Johann Carl Bodmer (11 February 1809 – 30 October 1893) was a Swiss-French printmaker, etcher, lithographer, zinc engraver, draughtsman, painter, illustrator, and hunter. Known as Karl Bodmer in literature and paintings, his name was recorded as Johann Karl Bodmer and Jean-Charles Bodmer, respectively. After 1843, likely as a result of the birth of his son Charles-Henry Barbizon, he began to sign his works K Bodmer.

Bodmer was well known in Germany for his watercolours, drawings, and aquatints of cities and landscapes of the Rhine, Mosel, and Lahn rivers. After he moved to France following his return from an expedition in the American West, he became a member of the Barbizon School, a French landscape painting group from the mid-19th century. He created many oil paintings with animal and landscape motifs, wood engravings, drawings, and book illustrations. For his work, Bodmer was made a Knight in the French Legion of Honour in 1877.

He is best known in the United States as a painter who captured the American frontier of the 19th century. He painted extremely accurate works of its inhabitants and landscape. He accompanied the German explorer Prince Maximilian zu Wied-Neuwied from 1832 through 1834 on his Missouri River expedition. Bodmer was hired as an artist by Maximilian in order to accompany his expedition and record images of cities, rivers, towns, and peoples they saw along the way, including the many tribes of Native Americans along the Missouri River and in that region.

Bodmer had 81 aquatints made from his work to illustrate Prince Maximilian's book, Maximilian Prince of Wied's Travels in the Interior of North America, published in 1839 in German and in English in 1843.

Early life
Johann Carl Bodmer was born on 11 February 1809 in Zurich, Switzerland. When he was thirteen, his mother's brother, Johann Jakob Meier, a prominent engraver, became Bodmer's teacher. Meier was an artist, having studied under the well-known artists Heinrich Füssli and Gabriel Lory. Young Bodmer and his older brother, Rudolf, joined their uncle on artistic travels throughout their home country.

Career

Missouri River expedition

By 1828, Bodmer had left his native Switzerland to work as a painter and engraver in the German city of Koblenz. It was there that he and his work came to the attention of Prinz Maximilian zu Wied-Neuwied. This German aristocrat had successfully led a scientific expedition to Brazil in 1815–1817. He decided to embark on another such venture, this time to North America and especially the American West. He hired Bodmer to accompany his expedition and make a visual record of the places and peoples encountered, through painting, drawings, etc. The aristocrat was known popularly to naturalists then and now as Prince Max.

After delays, Bodmer, in the company of Prince Max and David Dreidoppel, a huntsman and taxidermist, sailed for North America on 17 May 1832. In a letter on that date, Prince Max wrote to his brother that Bodmer "is a lively, very good man and companion, seems well educated, and is very pleasant and very suitable for me; I am glad I picked him. He makes no demands, and in diligence he is never lacking."

Arriving in Boston, Massachusetts, on 4 July, the three encountered hardships and delays caused largely by a cholera epidemic in the eastern states. It swept across the northern tier to Michigan via travelers on the waterways. The three men finally reached Pittsburgh, and started from there October 8 to travel west along the Ohio River. They arrived in Mt. Vernon, Indiana about midnight on 18 October. The next morning, the party made their way to New Harmony, Indiana.

Prince Max had planned to spend only a few days in New Harmony, but his stay "was prolonged by serious indisposition, nearly resembling cholera, to a four months' winter residence." The Prince devotes a chapter of his book of the expedition to New Harmony and its environs. He featured the work and personalities of Thomas Say and Charles-Alexandre Lesueur, two leading American naturalists. Lesueur was also a prolific artist.

Unlike the Prince and Dreidoppel, Bodmer escaped the illness. Alone, he left New Harmony at the end of December, and on 3 January 1833 caught a steamboat at Mt. Vernon, Indiana. He traveled down the Mississippi River to New Orleans, spending a week with Joseph Barrabino. This Italian-American naturalist was a friend of Say and Lesueur. (A fine pencil portrait of Barrabino, drawn by Lesueur, is preserved at the New Harmony Workingmen's Institute.)

In April 1833, Prince Max, Bodmer and Dreidoppel set out from St. Louis on the 2,500-mile journey by steamboat and later keelboat up the Missouri River. They eventually traveled as far as Fort McKenzie (near present-day Fort Benton, Montana). After wintering at Fort Clark near the Mandan villages, they returned downriver the following spring, having spent more than a year on the Upper Missouri. Bodmer had extensively documented the journey with visual images, while Prince Max took copious notes for the book he intended to write.

After completing the expedition, Bodmer returned to Germany with Prince Maximilian, then traveled to France. In Paris he had many of his paintings from the expedition (81 in total) reproduced as aquatints. The Prince had these images incorporated into his book of the expedition, which was first published in German in Koblenz as Reise in das innere Nord-Amerika in den Jahren 1832 bis 1834 in two volumes from 1839 to 1841. Its English translation, Maximilian Prince of Wied's Travels in the Interior of North America, during the years 1832–1834, was published in London in 1843-1844.

Bodmer then moved to Barbizon, France, and later became a French citizen. Recorded as Jean-Charles Bodmer, he went by "Charles Bodmer". He became a member of the Barbizon School, a group of painters who specialized in landscapes and works featuring animals. He worked in a variety of genres, including painting, etching, wood engraving, and illustration. Among his well-known works from this period was La Foret en Hiver (Interior of the forest in winter), exhibited at the Salon 1850 in Paris. It was painted at Fontainebleau forest. Bodmer also made an engraving of his painting, and reproductions were popular in the 1860s. Impressionist Claude Monet later painted the same trees, titling his painting The Bodmer Oak. This scene was the subject as well of numerous photographs in the 1870s.

His last years were difficult, as his illustrations became out of style, and he was affected by illness and poverty.

Death
Bodmer died in Paris, shortly after receiving his French citizenship. He is buried in Chailly-en-Biere, at the entrance of the Fontainebleau forest. His three sons, Charles, Rodolphe and Henri, were colorful characters of the community of artists and poachers in Barbizon.

Legacy
Although Bodmer is still relatively unknown in France, a first exhibition was dedicated to his works in September 2021 in Barbizon].

Joslyn Art Museum
The Joslyn Art Museum in Omaha, Nebraska is home to the largest of three known collections of Bodmer's watercolors, drawings, and prints. Bodmer captured a challenging and dramatic landscape that was still unfamiliar to audiences in the eastern United States and Europe.

His portraits were the first accurate portrayal of western Indians in their homelands, and they are considered remarkable for their careful detail and sensitivity to the personalities of his sitters. To this day, Bodmer's work remains one of the most perceptive and compelling visual accounts of the American interior. Bodmer's work is recognised as among the most accurate painted images ever made of Native Americans, their culture and artifacts, and of the scenery of the pristine "Old West".

Gallery

Notes

See also
North America Native Museum

References
Maximilian zu Wied-Neuwied: Maximilian Prince of Wied's Travels in the Interior of North America, during the years 1832–1834. Ackermann & Comp., London 1843–1844 (English translation)
Reuben Gold Thwaites: Early Western Travels, 1748–1846 (vol. 22–25), Arthur H. Clark Compagny, Cleveland-Ohio 1906.
Reuben Gold Thwaites: Early Western Travels, 1748–1846. AMS Press, New York 1966.
Philip Gilbert Hamerton: The Portfolio, Vol. 1-2. With Illustrations by Emilia Bodmer. London 1870.
Philip Gilbert Hamerton: Chapters on Animals.. With Twenty Illustrations by J. Veygrassat and Emilia Bodmer. Boston, Roberts Brothers, 1977.
David C. Hunt, William J. Orr, W. H. Goetzmann (editor): Karl Bodmer's America. Joslyn Art Museum, Omaha (Nebraska) 1984.
John C. Ewers: Views of Vanishing Frontier. Joslyn Art Museum, Omaha (Nebraska), 1984 + 1985
Marsha V. Gallagher: Karl Bodmer's Eastern Views. Joslyn Art Museum, Omaha (Nebraska), 1996
Didier Lévêque, Eliane Foulquié (Ed.): Peindre les Indiens, l'Art de Karl Bodmer, Rosa Bonheur, Antoine Tzapoff, Paris,Les Amis de Rosa Bonheur, 2020,
Brandon K. Ruud (editor): Karl Bodmer's North American Prints. Joslyn Art Museum, Omaha (Nebraska), 2004. .
W. Raymond Wood, Joseph C. Porter, David C. Hunt: Karl Bodmer's Studio Art: The Newberry Library Bodmer Collection. University of Illinois Press. Urbana and Chicago 2002.
Henri Beraldi: Les Graveurs du XIXe Siécle. Guide de l'amateur d'estampes modernes. 2. Band, Seite 137 bis 143. Librarie L. Conquet, Paris 1885.
Maximilian zu Wied-Neuwied: Verzeichnis der Reptilien welche auf einer Reise im nördlichen America beobachtet wurden. Bibliomania!, Salt Lake City c. 2006.  (hardback),  (unbound).
Maximilian zu Wied-Neuwied: Reise in das innere Nord-Amerika in den Jahren 1832 bis 1834, 2 vol., Koblenz, 1840-41. Reprint of L. Borowsky, München, 1979.
Nordamerika Native Museum Zürich: Karl Bodmer. A Swiss Artist in America 1809-1893. Ein Schweizer Künstler in Amerika. University of Chicago Press and Scheidegger & Spiess, Zürich 2009 (English and German).

External links

Collection at Old Book Art  All 81 aquatint illustrations and map from Maximilian Prince of Wied's Travels in the Interior of North America, during the years 1832–1834
Madelyn Dean Garrett: Karl Bodmer's Aquatints: The changing Image. University of Utah 1990.
Karl Bodmer Sketchbook
Reise In Das Innere Nord-America color plates
Ten Dreams Galleries
Karl Bodmer Website
Karl Bodmer Aquatints

1809 births
1893 deaths
19th-century Swiss male artists
Artists of the American West
Artists from Zürich
Native Americans in art
Swiss expatriates in the United States
Swiss expatriates in Germany
Swiss emigrants to France

Karl Bodmer


Isleños () are a Spanish ethnic group living in the state of Louisiana in  the United States, consisting of people primarily from the Canary Islands. Isleños are descendants of colonists who settled in Spanish Louisiana between 1778 and 1783 and intermarried with other communities such as French, Acadians, Creoles, Hispanic Americans, Filipinos, and other groups, mainly through the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.

