and strong-headed girl (Amita Pathak) who makes him realize the importance of financial stability and monetary gains in order to gain respect and recognition.

In love and bitten by the one he loves, the smart and righteous cameraman is lured to take a shortcut in order to earn a quick buck and get his life back on track. What follows is a madcap ride.

Cast
 Pulkit Samrat as Bittoo Boss
 Amita Pathak as Mrinalini Pariyar
 Fatima Sana Shaikh as Priya
 Ayush Mehra as Raj
 Rajendra Sethi
 Mohan Kapoor
 Ujjwal Chopra

Controversy

The Central Board of Film Certification had rejected a promo of the film that was scheduled to release in April 2012. The producers are now left with no option but to redesign it and apply to the censor committee all over again. The promo of the film that shows everything through the lenses of a cameraman, has guests at a wedding asking the video camera guy to shoot them as well. Dialogues like 'meri bhi lo' (a shot, in this context) has irked the committee, urging them to reject the entire promo. Supavitra Babul, the debutante director of the film said, "I have been a camera person too. I have got many friends who have been shooting weddings in Delhi. I am well versed with the way people talk. It's all very cute. The film is about a videographer and the way he looks at things. I am surprised that the promo has been rejected for something like this." Kumar Mangat, the producer of the film informed, "The censor committee has completely rejected the song and the promo. It is an old folk song, which we have re-created for our film. But they said that they couldn't give us the certificate. We were ready to change it, beep it or even alter the words but it was a clear 'no' from their end. We were ready to accept cuts but nothing worked. Guess our film does not have big stars or big names to help us." The film was finally released with a "PG" certification, which became the first film in India to get the certificate. PG certificate allows children below 15 years of age to watch the movie in presence of a parent.

Soundtrack

The movie album is composed by Raghav Sachar. Songs like Audi, Kick Lag Gayi and Kaun Kenda has made it very popular and they are hits. It received positive reception. The movie also has a sad number 'Mann jagey sari raat' originally composed by Gajendra Verma, treated by Raghav Sachar, sung by Shahid Malya & penned by Aseem Ahmed Abbasee. The song was well received & was appreciated for its melody & meaningful lyrics.

Critical reception
The film received mixed reviews. Taran Adarsh of Bollywood Hungama gave 1.5 out 5 and says "BITTOO BOSS has a fascinating premise, it appears bona fide as well, but not all concepts expand into entrancing fares. " Martin D'Souza from Glamsham gave it a 2 rating and said "A wedding videographer finally gets his pride of place in Bollywood. But this one is different. He believes in capturing moments that will spread happiness for a lifetime. Madhureeta Mukherjee of The Times of India called the film "a bit too much" and said "This one had the potential to be an entertainer, but turns out to be a 'bit-too' much" Jaidev Hemmady of Movie Talkies gave the film 3 out 5 stars and said, "Weddings, Video And Love! Bittoo Boss has certain sweet moments, viewers who were expecting a Band Baajaa Baaraat after watching the trailers are sure heading for a disappointing experience. " Kunal Guha of Yahoo! rated the film 1 out of 5 stars, saying, "'Bittoo Boss' is a bit too much of what the director believes works. It subscribes to the 'formula' with little thought to application. A bit too bore is more like it.

References

External links

2012 films
2012 comedy films
2010s Hindi-language films
Indian comedy films
Viacom18 Studios films
Hindi-language comedy films
Films scored by Raghav Sachar

Bittoo Boss


Adana () is a traditional Macedonian Oro, folk dance, from the town of Veles.

It is a man dance with medium fast movements. The dance in the beginning is danced with balancing and later when it in becomes faster is danced with jumping, kneeling down and turning around. The dancers in the beginning are holding shoulders and later when the dance gets faster they hold hands. They begin their dance in a position of a half circle. The dance rhythm is .

See also
Music of North Macedonia

Further reading
Dimovski, Mihailo. (1977:91-7). Macedonian folk dances (Original in Macedonian: Македонски народни ора). Skopje: Naša kniga & Institut za folklor

External links

The music of the Adana folk dance on YouTube
Second sample of the music of the Adana folk dance on YouTube

Macedonian dances
Circle dances

Adana (dance)


Benjamin Cooke (1734 – 14 September 1793) was an English composer, organist and teacher.

Cooke was born in London and named after his father, also Benjamin Cooke (1695/1705 – 1743), a music publisher based in Covent Garden (active from 1726 to 1743), whose production included a seminal edition of the collected works of Arcangelo Corelli in study scores comprising all five books of sonatas and the twelve concerti grossi.

From the age of nine, Benjamin Cooke the younger was one of four boy sopranos who sang at performances of the Academy of Ancient Music under the Academy's director Johann Christoph Pepusch (1667–1752), who supervised the boys' education. In due course Cooke became the Academy's librarian, and at the death of Pepusch assumed the leadership of the Academy.

In later life he received doctoral degrees in music from both Oxford and Cambridge universities. Like his father before him, he became a member of the Royal Society of Musicians (from 1760).

He was also the organist at Westminster Abbey and master of the Abbey's choristers for over thirty years, as well as being the organist at the church of St Martins in the Fields. He coached Abbey choristers who sang in the premiere performance of Harriet Wainwright's opera Comala in 1792. His Christmas Ode, written in a Handelian style, is one of his relatively few large-scale pieces to have been successfully revived in recent years. He wrote glees such as In the Merry Month of May, Deh! Dove?, How Sleep the Brave, Hark! the Lark, and In vino veritas. He also composed a variety of church music and organ music. Many of his musical autographs are now owned by the Royal College of Music.

Cooke died on 14 September 1793, probably of a heart-attack, and was buried in  the west cloister of Westminster Abbey. He was succeeded at the Abbey by Samuel Arnold, while his son Robert Cooke (1768–1814) was appointed organist of St Martin's in the Fields. Robert Cooke eventually succeeded Arnold at the Abbey.

References

External links

Further reading

1734 births
1793 deaths
Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge
English classical composers
Glee composers
English classical organists
British male organists
Burials at Westminster Abbey
Members of the Academy of Ancient Music
Master of the Choristers at Westminster Abbey
18th-century classical composers
18th-century British male musicians
18th-century keyboardists
English male classical composers
Freemasons of the Premier Grand Lodge of England
Male classical organists

Benjamin Cooke


Freddie Prosser (July 25, 1938 - July 26, 1974) was a Canadian professional wrestler, better known by his ring name, Freddie Sweetan. He competed in certain North American regional promotions including the National Wrestling Alliance as well as Grand Prix Wrestling, Maple Leaf Wrestling and Stampede Wrestling during the 1960s and 1970s, most notably teaming with Paul Peller as the masked tag team The Butchers.

Professional wrestling career

Early career
Born in Shenstone, a small village in Albert County, New Brunswick, Prosser met 7-year veteran Paul Peller who persuaded him to enter professional wrestling. Training under Emile Dupree in Shediac, he eventually made his debut in 1968 teaming with Peller in Stu Hart's Stampede Wrestling as The Butchers. During their time in the promotion, they proved a popular tag team headlining sold out events in Calgary and Edmonton four weeks straight, which included matches against football player Bob Luce and Emile Dupre.

The following year, he and Peller joined Dupre, Leo Burke and others to tour the Maritimes with Grand Prix Wrestling during the summer before returning to Calgary by the end of the year. Wrestling under the name Freddie Sweetan, Prosser teamed with Stampede Wrestling veteran "Bruiser" Bob Sweetan and eventually won the Stampede Wrestling Tag Team Championship before losing the titles to Bud & Ray Osborne in Calgary, Alberta on April 18, 1969. He and Peller would later win the titles the following year.

