Dave Scott (born 1974) is an American hip-hop dance teacher, choreographer, and talent developer. He gained widespread success from his choreography in movies, primarily the 2004 dance film You Got Served and the 2008 dance film Step Up 2: The Streets. He is a resident choreographer on So You Think You Can Dance and The PULSE on Tour dance convention.

Early life
Dave was born and raised in Compton, California. He is 6'4 and has never taken any dance classes or had any formal training. He started dancing as a hobby when he was 15. He learned how to dance from watching musicals, b-boy movies, and music videos, namely those of Michael Jackson whom he cites as one of his influences. He acknowledges hip-hop dance pioneers Stefan "Mr. Wiggles" Clemente and Timothy "Popin' Pete" Solomon as influences as well.

As a teenager, he further developed his skills by forming his own b-boy crew and battling other crews in his neighborhood. After graduating high school, Scott attended Weber State University on a basketball scholarship where he earned an associate's degree in business. He got his first professional dance job while in Utah by chance when he was asked to replace a dancer on a concert tour after being spotted dancing in a club. He later returned to California and started his career by dancing on tours and in music videos.

Career
From tours and music videos, he built relationships in the dance community and moved into teaching classes and doing choreography for film and television. He describes his choreography style as aggressive, melodic, and energetic. He has worked with singers such as Ginuwine, B2K, Tyrese, Brian McKnight, Jon B, IMx, rapper Bow Wow, and Olympic gold medalist Tara Lipinski. He is the choreographer and co-creator of teen R&B group Mindless Behavior.

In 2012, he co-choreographed the Ubisoft video game The Hip Hop Dance Experience with Laurieann Gibson and b-boy David "Kid David" Shreibman. As of May 2013, he is a mentor/judge on Danceamatic.com, a website that host monthly choreography competitions.

Film
In 2001, Scott formed the teen R&B group B2K and served as their choreographer and stylist. With the group he went on to choreograph the movie You Got Served which featured all four singers in primary roles. In 2004, he won an American Choreography Award for Best Choreography in a Feature Film. Following the success of the movie, he released an instructional dance DVD, You Got Served:Take it to the Streets which teaches viewers how to do the dance routines featured in the film. In addition to You Got Served, he co-choreographed Step Up 2: The Streets with Jamal Sims and Nadine "Hi Hat" Ruffin. In 2008, he won a Fred and Adele Astaire Award for Best Choreography in Film.

Scott also choreographed the movies Fresh, Stomp the Yard, Dance Flick, House Party 4, and Coach Carter. In 2010, Scott appeared in the independent documentary MOVE — a film about how people in the dance industry were able to go from dancing as a hobby to dancing as a career. He choreographed the 2013 film Battle of the Year: The Dream Team which is based on the 2007 documentary Planet B-Boy.

Television
In 2003, he was a guest choreographer on The Wade Robson Project. He was also a guest choreographer on Step It Up and Dance and on season seven of Dancing with the Stars. Since season three he has been a recurring hip-hop choreographer on the show So You Think You Can Dance.

Teaching
In conjunction with Debbie Allen Dance Academy, Scott serves as the director of the Los Angeles Hip Hop Intensive. He is a faculty member with PULSE dance convention, Millennium Dance Complex, and Broadway Dance Center.

References

External links

People from Compton, California
Dance teachers
American choreographers
So You Think You Can Dance choreographers
Participants in American reality television series
1974 births
Living people
African-American choreographers
21st-century African-American people
20th-century African-American people

Dave Scott (choreographer)


Super Mario 3D All-Stars is a Nintendo Switch compilation game.

It was released on September 18, 2020 to celebrate the 35th anniversary of Super Mario Bros. It contains Super Mario 64 (1996), Super Mario Sunshine (2002), and Super Mario Galaxy (2007) with upscaled visuals. It had been made available in limited quantities as a retail edition and a digital edition that was available until March 31, 2021.

The compilation and its name are based on Super Mario All-Stars, but it instead contains the first three 3D platformers of the Super Mario series. The compilation marks the first time Super Mario Sunshine has been re-released on another console.

Changes from the original games include 720p resolution and rumble in Super Mario 64 (which was also featured in the Shindō Pak Taiō version), 1080p resolution and a 16:9 aspect ratio in Super Mario Sunshine, and 1080p resolution and motion controls that mimic the Wii Remote in Super Mario Galaxy.

All three games support docked, tabletop, and handheld modes, with Super Mario Galaxy having the player use the button to spin and emulate the pointer with the touch screen on handheld mode. Each game also modifies control graphics and tutorial text to correspond to the Nintendo Switch. Additionally, the game contains digital soundtracks of the three respective games, with 175 tracks in total.

2020 video games

Super Mario 3D All-Stars


Bertha Noyes (1876–1966) was an American painter.

A native of Washington, D.C., Noyes studied at the Corcoran School of Art in that city; she also had lessons with Charles Webster Hawthorne. She exhibited widely, and her work is held in numerous public and private collections. Among organizations to which she belonged were the American Federation of Arts, the Washington Society of Artists, the Washington Watercolor Club, the Boston Art Club, the Provincetown Art Association, the National Association of Women Painters and Sculptors, and the Newport Art Association. She often traveled to Central and South America, as well as to the Southwestern United States, and frequently depicted scenes from her travels in her work.

Noyes lived at 610 21st Street NW for many years; it was there, in 1916, that she founded the Arts Club of Washington. She was long involved with the organization, heading the committee that ultimately relocated it to its current location on I St., NW. In 1936 she commissioned an armillary sphere from C. Paul Jennewein, after an initial design by Paul Manship, to be erected in Meridian Hill Park as a memorial to her father Isaac and sister Edith; it is currently missing. She is buried at Rock Creek Cemetery in Washington, D.C.

References

1876 births
1966 deaths
20th-century American painters
20th-century American women artists
American women painters
Painters from Washington, D.C.
Burials at Rock Creek Cemetery
Corcoran School of the Arts and Design alumni

Bertha Noyes


The Republic of Venice (; ) or Venetian Republic, traditionally known as La Serenissima, was a sovereign state and maritime republic in parts of the present-day Italian Republic that existed for 1,100 years from 697 until 1797. Centered on the lagoon communities of the prosperous city of Venice, it incorporated numerous overseas possessions in modern Croatia, Slovenia, Montenegro, Greece, Albania and Cyprus. The republic grew into a trading power during the Middle Ages and strengthened this position during the Renaissance. Most citizens spoke the Venetian language, although publishing in Italian became the norm during the Renaissance, alongside Latin and Medieval Greek.

In its early years, it prospered on the salt trade. In subsequent centuries, the city-state established a thalassocracy. It dominated trade on the Mediterranean Sea, including commerce between Europe and North Africa, as well as Asia. The Venetian navy was used in the Crusades, most notably in the Fourth Crusade. However, Venice perceived Rome as an enemy and maintained high levels of religious and ideological independence personified by the patriarch of Venice and a highly developed independent publishing industry that served as a haven from Catholic censorship for many centuries. Venice achieved territorial conquests along the Adriatic Sea. It became home to an extremely wealthy merchant class, who patronised renowned art and architecture along the city's lagoons. Venetian merchants were influential financiers in Europe. The city was also the birthplace of great European explorers, such as Marco Polo, as well as Baroque composers such as Antonio Vivaldi and Benedetto Marcello and famous painters such as the Renaissance master Titian.

The republic was ruled by the doge, who was elected by members of the Great Council of Venice, the city-state's parliament, and ruled for life. The ruling class was an oligarchy of merchants and Venetian aristocrats. Venice and other Italian maritime republics played a key role in fostering capitalism. Venetian citizens generally supported the system of governance. The city-state enforced strict laws and employed ruthless tactics in its prisons.

The opening of new trade routes to the Americas and the East Indies via the Atlantic Ocean marked the beginning of Venice's decline as a powerful maritime republic. The city-state also suffered defeats at the hands of the navy of the Ottoman Empire. In 1797, the republic was plundered by retreating Austrian and then French forces, following an invasion by Napoleon Bonaparte. Subsequently, the Republic of Venice was divided into the Austrian Venetian Province, the Cisalpine Republic  (a French client state), and the Ionian French departments of Greece. Venice, along with the whole of Veneto, became part of a unified Italy in the 19th century following the Kingdom of Italy's victory against Austria in the Third War of Italian Independence.

Etymology
During its long history, the Republic of Venice took on various names, all closely linked to the titles attributed to the doge. During the 8th century, when Venice still depended on the Byzantine Empire, the doge was called Dux Venetiarum Provinciae (English: "Doge of the Province of Venice"), and then, starting from 840, Dux Veneticorum (English: "Doge of the Venetians"), following the signing of the Pactum Lotharii. This commercial agreement, stipulated between the Duchy of Venice (Latin: Ducatum Venetiae) and the Carolingian Empire, de facto ratified the independence of Venice from the Byzantine Empire.

In the following century, references to Venice as a Byzantine dominion disappeared, and in a document from 976 there is a mention of the most glorious Domino Venetiarum (English: "Lord of Venice"), where the 'most glorious' appellative had already been used for the first time in the Pactum Lotharii and where the appellative "lord" refers to the fact that the doge was still considered like a king, even if elected by the popular assembly. Gaining independence, Venice also began to expand on the coasts of the Adriatic Sea, and so starting from 1109, following the conquest of Dalmatia and the Croatian coast, the doge formally received the title of Venetiae Dalmatiae atque Chroatiae Dux (English: "Doge of Venice, Dalmatia and Croatia"), a name that continued to be used until the 18th century. Starting from the 15th century, the documents written in Latin were joined by those in the Venetian language and in parallel with the events in Italy, the Duchy of Venice also changed its name, becoming the Lordship of Venice, which as written in the peace treaty of 1453 with Sultan Mehmed II was fully named the lIlustrissima et Excellentissima deta Signoria de Venexia (English: "The Most Illustrious and Excellent Signoria of Venice").

During the 17th century, monarchical absolutism asserted itself in many countries of continental Europe, radically changing the European political landscape. This change made it possible to more markedly determine the differences between monarchies and republics: while the former were economies governed by strict laws and dominated by agriculture, the latter lived thanks to commercial affairs and free markets. Moreover, the monarchies, in addition to being led by a single ruling family, were more prone to war and religious uniformity. This increasingly noticeable difference between monarchy and republic began to be specified also in official documents, and it was hence that names such as the Republic of Genoa or the Republic of the Seven United Provinces were born. The Lordship of Venice also adapted to this new terminology, becoming the Most Serene Republic of Venice (, ), a name by which it is best known today. Similarly, the doge was also given the nickname of serenissimo or more simply that of His Serenity. From the 17th century the Republic of Venice took on other more or less official names such as the Venetian State or the Venetian Republic. The republic is often referred to as La Serenissima, in reference to its title as one of the "Most Serene Republics".