In Louisiana, the Isleños originally settled in four communities which included Galveztown, Valenzuela, Barataria, and San Bernardo. Of those settlements, Valenzuela and San Bernardo were the most successful as the other two were plagued with both disease and flooding. The large migration of Acadian refugees to Bayou Lafourche led to the rapid gallicization of the Valenzuela community while San Bernardo was able to preserve much of its unique culture and language into the twenty-first century. However, the transmission of Spanish and other customs has completely halted in St. Bernard Parish, with those having competency in Spanish being octogenarians.

Regardless, these communities have garnered attention from notable academics like Alcée Fortier, Samuel G. Armistead, and Manuel Alvar. In recent years, heritage groups have been formed for the Isleños and their descendants to help preserve their ways of life. The success of the Isleños in Louisiana in preserving their culture has led some historians and anthropologists to consider the Isleño community as part of the national heritage of the United States and the Canary Islands.

Names and etymology
In general, individuals belonging to the community are referred to with the  meaning 'Islanders', an archaic term for a person from the Canary Islands. Other terms include Canarian, Canary Islander, Canarian descendant, or Canary Islander descendant.

In St. Bernard Parish, the Canary Islanders were referred to as  both by themselves and others into the modern day. Occasionally, this term was also translated into the .

Prior to the American Civil War, the Canary Islanders and their descendants in Ascension and Assumption Parishes sold their properties and moved into interior marsh. The local francophone population began referring to them as the  dwellers (sometimes represented by Spanish pronunciation ) due to their practice of clearing land with fire. This term originates from the  meaning 'to burn'.

Ethnic and national origins
Isleños are descendants of emigrants from the Canary Islands who arrived in Louisiana between 1778 and 1783. The exact number of Canary Islanders that were settled in the territory is unknown but it estimated to be about 2,000 individuals. Since settling in Louisiana, the communities have developed independently with two of the original communities falling into ruin not long after their establishment. Following significant flooding of the Mississippi River in 1782, the Barataria settlement was abandoned and the survivors were relocated to San Bernardo and Valenzuela with some settling in West Florida. Galveztown suffered similarly with repeated floods of the Amite River and deplorable conditions. It was not long after the beginning of the 19th century that the settlement was abandoned.

San Bernardo

The settlement along Bayou Terre-aux-Boeufs was rather isolated, with the Isleño population being larger than any other community. The original Canary Islander recruits came mainly from the islands of Tenerife and Gran Canaria with the remainder from Lanzarote, La Gomera, and La Palma. St. Bernard Parish Historian William de Marigny Hyland has located the origin of many descendants to the single location of Icod de los Vinos on the island of Tenerife.

Early in the establishment of this community, a minority of Acadians were present as well as Filipinos from Saint Malo which intermarried with the Canarian colonists. In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, the community was reinforced by immigration from Spanish regions such as Andalusia, Austurias, Catalonia, Galicia, Santander, and Valencia, and from the Canary Islands and other Spanish-speaking countries. A survey conducted in 1850 found at least 63 natives of Spain, 7 Canary Islanders, 7 Cubans, and 7 Mexicans in the community. Individuals from other countries, including France, Germany, and Ireland also emigrated and intermarried with the community during this period.

In 2005, Hurricane Katrina displaced many Isleños from their original communities. Those who returned to St. Bernard Parish have retreated behind the St. Bernard Flood Wall and now live in the unincorporated communities of Toca, Saint Bernard, Poydras, and into New Orleans.

Valenzuela
Originally, the Canary Islanders were settled along land grants with frontage to Bayou Lafourche, near to what is today Donaldsonville. A census performed in 1784 found that 174 individuals belonging to 46 families were living along Bayou Lafourche, of which 154 were Isleños in 40 families. In the following two years, more than 800 Acadians were settled in the area with the population of region reaching 1,500 in 1788. Many of the Isleño families intermarried with the Acadians, gallicized their names, and assimilated into the larger Acadian community.

Following the Louisiana Purchase, many Isleños sold their land grants and moved into inland swamps and woods which they burned to create farmland. In this isolation, the community preserved its language and other customs into the late twentieth century before it was eventually absorbed into the larger Cajun and ultimately American cultural identity. Isleños and their descendants can still be found in the Donaldsonville area and along Bayou Lafourche into Palo Alto, McCall, Plattenville, Belle Alliance, Labadieville, Napoleonville, and Paincourtville.

History
Prior to European colonization, the Canary Islands were populated by the native Guanches which are thought to be distant relatives to the Berbers of North Africa. At the start of the 15th century, the Guanches faced conquest by the Normans, Portuguese, and Castilians, and were pressed into slavery. By the end of the century, the Canarian Archipelago had become part of the newly emerging Spanish Empire. During the 1490s to 1520s, immigrants from Galicia, Castile, Catalonia, Basque Country, Portugal, and Italy helped to populate the Canary Islands. By the late 16th century, the island of Tenerife was covered in vineyards, and already by the mid-17th century, export of its wines to England (including its colonies in North America) and Spanish America had become crucial to the economy of the Canary Islands.

Crisis tended to occasion the Canarians as in the 18th century the collapse of the malvasia wine trade created significant poverty. Most of the affected people were farmers and laborers who were forced to marginal occupations like selling coal, mining, begging, etc. The lack of employment opportunities and a policy of inadequate land distribution led to popular uprisings. The mobilization of the Spanish Army for service in Europe and America impinged negatively on the Canary Islanders as well.

Governor Bernardo de Gálvez, desiring to populate the newly acquired territory of Louisiana as a means to defend against an English invasion, sought recruits from the Canary Islands with families to join the Army and be sent to Louisiana. Recruits were offered an opportunity to escape mere subsistence and improve their situation with grants of land, rations, and supplies in the New World.

Colonization

At the request of Governor Gálvez, the Spanish authorities authorized the transportation of Canary Islander soldiers and their families to the colony in 1778. Between November 1778 and July 1779, around 1600 Isleños arrived in New Orleans, and another group of about 300 came in 1783. By 1780, the four Isleño communities were already founded. About four hundred of the immigrants were sent to the new settlement of Galveztown, two hundred other colonists were settled at Valenzuela, and a third group settled in . This colony was augmented by the 300 settlers who arrived in 1783.

In 1782, during the American Revolution, Bernardo de Gálvez recruited Isleños from these settlements to join the war. They participated in the three major military campaigns of Baton Rouge, Mobile, and Pensacola, which expelled the British from the Gulf Coast.

War of 1812
Even before the arrival of the Isleños, the various administrations of Louisiana always feared an invasion by the British. It seems that this invasion came to pass the morning of December 23rd, 1814 as the British landed downriver from New Orleans at the plantation of Jacques Villeré. Previously, forces were ready to meet the British invasion, and that night, the Isleños and other soldiers engaged the British. The shocked British hesitated and regrouped the following day, allowing Major General Andrew Jackson to develop his line of defense at the Chalmette plantation. The British retreated through the Isleño settlement along Bayou Terre-aux-Boeufs in January 1815, and the community sustained perhaps the greatest losses of property and hardships resulting from the British invasion.

Settlements

San Bernardo (Bayou Terre-aux-Boeufs)
The settlement, which founded what is today St. Bernard Parish, was referred to by many names near its inception. The first name under the Spanish reign was simply Tierra de Bueyes or 'Land of Oxen' as a direct translation from its French designation. This began a long string of names for the settlement starting with (La) Concepción, then Nueva Gálvez, San Bernardo de Nueva Gálvez, and San Bernardo del Torno. By the end of the 1780s, the simple name San Bernardo or 'Saint Bernard', the patron saint of Bernardo de Gálvez, was being used for the settlement in documents describing the area.

The entire settlement was referred to as the Población de San Bernardo, eventually as the Parroquia de San Bernardo, and was composed of various establecimientos (establishments) or puestos (posts), which were smaller communities. These establecimientos ran along Bayou Terre-aux-Boeufs starting just past the western limit of Saint Bernard and extending to Delacroix Island. One of the larger communities was the Quinto Establecimiento, which was called "Bencheque" after the Montaña de Bencheque near Icod de los Vinos. The name "Reggio" is a more recent colloquialism that refers to a much larger area. The origin of this name comes from the Reggio plantation that was just north of this settlement. Original land records still show that properties in this area are part of Bencheque; likewise, those who still know Spanish refer to the community as Bencheque. This makes the community perhaps the only one in the United States that carries a name of Guanche origin.

Upon the colonists' arrival, the Spanish government gave land to each family according to their size, and a four-room house insulated by bousillage. The Spanish Crown supplied money, food, tools, and clothing annually to the Isleños until 1785, when the settlement was declared to be self-sufficient. The Isleños were almost entirely farmers who harvested vegetables for subsistence and for sale in New Orleans. The colonists from Tenerife brought with them their tradition of cattle training, their expertise in which was highly valued. It was not uncommon for ranchers from Louisiana and eastern Texas to bring their herds to St. Bernard to be domesticated by the Isleños living there.

By 1790, sugarcane had replaced indigo as the most profitable crop in Louisiana. Wealthy planters purchased the Isleños' land, many of whom were left with little choice but to work on the plantations consolidated from their small farms. While many worked on the sugarcane plantations in the 19th century, hunting, Spanish moss gathering, agriculture, cattle breeding and carpentry were other occupations. It was during this period as well that Isleño fishermen developed an important commerce in the fish and seafood they caught, selling their catch to New Orleans restaurants. Isleños began to move to the outer reaches of St. Bernard Parish, which led to the development of the various fishing communities at Delacroix Island, Yscloskey, and Shell Beach. After the end of the Civil War, food shortages throughout the South, including St. Bernard Parish, made foraging and hunting crucial to the survival of the Isleños. The Borgnemouth Community was established in 1904 at the mouth of the Violet Canal. The canal connected the Mississippi River to Lake Borgne, and soon became another settlement inhabited by Isleño trappers, commercial fishermen and farmers. During the first part of the 20th century, St. Bernard Parish became well known for its valuable animal pelts, including otter, nutria, mink, and muskrat.

Not all was positive for the Isleños of San Bernardo. On September 29, 1915, a hurricane devastated St. Bernard Parish, leaving almost three hundred dead, many of them Isleño fishermen, hunters and trappers. The Spanish flu then spread among the survivors and decimated the population. A little more than a decade later, the Great Mississippi Flood of 1927 in combination with some  of rain that fell on New Orleans on April 15, left the city covered in more than  of water. Local politicians, pressured by the bankers of the city, took the drastic step of opening holes in the dike on the west side of Lake Borgne without evacuating the local population. St. Bernard Parish was flooded and hundreds drowned, leaving the survivors without homes or livelihoods. Afterwards, it was discovered that removal of the levee was unnecessary and that the Mississippi River did not reach a high enough level to flood New Orleans, but the damage was done and many Isleños and black sharecroppers suffered the consequences.