National Wrestling Alliance
In part to an agreement with Sweetan and Leo Burke, Prosser and Sweetan( being the same person) began wrestling in the Kansas City-area as Killer Kox and K.O. Kox with Bob Geigel's NWA Central States. Feuding with Bob Geigel & The Stomper over the NWA Central States North American Tag Team titles, he later faced Geigel in a singles match the following year on November 5, 1970.

While in the United States, he would also team with fellow Canadians The Beast in the Amarillo area and Michel "Le Justice" Dubois in the Mid-Atlantic region  who together faced Terry & Bobby Kay, George & Sandy Scott, Big Boy Brown & Klondike Bill, Les Thatcher & Nelson Royal and, most notably The Royal Kangaroos whom they had a five-week feud with in 1973. During their time in the Carolinas, they would also face J. J. Dillon in Greensboro, North Carolina in 1972.

Return to Canada and later career
Returning to the Maritimes during the summer months, he also had a successful run with Eric Pomeroy feuding with The Beast, who enlisted Rudy Kay and Leo Burke, fighting over the ESA International Tag Team Championship throughout the early 1970s. He and The Beast would also engage in several single matches as well. He and Pomeroy would win the ESA International Tag Team titles three times before losing the titles to The Beast & Rudy Kay in Halifax, Nova Scotia on October 12, 1971. He would later team with a number of tag team partners including Kurt Von Steiger, Mr. X and J. J. Dillon defeating The Beast & Bobby Kay in September 1973.

Losing single matches to Jacques Rougeau and Johnny Valentine at the Maple Leaf Gardens in February 1974, the titles were later vacated when Dillon did not return to the promotion the following summer. However, he and Michel Dubois would reunite to regain the titles defeating The Beast & Bobby Kay in July 1974.

That same year, while visiting with Prosser and Pomeroy in their motor home, Prosser's father told Pomeroy that he was going to return to his house and commit suicide. After he had left, Pomeroy and Prosser returned to his house to find several Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) officers were already at the scene where they informed the two Prosser's father had killed himself with a shotgun from the house.

Death
After wrestling his last match in Saint John, New Brunswick, he held a party to celebrate his 36th birthday at his summer cabin at MacFarlane Bridge, 15 miles southeast of Moncton. Although it is unknown what happened during the hours after his friends had left the party, sometime during the night a fire broke out in the cabin resulting in Prosser's death. An investigation by the RCMP concluded that Prosser, whose body had been found near the front door, had been trapped in the cabin during the fire and died of smoke inhalation. The official cause of the fire was stated to have been accidental, and was most likely caused by Prosser having fallen asleep with a lit cigar in his hand.

However, wrestlers such as Emile Dupree have stated they believe the fire may have been started by a charcoal barbecue. Known to remain hot long after use, the grill may have caused the fire. This theory was supported by news reports and, according to one news account, officials had "declined to reveal circumstances surrounding the blaze" although an autopsy was performed at a local Moncton hospital.

Pomeroy, who had been unable to attend the party due to a prior commitment in Moncton, was asked by Prosser's mother to take over the funeral service. Prosser would later be cremated and buried alongside his father.

Championships and accomplishments
Central States Wrestling
NWA North American Tag Team Championship (Central States version) (2 times) - with Bob Sweetan
Eastern Sports Association
ESA International Tag Team Championship (7 times) -  with Eric Pomeroy (2), Michel Dubois (2), Kurt von Steiger (1), Mr. X  (1) and J. J. Dillon (1)
Stampede Wrestling
NWA International Tag Team Championship (Calgary version) (1 time) - with Bob Sweetan

See also
 List of premature professional wrestling deaths

References

External links
Profile at Online World of Wrestling
CageMatch.de - Freddie Sweetan

1938 births
1974 deaths
Canadian male professional wrestlers
Deaths by smoke inhalation
People from Albert County, New Brunswick
Professional wrestlers from New Brunswick
Stampede Wrestling alumni
Stampede Wrestling International Tag Team Champions
20th-century professional wrestlers

Freddie Sweetan


Sir William Lawrence, 4th Baronet FRHS (14 July 1913 – 3 November 1986) was an English baronet and businessman.

Lawrence was born on 14 July 1913, the son of Sir William Lawrence and his wife Iris, youngest daughter of Brigadier-General Eyre Crabbe. He was educated at Bradfield College. On 20 January 1940 he married Zoe Pether, daughter of Henry Stedham Stanley Pether. They divorced without issue five years later. On 10 July 1945 he married Pamela Mary, daughter of James Edgar Gordon and by her had a son and two daughters.

On 4 January 1924 he succeeded to his father's baronetcy (see Lawrence Baronets).

Lawrence was a Major in the East Surrey Regiment during the Second World War and was Senior Executive of Wilmot Breeden Ltd, an automotive parts production company.

See also

Lawrence Baronets

References

Kidd, Charles, Williamson, David (editors). Debrett's Peerage and Baronetage (1990 edition). New York: St Martin's Press, 1990.

Burkes Peerage and Baronetage (2003), s.v. Lawrence, Baronets, of Ealing Park

1913 births
1986 deaths
504
William

Sir William Lawrence, 4th Baronet


In Greek mythology, Ino ( ;  ) was a Theban princess who later became a queen of Boeotia. After her death and transfiguration, she was worshiped as a goddess under her epithet Leucothea, the "white goddess." Alcman called her "Queen of the Sea" ( thalassomédousa), which, if not hyperbole, would make her a doublet of Amphitrite.

Family

Ino was the second daughter of the King Cadmus and Queen Harmonia of Thebes and one of the three sisters of Semele, the mortal woman of the house of Cadmus who gave birth to Dionysus. Her only brother was Polydorus, another ruler of Thebes. Together with her two sisters, Agave and Autonoë, they were the surrogates and divine nurses of Dionysus:Ino was a primordial Dionysian woman, nurse to the god and a divine maenad. (Kerenyi 1976:246)Ino was the second wife of the Minyan king Athamas, mother of Learchus and Melicertes and stepmother of Phrixus and Helle.

Mythology
Maenads were reputed to tear their own children limb from limb in their madness. In the back-story to the heroic tale of Jason and the Golden Fleece, Phrixus and Helle, twin children of Athamas and Nephele, were hated by their stepmother, Ino. Ino hatched a devious plot to get rid of the twins, roasting all the crop seeds of Boeotia so they would not grow. The local farmers, frightened of famine, asked a nearby oracle for assistance. Ino bribed the men sent to the oracle to lie and tell the others that the oracle required the sacrifice of Phrixus. Athamas reluctantly agreed. Before he was killed though, Phrixus and Helle were rescued by a flying golden ram sent by Nephele, their natural mother. Helle fell off the ram into the Hellespont (which was named after her, meaning Sea of Helle) and drowned, but Phrixus survived all the way to Colchis, where King Aeetes took him in and treated him kindly, giving Phrixus his daughter, Chalciope, in marriage. In gratitude, Phrixus gave the king the golden fleece of the ram, which Aeetes hung in a tree in his kingdom.

Later, Ino raised Dionysus, her nephew, son of her sister Semele, causing Hera's intense jealousy. In vengeance, Hera struck Athamas with insanity. Athamas went mad, slew one of his sons, Learchus,  hunting him down like a stag, and set out in frenzied pursuit of Ino. To escape him Ino threw herself into the sea with her son Melicertes. Both were afterwards worshipped as marine divinities, Ino as Leucothea ("the white goddess"), Melicertes as Palaemon.  Alternatively, Ino was also stricken with insanity and killed Melicertes by boiling him in a cauldron, then jumped into the sea with her dead son.  A sympathetic Zeus did not want Ino to die, and transfigured her and Melicertes as Leucothea and Palaemon.