History

During the 5th century, northeast Italy was devastated by the Germanic barbarian invasions. A large number of the inhabitants moved to the coastal lagoons, looking for a safer place to live. Here they established a collection of lagoon communities, stretching over about  from Chioggia in the south to Grado in the north, who banded together for mutual defence from the Lombards, Huns, and other invading peoples as the power of the Western Roman Empire dwindled in northern Italy.

At some point in the first decades of the 8th century, the people of the Byzantine province of Venice elected their first leader Ursus (or Orso Ipato), who was confirmed by Constantinople and given the titles of hypatus and dux. He was the first historical Doge of Venice. Tradition, however, first attested in the early 11th century, states that the Venetians first proclaimed Anafestus Paulicius duke in 697, though this story dates to no earlier than the chronicle of John the Deacon. Whichever the case, the first doges had their power base in Heraclea.

Rise
Ursus's successor, Deusdedit, moved his seat from Heraclea to Malamocco in the 740s. He was the son of Ursus and represented the attempt of his father to establish a dynasty. Such attempts were commonplace among the doges of the first few centuries of Venetian history, but all were ultimately unsuccessful. During the reign of Deusdedit, Venice became the only remaining Byzantine possession in the north, and the changing politics of the Frankish Empire began to change the factional divisions within Venetia.

One faction was decidedly pro-Byzantine. They desired to remain well connected to the empire. Another faction, republican in nature, believed in continuing along a course towards practical independence. The other main faction was pro-Frankish. Supported mostly by clergy (in line with papal sympathies of the time), they looked towards the new Carolingian king of the Franks, Pepin the Short, as the best provider of defence against the Lombards. A minor, pro-Lombard faction was opposed to close ties with any of these further-off powers and interested in maintaining peace with the neighbouring (and surrounding, but for the sea) Lombard kingdom.

In that period, Venice had established for itself a thriving slave trade, buying in Italy, among other places, and selling to the Moors in Northern Africa (Pope Zachary reportedly forbade such traffic out of Rome). When the sale of Christians to Muslims was banned following the Pactum Lotharii, the Venetians began to sell Slavs and other Eastern European non-Christian slaves in greater numbers. Caravans of slaves traveled from Eastern Europe through Alpine passes to reach Venice. Surviving records valued female slaves at a tremissa (about 1.5 grams of gold or roughly  of a dinar) and male slaves, who were more numerous, at a saiga (which is much less). Eunuchs were especially valuable, and "castration houses" arose in Venice, as well as other prominent slave markets, to meet this demand. Indeed, Venice was far from the only Italian city engaged in the slave trade in Medieval Europe.

Early Middle Ages

The successors of Obelerio inherited a united Venice. By the Pax Nicephori (803–814), the two emperors had recognised that Venice belonged to the Byzantine sphere of influence. Many centuries later, the Venetians claimed that the treaty had recognised Venetian de facto independence, but the truth of this claim is doubted by modern scholars. A Byzantine fleet sailed to Venice in 807 and deposed the doge, replacing him with a Byzantine governor. Nevertheless, during the reign of the Participazio family, Venice grew into its modern form.

Though Heraclean by birth, Agnello, the first Participazio doge, was an early immigrant to Rialto, and his dogeship was marked by the expansion of Venice towards the sea via the construction of bridges, canals, bulwarks, fortifications, and stone buildings. The modern Venice, at one with the sea, was being born. Agnello was succeeded by his son Giustiniano, who stole the remains of Saint Mark the Evangelist from Alexandria, took them to Venice, and made him the republic's patron saint. According to tradition, Saint Mark was the founder of the Patriarchate of Aquileia.

With the patriarch's flight to Grado after the Lombard invasion, the patriarchate split into two: one on the mainland, under the control of the Lombards and later the Franks, and the other in Grado on the lagoons and the areas under Byzantine control. This would later become the Patriarchate of Venice. With the apostle's reliquiae in its hands, Venice could again claim to be the rightful heir of Aquileia. In the Late Middle Ages, this would be the basis for legitimizing the seizure of the patriarchy's vast territories in Friuli and eastwards.

During the reign of the successor of the Participazio, Pietro Tradonico, Venice began to establish its military might, which would influence many a later crusade and dominate the Adriatic for centuries. Tradonico secured the sea by fighting Narentine and Saracen pirates. Tradonico's reign was long and successful (837–64), but he was succeeded by the Participazio, and a dynasty appeared to have been finally established. Around 841, the Republic of Venice sent a fleet of 60 galleys (each carrying 200 men) to assist the Byzantines in driving the Arabs from Crotone, but it failed. In 1000, Pietro II Orseolo sent a fleet of 6 ships to defeat the Narentine pirates from Dalmatia.

High Middle Ages

In the High Middle Ages, Venice became extremely wealthy through its control of trade between Europe and the Levant, and it began to expand into the Adriatic Sea and beyond. In 1084, Domenico Selvo personally led a fleet against the Normans, but he was defeated and lost nine great galleys, the largest and most heavily armed ships in the Venetian war fleet. Venice was involved in the Crusades almost from the very beginning. Two hundred Venetian ships assisted in capturing the coastal cities of Syria after the First Crusade. In 1110, Ordelafo Faliero personally commanded a Venetian fleet of 100 ships to assist Baldwin I of Jerusalem and Sigurd I Magnusson, king of Norway in capturing Sidon. In 1123, they were granted virtual autonomy in the Kingdom of Jerusalem through the Pactum Warmundi.

The Venetians also gained extensive trading privileges in the Byzantine Empire during the 12th century, and their ships often provided the empire with a navy. In 1182, a vicious anti-Western riot broke out in Constantinople targeting Latins, and Venetians in particular. Many in the empire had become jealous of Venetian power and influence, thus when the pretender Andronikos I Komnenos marched on the city, Venetian property was seized and the owners imprisoned or banished, an act which humiliated and angered the republic.

In 1183, the city of Zara () successfully rebelled against Venetian rule. The city then put itself under the dual protection of the papacy and Emeric, King of Hungary. The Dalmatians separated from Hungary by a treaty in 1199, and they paid Hungary with a portion of Macedonia. In 1201, the city of Zara recognized Emeric as overlord.

The leaders of the Fourth Crusade (1202–04) contracted with Venice to provide a fleet for transportation to the Levant. When the crusaders were unable to pay for the ships, Doge Enrico Dandolo offered transport if the crusaders were to capture Zara, a city that had rebelled years ago and was a rival to Venice. Upon the capture of Zara, the crusade was again diverted, this time to Constantinople. The capture and sacking of Constantinople has been described as one of the most profitable and disgraceful sacks of a city in history. The Venetians claimed much of the plunder, including the famous four bronze horses that were brought back to adorn St Mark's Basilica. Furthermore, in the subsequent partition of the Byzantine lands, Venice gained a great deal of territory in the Aegean Sea, theoretically amounting to nearly 40% of the Byzantine Empire. It also acquired the islands of Crete (Candia) and Euboea (Negroponte); the present core city of Chania on Crete is largely of Venetian construction, built atop the ruins of the ancient city of Cydonia.

The Aegean islands came to form the Venetian Duchy of the Archipelago. In , the lord of Philippopolis, Gerard of Estreux declared himself prepared to acknowledge the suzerainty of the Republic of Venice over a part of his possessions. The Byzantine Empire was re-established in 1261 by Michael VIII Palaiologos, but the empire never recovered its previous power and was eventually conquered by the Ottoman Turks.

The Republic of Venice fought the War of the Castle of Love against Padua and Treviso in 1215. It signed a trade treaty with the Mongol Empire in 1221.

In 1295, Pietro Gradenigo sent a fleet of 68 ships to attack a Genoese fleet at Alexandretta, then another fleet of 100 ships was sent to attack the Genoese in 1299. The Serrata del Maggior Consiglio (Great Council Lockout) refers to the constitutional process, started with the 1297 Ordinance, by means of which membership of the Great Council of Venice became an hereditary title. Since it was the Great Council that had the right to elect the doge, the 1297 Ordinance marked a relevant change in the constitution of the republic. This resulted in the exclusion of minor aristocrats and plebeians from participating in the government of the republic.

14th century

The Holy League of 1332 () was a military alliance of the chief Christian states of the Aegean Sea and the Eastern Mediterranean against the mounting threat of naval raids by the Turkish beyliks of Anatolia. The alliance was spearheaded by the main regional naval powers Venice and the Knights Hospitaller and included the Kingdom of Cyprus and the Byzantine Empire, while other states also promised support. After a notable success in the Battle of Adramyttion, commanded by Pietro Zeno, the Turkish naval threat receded for a while. Coupled with the diverging interests of its members the league atrophied and ended in 1336/37.

From 1350 to 1381, Venice fought an intermittent war with the Genoese. Initially defeated, they devastated the Genoese fleet at the War of Chioggia in 1379–81 and retained their prominent position in eastern Mediterranean affairs at the expense of Genoa's declining empire. In 1363, the revolt of Saint Titus against Venetian rule broke out in the overseas colony of Candia (Crete). It was a joint effort of Venetian colonists and Cretan nobles who attempted to create an independent state. Venice sent a multinational mercenary army which soon regained control of the major cities. However, Venice was not able to fully reconquer Crete until 1368.

By the end of the 14th century, Venice had acquired mainland possessions in Italy, annexing Mestre and Serravalle in 1337, Treviso and Bassano del Grappa in 1339, Oderzo in 1380, and Ceneda in 1389.

15th century: The expansion in the mainland

In 1403, the last major battle between the Genoese (now under French rule) and Venice was fought at Modon, and the final victory resulted in maritime hegemony and dominance of the eastern trade routes. The latter would soon be contested, however, by the inexorable rise of the Ottoman Empire. Hostilities began after Prince Mehmed I ended the civil war of the Ottoman Interregnum and established himself as sultan. The conflict escalated until Pietro Loredan won a crushing victory against the Turks off Gallipoli in 1416.