After World War II, returning Isleño servicemen looked for work in the suburban areas of New Orleans that had developed along the Mississippi River, and many left their communities in search of employment. Their children were raised in predominantly English-speaking areas and consequently did not learn to speak Spanish and were not exposed to the native culture of the community. At the same time, public schooling in St. Bernard Parish forced all students to speak only English. Teachers punished anyone who spoke the native Spanish dialect. As a result, knowledge of Spanish and previous customs dropped precipitously among the younger people of the St. Bernard community. Today, the transmission of the Spanish language has halted completely along with the preservation of many traditions; this has been supplanted by English and mainstream American culture. That being said, many of the older generation remember the customs of their ancestors, and those born during the mid-20th century often speak Spanish as their native language.

In 2005, Hurricane Katrina damaged or destroyed the homes of the Isleños and neighboring communities. The hurricane left 164 dead in the parish, of which only a handful were Isleños, with three dying at St. Rita's Nursing Home at the time of the hurricane's landfall. The results of Katrina has left the Isleños displaced throughout Louisiana and the rest of United States. Those who returned to the parish have retreated to behind the St. Bernard Flood Wall with only a fraction returning to traditionally Isleño communities.

Communities
By the twentieth century, the Isleño communities of St. Bernard Parish included:

 (Violet)
 (Poydras, Saint Bernard, Toca)
 (Saint Bernard)
 (Reggio, sometimes still Bencheque)
Alluvial City
/Yscloskey (Yscloskey)
Shell Beach
 (Hopedale)
 (Wood Lake)
 (Delacroix Island)

Valenzuela (Bayou Lafourche)

Governor Gálvez had chosen the site for the original settlement, referred to as Valenzuela dans La Fourche, to be along the eastern bank of Bayou Lafourche just south of Donaldsonville extending into what is now the Belle Alliance Plantation. Not long after its establishment in 1779, a large group of Acadian refugees settled in the community. The census of 1784 indicated that Valenzuela had a population of 174 people, of whom 154 were Isleños. By 1785, more than 800 Acadians settled along Bayou Lafourche and by 1788 there were over 1,500 people living in the area. The Isleños of Valenzuela were strongly influenced by the Acadians who surrounded their community. Many families intermarried, adopted French as their everyday language, and their surnames were gallicized.

After the Louisiana Purchase, many Isleños sold their tracts of land and moved to Baton Rouge or farther inland. It was those who moved to the interior swampland that continued to maintain the Spanish language and customs of their ancestors. These Isleños maintained farms growing corn, beans, melons, and squash, as well as various livestock. Many, just as those in San Bernardo, also found work on the sugar plantations that were established along the Mississippi River during the 19th century. It was at this time that their francophone neighbors began referring to the group as the brule/bruli people or brule dwellers due to their practice of clearing land with fire. Some improvements to infrastructure, communication, and infrastructure were made with the turn of the century but many of the Brulis maintained their traditional ways of life.

Life was difficult for the Brulis and negative perceptions plagued the community. For example, a visitor to the community writing in 1924 described them as "half-savage, ignominiously poor, and until the beginning of the present century, absolutely illiterate" as well as "a people of inferior calibre".  It was not long that "Spanish" became synonymous with poverty, a lack of education, and lower class. By the 1990s, Samuel G. Armistead found that the use of Spanish and the prevalence of Spanish traditions nearly vanished with only a handful of octogenarians having any fluency in the language. The influence of the greater French community, along with the negative perceptions of their own group, led to the community's forgetting their origins entirely.

Communities
Traditionally Spanish/Bruli communities during the first half of the 20th century included:

Ascension Parish
Bruly Capite
Bruly Sacramento
Bruly McCall
Assumption Parish
Brulie Maurin
Brulie St. Martin
Brulie St. Vincent
Pierre Part
Brulie Lower Texas
Brulie Labadie
Brulie Chene Vert
Brulie Sec

Culture
Through the centuries, the various Isleño communities of Louisiana have kept alive different elements of their Canary Islander heritage while also adopting and building upon the customs and traditions of the communities that surround them. Although today, many of the descendants have been assimilated into mainstream American culture, the presence and value of their native traditions has not yet vanished.

Music
Probably the most famous cultural heritage of the Isleños are the décimas, which carry back to the varied origins of the community. These songs, unlike the ten-line Spanish décima of the 16th century, a form widespread throughout Latin America, usually are composed in couplets using four half-lines of verse, the even verses being assonant rhymes. They have been composed as recently as during the first half of the 20th century and feature themes relating to local history, the hazards encountered while fishing or trapping, the misadventures of local personalities, and humorously exaggerated tales of fishing exploits. The Isleños of St. Bernard Parish, sing both traditional décimas and improvised décimas that are composed whilst singing. The cantate Irván "Puco" Pérez was one of the most famous décima singers of the community and one of the last.

The rich musical tradition of the Isleños is exhibited in just how many types of songs have been recorded. Romances, ballads, and Latin American cantos, some of which originated in medieval times, have been recorded along with versions of the Mexican corrido. Indeed, many of the coplas of the St. Bernard community have been transmitted, more or less unaltered, from the time of the original emigrants from the Canary Islands. It is likely that these coplas were reinvigorated with the arrival of Spaniards from Andalusia in the early 19th century.

Folklore
The Isleños have traditionally celebrated a vernacular culture with often witty and memorable humor. It is no surprise that the communities maintained a wealth of stories and oral traditions through the generations. As such, the riddles of St. Bernard Parish tended to be composed in descriptive, narrative, mathematical, or interrogative forms, usually with unexpected answers. Stories tended to reflect the spirit of the community they were in and the hardships it faced. One of the more famous elements of folklore are the cuentos de Quevedo which pay homage to the Spanish writer Francisco de Quevedo, turning him into a trickster and folk character. Other cuentos told stories of everyday life, often in the campas tapping animals or fishing.

In these isolated communities, folk healers were an important part of the community as they provided remedies based on herbs but also Catholic prayers. One well known remedy for combating a fever was to place sliced potatoes and onions on the soles of the afflicted person's feet. As a highly superstitious community, talk of witchcraft was not uncommon just like in rural Spain and Latin America. At times, it was necessary to rely on these beliefs where explanations were not available. Proverbs were common within both communities as a dichete found both in St. Bernard and Ascension Parishes was roughly of the form  meaning 'On a Tuesday, don't get married, nor get on a boat, nor leave your family', which follows the Spanish superstition of Tuesday being an ill omen.

Cuisine
Much of the cuisine of both communities can be seen as traditionally Spanish but with substantial influences from both Cajun and Creole dishes. Caldo has been popular in St. Bernard with most families having their own recipes, not to mention the consumption of caldo gallego. A local favorite called ropa vieja, translated as old clothes, is a dish composed mainly of shredded meat, chickpeas, and other vegetables. While hosting guests, it is traditional for one to expect a café and perhaps pan criollo.

Even today, it is not uncommon to find fish in a tomato sauce in communities like Labadieville, which is of Spanish origin.

Language

The original source of the Isleño/Bruli Spanish dialect is el habla canaria, but of the late 18th century. Those who were recruited to relocate were often poor, living in rural areas, and not extremely well educated. Upon their arrival to Louisiana, much of the language of the communities was influenced by Louisiana French and perhaps Louisiana Creole. In St. Bernard, maritime contact with Cubans and other Spanish speakers, as well as the emigration of various groups from the Iberian Peninsula, left their marks on the dialect. Only until the United States gained control of Louisiana did the dialect begin adopting English terms into its lexicon. The complete isolation of the San Bernardo and Valenzuela communities from each other has affected the mutual intelligibility between the two groups to some extent. That said, many of the characteristics of these dialects resembles that of the various Caribbean Spanish dialects and rural Spain.

Today, the Spanish language spoken among the Isleños of Louisiana gradually is disappearing. The descendants of the original Valenzuela community suffered great hardships with their language and identity on the decline since at least the turn of the 20th century. In 1993, the last researcher to study the Bruli community found only two bilingual octogenarians along with a series of three semi-speakers of similar age. Perhaps the last of the Spanish speakers of the Valenzuela settlement have already disappeared. Those of St. Bernard Parish have fared better, but similarly faced hardships of their own being, mainly natural disasters and education policies. The remaining Spanish speakers of the community are generally octogenarians from Delacroix Island or other fishing communities.

Associations
In recent decades, greater cultural awareness and fears about the disappearance of this unique identity has pushed Isleños and their descendants in both communities to organize themselves. Los Isleños Heritage and Cultural Society of St. Bernard was established in 1976 with the goal "to preserve, interpret and promote the language, heritage and cultural traditions of colonists from the Canary Islands who settled in Louisiana between 1778 and 1783". The Society maintains and develops Los Isleños Museum Complex which is composed of nine buildings including a historic village, two museums and a research library, a gathering hall, and nature trail. Events are held regularly on the property including the Fiesta de los Isleños which celebrates the culture of the local community. The other communities have followed suit like the Canary Islanders Heritage Society of Louisiana which formed in 1996 and is "dedicated to preserving and promoting the culture of the Canary Islanders descendants in Louisiana, with a focus on the 18th century settlements of Valenzuela and Galveztown".

Notable people

 Page Cortez
 Albert Estopinal
 Joe Falcón
Frank Micheal Fernández, Jr.
 Joachim O. Fernández, Sr.
 Tee Joe Gonzáles
 Louis H. Marrero
 Alcide Núñez
 Samuel B. Núñez, Jr.
 Darrell Ourso
 Irván "Puco" Pérez
 Leander Pérez
 Matthew Randazzo V
 Henry "Junior" Rodríguez
 Paul Sanchez

See also

Spanish Louisiana
Criollo people
Canarian Americans
Isleño Spanish
Hispanics
Spanish language in the United States
Fiesta de los Isleños

References

External links

 Los Isleños Heritage and Cultural Society of St. Bernard
 Canary Islanders Heritage Society of Louisiana

Hispanic and Latino American
Ethnic groups in Louisiana

Spanish American
North Africans in the United States

Isleños (Louisiana)


The Amarillo Globe-News is a daily newspaper in Amarillo, Texas, owned by Gannett.  The newspaper is based at downtown's FirstBank Southwest Tower, but is printed at a facility in Lubbock.