The story of Ino, Athamas and Melicertes is relevant also in the context of two larger themes.  Ino, daughter of Cadmus and Harmonia, had an end just as tragic as her siblings: Semele died while pregnant with Zeus' child, killed by her own pride and lack of trust in her lover; Agave killed her own son, King Pentheus, while struck with Dionysian madness, and Actaeon, son of Autonoe, the third sibling, was torn apart by his own hunting dogs.  Also, the insanity of Ino and Athamas, who hunted his own son Learchus as a stag and slew him, can be explained as a result of their contact with Dionysus, whose presence can cause insanity.  None can escape the powers of Dionysus, the god of wine. Euripides took up the tale in The Bacchae, explaining their madness in Dionysiac terms, as a result of their having initially resisted belief in the god's divinity.

After Ino's disappearance, some of her companions began to revile Hera, so the goddess turned them into birds according to Ovid, perhaps aithuia birds (shearwaters?).

When Athamas returned to his second wife, Ino, Themisto (his third wife) sought revenge by dressing her children in white clothing and Ino's in black and directing the murder of the children in black. Ino switched their clothes without Themisto knowing and she killed her own children.

Transformed into the goddess Leucothea, Ino also represents one of the many sources of divine aid to Odysseus in the Odyssey (5:333ff), her earliest appearance in literature. Homer calls her "Ino-Leocothea of the beautiful ankles [καλλίσφυρος], daughter of Cadmus, who was once a mortal speaking with the tongue of men, but now in the salt sea-waters has received honor at the hands of the gods". Providing Odysseus with a veil and telling him to discard his cloak and raft, she instructs him how he can entrust himself to the waves and succeed in reaching land and eventually the island of Scheria (Corcyra), home of Phaeaceans.

In historical times, a sisterhood of maenads of Thebes in the service of Dionysus traced their descent in the female line from Ino; we know this because an inscription at Magnesia on the Maeander summoned three maenads from Thebes, from the house of Ino, to direct the new mysteries of Dionysus at Magnesia (Burkert 1992:44).

Festivals
Inoa (Ἰνῶα), there were festivals which were celebrated in many different places in honour of Ino.

Genealogy

Gallery

Notes

References
Apollodorus, The Library with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. ISBN 0-674-99135-4. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Greek text available from the same website.
Burkert, Walter, 1992. The Orientalizing Revolution: Near Eastern Influence on Greek Culture in the Early Archaic Age  (Cambridge:Harvard University Press).
 Campbell, David A., Greek Lyric, Volume II: Anacreon, Anacreontea, Choral Lyric from Olympus to Alcman, Loeb Classical Library No. 143, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1988. . Online version at Harvard University Press.
 (US ) pp. 36–42, 151
Hesiod, Theogony from The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, Cambridge, MA.,Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Greek text available from the same website.
Kerenyi, Karl, 1976. Dionysus: Archetypal Image of Indestructible Life (Princeton: Bollingen).
Kerenyi, Karl, 1951. The Gods of the Greeks (Thames and Hudson).

External links

Greek goddesses
Family of Athamas
Princesses in Greek mythology
Queens in Greek mythology
Metamorphoses characters
Metamorphoses in Greek mythology
Deeds of Hera
Theban characters in Greek mythology
Boeotian mythology
Theban mythology
Dionysus in mythology
Suicides in Greek mythology
Ino's companions
Odyssean gods

Ino (Greek mythology)


Sir Maurice Berkeley (by 1514–1581) of Bruton in Somerset and of Berkeley House, Clerkenwell, Middlesex, served as Chief Banner Bearer of England to Kings Henry VIII and Edward VI and to Queen Elizabeth I, and rose rapidly in the Tudor court. He came from a cadet branch of the great Berkeley family of Berkeley Castle in Gloucestershire, but in his career, his initial advantage was due to his mother's second marriage to Sir John FitzJames, Lord Chief Justice of the King's Bench 1526–1539, which by 1538 had brought him into the household of Thomas Cromwell, from which he passed into the royal household by 1539.

He built a mansion house on the site of Bruton Priory in Somerset, which he acquired following the Dissolution of the Monasteries, incorporating some of the monastic buildings, but this was demolished in 1786. Sir Maurice's impressive Renaissance monument, with recumbent effigies of himself and his two wives, survives in the later rebuilt chancel of the Church of St Mary, Bruton. His descendants, known as "Berkeley of Bruton" included many notable figures until the 18th century, including five Barons Berkeley of Stratton (extinct in 1773), and four Viscount Fitzhardinges (extinct in 1712), as well as William Berkeley, Governor of Virginia. Today Berkeley Square, Berkeley Street, Bruton Street and Stratton Street in Mayfair cover the site of the demolished Berkeley House, their London townhouse. Portraits of himself and his second wife by Federico Zuccari (c.1540/1–1609), in England from 1574, survive at Berkeley Castle.

Origins
He was a younger son of Richard Berkeley of Stoke Gifford, in Gloucestershire, a descendant of Sir Maurice de Berkeley (1298–1347), of Uley, Gloucester, a younger son of Maurice de Berkeley, 2nd Baron Berkeley (d. 1326). This Sir Maurice, before being killed at the Siege of Calais in 1347, had acquired Stoke Gifford in 1337, and founded the line of Berkeley of Stoke Gifford. The branch's relation to the main Berkeley line was renewed by a marriage between the elder brother of the Tudor Sir Maurice and his remote cousin, the daughter of the Baron Berkeley at the time.

Career
Although he apparently never studied law at the Inns of Court, his stepfather Sir John FitzJames, Lord Chief Justice of the King's Bench, got him a job "in the office of the Prothonotary of the Common Pleas", and by 1535 wanted to appoint him as clerk to his own circuit. But Cromwell wanted to place his own man in this role, and a deal seems to have been done. By 1537 at the latest, he was a member of Thomas Cromwell's household and beginning to accumulate lands and money. He moved to the royal household a year before Cromwell's fall, and was a Gentleman of the Privy Chamber to King Henry VIII from 1539 to his death in 1547 and to his son King Edward VI until his death in 1553. With his background he was able to redirect his career into the military and commanded "a troop of light horse" in France in 1544 during the Italian War of 1542–46, being knighted on his return. He was appointed Constable of Berkeley Castle in 1544, and Chief Banner Bearer of England in 1545, succeeding his elder brother. He (probably) received New Year gifts from the queen in 1543 and 1544, and was bequeathed 200 marks in Henry VIII's will. He was a Protestant and kept a low profile during the reign of the Catholic Queen Mary, resuming his rise under her Protestant successor Queen Elizabeth. He had signed the "device" settling the crown on Lady Jane Grey, but was pardoned, losing his position as banner bearer. When Wyatt's rebellion collapsed in 1554, it was Berkeley to whom Thomas Wyatt the Younger surrendered.

He was a Member of Parliament for Somerset in 1547, 1563 and 1572 and for Bletchingley in March 1553. He was a Justice of the Peace in 1559 and served as Sheriff of Dorset and Sheriff of Somerset for 1567–68.

Builds Berkeley House

Shortly before his death, he built Berkeley House in Clerkenwell, a brick-built mansion of H- or U-plan. Until the 1680s it was the residence of his very distant cousin George Berkeley, 1st Earl of Berkeley, 9th Baron Berkeley (1627–1698), following which the house was for a short time a centre of Roman Catholicism, under Father Maurus Corker, a Benedictine. Berkley (sic) Street was named after the House, but was later renamed Briset Street; in the early 1700s, the site was built over with terraced housing.