Venice expanded as well along the Dalmatian coast from Istria to Albania, which was acquired from King Ladislaus of Naples during the civil war in Hungary. Ladislaus was about to lose the conflict and had decided to escape to Naples, but before doing so he agreed to sell his now practically forfeit rights on the Dalmatian cities for the reduced sum of 100,000 ducats. Venice exploited the situation and quickly installed nobility to govern the area, for example, Count Filippo Stipanov in Zara. This move by the Venetians was a response to the threatening expansion of Gian Galeazzo Visconti, Duke of Milan. Control over the northeast main land routes was also a necessity for the safety of the trades. By 1410, Venice had a navy of 3,300 ships (manned by 36,000 men) and had taken over most of what is now the Veneto, including the cities of Verona (which swore its loyalty in the Devotion of Verona to Venice in 1405) and Padua.

In the early 15th century, the republic began to expand onto the Terraferma. Thus, Vicenza, Belluno, and Feltre were acquired in 1404, and Padua, Verona, and Este in 1405. The situation in Dalmatia had been settled in 1408 by a truce with King Sigismund of Hungary, but the difficulties of Hungary finally granted to the republic the consolidation of its Adriatic dominions. The situation culminated in the Battle of Motta in late August 1412, when an invading army of Hungarians, Germans and Croats, led by Pippo Spano and Voivode Miklós Marczali attacked the Venetian positions at Motta and suffered a heavy defeat. At the expiration of the truce in 1420, Venice immediately invaded the Patriarchate of Aquileia and subjected Traù, Spalato, Durazzo, and other Dalmatian cities. In Lombardy, Venice acquired Brescia in 1426, Bergamo in 1428, and Cremona in 1499.

Slaves were plentiful in the Italian city-states as late as the 15th century. Between 1414 and 1423, some 10,000 slaves, imported from Caffa, were sold in Venice. In 1454, a conspiracy for a rebellion against Venice was dismantled in Candia. The conspiracy was led by Sifis Vlastos as an opposition to the religious reforms for the unification of Churches agreed at the Council of Florence. In 1481, Venice retook nearby Rovigo, which it had held previously from 1395 to 1438; in February 1489, the island of Cyprus, previously a crusader state (the Kingdom of Cyprus), was added to Venice's holdings.

16th century: League of Cambrai, the loss of Cyprus, and Battle of Lepanto

The Ottoman Empire started sea campaigns as early as 1423, when it waged a seven-year war with the Venetian Republic over maritime control of the Aegean, the Ionian, and the Adriatic Seas. The wars with Venice resumed after the Ottomans captured the Kingdom of Bosnia in 1463, and lasted until a favorable peace treaty was signed in 1479 just after the troublesome siege of Shkodra. In 1480, no longer hampered by the Venetian fleet, the Ottomans besieged Rhodes and briefly captured Otranto. By 1490, the population of Venice had risen to about 180,000 people.

War with the Ottomans resumed from 1499 to 1503. In 1499, Venice allied itself with Louis XII of France against Milan, gaining Cremona. In the same year, the Ottoman sultan moved to attack Lepanto by land and sent a large fleet to support his offensive by sea. Antonio Grimani, more a businessman and diplomat than a sailor, was defeated in the sea battle of Zonchio in 1499. The Turks once again sacked Friuli. Preferring peace to total war both against the Turks and by sea, Venice surrendered the bases of Lepanto, Durazzo, Modon, and Coron.

Venice's attention was diverted from its usual maritime position by the delicate situation in Romagna, then one of the richest lands in Italy, which was nominally part of the Papal States, but effectively divided into a series of small lordships which were difficult for Rome's troops to control. Eager to take some of Venice's lands, all neighbouring powers joined in the League of Cambrai in 1508, under the leadership of Pope Julius II. The pope wanted Romagna; Emperor Maximilian I: Friuli and Veneto; Spain: the Apulian ports; the king of France: Cremona; the king of Hungary: Dalmatia, and each one some of another's part. The offensive against the huge army enlisted by Venice was launched from France.

On 14 May 1509, Venice was crushingly defeated at the battle of Agnadello, in the Ghiara d'Adda, marking one of the most delicate points in Venetian history. French and imperial troops were occupying Veneto, but Venice managed to extricate itself through diplomatic efforts. The Apulian ports were ceded in order to come to terms with Spain, and Julius II soon recognized the danger brought by the eventual destruction of Venice (then the only Italian power able to face kingdoms like France or empires like the Ottomans).

The citizens of the mainland rose to the cry of "Marco, Marco", and Andrea Gritti recaptured Padua in July 1509, successfully defending it against the besieging imperial troops. Spain and the pope broke off their alliance with France, and Venice regained Brescia and Verona from France, also. After seven years of ruinous war, the Serenissima regained its mainland dominions west to the Adda River. Although the defeat had turned into a victory, the events of 1509 marked the end of the Venetian expansion.

In 1489, the first year of Venetian control of Cyprus, Turks attacked the Karpasia Peninsula, pillaging and taking captives to be sold into slavery. In 1539, the Turkish fleet attacked and destroyed Limassol. Fearing the ever-expanding Ottoman Empire, the Venetians had fortified Famagusta, Nicosia, and Kyrenia, but most other cities were easy prey. By 1563, the population of Venice had dropped to about 168,000 people.

In the summer of 1570, the Turks struck again but this time with a full-scale invasion rather than a raid. About 60,000 troops, including cavalry and artillery, under the command of Mustafa Pasha landed unopposed near Limassol on 2 July 1570 and laid siege to Nicosia. In an orgy of victory on the day that the city fell – 9 September 1570 – 20,000 Nicosians were put to death, and every church, public building, and palace was looted. Word of the massacre spread, and a few days later, Mustafa took Kyrenia without having to fire a shot. Famagusta, however, resisted and put up a defense that lasted from September 1570 until August 1571.

The fall of Famagusta marked the beginning of the Ottoman period in Cyprus. Two months later, the naval forces of the Holy League, composed mainly of Venetian, Spanish, and papal ships under the command of Don John of Austria, defeated the Turkish fleet at the battle of Lepanto. Despite victory at sea over the Turks, Cyprus remained under Ottoman rule for the next three centuries. By 1575, the population of Venice was about 175,000 people, but partly as a result of the plague of 1575–76 the population dropped to 124,000 people by 1581.

17th century

According to economic historian Jan De Vries, Venice's economic power in the Mediterranean had declined significantly by the start of the 17th century. De Vries attributes this decline to the loss of the spice trade, a declining uncompetitive textile industry, competition in book publishing from a rejuvenated Catholic Church, the adverse impact of the Thirty Years' War on Venice's key trade partners, and the increasing cost of cotton and silk imports to Venice.

In 1606, a conflict between Venice and the Holy See began with the arrest of two clerics accused of petty crimes and with a law restricting the Church's right to enjoy and acquire landed property. Pope Paul V held that these provisions were contrary to canon law, and demanded that they be repealed. When this was refused, he placed Venice under an interdict which forbade clergymen from exercising almost all priestly duties. The republic paid no attention to the interdict or the act of excommunication and ordered its priests to carry out their ministry. It was supported in its decisions by the Servite friar Paolo Sarpi, a sharp polemical writer who was nominated to be the Signoria's adviser on theology and canon law in 1606. The interdict was lifted after a year, when France intervened and proposed a formula of compromise. Venice was satisfied with reaffirming the principle that no citizen was superior to the normal processes of law.

Rivalry with Habsburg Spain and the Holy Roman Empire led to Venice's last significant wars in Italy and the northern Adriatic. Between 1615 and 1618 Venice fought Archduke Ferdinand of Austria in the Uskok war in the northern Adriatic and on the Republic's eastern border, while in Lombardy to the west, Venetian troops skirmished with the forces of Don Pedro de Toledo Osorio, Spanish governor of Milan, around Crema in 1617 and in the countryside of Romano di Lombardia in 1618. A fragile peace did not last, and in 1629 the Most Serene Republic returned to war with Spain and the Holy Roman Empire in the War of the Mantuan succession. During the brief war a Venetian army led by provveditore Zaccaria Sagredo and reinforced by French allies was disastrously routed by Imperial forces at the battle of Villabuona, and Venice's closest ally Mantua was sacked. Reversals elsewhere for the Holy Roman Empire and Spain ensured the republic suffered no territorial loss, and the duchy of Mantua was restored to Charles II Gonzaga, Duke of Nevers, who was the candidate backed by Venice and France.

The latter half of the 17th century also had prolonged wars with the Ottoman Empire; in the Cretan War (1645–1669), after a heroic siege that lasted 21 years, Venice lost its major overseas possessionthe island of Crete (although it kept the control of the bases of Spinalonga and Suda)while it made some advances in Dalmatia. In 1684, however, taking advantage of the Ottoman involvement against Austria in the Great Turkish War, the republic initiated the Morean War, which lasted until 1699 and in which it was able to conquer the Morea peninsula in southern Greece.

18th century: Decline

These gains did not last, however; in December 1714, the Turks began the last Turkish–Venetian War, when the Morea was "without any of those supplies which are so desirable even in countries where aid is near at hand which are not liable to attack from the sea".

The Turks took the islands of Tinos and Aegina, crossed the isthmus, and took Corinth. Daniele Dolfin, commander of the Venetian fleet, thought it better to save the fleet than risk it for the Morea. When he eventually arrived on the scene, Nauplia, Modon, Corone, and Malvasia had fallen. Levkas in the Ionian islands, and the bases of Spinalonga and Suda on Crete, which still remained in Venetian hands, were abandoned. The Turks finally landed on Corfu, but its defenders managed to throw them back.

In the meantime, the Turks had suffered a grave defeat by the Austrians in the Battle of Petrovaradin on 5 August 1716. Venetian naval efforts in the Aegean Sea and the Dardanelles in 1717 and 1718, however, met with little success. With the Treaty of Passarowitz (21 July 1718), Austria made large territorial gains, but Venice lost the Morea, for which its small gains in Albania and Dalmatia were little compensation. This was the last war with the Ottoman Empire. By the year 1792, the once-great Venetian merchant fleet had declined to a mere 309 merchantmen. Although Venice declined as a seaborne empire, it remained in possession of its continental domain north of the Po Valley, extending west almost to Milan. Many of its cities benefited greatly from the Pax Venetiae (Venetian peace) throughout the 18th century.

Fall

By 1796, the Republic of Venice could no longer defend itself since its war fleet numbered only four galleys and seven galiots. In spring 1796, Piedmont (the Duchy of Savoy) fell to the invading French, and the Austrians were beaten from Montenotte to Lodi. The army under Bonaparte crossed the frontiers of neutral Venice in pursuit of the enemy. By the end of the year, the French troops were occupying the Venetian state up to the Adige River. Vicenza, Cadore and Friuli were held by the Austrians. With the campaigns of the next year, Napoleon aimed for the Austrian possessions across the Alps. In the preliminaries to the Peace of Leoben, the terms of which remained secret, the Austrians were to take the Venetian possessions in the Balkans as the price of peace (18 April 1797) while France acquired the Lombard part of the state.