History
The current-day Globe-News is a combination of several newspapers previously published in Amarillo. One began on November 4, 1909, as a prohibition publication  by the Baptist deacon Dr. Joseph Elbert Nunn (1851 – 1938). In 1916, Nunn turned the Amarillo Daily News into a general newspaper.

Nunn also owned an electric company, and heavily invested in the telephone company. He served on the boards of the Wayland Baptist College (now Wayland Baptist University) in Plainview, Texas, then at Texas Technological College (now Texas Tech University).

He went on to Lubbock, Texas, with the Goodnight Baptist College in the now ghost town of Goodnight in Armstrong County. The college and town were named for the legendary Texas Panhandle rancher Charles Goodnight.

In 1926, Eugene A. Howe and Wilbur Clayton Hawk bought the Amarillo Daily News and merged it with their Globe newspaper to form the Amarillo Globe-News Publishing Company.

The Amarillo Times started on December 15, 1937, as an afternoon tabloid newspaper. On December 2, 1951, the Globe-News and Times were merged into one company with the majority of the stock owned by the Times''' Roy Whittenburg family, being published by Samuel Benjamin Whittenburg (1914 – 1992). The Daily News continued as the morning newspaper, while the Globe-News and Times were merged into the afternoon Globe-Times.

The Amarillo Globe-Times won the 1961 Pulitzer Prize for Public Service for exposing government corruption in Potter and Randall counties. The organization noted the paper "expos[ed] a breakdown in local law enforcement with resultant punitive action that swept lax officials from their posts and brought about the election of a reform slate."

The company also purchased radio stations WDAG and KGRS (merging them to form KGNC in 1935), and NBC television station KGNC-TV (now KAMR) in 1953.

On September 1, 1972, Morris Communications bought the Globe-News from the Whittenburg family.

In 2001, the Daily News and Globe-Times merged into one morning edition, the Globe-News.

In 2017, Morris Communications sold its newspapers to GateHouse Media.

The Globe-News moved in September 2018 from the building it occupied since 1949 on South Harrison Street on the west side of downtown.  The newspaper chose to move to the FirstBank Southwest Tower on Tyler Street a few blocks away.

Effective July 10, 2023, the paper transitioned from carrier delivery to delivery via the U.S. Postal Service.

Journalists

Journalists who got their start at the Amarillo Globe-News include National Journal'' correspondent Major Garrett, Dow Jones Newswires and columnist Al Lewis.

References

External links

. Accessed January 20, 2006

Mass media in Amarillo, Texas
Daily newspapers published in Texas
Gannett publications
Pulitzer Prize-winning newspapers
1909 establishments in Texas
Pulitzer Prize for Public Service winners
Newspapers established in 1909

Amarillo Globe-News


Binegar is a small village and civil parish in Somerset, England. It is located on the A37,  east of Wells, between Shepton Mallet and Chilcompton. Its population in 2011 was 313. Binegar and Gurney Slade on the opposite side of the A37 are effectively a single village and share a sign on the main road. In Gurney Slade, the quarry and houses on the north side of Tape Lane are in Binegar parish whilst the south side is in Ashwick parish. In Binegar, some houses on the south side of Station Road are in Ashwick parish and some on the north side of the village are in Emborough parish.

History

The village had one Church of England Voluntary Controlled primary school, which was shut at the end of 2011, one very old church, post office, and smattering of houses. It also has 2 pubs, the Horse & Jockey and The George.

It used to have a station on the Somerset and Dorset Joint Railway, which closed in 1966, and was the site of accidents on the line in 1885 and 1886.

The name of the village was Begenhangra, in a charter of 1065, which probably meant the slope where beans are grown. It formed part of the endowment of Wells Cathedral.

Calamine ore was mined at Merchants Hill in the late 18th century, but the area's principal focus was on limestone quarrying, at Gurney Slade quarry, and agriculture. Adjacent to the quarry there is now a plant which processes powdered material (known as filler) from various Mendip quarries.

The parish was part of the hundred of Wells Forum.

Governance

The parish council has responsibility for local issues, including setting an annual precept (local rate) to cover the council's operating costs and producing annual accounts for public scrutiny. The parish council evaluates local planning applications and works with the local police, district council officers, and neighbourhood watch groups on matters of crime, security, and traffic. The parish council's role also includes initiating projects for the maintenance and repair of parish facilities, as well as consulting with the district council on the maintenance, repair, and improvement of highways, drainage, footpaths, public transport, and street cleaning. Conservation matters (including trees and listed buildings) and environmental issues are also the responsibility of the council.

The village falls within the Non-metropolitan district of Mendip, which was formed on 1 April 1974 under the Local Government Act 1972, having previously been part of Shepton Mallet Rural District, which is responsible for local planning and building control, local roads, council housing, environmental health, markets and fairs, refuse collection and recycling, cemeteries and crematoria, leisure services, parks, and tourism.

Somerset Council is responsible for running the largest and most expensive local services such as education, social services, libraries, main roads, public transport, policing and fire services, trading standards, waste disposal and strategic planning.

It is also part of the Wells county constituency represented in the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. It elects one Member of Parliament (MP) by the first past the post system of election. It was part of the South West England constituency of the European Parliament prior to Britain leaving the European Union in January 2020, which elected seven MEPs using the d'Hondt method of party-list proportional representation.

Religious sites

The Norman Church of the Holy Trinity was rebuilt in the 15th century, and again rebuilt (except for the tower) in 1858 for Rev William Heade. The tower contains two bells dating from 1776 and made by William Bilbie of the Bilbie family. It has been designated by English Heritage as a Grade II* listed building.

References

External links

Villages in Mendip District
Civil parishes in Somerset

Binegar


The Cass County Courthouse in Atlantic, Iowa, United States, was built in 1934 as the first courthouse in the state built with funding from the Public Works Administration (PWA). It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2003 as a part of the PWA-Era County Courthouses of Iowa Multiple Properties Submission. The courthouse is the third structure to house court functions and county administration.

History
Cass County was organized in 1853. The first county commissioners met in Indiantown and chose a place called Lewis as the county seat where they used a two-story house for the courthouse. The Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Railroad extended tracks to Atlantic and the town offered the county land for a new courthouse. In 1869, the county accepted Atlantic's offer and constructed a small frame building on the site. The building soon proved to be inadequate and the county rented the nearby Park House to provide additional space. In 1888, the county spent $50,000 to erect a new two-story brick and stone courthouse that featured a clock tower. It was destroyed by fire in March 1932.

Because of the Great Depression, the first referendum to build a new courthouse failed in the General Election of 1932. The following year President Franklin Delano Roosevelt began the PWA, and Cass County was the first of ten counties in Iowa to receive such funding. Voters passed the second referendum in 1933 and the county retained the Des Moines architectural firm of Dougher, Rich & Woodburn to design the new building. C.C. Larsen Co. of Council Bluffs, Iowa won the bid to construct the building and work began in March 1934. It was built for $119,000. The new building was dedicated on December 26, 1934, with Governor Clyde L. Herring as the main speaker.

Dougher, Rich & Woodburn was able to save three other Iowa counties money by providing a similar design for their county's new courthouse. Newspapers in Buchanan and Humboldt counties printed drawings that were nearly identical when they were planning to build new courthouses in the 1930s.

A two-bay garage of matching brick was built in the southwest corner of the square shortly after the courthouse was completed. Around 1984 a 1½-story addition was built onto the west side of the courthouse for a correctional facility.

Architecture
The architectural style of the building is known as Depression Modern or PWA Moderne. The building features a symmetrical façade with a central section flanked by two lower wings. The exterior is composed of buff-colored brick and Bedford limestone trim. It is three stories tall above a raised basement. On the interior, central corridors on each floor extend the length of the building, with the offices opening onto the corridors. The building features multi-colored terrazzo floors, marble wainscoting, and acoustic tiles. The three tall windows with decorative metal grills that extend from the second to the third floors of the main elevation mark the location of the courtroom, which was decorated in dark wood tones and Art Deco ornamentation. The exterior of the adjoining correctional facility is composed of similar colored brick as the courthouse, and it has no windows.

The building is located on the courthouse square to the south of the central business district, where the previous courthouse was also located. There are three other elements that are contributing properties on the courthouse's nomination to the National Register of Historic Places. The square itself is a contributing site, what is believed to be the original flagpole is a contributing object, and the two-bay garage is another contributing building

References

Government buildings completed in 1934
County courthouses in Iowa
PWA Moderne architecture in Iowa
Atlantic, Iowa
Buildings and structures in Cass County, Iowa
National Register of Historic Places in Cass County, Iowa
Courthouses on the National Register of Historic Places in Iowa
Public Works Administration in Iowa
1934 establishments in Iowa

Cass County Courthouse (Iowa)


Callicratidas () was a Spartan navarch during the Peloponnesian War. He belonged to the mothax class so he was not a Spartiate, despite his status he had risen to prominence. In 406 BC, he was sent to the Aegean to take command of the Spartan fleet from the navarch Lysander.

Biography
Callicratidas's tenure as navarch was short, and he encountered a number of difficulties. Chief among these were the intrigues of his predecessor, who had apparently returned the money from which the fleet was supposed to be paid for to its source, the Persian prince Cyrus. Callicratidas needed money from Cyrus to pay his men, but, as a traditionalist Spartan, he was loath to request it from a Persian. His halfhearted attempts to secure funding from Cyrus fell through, and he was forced to find an alternative source of funds, which the city of Miletus eventually provided.

After winning an initial victory against the Athenian admiral Conon at Mytilene, Callicratidas came up against a sizable Athenian force sent out to relieve Conon.  He met this force at the Battle of Arginusae in 406 BC.  His force was soundly defeated, and Callicratidas himself was killed.  After his death, Lysander returned from Sparta to take command of Sparta's naval efforts in the Aegean.

Callicratidas is remembered as a Spartan of the old school.  He disdained the policy of alliance with Persia that had come into favor under Lysander, and he stated that if the choice were his, he would seek peace with Athens.  The increasing role of money in Spartan politics and diplomacy offended his traditionalist, antimaterialist sensibilities.  Although unsuccessful in his command, he won the respect of many Spartans and allies, and was well regarded after his death.

Pseudo-Callicratidas
Callicratidas is not to be confused with Pseudo-Callicratidas, the pseudonymous author of the Neo-Pythagorean treatise On the Felicity of Families. The treatise puts forward the idea that remarked that a wife's wealth may thwart her husband's rule.