Marriages
Berkeley married twice:
Firstly to Catherine Blount, widow of John Champernown (died c. 1541) lord of the manor of Modbury in Devon, and a daughter of William Blount, 4th Baron Mountjoy, by his third wife, Alice Keble (d.1521), a daughter of Henry Keble, Lord Mayor of London. By Catherine Blount he had three sons and five daughters, including:
Henry Berkeley, a Member of Parliament for Somerset.;
Secondly in 1562 he married Elizabeth Sands (1533-1585), one of Queen Elizabeth's gentlewomen, the daughter of Anthony Sands of Throwley in Kent, by whom he had two further sons and a daughter.
Robert (1566-1614)
She died at Berkeley House, Clerkenwell, and was buried in that parish in the Church of St James, where she had a monument "comprising a stone altar-tomb, surmounted by Corinthian pillars, supporting a pediment: beneath the latter lay a figure of her ladyship; in the costume of her time, the hands broken off and the head of a negro at her feet. Above was a coat of arms in relief, consisting of fifteen quarterings, but without crest or motto. The inscription ran thus":
THE LADI ELIZABETH BARKLEY OF THE QUENE HER MATTES BEDE CHAMBER AND SECOND WIFE TO SVR MAVRICE BARKLE KNIGHT DECEASED: STANDERD BEARER TO HER MTIE TO HER FATHER & TO HIR BROTHER DEPARTED THIS LVFE IN THIS PARISH THE 16 OF JUNE 1585 BEINGE 52 YEARES OVLDE IN THE FAYTH OF IESUS CHRIST & WAS BVRIED IN THE FLOWER VNDER THIS TOOME: THIS LADI WAS THE DAVGHTER OF ANTHONY SONDES ESQVIER. SHE HAD CHILDREN Too Sonnes & One Davghter Robert Margret & John

The body of this lady had been preserved by embalming, and was found entire, dressed according to the fashion of her age, and with brown gloves on her hands. The coffin was immediately closed up.

Notes

References

 Virgoe, Roger, title=BERKELEY, Sir Maurice I (bef. 1514–81), of Bruton, Som., History of Parliament Online, accessed 22 November 2015

External links
Berkeley genealogy website

Year of birth uncertain
1581 deaths
High Sheriffs of Somerset
High Sheriffs of Dorset
English MPs 1547–1552
English MPs 1553 (Edward VI)
English MPs 1563–1567
English MPs 1572–1583
People from Bruton
Maurice
Gentlemen of the Privy Chamber
Knights Bachelor

Maurice Berkeley (died 1581)


Ñ is a Latin-script letter used in some languages. The little bit on top is called a tilde. It is used, for example, in Spanish.

Spanish
In Spanish, Ñ represents the IPA sound /ɲ/, which approximately sounds like ny, some examples of usage are piñata (sounds like pinyata), jalapeño (sounds like halapenyo), and español (sounds like espanyol).

Crimean Tatar
In Crimean Tatar, it represents the IPA sound /ŋ/, which approximately sounds like ng. This usage is also used in Nauruan

Latin letters with diacritics

Ñ


Morley Charles Roberts (29 December 1857 – 8 June 1942) was an English novelist and short story writer, best known for The Private Life of Henry Maitland.

Life and work
Roberts was born in London, the son of William Henry Roberts (1831-1908), a superintending inspector of income tax, and Catherine, née Pullen. He was educated at Bedford Grammar School, and Owens College, Manchester, England.

Near the end of 1876 Roberts took a steerage passage to Australia and landed at Melbourne in January 1877. The next three years were spent in obtaining colonial experience, mostly on sheep stations in New South Wales, and Roberts then returned to London. For a time he worked in the war office and other government departments, but again went on his travels and had varied occupations in the United States and Canada between 1884 and 1886. He later travelled in Oceania, Australia, South Africa, amongst other parts of the world.

Roberts used his experiences freely in his books, the first being The Western Avernus (1887), a travelogue taking place in North America. While it was his most successful publication, his portrayals of Indigenous and Chinese people were marred by racism. Roberts began his long series of novels and short stories in 1890. Of his novels, Rachel Marr (1903) was highly praised by William Henry Hudson. His novel Prey of the Strongest (1906), was the first accurate depiction of British Columbia mills, woods, and gambling halls. The Private Life of Henry Maitland (1912), based on the life of George Gissing the novelist, was one of his most important works. Roberts also wrote essays, biography, drama and verse, and did some competent work in biology. He married Alice, daughter of the playwright Angiolo Robson Slous, and died in London aged 84 on 8 June 1942.

He was only a few years in Australia, but there are many Australian references both in his novels and his short stories. Storm Jameson, who wrote a short biography of Roberts in 1961, considered Time and Thomas Waring to be his best novel. An exhaustive bibliography by Markus Neacey of his novels and other writings and writings about him can be found in the July 2012 number of English Literature in Transition. Roberts has featured in several articles in The Gissing Journal. Victorian Secrets have published a scholarly edition of the Selected Stories of Morley Roberts (Brighton: Victorian Secrets, 2015), edited with an introduction by Markus Neacey.

Bibliography

The Western Avernus, or, Toil and Travel in further North America (1887)
Land-travel and Sea-Faring (1891)
Songs of Energy (1891)
The Mate of the Vancouver (1892)
The Degradation of Geoffrey Alwith (1895)
The Adventures of a Ship's Doctor (1897)
Maurice Quain (1897)
The Adventure of the Broad Arrow; an Australian Romance (1897)
Lord Linlithgow : a Novel (1900)
The Plunderers : a Romance (1900)
The Way of Man : a Romance (1902)
Rachel Marr (1903)
A Tramp's Note-book (1904)
The Wingless Psyche (1904)
Lady Penelope (1905)
The Idlers (1906)
The Prey of the Strongest (1906)
Flying Cloud (1907)
David Bran (1908)
The Private Life of Henry Maitland (1912)
Time and Thomas Waring (1914)
Hearts of Women; a Study of a Group (1920)
W. H. Hudson, a Portrait (1924)

Short Stories include:
The Reputation of George Saxon and other Stories (1891)
King Billy of Ballarat and Other Stories, Lawrence & Bullen (London), 1892 (including: "Father and Son")
Red Earth, Lawrence & Bullen (London), 1894 (including: "Wide Bay Bar".)
The Keeper of the Waters, Skeffington & Son (London), 1898 (including: "The Anticipator".)
The Promotion Of The Admiral And Other Sea Comedies, J Eveleigh Nash (London), 1903 (including: "The Scuttling Of The Pandora")
Midsummer Madness, Eveleigh Nash (London), 1909 (including: "The Blood Fetish")

Nonfiction:
Warfare in the Human Body: Essays on Method, Malignity, Repair and Allied Subjects (1920)
Malignancy and Evolution: a Biological Enquiry into the Nature and Causes of Cancer (1926, 1934)
Bio-Politics: An Essay in the Physiology, Pathology and Politics of the Social and Somatic Organism (1938)
Behaviour of Nations: An Essay in the Conduct of National Organisms in the Nutritional Field (1941)

References

External links

 Read Chapter 1 of The Adventure of the Broad Arrow from the Lost Worlds Australia Anthology.

 Bibliography of works by Morley Roberts at Freeread
 Morley Roberts Papers, Ms. coll. 726. University of Pennsylvania: Rare Book & Manuscript Library.
Archival Material at

19th-century English novelists
20th-century English novelists
English short story writers
English science fiction writers
1857 births
1942 deaths
People educated at Bedford School
English male short story writers
English male novelists
19th-century British short story writers
19th-century English male writers
20th-century British short story writers
20th-century English male writers
English male non-fiction writers

Morley Roberts


Mass production, also known as flow production or continuous production, is the production of substantial amounts of standardized products in a constant flow, including and especially on assembly lines. Together with job production and batch production, it is one of the three main production methods.

The term mass production was popularized by a 1926 article in the Encyclopædia Britannica supplement that was written based on correspondence with Ford Motor Company. The New York Times used the term in the title of an article that appeared before publication of the Britannica article.

The concepts of mass production are applied to various kinds of products: from fluids and particulates handled in bulk (food, fuel, chemicals and mined minerals), to parts and assemblies of parts (household appliances and automobiles).

Some mass production techniques, such as standardized sizes and production lines, predate the Industrial Revolution by many centuries; however, it was not until the introduction of machine tools and techniques to produce interchangeable parts were developed in the mid-19th century that modern mass production was possible.