After Napoleon's ultimatum, Ludovico Manin surrendered unconditionally on 12 May and abdicated, while the Major Council declared the end of the republic. According to Bonaparte's orders, the public powers passed to a provisional municipality under the French military governor. On 17 October, France and Austria signed the Treaty of Campo Formio, agreeing to share all the territory of the republic, with a new border just west of the Adige. Italian democrats, especially young poet Ugo Foscolo, viewed the treaty as a betrayal. The metropolitan part of the disbanded republic became an Austrian territory, under the name of Venetian Province ( in Italian,  in German).

Legacy

Though the economic vitality of the Venetian Republic had started to decline since the 16th century with the movement of international trade towards the Atlantic, its political regime still appeared in the 18th century as a model for the philosophers of the Enlightenment.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau was hired in July 1743 as secretary by Comte de Montaigu, who had been named ambassador of the French in Venice. This short experience, nevertheless, awakened the interest of Rousseau to the policy, which led him to design a large book of political philosophy. After the Discourse on the Origin and Basis of Inequality Among Men (1755), he published The Social Contract (1762).

Government

In the early years of the republic, the Doge of Venice ruled Venice in an autocratic fashion, but later his powers were limited by the promissione ducale, a pledge he had to take when elected. As a result, powers were shared with the Maggior Consiglio or Great Council, composed of 480 members taken from patrician families, so that in the words of Marin Sanudo, "[The doge] could do nothing without the Great Council and the Great Council could do nothing without him".

Venice followed a mixed government model, combining monarchy in the doge, aristocracy in the Senate, republic of Rialto families in the Great Council, and a democracy in the Concio. Machiavelli considered it ''excellent among modern republics'', unlike his native republic of Florence.

In the 12th century, the aristocratic families of Rialto further diminished the doge's powers by establishing the Minor Council (1175), composed of the six ducal councillors, and the Council of Forty or Quarantia (1179) as a supreme tribunal. In 1223, these institutions were combined into the Signoria, which consisted of the doge, the Minor Council, and the three leaders of the Quarantia. The Signoria was the central body of government, representing the continuity of the republic as shown in the expression: "si è morto il Doge, no la Signoria" ("If the Doge is dead, the Signoria is not").

During the late 14th and early 15th centuries, the Signoria was supplemented by boards of savii ("wise men"): the six Savi del Consiglio, who formulated and executed government policy; the five Savi di Terraferma, responsible for military affairs and the defence of the Terraferma; and the five Savii agli Ordini, responsible for the navy, commerce, and the overseas territories. Together, the Signoria and the Savii formed the Full College (Pien Collegio), the de facto executive body of the republic. In 1229, the Consiglio dei Pregadi or Senate, was formed, being 60 members elected by the major council. These developments left the doge with little personal power and put actual authority in the hands of the Great Council.

In 1310, a Council of Ten was established, becoming the central political body whose members operated in secret. Around 1600, its dominance over the major council was considered a threat, and efforts were made in the council and elsewhere to reduce its powers, with limited success.

In 1454, the Supreme Tribunal of the three state inquisitors was established to guard the security of the republic. By means of espionage, counterespionage, internal surveillance, and a network of informers, they ensured that Venice did not come under the rule of a single "signore", as many other Italian cities did at the time. One of the inquisitors—popularly known as Il Rosso ("the red one") because of his scarlet robe—was chosen from the doge's councillors, two—popularly known as I negri ("the black ones") because of their black robes—were chosen from the Council of Ten. The Supreme Tribunal gradually assumed some of the powers of the Council of Ten.

In 1556, the provveditori ai beni inculti were also created for the improvement of agriculture by increasing the area under cultivation and encouraging private investment in agricultural improvement. The consistent rise in the price of grain during the 16th century encouraged the transfer of capital from trade to the land.

Military

During the Medieval period, the republic's military was composed of the following elements:
Forza ordinaria (ordinary force), the oarsmen drafted from the citizens of the city of Venice; everyone from the age of 20–70 was obligated to serve in it. However, generally only a twelfth was active.
Forza sussidiaria (subsidiary force), the military force drawn from Venice's overseas possessions.
Forza straordinaria (extraordinary force), the mercenary part of the army; Venetian galleys tended to employ thirty mercenary crossbowmen. With the rise of scutage, it became the dominant element of the Venetian military.

In the early modern period, the Republic's military strength was well out of proportion with its demographic weight. In the late 16th century, it ruled over a population of about 2 million people throughout its empire. In 1571, while preparing for war against the Ottomans, the republic had 37,000 soldiers and 140 galleys (manned by tens of thousands of sailors and oarsmen), excluding urban militias. The Venetian peacetime army strength of 9,000 was able to quadruple in the course of a few months by drawing upon professional hired soldiers and territorial militias simultaneously. These troops generally showed marked technical superiority over their primarily Turkish opponents, as demonstrated in battles such as the 18-month siege of Famagusta, in which the Venetians inflicted outsized casualties and only were defeated when they exhausted their gunpowder.

Like other states of the period, the republic's military strength peaked during wars, only to quickly go back to peacetime levels because of costs. The level of garrisons stabilized after 1577 at 9,000, with 7,000 infantry and the rest cavalry. In 1581 there were 146 galleys and 18 galleasses in the navy, requiring a third of the Republic's revenue. During the Cretan War (1645-1669), the republic fought mostly alone against the undivided attention of the Ottoman Empire, and though it lost, managed to keep fighting after losing 62,000 troops in the attrition, while inflicting about 240,000 losses on the Ottoman army and sinking hundreds of Ottoman ships. The cost of the war was ruinous, but the republic was eventually able to cover it. The Morean War further confirmed the republic's position as a military power well into the late 17th century.

Venetian military strength underwent a terminal decline in the 18th century. The combined effect of prolonged peace and the abandonment of military careers by patricians meant that Venetian military culture ossified. Its army in that period was poorly maintained. The troops, serving under non-martial officers, were not regularly drilled and worked various odd jobs to supplement their salaries. Its navy did not decline to as drastic a degree but still was greatly reduced from its relative power in the 16th and 17th centuries. In a normal 18th century year there were about 20 ships of the line (each of 64 or 70 cannons), 10 frigates, 20 galleys, and 100 small craft, which mostly participated in patrols and punitive expeditions against Barbary corsairs. When Napoleon invaded in 1796, the republic surrendered without a fight.

Economy

The Republic of Venice was active in the production and trading of salt, salted products, and other products along trade routes established by the salt trade. Venice produced its own salt at Chioggia by the 7th century for trade but eventually moved on to buying and establishing salt production throughout the eastern Mediterranean. Venetian merchants bought salt and acquired salt production from Egypt, Algeria, the Crimean peninsula, Sardinia, Ibiza, Crete, and Cyprus. The establishment of these trade routes also allow Venetian merchants to pick up other valuable cargo, such as Indian spices, from these ports for trade. They then sold or supplied salt and other goods to cities in the Po Valley—Piacenza, Parma, Reggio, Bologna, among others—in exchange for salami, prosciutto, cheese, soft wheat, and other goods.

The Golden Bull of 1082, issued by Alexios I Komnenos in return for their defense of the Adriatic Sea against the Normans, granted Venetian merchants with duty-free trading rights, exempt from tax, throughout the Byzantine Empire in 23 of the most important Byzantine ports, guaranteed them property-right protections from Byzantine administrators, and given them buildings and wharfs within Constantinople. These concessions greatly expanded Venetian trading activity throughout the eastern Mediterranean.

Heraldry

The winged Lion of Saint Mark, which had appeared on the republic's flag and coat of arms, is still featured in the red-yellow flag of the city of Venice (which has six tails, one for each sestier of the city), in the coat of arms of the city and in the yellow-red-blue flag of Veneto (which has seven tails representing the seven provinces of the region).

The winged lion also appears in the naval ensign of the Italian Republic, alongside the coat of arms of three other medieval Italian maritime republics (Genoa, Pisa, and Amalfi).

Culture

Theatre

Until the 17th century, theatrical works were performed in noble palaces or in public by the Compagnie della Calza who staged their works on mobile wooden theatres. During the 17th century there was a great diffusion of the theater so much so that in 1637 Venice's first permanent theater, the Teatro San Cassiano, was inaugurated with a presentation of Andromeda by Benedetto Ferrari. Over the course of the century, thanks to the financing of the nobles, a dozen theaters were built in which tragedies and melodramas were mainly performed. In Venice the reform of melodrama was initiated by Apostolo Zeno, who, inspired by French tragedy, made melodrama more sober and constructed his works so that they could be performed even without music.

In the 17th century, although less widespread than melodramas, it represented commedia dell'arte. Based on the actors' improvisation and on canovaccio, it was characterized by a large number of stereotyped characters who generically represented the life of the various Venetian social classes. In the 17th century, commedia dell'arte was completely reformed by Carlo Goldoni who introduced a new form of theater thanks to the elimination of masks and the introduction of a precise script. Conversely, Carlo Gozzi staged presentations of fairy tales, exalting and exasperating the tradition of commedia dell'arte.

Fashion

Due to its commercial relationship with the East, the sumptuous clothing typical of the Byzantines soon spread in Venice, consisting mostly of embroidered or quilted blue tunics, the symbolic color of the Venetians. Among the common people, however, long canvas dresses decorated with colored stripes were widespread and the shoes were usually leather sandals. Over the cassock, men often wore large cloaks as well as belts and hats. The clothes of noblewomen were made of embroidered silk, very long and low-cut. They usually also wore trailing cloaks and furs from a large variety of animals, among which the ermine stood out. With the establishment of the guild in the 13th century, the art of tailors was also regulated and protected with the institution of dress tailors, ziponi tailors and sock tailors who dedicated themselves respectively to making clothes, fustian jackets and socks.

With the beginning of the Renaissance following European fashion, the dresses of noblewomen became increasingly sumptuous, while men began to wear skirts combined with long two-tone stockings. Since the streets were not paved, they risked dirtying clothes, so very high clogs became widespread which were then removed once the home was reached. Between the 15th and 16th centuries the Baroque influence led to the excesses of noble clothing which in this era also began to be embellished with locally produced Burano lace. To prevent the nobles and patricians from spending enormous amounts of money on clothing, in 1488 the Republic issued laws aimed at limiting the use of excessively expensive clothes, so much so that in 1514 pump supervisors were established who had the task of monitoring the amount of money spent on private parties, clothes and other luxury goods.