Notes

References
Plutarch, Parallel Lives
Kagan, Donald.  The Peloponnesian War (Penguin Books, 2003).
Fine, John V.A.  The Ancient Greeks:  A critical history  (Harvard University Press, 1983)

External links
An excerpt  from Plutarch's life of Lysander, which deals with Callicratidas's time as navarch.

406 BC deaths
Ancient Spartan admirals
5th-century BC Spartans
Ancient Greeks killed in battle
Spartans of the Peloponnesian War
Year of birth unknown

Callicratidas


Probability theory is the part of mathematics that studies random situations. Probability theory usually studies random events, random variables, stochastic processes, and non-deterministic events (events that do not follow a simple pattern).

Tossing a coin, winning the lottery, or rolling a die are random events. However, random events have certain patterns, which can be studied and predicted, using probability theory.

Scientists can use probability theory to obtain information about things that would be too complex to deal with, like statistical mechanics. Also, scientists discovered (in the 20th century) that atoms, and everything that we know, obeys something called quantum mechanics, which uses lots of probability theory.

History
The theory of probability was created by Gerolamo Cardano, a medical doctor and gambler who tried to calculate his luck. Years later, Pierre de Fermat and Blaise Pascal helped develop Cardano's theory.

Today, probability theory is used in statistics, which is useful to all kinds of areas: like medicine, economy, Science, Mathematics...

Related pages
 Fuzzy logic
 Variance
 Law of large numbers
 Central limit theorem
 Statistics

Bibliography

 The first major treatise blending calculus with probability theory, originally in French: Théorie Analytique des Probabilités.

 The modern measure-theoretic foundation of probability theory; the original German version (Grundbegriffe der Wahrscheinlichkeitrechnung) appeared in 1933.

 A lively introduction to probability theory for the beginner.

References

Probability theory


Trees Cry for Rain: A Sephardic Journey is a short documentary film by American documentary filmmaker Bonnie Burt that follows "America's Internet Champion of Ladino" Rachel Amado Bortnick, as she explores her Jewish-Turkish heritage and the vanishing world of Sephardic culture and the Ladino language. The film was officially released in 1989, but drew public attention in 1992 with screenings at a number of Jewish film festivals worldwide, including the San Francisco Jewish Film Festival and the Madrid "Festival de Cine Judio" which was dubbed  "the biggest Jewish cultural event held in Spain in 500 years". This was followed by a public screening at the Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts in New York, and airing on The Jewish Channel.

The film returned to the screen ten years later at the 2002 Las Vegas Jewish Film Festival. It was featured again in 2011 with a special screening at the 15th Annual Seattle Jewish Film Festival, 22 years after its debut.

The film is used as an academic resource in Middle Eastern studies, Jewish studies and World History, at the collegiate and high school levels.

Summary
Fewer than 25,000 Jews still live in Turkey and, unlike their ancestors, they consider themselves more Turkish than Jewish. Trees Cry for Rain: A Sephardic Journey uses one woman's childhood memories to reconstruct what life was like for Sephardic Jews in Turkey before modern assimilation took effect.

Jews were executed or forced to convert under Christian rule in Spain before being forced out of the country. Many fled to nearby Turkey, where, for centuries, they were able to maintain their traditions, passing them down through the generations. Trees Cry for Rain shares an intimate interview with Rachael Amado Bortnick, a native of Turkey who left as a young adult, complemented by detailed paintings and illustrations of Turkey, to bring the once-rich culture of Turkey's Sephardic Jewry to life. Their unique foods, songs, and traditions are explored, and the importance of keeping their unique Judeo-Spanish language alive is impressed upon the viewer.

Sephardic culture continues to be threatened by assimilation, and the Ladino language is in danger of being lost forever. "My generation was the last to speak the language fluently," Rachael explains. But, thankfully, the culture's beautiful music has brought about a renewed interest in the unique tongue. Sephardic singer, Judy Frankel practices her pronunciations with Rachael, while she sings, "Trees cry for rain and the mountains for wind; So my eyes weep for you, my dear sweetheart."

Rachael listens intently and confesses that the song's refrain reminds her of her own situation. "I turn and I say what will become of me? I will die in a strange land."

See also
Other documentaries about Diaspora Jews:
Island of Roses: The Jews of Rhodes in Los Angeles—another documentary about Sephardic culture
[[Reconstruction (documentary)|Reconstruction]]
Next Year in Argentina
Balancing Acts
Yearning to Belong
Thunder in Guyana

References

External links
 The Jewish Channel's review
 Trees Cry for Rain on Bonnie Burt's website
 Turkey Virtual Jewish History Tour
 Sephardic Singer Judy Frankel's Obituary

1989 films
American documentary films
Documentary films about Jews and Judaism
Biographical documentary films
1989 documentary films
Jewish Turkish history
Sephardi Jewish culture in Turkey
Judaeo-Spanish
1980s English-language films
1980s American films

Trees Cry for Rain


James Griffith (1761–1821) was an Oxford academic and administrator. He was elected as a Fellow of University College, Oxford in 1784. From 22 January 1808, he was Master of the College until his death in 1821.

James Griffith was Master of Univ when Percy Bysshe Shelley was expelled as an undergraduate after writing a provocative pamphlet on The Necessity of Atheism in 1811. Shelley was called in to see Griffith and a number of college fellows on 25 March 1811. When Griffith asked Shelley if the pamphlet was his, Shelley remained silent. Shelley's friend, Thomas Jefferson Hogg, also appeared to support him, claiming equal culpability. Later that day, a notice appeared on the Hall door, signed by Griffith and the Dean, George Rowley (who succeeded Griffith as Master of the college), stating that Shelley and Hogg were expelled from the college.

Griffith was interested in art and architecture. He was responsible for the south side of the main quadrangle at University College when it was refaced in 1802, including the dining hall and chapel. In 1811, he designed the vestry for the church in Melsonby. In 1819, he was a member of a Delegacy advising on the development of the site Hertford College as a replacement for Magdalen Hall. There is a water colour painting by him of the Vale of Conway in the Victoria & Albert Museum, London.

He was a prebendary at Gloucester from 1816. At Gloucester Cathedral, he designed the Gothic choir screen, erected in 1820.

Griffith married his cousin, Mary Ironside, on his election to Master of University College. They lived together in the Master's Lodgings.

References

1761 births
1821 deaths
English theologians
Fellows of University College, Oxford
Masters of University College, Oxford
English male non-fiction writers

James Griffith (academic)


Ford Cortina was a car produced by Ford Motor Company from 1962 to 1982. It was named after the Italian ski resort of Cortina d'Ampezzo. From 1970 onwards, it was almost identical to Ford Taunus. It was a very popular and common car in the UK during its time. It was still selling well by the time the Sierra replaced it in 1982, but sales of the remaining stocks of the Cortina continued for a while afterwards.

1960s automobiles
1970s automobiles
1980s automobiles
Cortina

Ford Cortina


Stilton is an English cheese, made in two types: Blue, and White. Blue stilton has Penicillium roqueforti added. This gives it a characteristic smell and taste. White is the same cheese without having the penicillium added. Both have been given the status of a protected designation of origin (PDO) by the European Commission. This means that the cheese must be made to a strict code in one of the three counties of Derbyshire, Leicestershire or Nottinghamshire.

Cheese made in the village of Stilton, which is now in Cambridgeshire can not be sold as "Stilton".

History

Frances Pawlett (or Paulet), a cheese maker of Wymondham, Leicestershire, has been credited as the person who set modern Stilton cheese's shape and style characteristics in the 1720s,
but others have also been named.
A recipe for a Stilton cheese was published in 1721 by Richard Bradley.

The Stilton Cheesemaker's Association say the first person to market Blue Stilton cheese was Cooper Thornhill. He was the owner of the Bell Inn on the Great North Road, in the village of Stilton, Huntingdonshire. Huntingdonshire is now a district in modern Cambridgeshire. The story is that in 1730, Thornhill discovered a distinctive blue cheese while visiting a small farm near Melton Mowbray in rural Leicestershire — possibly in Wymondham. He fell in love with the cheese and made a business arrangement that gave the Bell Inn exclusive marketing rights to Blue Stilton. The Great North Road, a main stagecoach route from London to Northern England, passed through the village of Stilton. So he was able to promote the sale of Stilton cheese.

In 1936 the Stilton Cheesemakers' Association (SCMA) was formed. They wanted to get legal protection for the quality and origin of the cheese. In 1966, Stilton was granted legal protection via a certification trade mark, the only British cheese to have received this status.

Manufacture and PDO status

Blue Stilton's blue veins are created by piercing the crust of the cheese with stainless steel needles. This allows air into the core. The cheese is then ripened for nine to twelve weeks.

For cheese to use the name "Stilton", it must be made in one of the three counties of Derbyshire, Leicestershire and Nottinghamshire, and must use pasteurised local milk. The manufacturers of Stilton cheese in these counties applied for and received protection under European Law (PDO = protected designation of origin) in 1996.

Stichelton is made in the same way as Stilton cheese and uses cows' milk from Nottinghamshire, but the milk is unpasteurised and so under the PDO it cannot be designated as true Stilton.

 just six dairies are licensed to make Stilton (three in Leicestershire, two in Nottinghamshire and one in Derbyshire). Each dairy is checked by an independent inspection agency accredited to European Standard EN 45011. Four of the licensed dairies are based in the Vale of Belvoir, which straddles the Nottinghamshire-Leicestershire border. This area is seen to be the heartland of Stilton production. Dairies are located in the town of Melton Mowbray and the villages of Colston Bassett, Cropwell Bishop, Long Clawson and Saxelbye.

Another Leicestershire dairy was located in the grounds of Quenby Hall near the village of Hungarton. There had been a dairy there in the 18th century. Quenby Hall restarted Stilton production in a new dairy in August 2005 but the business closed in 2011.

The former Dairy Crest-owned licensed dairy that produced Stilton at Hartington in Derbyshire was acquired by the Long Clawson dairy in 2008 and closed in 2009, with production transferred to Leicestershire. Two former employees set up the Hartington Creamery at Pikehall in Hartington parish which was licensed in 2014.

Stilton cheese cannot be produced in the village that gave the cheese its name. Stilton village is not in the three permitted counties; it is in the historic county of Huntingdonshire in Cambridgeshire. The Original Cheese Company applied to Defra to amend the Stilton PDO to include the village but the application was rejected in 2013.