Overview
Mass production involves making many copies of products, very quickly, using assembly line techniques to send partially complete products to workers who each work on an individual step, rather than having a worker work on a whole product from start to finish. The emergence of mass production allowed supply to outstrip demand in many markets, forcing companies to seek new ways to become more competitive. Mass production makes a lot of things quickly and cheaply, so more people can buy them.

Mass production of fluid matter typically involves pipes with centrifugal pumps or screw conveyors (augers) to transfer raw materials or partially complete products between vessels. Fluid flow processes such as oil refining and bulk materials such as wood chips and pulp are automated using a system of process control which uses various instruments to measure variables such as temperature, pressure, volumetric and level, providing feedback.

Bulk materials such as coal, ores, grains and wood chips are handled by belt, chain, slat, pneumatic or screw conveyors, bucket elevators and mobile equipment such as front-end loaders. Materials on pallets are handled with forklifts. Also used for handling heavy items like reels of paper, steel or machinery are electric overhead cranes, sometimes called bridge cranes because they span large factory bays.

Mass production is capital-intensive and energy-intensive, for it uses a high proportion of machinery and energy in relation to workers. It is also usually automated while total expenditure per unit of product is decreased. However, the machinery that is needed to set up a mass production line (such as robots and machine presses) is so expensive that in order to attain profits there must be some assurance that the product is to be successful to.

One of the descriptions of mass production is that "the skill is built into the tool", which means that the worker using the tool may not need the skill. For example, in the 19th or early 20th century, this could be expressed as "the craftsmanship is in the workbench itself" (not the training of the worker). Rather than having a skilled worker measure every dimension of each part of the product against the plans or the other parts as it is being formed, there were jigs ready at hand to ensure that the part was made to fit this set-up. It had already been checked that the finished part would be to specifications to fit all the other finished parts—and it would be made more quickly, with no time spent on finishing the parts to fit one another. Later, once computerized control came about (for example, CNC), jigs were obviated, but it remained true that the skill (or knowledge) was built into the tool (or process, or documentation) rather than residing in the worker's head. This is the specialized capital required for mass production; each workbench and set of tools (or each CNC cell, or each fractionating column) is different (fine-tuned to its task).

History

Pre-industrial

Standardized parts and sizes and factory production techniques were developed in pre-industrial times; before the invention of machine tools the manufacture of precision parts, especially metal ones, was highly labour-intensive.

Crossbows made with bronze parts were produced in China during the Warring States period. The Qin Emperor unified China at least in part by equipping large armies with these weapons, which were equipped with a sophisticated trigger mechanism made of interchangeable parts. The Terracotta Army guarding the Emperor's necropolis is also believed to have been created through the use of standardized molds on an assembly line.

In ancient Carthage, ships of war were mass-produced on a large scale at a moderate cost, allowing them to efficiently maintain their control of the Mediterranean. Many centuries later, the Republic of Venice would follow Carthage in producing ships with prefabricated parts on an assembly line: the Venetian Arsenal produced nearly one ship every day in what was effectively the world's first factory, which at its height employed 16,000 people.

The invention of movable type has allowed for documents such as books to be mass produced. The first movable type system was invented in China by Bi Sheng, during the reign of the Song Dynasty, where it was used to, among other things, issue paper money. The oldest extant book produced using metal type is the Jikji, printed in Korea in the year 1377. Johannes Gutenberg, through his invention of the printing press and production of the Gutenberg Bible, introduced movable type to Europe. Through this introduction, mass production in the European publishing industry was made commonplace, leading to a democratization of knowledge, increased literacy and education, and the beginnings of modern science.

Jean-Baptiste de Gribeauval, a French artillery engineer, introduced the standardization of cannon design in the mid-18th century. He developed a 6-inch (150 mm) field howitzer whose gun barrel, carriage assembly and ammunition specifications were made uniform for all French cannons. The standardized interchangeable parts of these cannons down to the nuts, bolts and screws made their mass production and repair easier than before.

Industrial
In the Industrial Revolution, simple mass production techniques were used at the Portsmouth Block Mills in England to make ships' pulley blocks for the Royal Navy in the Napoleonic Wars. It was achieved in 1803 by Marc Isambard Brunel in cooperation with Henry Maudslay under the management of Sir Samuel Bentham. The first unmistakable examples of manufacturing operations carefully designed to reduce production costs by specialized labour and the use of machines appeared in the 18th century in England.

The Navy was in a state of expansion that required 100,000 pulley blocks to be manufactured a year. Bentham had already achieved remarkable efficiency at the docks by introducing power-driven machinery and reorganising the dockyard system. Brunel, a pioneering engineer, and Maudslay, a pioneer of machine tool technology who had developed the first industrially practical screw-cutting lathe in 1800 which standardized screw thread sizes for the first time which in turn allowed the application of interchangeable parts, collaborated on plans to manufacture block-making machinery. By 1805, the dockyard had been fully updated with the revolutionary, purpose-built machinery at a time when products were still built individually with different components. A total of 45 machines were required to perform 22 processes on the blocks, which could be made into one of three possible sizes. The machines were almost entirely made of metal thus improving their accuracy and durability. The machines would make markings and indentations on the blocks to ensure alignment throughout the process. One of the many advantages of this new method was the increase in labour productivity due to the less labour-intensive requirements of managing the machinery. Richard Beamish, assistant to Brunel's son and engineer, Isambard Kingdom Brunel, wrote:
So that ten men, by the aid of this machinery, can accomplish with uniformity, celerity and ease, what formerly required the uncertain labour of one hundred and ten.

By 1808, annual production from the 45 machines had reached 130,000 blocks and some of the equipment was still in operation as late as the mid-twentieth century. Mass production techniques were also used to rather limited extent to make clocks and watches, and to make small arms, though parts were usually non-interchangeable. Though produced on a very small scale, Crimean War gunboat engines designed and assembled by John Penn of Greenwich are recorded as the first instance of the application of mass production techniques (though not necessarily the assembly-line method) to marine engineering. In filling an Admiralty order for 90 sets to his high-pressure and high-revolution horizontal trunk engine design, Penn produced them all in 90 days. He also used Whitworth Standard threads throughout. Prerequisites for the wide use of mass production were interchangeable parts, machine tools and power, especially in the form of electricity.

Some of the organizational management concepts needed to create 20th-century mass production, such as scientific management, had been pioneered by other engineers (most of whom are not famous, but Frederick Winslow Taylor is one of the well-known ones), whose work would later be synthesized into fields such as industrial engineering, manufacturing engineering, operations research, and management consultancy. Although after leaving the Henry Ford Company which was rebranded as Cadillac and later was awarded the Dewar Trophy in 1908 for creating interchangeable mass-produced precision engine parts, Henry Ford downplayed the role of Taylorism in the development of mass production at his company. However, Ford management performed time studies and experiments to mechanize their factory processes, focusing on minimizing worker movements. The difference is that while Taylor focused mostly on efficiency of the worker, Ford also substituted for labor by using machines, thoughtfully arranged, wherever possible.

In 1807, Eli Terry was hired to produce 4,000 wooden movement clocks in the Porter Contract. At this time, the annual yield for wooden clocks did not exceed a few dozen on average. Terry developed a milling machine in 1795, in which he perfected Interchangeable parts. In 1807, Terry developed a spindle cutting machine, which could produce multiple parts at the same time. Terry hired Silas Hoadley and Seth Thomas to work the Assembly line at the facilities. The Porter Contract was the first contract which called for mass production of clock movements in history. In 1815, Terry began mass-producing the first shelf clock. Chauncey Jerome, an apprentice of Eli Terry mass-produced up to 20,000 brass clocks annually in 1840 when he invented the cheap 30-hour OG clock.