In the 17th century the fashion for the wig and the use of face powder began and men's clothes progressively became bulkier. In the 18th century, the velada, a sort of large, richly decorated cloak, was introduced into men's clothing. Contrariwise, the vesta a cendà came into use among women's clothing, a modest dress which consisted of a long dress, usually black, and a white scarf. The poorer women, on the other hand, wore a round white dress that covered the head with a hood and was tied with a belt.

Traditions

The Republic of Venice had numerous historical and folkloristic traditions of various kinds, some of which are still celebrated following its fall. In Venice, religious holidays were celebrated with extremely sumptuous processions directed towards St Mark's Basilica in which the Doge took part, preceded by the various government assemblies and the city's major schools. In addition to all the major Catholic holidays, the Feast of Saint Mark, which commemorates the city's patron saint, was also celebrated with equal pomp. During the year, various masses were also held in memory of some fundamental events in the Republic's history, such as the failure of the Tiepolo conspiracy or that hatched by the Doge Marino Faliero and others such as the Festa delle Marie to celebrate the power of Venice. One of the festivals of greatest political importance was the Festa della Sensa, celebrated on Ascension Day, which included a parade of boats led by the Bucentaur and the rite of the Marriage of the Sea which symbolized the maritime dominion of Venice.

Among the profane festivals, one of the most important was the Carnival: celebrated for its entire duration, it included the major celebrations on Mardi Gras and Shrove Tuesday. In addition to dances and shows of various types, on the last Sunday of Carnival the bull hunt took place, an event similar to Spanish-style bullfighting. In addition to the Carnival, the Regatta was held, which like the other festivals included large celebrations and processions.

See also

Notes

References

Bibliography

Primary sources

 Contarini, Gasparo (1599). The Commonwealth and Government of Venice. Lewes Lewkenor, translator. London: "Imprinted by I. Windet for E. Mattes". The most important contemporary account of Venice's governance during the time of its blossoming; numerous reprint editions; online facsimile.

Secondary sources

 Brown, Patricia Fortini (2004). Private Lives in Renaissance Venice: art, architecture, and the family.
 Chambers, D. S. (1970). The Imperial Age of Venice, 1380–1580. London: Thames & Hudson. The best brief introduction in English, still completely reliable.

 Drechsler, Wolfgang (2002). Venice Misappropriated. Trames 6(2):192–201. A scathing review of Martin & Romano 2000; also a good summary on the most recent economic and political thought on Venice.
 Garrett, Martin (2006). Venice: a Cultural History. Revised edition of Venice: a Cultural and Literary Companion (2001).
 Grubb, James S. (1986). When Myths Lose Power: Four Decades of Venetian Historiography. Journal of Modern History 58, pp. 43–94. The classic "muckraking" essay on the myths of Venice.
 Howard, Deborah, and Sarah Quill (2004). The Architectural History of Venice.
 Hale, John Rigby (1974). Renaissance Venice. .

 Lane, Frederic Chapin (1973). Venice: Maritime Republic. . A standard scholarly history with an emphasis on economic, political and diplomatic history.
 Laven, Mary (2002). Virgins of Venice: Enclosed Lives and Broken Vows in the Renaissance Convent. The most important study of the life of Renaissance nuns, with much on aristocratic family networks and the life of women more generally.
 Mallett, M. E. and Hale, J. R. (1984). The Military Organisation of a Renaissance State, Venice c. 1400 to 1617. .
 Martin, John Jeffries and Dennis Romano (eds.) (2002). Venice Reconsidered: The History and Civilization of an Italian City-State, 1297–1797. Johns Hopkins UP. The most recent collection on essays, many by prominent scholars, on Venice.
 Melisseides Ioannes A. (2010), E epibiose:odoiporiko se chronus meta ten Alose tes Basileusas (1453–1605 peripu), (in Greek), epim.Pulcheria Sabolea-Melisseide, Ekd.Vergina Athens, (WorldCat, Greek National Bibliography 9217/10, Regesta Imperii, etc.), p. 91–108,
 Muir, Edward (1981). Civic Ritual in Renaissance Venice. Princeton UP. The classic of Venetian cultural studies, highly sophisticated.

 Prelli, Alberto. Sotto le bandiere di San Marco, le armate della Serenissima nel '600, Itinera Progetti, Bassano del Grappa, 2012
 Romanin, Samuele (1853), Storia documentata di Venezia, vol. 1, Venice, Pietro Naratovich tipografo editore.

 Rosand, David (2001). Myths of Venice: The Figuration of a State. How foreign writers have understood Venice and its art.
 Tafuri, Manfredo (1995). Venice and the Renaissance. On Venetian architecture.
 Tafel, Gottlieb Lukas Friedrich, and Georg Martin Thomas (1856). Urkunden zur älteren Handels- und Staatsgeschichte der Republik Venedig .
 Tomaz, Luigi (2007). Il confine d'Italia in Istria e Dalmazia. Foreword by Arnaldo Mauri. Conselve: Think ADV.
 Tomaz, Luigi. In Adriatico nel secondo millennio. Foreword by Arnaldo Mauri.
 Tomaz, Luigi (2001). In Adriatico nell'antichità e nell'alto medioevo. Foreword by Arnaldo Mauri. Conselve: Think ADV.

External links

 Venetian Republic at Encyclopædia Britannica
 Story of Venice at Treccani, historiographical collection of the Republic of Venice (in Italian)

1st millennium in Italy
Venice
Republic of Venice
Republic of Venice

Christian states
Former republics
History of the Adriatic Sea
History of the Mediterranean
History of the Balkans
Republic of Venice
Italian city-states
Italian states
Maritime republics
Republic of Venice
Republic of Venice
States and territories established in 697

Republic of Venice


Christopher Frederik Peter Theodor Lowzow (29 June 1752 – 30 March 1829) was a Danish-Norwegian army officer.

Early years
Christopher Lowzow was born on 29 June 1752 at Hvolgaard in Denmark as the son of Eiler Ditlev Lowzow (1711–1785) and Hedevig Ulrikke Pfuel (1715–1780). At the age if seven he became ensign in his father's regiment, and only to years later he was promoted to second lieutenant in the Falsterske Fodregiment. As a 23-year-old he went to Norway as Captain of the 1st Oplandske National Regiment, he would come to be associated with this regiment for 36 years, only interrupted between 1783 and 1785 when he was attached to the Life Guard Regiment Foot and Prince Frederik's Regiment. On 12 August 1784 Lowzow married Juliane Margrethe von Rappe (1760–1790).

Military career
Lowzow advanced quickly through the ranks and became Major in 1785. At the outbreak of the Theater War he was given the command of a grenadier battalion, and was in the subsequent period after the war, promoted to lieutenant colonel in 1790 and colonel in 1803. When the Dano-Swedish War broke out in 1808 he was given command of a brigade and was on recommendation from Prince Christian August of Augustenborg promoted to major general the same year and awarded the Order of the Dannebrog in 1809. In 1812 he became head of Bergenhus Regiment and commandant of Bergenhus Fortress.

At Norway's separation from Denmark in 1814 he remained in Norway, but applied for dismissal. The dismissal was, however, rejected and he was instead appointed lieutenant general and commanding-general of Bergen. After the Swedish campaign against Norway, and the Convention of Moss, Lowzow became commander of the Bergenhus Brigade in 1818.

Death
Lowzow chose to leave his position as commander of the Bergenhus Brigade on 24 June 1828 and died the following year.

References

1752 births
1829 deaths
Danish military personnel of the Napoleonic Wars
Norwegian Army generals
Norwegian military personnel of the Napoleonic Wars

Christopher Frederik Lowzow


Peter Honess (born 1946) is an English film editor with more than thirty film credits dating from 1973. Honess received the 1997 BAFTA Award for Best Editing for his work on L.A. Confidential.

Biography
Honess was educated at Queen's College, Taunton from 1956-1963. He then became an apprentice editor at the United Kingdom branch of MGM, where his father was working. He moved to the United States in 1971, where he received his first editing credit for It's Alive! (1974), a cult horror film about a couple that become parents of a monster baby. When Honess returned to the United Kingdom, he was again employed as an assistant editor. In all, Honess spent fifteen years as an assistant. Honess acknowledges the mentoring by British editors Tony Gibbs (Tom Jones) and Thelma Connell (Alfie), "Thelma was quite an extraordinary woman. I was absorbed by how she edited. She cut very, very fast. That was also true of Tony. He'd cut the film in his head at dailies." After a ten-year hiatus, Honess was hired to edit the films Memed, My Hawk (1984) and Champion (1984), and thereafter he has worked regularly as an editor.

Honess's recent filmography includes Rob Roy (1995), L.A. Confidential (1997), The Next Best Thing (2000), Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets (2002), Troy (2004), Aeon Flux (2005), Poseidon (2006), The Golden Compass (2007), I Love You, Beth Cooper (2008), Percy Jackson and the Olympians (2009), Burlesque (Cher's performance - 2010), Romeo & Juliet (2012), and Words and Pictures (2013).

Awards
Honess was nominated for an ACE Eddie Award for documentary editing for Following the Tundra Wolf (1974). In addition to its BAFTA Award for Best Editing, L. A. Confidential was also nominated for an Academy Award for Best Film Editing, an ACE Eddie Award, and the Satellite Award. The film was also included in a 2012 listing of the 75 best edited films of all time compiled by the Motion Picture Editors Guild based on a survey of its members. Honess has been elected to membership in the American Cinema Editors.

Filmography

References

Further reading

1945 births
Living people
American Cinema Editors
British film editors
Best Editing BAFTA Award winners
People educated at Queen's College, Taunton

Peter Honess


Mo Chuaroc moccu Neth Semon ( ) was an Irish monk and scholar of the Early Middle Ages.

He was a native of the Youghal area of what is now County Cork in southern Ireland. He studied with Mo Sinu moccu Min and later recorded what the latter taught, which is thought to have been an ordo numerorum, a table of Greek numbers.

Sources
 1. - MS m, Universitatsbibliothek, Wurzburg; see also below.
 2. - p. 113, Ireland and her neighbours in the Seventh Century, by Michael Richter.
 3. - p. 14, "The Irish Tradition", Robin Flower, 1947.

6th-century births
Year of death unknown
Medieval Irish writers
Irish literature
6th-century writers in Latin
6th-century Irish people
Irish Christian monks
People from Youghal
6th-century Irish writers

Mo Chuaroc moccu Neth Semon


Claus Helmut Drese (25 December 1922, in Aachen – 10 February 2011, in Horgen, Switzerland) was a German opera and theatre administrator, and author.