Stilton cheese was also manufactured in Staffordshire. The Nuttall family of Beeby, Leicestershire opened a Stilton cheese factory in Uttoxeter in 1892 to take advantage of the local milk and good transport links.

Characteristics

To be called "Blue Stilton", a cheese must:
Be made only in the three counties of Derbyshire, Leicestershire and Nottinghamshire from local milk, which is pasteurised before use.
Have the traditional cylindrical shape.
Form its own crust or coat.
Be unpressed.
Contain blue veins radiating from the centre.
Have a "taste profile typical of Stilton".
Minimum 48% milk fat in the dry matter

Stilton has a typical fat content of approximately 35%, and protein content of approximately 23%.

Similar cheeses

A number of blue cheeses are made in a similar way to Blue Stilton. These cheeses get their blue veins and distinct flavour from the use of one or more saprotrophic fungi, such as Penicillium roqueforti and Penicillium glaucum. Since the PDO came into effect, some British supermarkets have stocked a generic "British Blue cheese". Other makers have adopted their own names and styles. Other typical British blue cheeses are Oxford Blue and Shropshire Blue.

Many countries make blue cheeses. Italy has Gorgonzola cheese, a greenish-blue cheese made from cows' milk. France has Fourme d'Ambert made in Auvergne with cows' milk and Roquefort, made with ewes' milk. Denmark makes Danish Blue Cheese. The Netherlands makes Ruscello.

How to eat

Blue Stilton is often eaten with celery or pears. It can also be added as a flavouring to vegetable soup, such as cream of celery or broccoli.
It is often eaten with crackers, biscuits or bread. It can also be used to make a blue cheese sauce served over a steak. It can be crumbled over a salad. The cheese is traditionally eaten at Christmas. The edible rind of the cheese forms naturally during the aging process.

White Stilton is the same cheese but has not had the Penicillium roqueforti mould introduced into it. It is a crumbly, creamy, open textured cheese.

Dreams
A 2005 survey by the British Cheese Board reported that Stilton seemed to cause unusual dreams, with 75% of men and 85% of women experiencing "odd and vivid" dreams after eating a 20-gram serving of the cheese half an hour prior to sleeping.

Cultural influence

George Orwell wrote an essay, "In Defence of English Cooking", first published in the Evening Standard on 15 December 1945. While enumerating the high points of British cuisine, he touches on Stilton: "Then there are the English cheeses. There are not many of them, but I fancy that Stilton is the best cheese of its type in the world, with Wensleydale not far behind."

The Stilton Cheese Makers Association produced a fragrance called Eau de Stilton, which was "very different to the very sweet perfumes you smell wafting down the street as someone walks past you."

The search for an unpasteurised Stilton cheese was a plot element of a Chef! episode titled "The Big Cheese", aired on BBC1 on 25 February 1993.

A character named G. D'Arcy "Stilton" Cheesewright appears in several of the Jeeves novels of P. G. Wodehouse.

References

Further reading
 — Information about White Stilton Gold cheese, one of the most expensive cheeses in the world

Other websites

Stilton Cheesemakers' Association

English cheeses
Derbyshire
Leicestershire
Nottinghamshire

Stilton cheese


Hayati Yazıcı (born May 23, 1952 in Çayeli, Rize Province) is a Turkish lawyer and politician. He served as Turkey's Minister of Customs and Trade.

Biography
Hayati Yazıcı graduated in 1975 from the School of Law at Istanbul University. Starting of 1976, he served as a judge in the Istanbul Court of justice. In 1984, he quit his post to begin a career as freelance lawyer registered with Istanbul Bar.

A co-founder of the Justice and Development Party, he is Recep Tayyip Erdoğan's lawyer and vice-chairman of the Party. Hayati Yazıcı entered the parliament in 2002 as deputy of Istanbul Province, and was later appointed Deputy Prime Minister, responsible for the coordination between the government and the parliament.

Hayati Yazıcı is married and father of two children.

References

Other websites
 Turkish Grand National Assembly official website

1952 births
Living people

Hayati Yazici


The universe is all of time and space and its contents. It is made of many millions of billions of stars and planets and enormous clouds of gas separated by a big space. The Big Bang created the universe.

Astronomers can use telescopes to look at very distant galaxies. This is how they see what the universe looked like a long time ago. This is because the light from distant parts of the Universe takes a very long time to reach us. From these observations, it seems the physical laws and constants of the Universe have not changed.

Physicists are currently unsure if anything existed before the Big Bang. They are also unsure whether the size of the Universe is infinite, meaning its size never ends as it has been expanding since the Big Bang.

History

People have long had ideas to explain the Universe. Most early ideas had the Earth at the centre of the Universe. This is known as geocentrism.

Some ancient Greeks thought that the Universe has infinite space and has existed forever. They thought it had a set of celestial spheres which corresponded to the fixed stars, the Sun and various planets. The spheres circled about a round but unmoving Earth.

Over hundreds of years, better observations led to Copernicus's Sun-centred model, known as heliocentrism. This was very controversial at the time, and was fought by religious authorities, most famously by the Christian church (see Giordano Bruno and Galileo).

The invention of the telescope in the Netherlands, 1608, was a very important moment in astronomy. By the middle of the 1800s, telescopes were good enough for other galaxies to be seen. The modern optical (uses visible light) telescope is still more advanced. Meanwhile, Isaac Newton improved the ideas of gravity and dynamics (equations) and showed how the Solar System worked.

In the 1900s, even better telescopes showed astronomers that the Solar System is in a galaxy made of billions of stars, which we call the Milky Way. Other galaxies exist outside it, as far as we can see. This started a new kind of astronomy called cosmology, in which astronomers study what these galaxies are made of and how they are spread out through so they can learn more about the history of the Universe and how it works. By measuring the redshift of galaxies, cosmologists soon discovered that the Universe is expanding (see: Hubble).

Big Bang
The most used scientific model of the Universe is known as the Big Bang theory, which says the Universe expanded from a single point that held all the matter and energy of the Universe. There are many kinds of scientific evidence that support the Big Bang idea. Astronomers think that the Big Bang happened about 13.73 billion years ago, making the Universe 13.73 billion years old. Since then, the universe has expanded to be at least 93 billion light years, or 8.80  metres, in diameter. It is still expanding right now, and the expansion is getting faster.

However, astronomers are still not sure what is causing the universe to expand. Because of this, astronomers call the mysterious energy causing the expansion dark energy. By studying the expansion of the Universe, astronomers have also realized most of the matter in the Universe may be in a form which cannot be observed by any scientific equipment we have. This matter has been named dark matter. Just to be clear, dark matter and energy have not been observed directly (that is why they are called 'dark'). However, many astronomers think they must exist, because many astronomical observations would be hard to explain if they didn't.

Some parts of the universe are expanding even faster than the speed of light. This means the light will never be able to reach us here on Earth, so we will never be able to see these parts of the universe. We call the part of the universe we can see the observable universe.

Myths
The word Universe comes from the Old French word Univers, which comes from the Latin word universum. The Latin word was used by Cicero and later Latin authors in many of the same senses as the modern English word is used.

A different interpretation (way to interpret) of unvorsum is "everything rotated as one" or "everything rotated by one". This refers to an early Greek model of the Universe. In that model, all matter was in rotating spheres centered on the Earth; according to Aristotle, the rotation of the outermost sphere was responsible for the motion and change of everything within. It was natural for the Greeks to assume that the Earth was stationary and that the heavens rotated about the Earth, because careful astronomical and physical measurements (such as the Foucault pendulum) are required to prove otherwise.

The most common term for "Universe" among the ancient Greek philosophers from Pythagoras onwards was το παν (The All), defined as all matter (το ολον) and all space (το κενον).

Broadest meaning
The broadest word meaning of the Universe is found in De divisione naturae by the medieval philosopher Johannes Scotus Eriugena, who defined it as simply everything: everything that exists and everything that does not exist.

Time is not considered in Eriugena's definition; so, his definition includes everything that exists, has existed and will exist, as well as everything that does not exist, has never existed and will never exist. This all-embracing definition was not adopted by most later philosophers, but something similar is in quantum physics.

Definition as reality

Usually the Universe is thought to be everything that exists, has existed, and will exist. This definition says that the Universe is made of two elements: space and time, together known as space-time or the vacuum; and matter and different forms of energy and momentum occupying space-time. The two kinds of elements behave according to physical laws, in which we describe how the elements interact.

A similar definition of the term universe is everything that exists at a single moment of time, such as the present or the beginning of time, as in the sentence "The Universe was of size 0".

In Aristotle's book The Physics, Aristotle divided το παν (everything) into three roughly analogous elements: matter (the stuff of which the Universe is made), form (the arrangement of that matter in space) and change (how matter is created, destroyed or altered in its properties, and similarly, how form is altered). Physical laws were the rules governing the properties of matter, form and their changes. Later philosophers such as Lucretius, Averroes, Avicenna and Baruch Spinoza altered or refined these divisions. For example, Averroes and Spinoza have active principles governing the Universe which act on passive elements.

Space-time definitions
It is possible to form space-times, each existing but not able to touch, move, or change (interact with each other. An easy way to think of this is a group of separate soap bubbles, in which people living on one soap bubble cannot interact with those on other soap bubbles. According to one common terminology, each "soap bubble" of space-time is denoted as a universe, whereas our particular space-time is denoted as the Universe, just as we call our moon the Moon. The entire collection of these separate space-times is denoted as the multiverse. In principle, the other unconnected universes may have different dimensionalities and topologies of space-time, different forms of matter and energy, and different physical laws and physical constants, although such possibilities are speculations.

Observable reality
According to a still-more-restrictive definition, the Universe is everything within our connected space-time that could have a chance to interact with us and vice versa.

According to the general idea of relativity, some regions of space may never interact with ours even in the lifetime of the Universe, due to the finite speed of light and the ongoing expansion of space. For example, radio messages sent from Earth may never reach some regions of space, even if the Universe would exist forever; space may expand faster than light can traverse it.

It is worth emphasizing that those distant regions of space are taken to exist and be part of reality as much as we are; yet we can never interact with them, even in principle. The spatial region within which we can affect and be affected is denoted as the observable universe.

Strictly speaking, the observable Universe depends on the location of the observer. By travelling, an observer can come into contact with a greater region of space-time than an observer who remains still, so that the observable Universe for the former is larger than for the latter. Nevertheless, even the most rapid traveler may not be able to interact with all of space. Typically, the 'observable Universe' means the Universe seen from our vantage point in the Milky Way Galaxy.