The United States Department of War sponsored the development of interchangeable parts for guns produced at the arsenals at Springfield, Massachusetts and Harpers Ferry, Virginia (now West Virginia) in the early decades of the 19th century, finally achieving reliable interchangeability by about 1850. This period coincided with the development of machine tools, with the armories designing and building many of their own. Some of the methods employed were a system of gauges for checking dimensions of the various parts and jigs and fixtures for guiding the machine tools and properly holding and aligning the work pieces. This system came to be known as armory practice or the American system of manufacturing, which spread throughout New England aided by skilled mechanics from the armories who were instrumental in transferring the technology to the sewing machines manufacturers and other industries such as machine tools, harvesting machines and bicycles. Singer Manufacturing Co., at one time the largest sewing machine manufacturer, did not achieve interchangeable parts until the late 1880s, around the same time Cyrus McCormick adopted modern manufacturing practices in making harvesting machines.

During World War II, The United States mass-produced many vehicles and weapons, such as ships (i.e. Liberty Ships, Higgins boats ), aircraft (i.e. North American P-51 Mustang, Consolidated B-24 Liberator, Boeing B-29 Superfortress), jeeps (i.e. Willys MB), trucks, tanks (i.e. M4 Sherman) and M2 Browning and M1919 Browning machine guns. Many vehicles, transported by ships have been shipped in parts and later assembled on-site.

For the ongoing energy transition, many wind turbine components and solar panels are being mass-produced. Wind turbines and solar panels are being used in respectively wind farms and solar farms.

In addition, in the ongoing climate change mitigation, large-scale carbon sequestration (through reforestation, blue carbon restoration, etc) has been proposed. Some projects (such as the Trillion Tree Campaign) involve planting a very large amount of trees. In order to speed up such efforts, fast propagation of trees may be useful. Some automated machines have been produced to allow for fast (vegetative) plant propagation.Also, for some plants that help to sequester carbon (such as seagrass), techniques have been developed to help speed up the process .

Mass production benefited from the development of materials such as inexpensive steel, high strength steel and plastics. Machining of metals was greatly enhanced with high-speed steel and later very hard materials such as tungsten carbide for cutting edges. Fabrication using steel components was aided by the development of electric welding and stamped steel parts, both which appeared in industry in about 1890. Plastics such as polyethylene, polystyrene and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) can be easily formed into shapes by extrusion, blow molding or injection molding, resulting in very low cost manufacture of consumer products, plastic piping, containers and parts.

An influential article that helped to frame and popularize the 20th century's definition of mass production appeared in a 1926 Encyclopædia Britannica supplement. The article was written based on correspondence with Ford Motor Company and is sometimes credited as the first use of the term.

Factory electrification
Electrification of factories began very gradually in the 1890s after the introduction of a practical DC motor by Frank J. Sprague and accelerated after the AC motor was developed by Galileo Ferraris, Nikola Tesla and Westinghouse, Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky and others. Electrification of factories was fastest between 1900 and 1930, aided by the establishment of electric utilities with central stations and the lowering of electricity prices from 1914 to 1917.

Electric motors were several times more efficient than small steam engines because central station generation were more efficient than small steam engines and because line shafts and belts had high friction losses. Electric motors also allowed more flexibility in manufacturing and required less maintenance than line shafts and belts. Many factories saw a 30% increase in output simply from changing over to electric motors.

Electrification enabled modern mass production, as with Thomas Edison's iron ore processing plant (about 1893) that could process 20,000 tons of ore per day with two shifts, each of five men. At that time it was still common to handle bulk materials with shovels, wheelbarrows and small narrow-gauge rail cars, and for comparison, a canal digger in previous decades typically handled five tons per 12-hour day.

The biggest impact of early mass production was in manufacturing everyday items, such as at the Ball Brothers Glass Manufacturing Company, which electrified its mason jar plant in Muncie, Indiana, U.S., around 1900. The new automated process used glass-blowing machines to replace 210 craftsman glass blowers and helpers. A small electric truck was used to handle 150 dozen bottles at a time where previously a hand truck would carry six dozen. Electric mixers replaced men with shovels handling sand and other ingredients that were fed into the glass furnace. An electric overhead crane replaced 36 day laborers for moving heavy loads across the factory.

According to Henry Ford:
The provision of a whole new system of electric generation emancipated industry from the leather belt and line shaft, for it eventually became possible to provide each tool with its own electric motor. This may seem only a detail of minor importance. In fact, modern industry could not be carried out with the belt and line shaft for a number of reasons. The motor enabled machinery to be arranged in the order of the work, and that alone has probably doubled the efficiency of industry, for it has cut out a tremendous amount of useless handling and hauling. The belt and line shaft were also tremendously wasteful – so wasteful indeed that no factory could be really large, for even the longest line shaft was small according to modern requirements. Also high speed tools were impossible under the old conditions – neither the pulleys nor the belts could stand modern speeds. Without high speed tools and the finer steels which they brought about, there could be nothing of what we call modern industry.

Mass production was popularized in the late 1910s and 1920s by Henry Ford's Ford Motor Company, which introduced electric motors to the then-well-known technique of chain or sequential production. Ford also bought or designed and built special purpose machine tools and fixtures such as multiple spindle drill presses that could drill every hole on one side of an engine block in one operation and a multiple head milling machine that could simultaneously machine 15 engine blocks held on a single fixture. All of these machine tools were arranged systematically in the production flow and some had special carriages for rolling heavy items into machining position. Production of the Ford Model T used 32,000 machine tools.

Buildings
The process of prefabrication, wherein parts are created separately from the finished product, is at the core of all mass-produced construction. Early examples include movable structures reportedly utilized by Akbar the Great, and the chattel houses built by emancipated slaves on Barbados. The Nissen hut, first used by the British during World War I, married prefabrication and mass production in a way that suited the needs of the military. The simple structures, which cost little and could be erected in just a couple of hours, were highly successful: over 100,000 Nissen huts were produced during World War I alone, and they would go on to serve in other conflicts and inspire a number of similar designs.

Following World War II, in the United States, William Levitt pioneered the building of standardized tract houses in 56 different locations around the country. These communities were dubbed Levittowns, and they were able to be constructed quickly and cheaply through the leveraging of economies of scale, as well as the specialization of construction tasks in a process akin to an assembly line. This era also saw the invention of the mobile home, a small prefabricated house that can be transported cheaply on a truck bed.

In the modern industrialization of construction, mass production is often used for prefabrication of house components.

Fabrics and Materials

Mass production has significantly impacted the fashion industry, particularly in the realm of fibers and materials. The advent of synthetic fibers, such as polyester and nylon, revolutionized textile manufacturing by providing cost-effective alternatives to natural fibers. This shift enabled the rapid production of inexpensive clothing, contributing to the rise of fast fashion. This reliance on mass production has raised concerns about environmental sustainability and labor conditions, spurring the need for greater ethical and sustainable practices within the fashion industry.

The use of assembly lines

Mass production systems for items made of numerous parts are usually organized into assembly lines. The assemblies pass by on a conveyor, or if they are heavy, hung from an overhead crane or monorail.

In a factory for a complex product, rather than one assembly line, there may be many auxiliary assembly lines feeding sub-assemblies (i.e. car engines or seats) to a backbone "main" assembly line. A diagram of a typical mass-production factory looks more like the skeleton of a fish than a single line.

Vertical integration
Vertical integration is a business practice that involves gaining complete control over a product's production, from raw materials to final assembly.

In the age of mass production, this caused shipping and trade problems in that shipping systems were unable to transport huge volumes of finished automobiles (in Henry Ford's case) without causing damage, and also government policies imposed trade barriers on finished units.

Ford built the Ford River Rouge Complex with the idea of making the company's own iron and steel in the same large factory site where parts and car assembly took place. River Rouge also generated its own electricity.

Upstream vertical integration, such as to raw materials, is away from leading technology toward mature, low-return industries. Most companies chose to focus on their core business rather than vertical integration. This included buying parts from outside suppliers, who could often produce them as cheaply or cheaper.