Early career
Drese began his career as a dramaturg at the Marburger Schauspielhaus in 1946. From 1952 to 1959, he was chief dramaturg and director at the Mannheim National Theatre. He was a theatre director in Heidelberg from 1959 to 1962. From 1962 to 1968, he was director of the Hessisches Staatstheater Wiesbaden and gained prominence by inviting several theatre companies from Eastern Europe to the Internationale Maifestspiele Wiesbaden. In 1968, he became Generalintendant for opera and theatre in Cologne. There, he first collaborated with Jean-Pierre Ponnelle. In 1975, he became artistic director of the Zurich Opera House, where his achievements included productions of Monteverdi's operas conducted by Nikolaus Harnoncourt and staged by Ponnelle.

Vienna State Opera
In 1984, Austrian culture minister Helmut Zilk designated Drese as director of the Vienna State Opera in Vienna. Drese began his tenure in 1986 and chose Claudio Abbado as the State Opera's music director. In the following five years, the State Opera experienced a very fruitful period. Abbado conducted both new productions and revivals, among them Un ballo in maschera (staged by Gianfranco de Bosio, designed by Emmanuele Luzzati), L'Italiana in Algeri (staged and designed by Ponnelle), Carmen (revival of the 1978 Franco Zeffirelli-production), Pelléas et Mélisande (staged by Antoine Vitez and designed by Yannis Kokkos), Il viaggio a Reims (staged by Luca Ronconi and designed by Gae Aulenti), Don Carlo (staged and designed by Pier Luigi Pizzi), Don Giovanni (staged by Luc Bondy, with Ruggero Raimondi as the Don), Le nozze di Figaro (staged by Jonathan Miller). Drese initiated cycle of all the major Mozart-operas.

Drese also engaged conductors who had never conducted at the State Opera before, such as Harnoncourt (Idomeneo in 1987, followed by Die Zauberflöte staged by Otto Schenk in 1988, Die Entführung aus dem Serail and Così fan tutte in 1989), Colin Davis (Werther staged by Pierluigi Samaritani), Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg), Seiji Ozawa (Eugene Onegin in 1988; a critically acclaimed production with Mirella Freni and Nicolai Ghiaurov).

Criticism, dismissal and aftermath
Though Drese's term was internationally acknowledged as a very successful one, he received criticism for aspects of his work, such as excessive expenditure on 'star' opera singers. In June 1988, just days after the acclaimed first night of Pellèas et Mélisande, then Social Democratic culture minister Hilde Hawlicek met with Drese. She told him that his contract was not to be extended after 1991 and presented him his successors, Eberhard Wächter and Ioan Holender. Drese contemplated about resigning immediately, but finally chose to fulfill his contract. His final premiere in June 1991 was Der ferne Klang by Franz Schreker, conducted by Gerd Albrecht and staged by Jürgen Flimm. Ultimately, Drese's ideas to secure the State Opera's independence from the other state theatres were realized years later by his successor Holender, in addition to his idea of establishing longer running series of performances.

References

Bibliography

1922 births
2011 deaths
Opera managers
People from Horgen
People from Aachen

Claus Helmut Drese


Virgo is an astrological sign. It is an earth sign.  Virgo represented by the goddess of wheat and agriculture. This shows Virgo's deep-rooted presence in the material world. Virgos are said to be logical, practical, and systematic in how they see life. Virgos are often the most successful people in the world.

Astrological signs

Virgo (astrology)


In the 1667 to 1668 War of (the) Devolution, France occupied the Spanish-controlled provinces of Spanish Netherlands and Franche-Comté. Because of one law not many people knew about (called the Jus Devolutionis), Louis XIV claimed these provinces 'devolved' to him because of his marriage to Maria Theresa of Spain.

Alliances/Countries Fighting

England, Kingdom of Sweden, and the Dutch (Triple Alliance)
The Spanish Empire
France

War

King Louis had claimed territory from the Spanish Empire as his own, due to his marriage of Maria Theresa. This claim started the conflict between France and the Spanish Empire. The Triple Alliance, (England, Sweden, and The Netherlands,) decided to get involved in this war, but not allying with either side. They saw 2 countries now weakened by war and realized they could expand. They also did this for the protection of each side, because both were a vital piece to trade in Europe and the world. The French soldiers marched into Flanders, (now in Belgium) and easily took over the city. Just a year later after almost a standoff, they made a peace treaty with Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I. They would partition the Spanish Dominions until the king's death, and France would annex part of the Netherlands.

Sources
Brittanica: War of Devolution

1660s in Europe
Wars involving France
Wars involving Spain
17th-century conflicts

War of Devolution


Death Certificate was the second studio album from Ice Cube after he left N.W.A. It started at #2 on the Billboard 200.

The album was very controversial because of Ice Cube's statements on drug dealing, racial profiling and the right to bear and keep firearms.

The song "No Vaseline" was a criticism against his former fellow rappers.

It was released on October 29, 1991.

Hip hop albums
1991 albums

Death Certificate (album)


Chansons des Cafés de Paris is a 10-inch long-playing album from Édith Piaf that was released in 1950 on the CID label (UM233118). The album was also released with the same eight tracks in the United States on the Decca label (DL6004). Piaf was accompanied on the album by Raymond Legrand et son Orchestra. Louis Untermeyer wrote the liner notes.

The songs were recorded in February 1947, after her contract with Polydor expired. She recorded 11 songs for Decca in Brussels. Ten of the songs were released on 78s in 1947 and 1948, and eight of them were compiled for release on this album. Four of the eight songs selected for the album were written by Michel Emer.

Track listing
Side A
 "Les cloches sonnent" (E. Piaf, Marguerite Monnot) [2:59]
 "Si tu partais" (Michel Emer) [3:35]
 "Le geste" (Michel Emer) [3:36]
 "Sophie" (E. Piaf, Norbert Glanzberg) [4:02]

Side B
 "Monsieur Ernest a réussi " (Michel Emer) [3:30]
 "Monsieur X ..." (Goze, Michel Emer) [3:14]
 "Amour Du Mois De Mai" (Wal-Berg, Jacques Larue) [2:34]
 "Une chanson à trois temps" (Anna Marly) [4:25]

References

1950 albums
Édith Piaf albums

Chansons des Cafés de Paris


The Sonata No. 1 for Piano in F-sharp minor, Op. 24, No. 1, is a piano sonata by the Romanian composer George Enescu, completed in 1924.

History
On 18 July 1912 Enescu completed an Allegro movement for a piano sonata in F-sharp minor, which he played to Herbert Peyser later that summer in connection with an interview. In a heavily reworked form, this would become the first movement of the Sonata, Op. 24, No. 1. However, Enescu set aside this project for twelve years, resuming work again only in 1924. The early version of this movement was only rediscovered in 1993, by the musicologist Clemansa Liliana Firca.

Enescu took up the sonata again in July 1924 in Tețcani, completely rewriting the first movement and adding the other two, completing the work in Sinaia on 27 August 1924. The score was written for and is dedicated to the Swiss pianist Emil Frey, who had been court pianist in Bucharest from 1907 until the outbreak of World War I.

In an interview given shortly after completing the score, Enescu admitted,

The first performance was given in November 1925 by the composer himself, in a concert that was part of a festival dedicated to his chamber-music works, organized by the Society of Romanian Composers at the Mic Theatre in Bucharest. He also performed the work in Paris for the first time in April 1926, as part of a concert given by the Société Nationale de Musique.

Analysis
The Sonata is in three movements, whose moderate–fast–slow pattern resembles that of Enescu's Third Symphony.
 Allegro molto moderato e grave
 Presto vivace
 Andante molto espressivo
The first movement is in an extremely free sonata form (though the composer himself declined to characterize it this way). There are two major deviations from the usual sonata design. First, the development begins in the home key of F-sharp minor, while the recapitulation begins in the most distant possible key of C minor, a tritone away from the overall tonic. Second, the sense of arrival of the recapitulation is divided in two by this fact, in that the return of the main theme is separated from the reappearance of its home tonality. The coda of the movement takes on the character of a passacaglia, a feature first noted by the composer Anatol Vieru.

The second movement opens with a gradual accumulation of voices, at first suggesting a fugal exposition with a first answer at the interval of a tritone, but lacking a countersubject. Its burlesque-scherzando character, contrasting with the dark quality of the first movement, resembles those toccatas revived in the music of Debussy and Ravel, or the neoclassical, motoric style adopted in the early twentieth century by composers like Prokofiev. Some other passages resemble the diatonicism of Stravinsky's Piano Sonata, which was composed slightly later, in the summer and autumn of 1924. The movement does not adhere to any conventional formal scheme and is built economically from a very small number of elements. Although the second theme returns several times, suggesting a rondo form, the recurrences are subject to variations. The most striking of these variants is in a limping 5/4 meter, reminiscent of folk dances such as the șocâcili from Banat, the ghimpele, and șobolanul from Oltenia and Muntenia, and the hodoroaga from the Ardeal and Moldova regions. Myriam Marbe finds that this movement's spontaneity and exuberant character suggests, through its pulsating motion, a surging crowd at a public celebration, in a stylized manner similar to the one Stravinsky creates in Petrushka.

In an interview with Bernard Gavoty broadcast by the French Radio on 25 January 1952, Enescu played part of the finale of this First Piano Sonata as an example of a musical transposition of the atmosphere of the Romanian Plain at night.(

The movement begins evocatively with a single repeated note in an irregular rhythm, whose gentle accents eventually produce the distant signal of a rising minor third, from which the first motif gradually emerges. Hesitant motivic statements separated by long pauses produce a characteristic "spatial poetry" for this movement, which is one of the most striking features of the Enescian style.

As with the second movement, the form of the finale is difficult to assign to a conventional model. It may be interpreted as a ternary form, or else as a modified sonata-allegro.