Basic data on the Universe

The Universe is huge. The matter which can be seen is spread over a space at least 93 billion light years across. For comparison, the diameter of a typical galaxy is only 30,000 light-years, and the typical distance between two neighboring galaxies is only 3 million light-years. As an example, our Milky Way Galaxy is roughly 100,000 light years in diameter, and our nearest sister galaxy, the Andromeda Galaxy, is located roughly 2.5 million light years away. The observable Universe contains more than 2 trillion (1012) galaxies and, overall, as many as an estimated  stars (more stars than all the grains of sand on planet Earth).

Typical galaxies range from dwarf galaxies with as few as ten million (107) stars up to giants with one trillion (1012) stars, all orbiting the galaxy's center of mass. Thus, a very rough estimate from these numbers would suggest there are around one sextillion (1021) stars in the observable Universe; though a 2003 study by Australian National University astronomers resulted in a figure of 70 sextillion (7 x 1022).

The matter that can be seen is spread throughout the Universe when averaged over distances longer than 300 million light-years. However, on smaller length-scales, matter is observed to form 'clumps', many atoms are condensed into stars, most stars into galaxies, most galaxies into galaxy groups and clusters and, lastly, the largest-scale structures such as the Great Wall of galaxies.

The present overall density of the Universe is very low, roughly 9.9 × 10−30 grams per cubic centimetre. This mass-energy appears to consist of 73% dark energy, 23% cold dark matter and 4% ordinary matter. The density of atoms is about a single hydrogen atom for every four cubic meters of volume. The properties of dark energy and dark matter are not known. Dark matter slows the expansion of the Universe. Dark energy makes its expansion faster.

The Universe is old, and changing. The best good guess of the Universe's age is 13.798±0.037 billion years old, based on what was seen of the cosmic microwave background radiation. Independent estimates (based on measurements such as radioactive dating) agree, although they are less precise, ranging from 11 to 20 billion years.
to 13–15 billion years.

The Universe has not been the same at all times in its history. This getting bigger accounts for how Earth-bound people can see the light from a galaxy 30 billion light-years away, even if that light has traveled for only 13 billion years; the very space between them has expanded. This expansion is consistent with the observation that the light from distant galaxies has been redshifted; the photons emitted have been stretched to longer wavelengths and lower frequency during their journey. The rate of this spatial expansion is accelerating, based on studies of Type Ia supernovae and other data.

The relative amounts of different chemical elements — especially the lightest atoms such as hydrogen, deuterium and helium — seem to be identical in all of the Universe and throughout all of the history of it that we know of. The Universe seems to have much more matter than antimatter. The Universe appears to have no net electric charge. Gravity is the dominant interaction at cosmological distances. The Universe also seems to have no net momentum or angular momentum. The absence of net charge and momentum is expected if the Universe is finite.

The Universe appears to have a smooth space-time continuum made of three spatial dimensions and one temporal (time) dimension. On the average, space is very nearly flat (close to zero curvature), meaning that Euclidean geometry is experimentally true with high accuracy throughout most of the Universe. However, the Universe may have more dimensions, and its spacetime may have a multiply connected global topology.

The Universe has the same physical laws and physical constants throughout. According to the prevailing Standard Model of physics, all matter is composed of three generations of leptons and quarks, both of which are fermions. These elementary particles interact via at most three fundamental interactions: the electroweak interaction which includes electromagnetism and the weak nuclear force; the strong nuclear force described by quantum chromodynamics; and gravity, which is best described at present by general relativity.

Special relativity holds in all the Universe in local space and time. Otherwise, general relativity holds. There is no explanation for the particular values that physical constants appear to have throughout our Universe, such as Planck's constant h or the gravitational constant G. Several conservation laws have been identified, such as the conservation of charge, conservation of momentum, conservation of angular momentum and conservation of energy.

Theoretical models

General theory of relativity

Accurate predictions of the Universe's past and future require an accurate theory of gravitation. The best theory available is Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity, which has passed all experimental tests so far. However, since rigorous experiments have not been carried out on cosmological length scales, general relativity could conceivably be inaccurate. Nevertheless, its predictions appear to be consistent with observations, so there is no reason to adopt another theory.

General relativity provides of a set of ten nonlinear partial differential equations for the spacetime metric (Einstein's field equations) that must be solved from the distribution of mass-energy and momentum throughout the Universe. Since these are unknown in exact detail, cosmological models have been based on the cosmological principle, which states that the Universe is homogeneous and isotropic. In effect, this principle asserts that the gravitational effects of the various galaxies making up the Universe are equivalent to those of a fine dust distributed uniformly throughout the Universe with the same average density. The assumption of a uniform dust makes it easy to solve Einstein's field equations and predict the past and future of the Universe on cosmological time scales.

Einstein's field equations include a cosmological constant (Lamda: Λ), that is related to an energy density of empty space. Depending on its sign, the cosmological constant can either slow (negative Λ) or accelerate (positive Λ) the expansion of the Universe. Although many scientists, including Einstein, had speculated that Λ was zero, recent astronomical observations of type Ia supernovae have detected a large amount of dark energy that is accelerating the Universe's expansion. Preliminary studies suggest that this dark energy is related to a positive Λ, although alternative theories cannot be ruled out as yet.

Big Bang model

The prevailing Big Bang model accounts for many of the experimental observations described above, such as the correlation of distance and redshift of galaxies, the universal ratio of hydrogen:helium atoms, and the ubiquitous, isotropic microwave radiation background. As noted above, the redshift arises from the metric expansion of space; as the space itself expands, the wavelength of a photon traveling through space likewise increases, decreasing its energy. The longer a photon has been traveling, the more expansion it has undergone; hence, older photons from more distant galaxies are the most red-shifted. Determining the correlation between distance and redshift is an important problem in experimental physical cosmology.

Other experimental observations can be explained by combining the overall expansion of space with nuclear physics and atomic physics. As the Universe expands, the energy density of the electromagnetic radiation decreases more quickly than does that of matter, since the energy of a photon decreases with its wavelength. Thus, although the energy density of the Universe is now dominated by matter, it was once dominated by radiation; poetically speaking, all was light. As the Universe expanded, its energy density decreased and it became cooler; as it did so, the elementary particles of matter could associate stably into ever larger combinations. Thus, in the early part of the matter-dominated era, stable protons and neutrons formed, which then associated into atomic nuclei. At this stage, the matter in the Universe was mainly a hot, dense plasma of negative electrons, neutral neutrinos and positive nuclei. Nuclear reactions among the nuclei led to the present abundances of the lighter nuclei, particularly hydrogen, deuterium, and helium. Eventually, the electrons and nuclei combined to form stable atoms, which are transparent to most wavelengths of radiation; at this point, the radiation decoupled from the matter, forming the ubiquitous, isotropic background of microwave radiation observed today.

Other observations are not clearly answered by known physics. According to the prevailing theory, a slight imbalance of matter over antimatter was present in the Universe's creation, or developed very shortly thereafter. Although the matter and antimatter mostly annihilated one another, producing photons, a small residue of matter survived, giving the present matter-dominated Universe.

Several lines of evidence also suggest that a rapid cosmic inflation of the Universe occurred very early in its history (roughly 10−35 seconds after its creation). Recent observations also suggest that the cosmological constant (Λ) is not zero, and that the net mass-energy content of the Universe is dominated by a dark energy and dark matter that have not been characterized scientifically. They differ in their gravitational effects. Dark matter gravitates as ordinary matter does, and thus slows the expansion of the Universe; by contrast, dark energy serves to accelerate the Universe's expansion.

Multiverse hypothesis

Some people think that there is more than one universe. They think that there is a set of universes called the multiverse.

By definition, there is no way for anything in one universe to affect something in another. The multiverse is not yet a scientific idea because there is no way to test it. An idea that cannot be tested or is not based on logic is not science. It is not known if the multiverse is a scientific idea.

Future
This is a scientific topic called "the ultimate fate of the universe". It is a topic in cosmology. There are possible scenarios for its evolution. The basic issue is whether its existence is finite or infinite.

The future of the Universe is a mystery. However, there are a couple of theories based on the possible shapes of the Universe:
 If the Universe is a closed sphere, it will stop expanding. The Universe will do the opposite of that and become a singularity for another Big Bang. This is the Big Crunch or Big Bounce theory.
 If the Universe is an open sphere, it will speed up the expansion. After 22,000,000,000 (22 billion) years, the Universe will rip apart with the force. This is the Big Rip theory.
 If the Universe is flat, it will expand forever. All stars will lose their energy.
After a googol years, the black holes will also be gone. This is the Heat death of the Universe, or Big Freeze theory.
A chance "Boltzmann's brain" may appear, and random quantum fluctuations and quantum tunnelling could generate a new Big Bang after an incredible amount of time. Over an infinite time there could also be an entropy decrease by Poincaré recurrence theorem or by thermal fluctuations.

There is a strong consensus among cosmologists that the shape of the universe is considered "flat" (parallel lines stay parallel) and will continue to expand forever.

People think it will end. However, this is not true. The universe will last forever. If the Universe holds enough matter, including dark matter, the combined gravitational attraction of everything will gradually halt this expansion and precipitate the ultimate collapse. Over time, galaxies, then individual stars, will smash into each other more frequently, killing off any life on nearby planets.