Standard Oil, the major oil company in the 19th century, was vertically integrated partly because there was no demand for unrefined crude oil, but kerosene and some other products were in great demand. The other reason was that Standard Oil monopolized the oil industry. The major oil companies were, and many still are, vertically integrated, from production to refining and with their own retail stations, although some sold off their retail operations. Some oil companies also have chemical divisions.

Lumber and paper companies at one time owned most of their timber lands and sold some finished products such as corrugated boxes. The tendency has been to divest of timber lands to raise cash and to avoid property taxes.

Advantages and disadvantages
The economies of mass production come from several sources. The primary cause is a reduction of non-productive effort of all types. In craft production, the craftsman must bustle about a shop, getting parts and assembling them. He must locate and use many tools many times for varying tasks. In mass production, each worker repeats one or a few related tasks that use the same tool to perform identical or near-identical operations on a stream of products. The exact tool and parts are always at hand, having been moved down the assembly line consecutively. The worker spends little or no time retrieving and/or preparing materials and tools, and so the time taken to manufacture a product using mass production is shorter than when using traditional methods.

The probability of human error and variation is also reduced, as tasks are predominantly carried out by machinery; error in operating such machinery has more far-reaching consequences. A reduction in labour costs, as well as an increased rate of production, enables a company to produce a larger quantity of one product at a lower cost than using traditional, non-linear methods.

However, mass production is inflexible because it is difficult to alter a design or production process after a production line is implemented. Also, all products produced on one production line will be identical or very similar, and introducing variety to satisfy individual tastes is not easy. However, some variety can be achieved by applying different finishes and decorations at the end of the production line if necessary. The starter cost for the machinery can be expensive so the producer must be sure it sells or the producers will lose a lot of money.

The Ford Model T produced tremendous affordable output but was not very good at responding to demand for variety, customization, or design changes. As a consequence Ford eventually lost market share to General Motors, who introduced annual model changes, more accessories and a choice of colors.

With each passing decade, engineers have found ways to increase the flexibility of mass production systems, driving down the lead times on new product development and allowing greater customization and variety of products.

Compared with other production methods, mass production can create new occupational hazards for workers. This is partly due to the need for workers to operate heavy machinery while also working close together with many other workers. Preventative safety measures, such as fire drills, as well as special training is therefore necessary to minimise the occurrence of industrial accidents.

Socioeconomic impacts
In the 1830s, French political thinker and historian Alexis de Tocqueville identified one of the key characteristics of America that would later make it so amenable to the development of mass production: the homogeneous consumer base. De Tocqueville wrote in his Democracy in America (1835) that "The absence in the United States of those vast accumulations of wealth which favor the expenditures of large sums on articles of mere luxury... impact to the productions of American industry a character distinct from that of other countries' industries. [Production is geared toward] articles suited to the wants of the whole people".

Mass production improved productivity, which was a contributing factor to economic growth and the decline in work week hours, alongside other factors such as transportation infrastructures (canals, railroads and highways) and agricultural mechanization. These factors caused the typical work week to decline from 70 hours in the early 19th century to 60 hours late in the century, then to 50 hours in the early 20th century and finally to 40 hours in the mid-1930s.

Mass production permitted great increases in total production. Using a European crafts system into the late 19th century it was difficult to meet demand for products such as sewing machines and animal powered mechanical harvesters. By the late 1920s many previously scarce goods were in good supply. One economist has argued that this constituted "overproduction" and contributed to high unemployment during the Great Depression. Say's law denies the possibility of general overproduction and for this reason classical economists deny that it had any role in the Great Depression.

Mass production allowed the evolution of consumerism by lowering the unit cost of many goods used.

Mass production has been linked to the Fast Fashion Industry, often leaving the consumer with lower quality garments for a lower cost. Most fast-fashion clothing is mass-produced, which means it is typically made of cheap fabrics, such as polyester, and constructed poorly in order to keep short turnaround times to meet the demands of consumers and shifting trends.

See also

 Batch production
 Craft production
 Continuous production
 Culture industry
 Fast-moving consumer goods
 Fordism
 Ford Model T
 Great Divergence
 Industrial engineering
 Industrialisation
 Industrial Revolution
 Instant manufacturing
 Job production
 Just-in-time
 Lean manufacturing
 Licensed production
 Manufacturing
 Mass market
 Mechanization
 Modular construction systems: identical components are easier to mass-produce
 Operations management
 Outline of industrial organization
 Pilot plant
 Cost-of-production theory of value
 Ready-made garment
 Scientific management
 Second Industrial Revolution
 Technological revolution
 Technological unemployment

References

Further reading

 Borth, Christy. Masters of Mass Production, Bobbs-Merrill Company, Indianapolis, IN, 1945.
 Herman, Arthur. Freedom's Forge: How American Business Produced Victory in World War II, Random House, New York, NY, 2012. .

External links

History of science and technology in the United States
Industrial processes
Business economics
Types of production
Economic development

Mass production


"The Bonfire of the Manatees" is the first episode of the seventeenth season of the American animated television series The Simpsons. It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on September 11, 2005, making it the first Simpsons season premiere to air in September since the eleventh season opened with "Beyond Blunderdome" on September 26, 1999.

The episode was written by Dan Greaney and directed by Mark Kirkland. In its original broadcast, it was watched by around eleven million viewers.

Plot
Homer gets into trouble with the local mob over football gambling debts. As compensation, Fat Tony wants to use the Simpson home for shooting the adult film Lemony Lick-It's A Series of Horny Events, with the participation of Carl and Lenny. Homer gets Marge and the kids to leave the house by sending them off to "Santa's Village". Marge and the kids return home to find the production is still underway. Marge, outraged by Homer's latest bit of idiocy, leaves. Homer, home alone with the kids, tries to figure out what to do next.

Just as Marge is about ready to reconcile with Homer (though she flatly expresses that she is not interested in his gift of Kwik-E-Mart chocolates, half of which have test bites), she encounters Dr. Caleb Thorn, a good-looking scientist with a passion for saving the endangered manatee. Homer and the kids go on a quest to find Marge, and they stop and stay with their "country cousins" (their dog is Santa's Little Helper's brother). Meanwhile, Marge is finding herself while helping to save manatees. Caleb helps Marge realize that Homer is still the man she fell in love with, and the problem is that she still expects him to change.

Homer decides to win Marge back by saving a herd of manatees from a gang of abusing jet skiers. The gang initially agreed to leave, but return after hearing Homer calling them 'rubes'. He attempts to organize the manatees to battle the gang, but they all flee. However, the gang is dispersed when Homer's country cousin shows up with a notarized court order to have all jet skiers vacate the waters at once. Despite Homer's failure, Marge is impressed by his efforts to save the manatees and declares she is taking home "the real endangered species": "a devoted husband". The family decides to take a mini-vacation, and Homer gets a manatee sent to the power plant to fill in for his job for the next few days. When the manatee is about to die of dehydration, Mr. Burns and Smithers help him by washing him like a car, which the manatee actually enjoys.

Production
The idea for the episode was originally pitched on January 16, 2004, during the writers' idea sessions for The Simpsons Movie. Al Jean suggested the idea of the family rescuing manatees, and while it was rejected for the film, it was adapted into the script for the episode.

Cultural references
The title of this episode is a pun on the film The Bonfire of the Vanities (film).

The title of the adult film that is shot in the Simpson household Lemony Lick-It's A Series of Horny Events is a spoof of the film Lemony Snicket's A Series of Unfortunate Events though the scenes of A Series of Horny Events shown in the episode bare no resemblance to A Series of Unfortunate Events.

The song playing in the washing of the manatee scene is "Car Wash" by Rose Royce.