Discography
 George Enescu: Suita nr. 2 pentru pian în re major, op. 10; Sonata nr. 1 pentru pian în fa diez minor, op. 24. Li-min-Cean, piano (Op. 10); Maria Fotino, piano (Op. 24 No. 1). LP recording, 1 disc: analog, 33⅓ rpm, monaural, 12 in. Electrecord ECE 025. Bucharest: Electrecord, 196?.
 George Enescu: Sonata nr. 1 pentru pian în fa diez minor, op. 24, nr. 1; Sonata nr. 3 pentru pian în re major, op. 24, nr. 3. Maria Fotino, piano. Recorded October 1980, Studioul de la Casa Scinteii. LP recording, 1 disc: analog, 33⅓ rpm, stereo, 12 in. Electrecord ST-ECE 01691. Bucharest: Electrecord, [1981].
 George Enescu: Sonate für Klavier fis-moll op. 24/1; Sonate für Klavier und Violoncello op. 26/2; Rapsodia Romina für Klavier, op. 11/1. Lory Wallfisch, piano; Julien Musafia, piano (Op. 11, No. 1); Julius Berger, cello (Op. 26, No. 2). Recorded. 25–27 October 1993, in the Konzerthaus, Kronberg/Taunus. CD recording, 1 disc: digital, 4¾ in., stereo. EBS 6043. Bietigheim-Bissingen: EBS Records, 1995.
 Enesco: Œuvres pour piano. Cristian Petrescu, piano. Recorded by Sender Freies Berlin, July 1994 and March 1995. CD recording, 3 discs: digital, 4¾ in., stereo. Accord 476 2394 (476 2395; 476 2396; 476 2397). Universal Classics France, 1998.
 Romania. Dana Ciocarlie piano. Recorded April 2000, Salle Guillaume Farel, Marseille. CD recording, 1 disc: digital, 4¾ in., stereo. Empreinte Digitale ED 13122. Marseille, France: L'empreinte digitale, 2000.
 Raluca Stirbat Plays Enescu, Silvestri, Constantinescu, Rachmaninoff/Kreisler. Raluca Stirbat, piano. Enescu's Sonata No. 1 recorded April 2004 at Schweizer Radio DRS Studio Zurich. CD recording, 1 disc: digital, 4¾ in., stereo. Gramola 98905. Vienna: Gramola, 2011.
 Enescu: Piano Music, Vol. 2: Piano Sonata No. 1; Piano Sonata No. 2; Prelude and Fugue in C Major; Nocturne in D-flat Major; Scherzo; Pièce sur la nom de Fauré; Luiza Borac, piano. Recorded 4, 5, and 7 July 2005 at St. Dunstan's Church, Mayfield, England. SACD recording, 2 discs: digital 4¾ in., multi/hybrid. Avie AV2081. [Basel]: Pert Beratungs AG, 2006.
 Five Sonatas: Ernesto Halffter, George Enescu, Igor Stravinsky, Leoš Jánáček. Andrew Rangell, piano. Bridge 9205. 2006.
 George Enescu: Piano Sonata No. 1; Suite No. 2; Choral; Carillon nocturne. Matei Varga, piano. CD recording, 1 disc: digital, 4¾ in., stereo. Naxos 8.572120.  Naxos, 2010.
 George Enescu: Complete Works for Piano Solo. Raluca Stirbat, piano. Sonata recorded Universität für Musik und darstellende Kunst Wien, April or June 2015. CD recording, 3 discs: digital, 4¾ in., stereo. Hänssler Classic 98.060. Holzgerlingen:  Hänssler Classic im SCM-Verlag GmbH & Co. KG, 2015. Includes the early version (1912) of the first movement of Sonata No. 1.
 George Enescu, Béla Bartók, Erkki-Sven Tüür. Mihkel Poll, piano. Recorded at Sello Hall in Espoo, Finland, 12–13 October and 2–3 November 2014. CD recording, 1 disc: digital, 4¾ in., stereo. Dux 1256. Warsaw: Dux Recording Publishers, 2015.
 Paris [Music by Ravel, Debussy, and Enescu]. Elisabeth Leonskaja, piano. Recorded in Berlin, Meistersaal 14–15 July 2013. CD recording, 1 disc: digital, 4¾ in., stereo. EAS 29237. Berlin: EaSonus, 2015.
 Enescu: Complete Works for Piano, Vol. 1. Josu de Solaun, piano.  CD recording, 1 disc: digital, 4¾ in., stereo. Grand Piano GP705. [Kowloon City, Hong Kong]: HNH International Limited, 2016.

References

Cited sources

Further reading
 Bughici, Dumitru. 1964. "Sonata pentru pian în fa diez minor de George Enescu". Muzica 15, no. 5 (May): 19ff.
 Bughici, Dumitru. 1967. "Trăsături specifice ale formei în sonatele lui George Enescu". Muzica 17, no. 8 (August): 8–13. Reprinted in Studii de muzicologie 4, 379–96. Bucharest: Editură Muzicală, 1968. Reprinted in Simpozion George Enescucentenaire de George Enescu 1881-1981, symposium de musicologie, Bucarest 17–19 septembre 1981, edited by Michaela Roșu. Bucharest: Editură Muzicală, 1984.
 Bughici, Dumitru. 1967. "Particalarităţi naţionale ale formelor muzicale în sonatele lui George Enescu". In Naţional şi universal ĭn muzică: Lucrările sesiunii Ştiiţifice a cadrelor didactice, 235–48. Bucharest: Conservatorul Ciprian Porumbescu, 1967.
 Bughici, Dumitru. 1982. Repere arhitectonice în creația muzicală românească contemporană. București: Editura Muzicală, 1982. Anthology of articles, including the three preceding items.
 Firca, Clemansa Liliana. 1997. "O versiune necunoscută a primei părți din Sonata pentru pian op. 24 nr. 1, în fa diez minor". Muzica, no. 2: 4–9. Reprinted in Firca, Enescu: Relevanța 'secundarului, 47–54. Bucharest: Editura Institutului Cultural Român, 2005.  .
 Gherman, Sergiu. 2003. "Romanian Ethos as Expressed in George Enescu's Piano Sonata in F-sharp Minor, Op. 24, No. 1, and His Other Piano Works". DMA diss. Philadelphia: Temple University.
 Petra-Basacopol, Carmen. 1971. "Sonata in fa diez minor pentru pian de George Enescu—considérations esthétiques et stylistiques". Muzica 21, no. 1 (January): 17–19.

External links

Compositions by George Enescu
1924 compositions
Compositions in F-sharp minor
Music dedicated to ensembles or performers
Neoclassicism (music)
Enescu

Piano Sonata No. 1 (Enescu)


Dendrobium affine, commonly known as the white butterfly orchid, malakmalak or matngala in Australian Aboriginal languages is an epiphytic orchid in the family Orchidaceae. It has cylindrical pseudobulbs, each with up to ten leaves and flowering stems with up to twenty white flowers with yellow or purple markings on the labellum. It occurs in northern Australia, New Guinea and Timor, where it grows on the bark of trees.

Description
Dendrobium affine is an epiphytic herb with cylindrical green pseudobulbs  long and  wide with between two and ten leaves on its upper half. The leaves are  long and  wide. The flowering stem is  long and bears between two and twenty white flowers  long and  wide. The sepals are  long, and  wide with the lateral sepals slightly wider than the dorsal sepal. The petals are about the same length as the sepals but broader. The labellum is yellow with purple markings, about  long,  wide and has three lobes. The side lobes are upright and the middle lobe often curves downwards and has five ridges along its midline. Flowering occurs from March to August.

Taxonomy and naming
The white tea tree orchid was first formally described in 1834 by Joseph Decaisne who gave it the name Onychium affine and published the description in Nouvelles annales du Muséum d'histoire naturelle. In 1840 Ernst Gottlieb von Steudel changed the name to Dendrobium affine in his book Nomenclator Botanicus. The specific epithet (affine) is a Latin word meaning "related to" or "neighboring".

Distribution and habitat
Dendrobium affine is a bark epiphyte and grows on trees in moist places such as rainforest, on stream banks and in paperbark swamps. It is found in northern parts of the Northern Territory including Melville Island, the Kimberley region of Western Australia and the Moluccas. It occurred on Timor in the past but may now be extinct there.

References

affine
Orchids of the Northern Territory
Orchids of New Guinea
Orchids of Western Australia
Plants described in 1834
Taxa named by Joseph Decaisne

Dendrobium affine


Mycobacterium leprae is a bacteria. It causes the disease, leprosy, also known as Hanson's Disease. The bacterium was discovered in 1873 by a Norwegian doctor named Gerhard Armauer Hansen. M. leprae is a gram-positive, aerobic rod surrounded by the characteristic waxy coating unique to Mycobacteria. In size and shape, it closes resembles  M. tuberculosis. Due to its thick, waxy coating, stains with carbol-fuchsin are used, rather than with the traditional Gram staining method.

Gram-positive bacteria

Mycobacterium leprae


In supply chain management, the Kraljic matrix (or Kraljic model) is a method used to segment the purchases or suppliers of a company by dividing them into four classes, based on the complexity (or risk) of the supply market (such as monopoly situations, barriers to entry, technological innovation) and the importance of the purchases or suppliers (determined by the impact that they have on the profitability of the company). This subdivision allows the company to define the optimal purchasing strategies for each of the four types of purchases or suppliers.

It is named after Peter Kraljic, who first formulated the model in an article called Purchasing Must Become Supply Management, published in the Harvard Business Review in 1983.

Overview

The Kraljic matrix defines the following types of articles:

 Non-critical items: components that have a low impact on the company and that are found in abundance and / or in low-risk markets (e.g., office stationery). For such items, the goal should be to maximize efficiency of the procurement process to reduce the administrative burden, for example by delegating purchasing to local managers, or using catalogs.
 Leverage items: components that are important for the company but sourced from low-risk markets with an abundant supply. As the name suggests, the optimal management of these purchase categories is essential to ensure a satisfactory business result. For this type of component, the company tends to make the most of its bargaining power and the abundance of the offer with frequent negotiations.
 Bottleneck items: components with a low business impact in economic terms but where supply continuity is at risk. The management of these components should be aimed at creating relationships of collaboration in the medium-long term between customer and supplier to guarantee the supply, with less emphasis on the cost.
 Strategic items: components that are important for the company both in terms of economic impact and for supply conditions from complex and / or risky markets. In this field, the horizon is medium-long term with a continuous monitoring of the economic situation of the market, technical evolution, evaluation of "make-or-buy" options (the choice for a company between developing and manufacturing a product itself or outsourcing it from another supplier), creation of alternatives and development of stable relationships and maximum collaboration with the suppliers.

In its original form, Kraljic's matrix is used for the mapping of purchases, not suppliers. However, the matrix works equally well to distinguish different categories of suppliers.

References

Supply chain management
Business terms

Kraljic matrix


Pakistani English is the type of the English Language as it is spoken in Pakistan. It is recognised as one of the official languages of the country.