Further reading
Adams, Fred; Gregory Laughlin (2000). The Five Ages of the Universe: Inside the Physics of Eternity. Simon & Schuster Australia. ISBN 978-0-684-86576-8.
Chaisson, Eric (2001). Cosmic Evolution: The Rise of Complexity in Nature. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-00342-2.
Dyson, Freeman (2004). Infinite in All Directions (the 1985 Gifford Lectures). Harper Perennial. ISBN 978-0-06-039081-5.
Harrison, Edward (2003). Masks of the Universe: Changing Ideas on the Nature of the Cosmos. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-77351-5.
Mack, Katie (2020). The End of Everything: (Astrophysically Speaking). Scribner. ISBN 978-1982103545.
Penrose, Roger (2004). The Road to Reality. Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-679-45443-4.
Prigogine, Ilya (2003). Is Future Given?. World Scientific Publishing. ISBN 978-981-238-508-6.
Smolin, Lee (2001). Three Roads to Quantum Gravity: A New Understanding of Space, Time and the Universe. Phoenix. ISBN 978-0-7538-1261-7.
Morris, Richard (1982). The Fate of the Universe. Playboy Press, New York. ISBN 978-0-87223-748-6
Islam, Jamal N. (1983). The Ultimate Fate of the Universe. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. ISBN 978-0521-24814-3

Related pages

 Anthropic principle
 Big Bang
 Cosmology
 Multiverse
 Omniverse
 Panentheism
 Reality
 Antiverse

References

Other websites

 Age of the Universe at Space.Com
 Stephen Hawking's Universe  – Why is the universe the way it is?
 Cosmology FAQ
 Cosmos – An "illustrated dimensional journey from microcosmos to macrocosmos"
 Illustration comparing the sizes of the planets, the sun, and other stars
 Logarithmic Maps of the Universe
 My So-Called Universe  – Arguments for and against an infinite and parallel universes
 Parallel Universes  by Max Tegmark
 The Dark Side and the Bright Side of the Universe Princeton University, Shirley Ho
 Richard Powell: An Atlas of the Universe – Images at various scales, with explanations
 Multiple Big Bangs
 Universe – Space Information Centre
 Exploring the Universe  at Nasa.gov

Videos
 The Known Universe created by the American Museum of Natural History

Reality
Cosmology

Universe


John E. Moore (born July 13, 1943) is an American politician. In 2002 he was elected on the Democratic Party ticket as the running mate of Governor Kathleen Sebelius; he assumed office as the 46th Lieutenant Governor of Kansas on January 13, 2003. In 2006, Moore chose not to seek re-election.

Lieutenant governor
In addition to his responsibilities as Lieutenant Governor, Moore also served as Chairman of the Governor's Strategic Military Planning Commission. The Commission was created to preserve and grow the military presence in Kansas during the 2005 Base Realignment and Closure Commission process.  He also served as Chairman of the Kansas Health Care Cost Containment Commission which focuses upon reducing the cost of health care administration in Kansas.

Moore was also the Kansas Secretary of Commerce until September 1, 2004, before stepping down to become the state's first full-time Lieutenant Governor. As Secretary of Commerce, he headed the Prosperity Summit process to develop the Economic Revitalization Act and the Economic Growth Act which were enacted into law in 2004. The 2004 legislative session has been called by many the most important session for economic development in decades.

Business Career and Community Involvement
Prior to seeking public office, Moore had been employed by the Cessna Aircraft Company since 1982. Beginning as Senior Vice President of Human Resources, he was named one of two Executive Vice Presidents of the company in 1999. He resigned in July 2002 in order to run for office. He had been a Republican for most of his life, but became a Democrat just days before being introduced on the Sebelius ticket.

Moore is past chairman of the Kansas Chamber of Commerce and Industry. He is also a past chairman of both Kansas, Inc. and Kansas Technology Enterprise Corporation (KTEC), two public/private partnerships focused on economic development. He also served as the first chairman of the Kansas Children's Cabinet.

Moore has been active in philanthropic and civic activities in the Wichita area. He is a founder and former Chairman of the Kansas Foodbank, and he was the founder and the first chairman of the Greater Wichita Area Sports Commission. In 1998, he served as the General Campaign Chairman for the United Way of the Plains. He also served as a board member and President of the Wichita Children's Home.

Early life and education
Moore was born in Charleston, West Virginia. Moore received his undergraduate degree from Washington and Lee University in Lexington, Virginia, and his Juris Doctor degree from the University of Kentucky's College of Law in 1968. He married in 1966 to Marty Spangenberg and has two children—comic book writer B. Clay Moore of Shawnee, Kansas and Stacia Wohlford of Lawrence, Kansas—and five grandchildren.

References

Living people
Lieutenant Governors of Kansas
State cabinet secretaries of Kansas
Kansas Democrats
1943 births
Kansas Republicans
Politicians from Charleston, West Virginia
Washington and Lee University alumni
University of Kentucky College of Law alumni

John E. Moore (politician)


Mina Papatheodorou-Valiraki (, translit. Mina Papatheodorou-Balyrake, transcr. Mina Papatheodorou Valiraki is a Greek painter specialising in sports-related subjects, .

Life

Valiraki was born in Athens, Greece.

From 1975 to 1980, she studied painting at the Athens School of Fine Arts under Professor Yiannis Moralis.  In 1986 she received her Ph.D. from the University of Florence.  She was married to the late Sifis Valirakis, the former Greek Minister of Sport, and had two children with him.

She is frequently listed as Mina Papatheodorou Valyraki in English, a spelling that combines elements of 2 approaches to transcribing Modern Greek names, alternatively she is sometimes listed by her maiden name of Mina Papatheodorou only, or as Mina Valirakis, using the nominative instead of the genitive form of her husband's surname. (See Greek surnames for more information on women's surname practices in Greece).

Works

Valiraki's works are exhibited in the National Gallery in Athens, the Olympic Museum of Lausanne, and the National Museum of Women in the Arts of Washington, D.C., among others.  Her one-woman shows include exhibitions at the Galleria Ca' d'Oro in Rome, 1993; the CART Art Gallery in Italy, 1999; and Monte Carlo, 2000, for the 58th Monaco Grand Prix.  Her work "La Storia Della Lamborghini, 35 years" was commissioned by Automobili Lamborghini in June 1998 to decorate the industry's hall in Sant' Agata Bolognese, Italy, and has hung there since 1999.

Valiraki's works were used as official posters for the 2002 Winter Olympics.

References

Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
Greek painters
University of Florence alumni
Greek women painters
21st-century Greek women artists
Artists from Athens

Mina Papatheodorou-Valiraki


Common Building Block (CBB) was a set of technical standards for laptop components introduced by Intel in 2005, and adopted by some manufacturers, including Asus, Compal, and Quanta.

Creation
In 2004, the Common Building Block program promoted the use of industry-accepted mechanical and electrical specifications for three notebook components: 14.1-inch, 15-inch, and 15.4-inch liquid crystal displays (LCDs); 9.5mm and 12.7mm optical disc drives (ODDs); and 2.5-inch hard disk drives (HDDs). The program consisted of:
A Web site to provide a centralized repository of information about the program, participants, and platform and ingredient specifications
A continually updated list of CBB-compliant ingredients (submitted by suppliers)
A testing and verification service for candidate products

The defunct repository site mobileformfactors.org was established to standardize components, and included:
Hard disk drives
Optical disc drives
Liquid crystal display panels
Battery packs
AC/DC power adapters
Keyboards
Customizable notebook panels

References

Common Building Block Specifications
Intel pushes for conformity in notebooks
Intel looks to attract leading notebook vendors for CBB initiative, 17 oct 2006

Intel products
Laptops
Standards

Common Building Block


Lieutenant-Colonel Sir James Forrest Halkett Carmichael CMG CBE (8 July 1868 – 12 August 1934) was a British Army officer, engineer and colonial administrator.

Carmichael was the son of an Indian civil servant. He was educated at Clifton College and the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, and was commissioned into the Royal Engineers in 1887. He was promoted captain in 1898, major in 1906, and brevet lieutenant-colonel in 1919.

From 1889 to 1900 he served abroad, successively in India, Aden, Somaliland and Burma. From 1900 to 1904 he served in the office of the Inspector-General of Fortifications at the War Office in London and with the Ordnance Survey. In 1904 he retired from the army and was appointed head of the Engineering and Works Department of the Crown Agents for the Colonies.

During the First World War he rejoined the army and served on the Armaments Output Committee at the War Office, and later as personal assistant for metals to the director of materials at the Ministry of Munitions and then as assistant director of munitions supply and on the High Speed Steel Committee.

After the war he returned to his post at the Crown Agents, later being promoted to chief engineer. In 1921 he was appointed one of the Crown Agents, retiring in 1932.

Carmichael was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in 1918 and Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George (CMG) in the 1920 New Year Honours, and was knighted in the 1929 New Year Honours. He was also a claimant to the Earldom of Hyndford.

Footnotes

References
Obituary, The Times, 14 August 1934

1868 births
1934 deaths
People educated at Clifton College
Graduates of the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich
Royal Engineers officers
British civil engineers
British Crown Agents
Civil servants in the War Office
Civil servants in the Ministry of Munitions
Knights Bachelor
Companions of the Order of St Michael and St George
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
British Army personnel of World War I
People from the British Empire

James Carmichael (engineer)


Chione (or Χιόνη)was the goddess of snow in Greek mythology. Daughter of the river god Nile and the Oceania Callirroi. Snow lived in the fields and was once abused by a farmer. For this reason, Chione was transformed by the god Mercury, at the behest of the god Zeus, into clouds of snow, which fall and destroy the Spartans.Daughter of Boreus and Oreithyia (the daughter of the king of Athens Erechtheos). Siblings of Chioni were Zetis, Calais and Cleopatra. This Snow gave birth to a god child, Eumolpus from the god Poseidon, and to hide him (for fear that her father would not find out), she threw him into the sea. Nevertheless, Poseidon saved the child and raised him.
Daughter of Arcturus who was kidnapped by Boreas, with whom she had three sons, who became priests of the god Apollo in the country of the Hyperboreans.
In the "Transformations" of the Roman poet Ovid (XI 339) Chione was the beautiful daughter of Daedalion. With two gods, the god Apollo and the god Mercury, he slept the same night and they had children with her. With Apollo she gave birth to Philammon, who later became king and musician in Phocis, and with Hermes (according to one version) Autolycus, who had the ability to transform what he steals. Having made two gods fall in love with her in one day, Chione, unable to hide her pride, began to boast of her beauty and womanly qualities, daring to say that she was more beautiful than the goddess Artemis. Hearing this the goddess sent her arrows to take her life.

References

Greek gods and goddesses

Chione


Lithium Corporation of America was a mining company which mined lithium-bearing spodumene and pegmatite ores near  Bessemer City, Gaston County, North Carolina, United States and in the Black Hills of South Dakota.

In 1954, economist Armen Alchian used sudden increases in the stock price of Lithium Corporation to deduce that the new American h-bomb used lithium in its fusion fuel; this result was one of the first "event studies".

In September 1959, Lithium Corporation of America was sued for breach of contract by a Canadian producer of lithium concentrate, Quebec Lithium Corporation, from which it had been buying lithium concentrate.

In 1985, Lithium Corporation of America was acquired by FMC Corporation, formerly known as Food Machinery and Chemical Corporation. At the time it was acquired, the company was the world's largest producer of lithium.
 FMC's lithium operations were known as FMC Lithium.  In 2019 FMC completed the spin-off of its lithium operations as a new company, Livent Corporation.

References

Mining companies of the United States
Gaston County, North Carolina
FMC Corporation
Lithium mining

Lithium Corporation of America