Reception
On May 11, 2008, Entertainment Weekly named Alec Baldwin's role as Caleb Thorn as the first of 16 great guest stars on The Simpsons.

The episode is also notable for having predicted the team matchup for Super Bowl XLVIII between the Denver Broncos and the Seattle Seahawks.

The title of the episode is a reference to the novel The Bonfire of the Vanities by Tom Wolfe.

References

External links

The Simpsons (season 17) episodes
2005 American television episodes

The Bonfire of the Manatees


Union Park Congregational Church and Carpenter Chapel (also known as First Baptist Congregational Church) is a historic church building at 60 N. Ashland Blvd. on the Near West Side of Chicago, Illinois.  The chapel is named after Philo Carpenter, a deacon, a co-founder of the congregation and of the Chicago Theological Seminary, and an early donor of the original church who was also a noted abolitionist and the city's first druggist.  The two buildings are considered as a unit; together, they are a Chicago Landmark and an Illinois Historic Landmark and are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.  The church building is currently occupied by the First Baptist Congregational Church, whose official mailing address is 1613 W. Washington Blvd. in Chicago.

The Gothic Revival chapel was designed by architect Otis Wheelock, partner of W. W. Boyington in the firm of Boyington & Wheelock, for the Chicago Theological Seminary, which was located on the same campus; the chapel was completed the same year that construction began on the church.  The church, also in Gothic Revival, was designed by architect Gurdon P. Randall and was constructed between 1869 and 1871; it was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2006.

References

External links

Chicago UnionParkChurch
Churches in Chicago
Gothic Revival church buildings in Illinois
Properties of religious function on the National Register of Historic Places in Chicago
Chicago UnionParkChurch
Churches on the National Register of Historic Places in Illinois


The moon wrasse (Thalassoma lunare), also known as the crescent wrasse or lyretail wrasse, is a species of wrasse native to the Indian Ocean and the western Pacific Ocean. It is an inhabitant of coral reefs and surrounding areas at depths from 1 to 20 m (3.3 to 65.6 ft).

Moon wrasses are carnivores and tend to prey on fish eggs and small sea-floor dwelling invertebrates. This species can reach 45 cm (18 in) in total length. It is part of the aquarium trade.
Labriformes

Moon wrasse


Leo the Last  is a 1970 British drama film co-written and directed by John Boorman, based on the play The Prince by George Tabori, starring Marcello Mastroianni and Billie Whitelaw.

Plot
The ennui-afflicted heir to a deposed European throne returns to his father's house in West London to find that the neighbourhood has become a slum. An ornithologist ill at ease with others, he finds his spy-glass wandering from birds to observe his neighbours. Strictly an observer at first, he increasingly becomes agitated as their lives are blighted by violence, poverty, and injustice. In particular he is moved by the plight of young Salambo Mardi and her family, beset by the rapist shopkeeper Kowalski and the pimp Jasper.

Gradually he is stirred from his emotional detachment to try to assist her, a development that confuses, alarms, and angers his parasitic entourage: Margaret, his social climber fiancée; Max, the shady family lawyer (who for reasons never directly explained is desperate for Leo to marry Margaret); David, his quack doctor; and Laszlo, the household manager, and apparent leader of a secret society aiming to restore the dynasty. (Leo's sudden vitality also threatens Jasper the pimp who is, in fact, in league with Laszlo.)

A pacifist and liberal idealist with no interest in reigning, Leo is relieved when Laszlo confesses that the society is a fraud, but furious when he discovers that he himself is the owner of the slum and his life of wealth and privilege has been paid for from its rents.

Leo becomes the unlikeliest of revolutionaries, rallying the denizens of the slum with the aid of Salambo and her charismatic working-class hero boyfriend Roscoe. The intellectual and professional class (in the person of the socialite, the doctor, and the lawyer) is quickly overcome, but the capitalists and petite bourgeoisie (pimp, rent collector, shopkeeper, and real estate shareholders) prove tougher, fortifying themselves in Leo's mansion.

In the final cataclysm, Leo leads the mob in burning his own mansion to the ground, its occupiers surrendering and fleeing at the last moment. In the last line of dialogue, Roscoe tells Leo: "Well, you didn't change the world, did you?"  Leo replies: "No, but we changed our street."  The victors laugh together and disperse.  Leo wanders up to his old home and picks from the rubble one of his old spy-glasses.  Smiling happily, he chucks it aside and skips merrily away.

Cast
 Marcello Mastroianni as Leo
 Billie Whitelaw as Margaret
 Keefe West as Jasper
 Calvin Lockhart as Roscoe, The Pimp
 Glenna Forster-Jones as Salambo Mardi
 Graham Crowden as Max, The Lawyer
 Gwen Ffrangcon Davies as Hilda
 Vladek Sheybal as Laszlo, Leo's Aide
 Kenneth J. Warren as Kowalski (as Kenneth Warren)
 David de Keyser as David
 Brinsley Forde as "Bip"

Production
The film was based on a play by George Tabori, who was married to actor Viveca Lindfors. She had been managed by Bob Chartoff and Irwin Winkler, who had turned into producers, and Tabori send them his script. They responded well and attached director John Boorman, with whom the producers had made Point Blank. Boorman suggested Marcello Mastroianni be cast in the lead. The film was turned down by MGM, Paramount, Universal and Columbia before being picked up by United Artists. Head of production David Picker agreed to finance even though he did not personally like the script.

Reception
Boorman won the award for Best Director at the 1970 Cannes Film Festival for the film, however the film has not yet been made available on DVD in the UK.

The film was a commercial disappointment on release. United Artists executive David Picker later said:
The film was worth making, but not at the price it cost ... no one had any money to lavish on creating an audience for a picture if there was the slightest doubt that it would find one lining up to see it. A film either made it – or it died. There was nothing in between. And Leo the Last didn't make it.
Arthur Krim of United Artists later did an assessment of the film as part of an evaluation of the company's inventory:
This director [John Boorman] had a very special reputation with campus film groups and youth orientated filmmakers in the United States and the United Kingdom. He was considered one of the voices of the new wave of picture making – daring, innovative, imaginative. This is the type of director motion picture companies were gravitating to in 1969 when it appeared that all traditional picture making was outmoded and audiences – mainly youthful – were ready to support only the off beat. By the time the picture was made, this premise had been proven erroneous. The actual audience for this type of film could justify a cost of only a few hundred thousand dollars, if that much – not the substantial budget allocated here, which in turn was exceeded by hundreds of thousands of dollars through the director's excessive preoccupation with his own ideas of "perfection". The picture came out much too long and slow but this director – as part of his unrealistic approach to picture making – refused to make necessary cuts. By contract he could not be overruled.
The film's exteriors were shot in streets - Testerton Street, and its crossroads with Baradon Street, near Leo's house, and, at the far end, its junction with Blechyndon Street - due to be demolished, immediately East and North-East of Latimer Road tube station in West London. Grenfell Tower now stands at the latter junction. The area has been realigned and landscaped, with walkways, trees and playgrounds, although the names of the three streets were retained for the 'walks'. The pub interiors were shot at the nearby Bramley Arms on Bramley Road, which is now (2019) offices and flats.

Raymond Durgnat rated it in his all-time top ten films.

Paperback novelization
Slightly in advance of the film's release (as was the custom), Award Books issued a tie-in novelization of the screenplay. The commissioned author, unlikely as a tie-in novelist, but no doubt chosen for the assignment based on his counter-culture profile, was beat poet and gay activist Leo Skir.

References

John Boorman (Faber 1985) by Michel Ciment
A Critical History of British Cinema (Secker and Warburg 1978) by Roy Armes

External links

1970 films
1970 comedy-drama films
Films directed by John Boorman
British comedy-drama films
British films based on plays
Films set in London
Films shot in London
United Artists films
Films produced by Robert Chartoff
Films produced by Irwin Winkler
1970s English-language films
1970s British films

Leo the Last