History
Although British rule in South Asia lasted for almost two hundred years, the areas that are now Pakistan were some of the last places to be taken over by the British. Punjab (which included the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province) was captured in 1849, Sindh a few years before; while Balochistan was never fully taken over by the British. This meant that English had less time to become part of local culture. However, in 1947, when Pakistan became independent, English (along with Urdu) became Pakistan's official language - this was written into law in 1973.

Relationship with Indian English
Pakistani English has many similarities with Indian English, but since Independence there have been some very obvious differences. These include words and phrases not used in India, as well as accents. Foreign companies find accent naturalisation easier in Pakistan than in India. However, like Indian English, Pakistani English has preserved many phrases that are now considered old in Britain.

Use in Pakistan
English is one of Pakistan's official languages. All government documents, military communications, street signs, many shop signs, business contracts and other activities are in English. The language of the courts is also English.
English is taught to all school level Pakistani students, and in many cases English is also the language used to teach the students other subjects. At the college and university level all instruction is in English.
Pakistan has a large English language press and (more recently) media. All of Pakistan's major dailies are published in or have an edition in English. Dawn News is a major English language news channel.

Pakistani English Literature
Since English in Pakistan is a well-established and popular, expanding language, people there read and write in it too. Pakistani English literature is increasingly making its mark worldwide. A list of English language writers from Pakistan is given here, listing some of the better known literary figures.

References

Languages of Pakistan
Dialects of English

Pakistani English


The cantor ( Hazzan or Hazan) in the Reform movement is a clergy member who fills a diverse role within the Jewish community. Cantors lead worship, officiate at lifecycle events, teach adults and children, run synagogue music programs, and offer pastoral care. Cantors typically serve along with other clergy members, usually rabbis and occasionally additional cantors, in partnership to lead synagogue communities. The Reform cantor is a professional office with a prescribed educational path and professional organization. Cantors are "invested", a term borrowed from the idea of priestly vestments, at the conclusion of study. "Investiture" confers the status of clergy to cantors, just as "ordination" does for rabbis.

As of 2011, a decision has been made to "ordain" rather than "invest" cantors.

Hebrew Union College

History
Cantors in the North American Reform Movement are trained by the Hebrew Union College – Jewish Institute of Religion, School of Sacred Music. Located near New York University, the school offers the degree of Master of Sacred Music. Upon graduation, students receive formal ordination as cantor and then become eligible for membership in the American Conference of Cantors, the professional organization for cantors.

The School of Sacred Music was established in 1948 as a response to the "growing number of Reform congregations... prepared to employ a cantor if qualified individuals could be found," under the leadership of Eric Werner. American synagogues in the mid-twentieth century were increasingly populated by second generation American Jews and Jews who viewed themselves as fully American. These communities could no longer relate to the European-trained cantors of their communal past. Judah Cohen observes that "the American cantorial school rose on the crest of both a revival and reevaluation of the cantor in the postwar era. Placing standards of cantorial knowledge and ability within a curricular framework," the School of Sacred Music "attempted to improve the cantor's religious standing."

At its inception, the SSM was the first and only American cantorial school and sought to educate cantors to serve all American Jewish communities. While the school's founders, including the influential members of The Society for the Advancement of Jewish Liturgical Music, articulated their desire to create a cantorial school for all of American Jewry, particular attention was given to serving the Reform Movement's specific needs since the SSM's inception. HUC Dean Franzlblau conducted an exploratory survey of North American Reform congregations to gauge their "receptivity to cantor-educators in 1948."  The results of the study revealed that congregations would be most receptive to hiring well-trained cantors who were prepared to take on significant education roles in synagogues. The school's earliest curriculum responded to this need, training what were called "cantor-educators", or cantors with additional training in education. Cantorial certification was awarded after three years of study. The SSM has since undergone a significant evolution, first offering a bachelor's degree in four years, beginning in the fall of 1953), and ultimately conferring a Master of Sacred Music over the course of five years and culminating with investiture as cantor.

Today
Today, the curriculum of the SSM includes liturgical music classes covering traditional Shabbat, High Holiday and Festival nusach, Chorus, Musicology, Reform Liturgy and Composition; Judaica and text classes such as Bible, Midrash and History; and professional development. Each student is assigned practica (mini-recitals) during the second, third and fourth years of school culminating with a Senior Recital (based on a thesis) during the fifth year.  As of 2011, the institution was renamed the Debbie Friedman School of Sacred Music.

American Conference of Cantors
Successful completion of the five-year School of Sacred Music program allows the newly ordained cantor membership in the American Conference of Cantors. This professional organization was established in 1953 by the early graduates of the SSM. The ACC currently serves over 450 cantors, offering conventions, newsletters, a listserve, and placement support.
The ACC is the professional organization of invested and/or certified Reform cantors. Responsible for raising the professional standards of synagogue musicians, the ACC offers continuing education programs in conjunction with HUC-JIR School of Sacred Music and professional development opportunities for its members.
Members of the ACC have special expertise in the music of the Jewish people and serve synagogues and communities in pastoral, worship, programming, and educational roles. The ACC sponsors an annual convention and publishes Koleinu, a regular newsletter. It also offers placement services to its members and URJ congregations through the Joint Cantorial Placement Commission. The American Conference of Cantors is an affiliate of the Union for Reform Judaism.
 In 2013 Mark C. Goldman became the first openly gay president of the American Conference of Cantors.

Women in the Reform Cantorate

In 1968, Sally Priesand became the first woman accepted for rabbinic training at Hebrew Union College. When Sally Priesand was ordained in 1972, she became the first female rabbi in America. By 1970, Hebrew Union College also began admitting female students for formal cantorial studies. In 1975, [Barbara Ostfeld] became the first woman to be ordained as a female cantor. Following graduation, she received pulpit placement and was inducted into the American Conference of Cantors, the professional organization for cantors. Ostfeld's investiture "marked an era of rapid demographic change" at the SSM, investing more than 179 female cantors. Reflecting on her profession, Ostfeld writes, "Women cantors have altered the way in which prayer is offered, heard, and received."

Evolving role
The historian of the cantorate Mark Slobin explores the evolution of the office of the cantor in his work Chosen Voices: The Story of the American Cantorate. Slobin outlines the journey of cantor as a sacred singer who would find employment by responding to positions posted in the newspaper in the 1930s to the formalized process of cantor/congregation matchmaking now in place. The creation of the School of Sacred Music in 1948 marks the beginning of the cantor as a modern professional. At the inception of the SSM, the role of the cantor in the American synagogue was so narrow that the concept of the "cantor-educator" was created so that the newly minted cantors would have the additional skill set of "educator" so that they could serve congregations in a full-time capacity. The school abandoned the notion of the "cantor-educator" as the perception of the modern cantorate expanded to include the duties now associated with the role of the full-time cantor. The role of today's Reform cantor includes inspiring others in the act of worship, serving as an authority on Religious Jewish music, teaching all members of their community, helping to build strong Jewish identities, offering pastoral care, and officiating at life cycle events. Even though the cantor fills a diverse role in the modern Reform synagogue, the "heart of the cantorate" remains in "the sanctuary", leading the Jewish people in prayer.

References

Bibliography
 Cohen, Judah. The Making of a Reform Cantor. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2009.
 Meyer, Michael A. The History of Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion: A Centennial History 1875–1975. Cincinnati: Hebrew Union College Press, 1976.
 Slobin, Mark. Chosen Voices: The Story of the American Cantor. Chicago: University of Illinois, 2002.

External links
American Conference of Cantors Official Website

Jewish religious occupations

Hazzans
Reform Judaism

Cantor in Reform Judaism


Compton or Compton Gifford is a suburb of Plymouth in England.

Once a small village, it was developed in the 1930s and now lies between the suburbs of Peverell Mannamead and Efford. There are two parts, Higher and Lower Compton named after two farms and now distinguished by their respective public houses.

Although essentially infill development between older larger areas, Compton is distinctive in character.

History
The earliest evidence of man in Compton, is from around 3000 BC. At this time, Neolithic stone axes which have been found in Compton,
were being made in Penzance, Callington and Camborne. They may have been used by farmers, or dropped en route to other settlements.

Around 800 AD, the Manor of Compton was appearing on maps, Coombe (a wooded valley) Ton (the Saxon word for farm).

In 1086 the Domesday book had this entry for Compton;

"Stephen holds Compton from Iudhael. Oswulf held it before 1066. It paid tax for 1 hide and 1 virgate of land. Land for 4 ploughs,
which are there; 2 slaves, 6 villagers, and 4 smallholders.

Meadow 1 acre, Underwood 20 acres. 5 cattle, 2 pigs, 52 sheep. Value formerly and now 30 shillings."

Compton is mentioned in 1238 as it was on the route to the new Plym Bridge, the route to Plympton and
beyond was through Compton and Eggbuckland. Before this, it had been necessary to travel much further
north to cross the Plym at high tide, as the river in those days from Plym bridge to Marsh mills was just mud flats in a wide creek.
To cross the river at low tide the ebb-ford (Efford) could be used.

The Gifford in Compton Gifford, dates back to around 1100 AD when the granddaughter of Guy de Bockland,
Isabella brought the estate to her husband Osbert Giffard. The estate continued in their family until 1342.

Only recently has Compton become part of Plymouth. Around 1596 for example,
the town criers of Plymouth, Thomas Edwarde and Vincent, were recorded as relocating lame men, beggars and
other undesirables to Compton, Plympton and Plymstock, an effective way of removing the problem!

Compton was not left out of the Civil War of 1642−46. It is recorded that Prince Maurice advanced from Compton village around the head of Lipson Creek, but after some bloody fighting, was defeated by the Roundheads and the tide. At this time his headquarters were at Widey Court.

By 1730 Compton was part of the Culme estate, and it was not until the last member of that family died in 1804 that,
with a population of around fifty, Compton began to grow. At this stage there were not many buildings, of these
The Compton Inn is probably the oldest, with walls up to four feet thick, it was an old farmhouse, then a granary, a tanners and a cobblers shop.

But from about 1857 it has been a pub. Priory House in Lower Compton is one of the last remaining large houses of this period,
and was built by a Captain Bremner. When it was sold to a builder, Mr. Charles Fox, he decided to build on the lawn.
As a result of this, we now have Priory Lawn Terrace, Charles Terrace and Florence Terrace, which was named after his wife.
The Rising Sun was originally cottages, and inside, the original door knockers for each cottage can be seen. Once turned into an alehouse,
in the 1700s, its first name, presumably after its then owner, was Hoopers ale house. As you look at the scene, it is still easy to imagine horses
being led up Chapel Way, to wait by the wall outside the pub, or perhaps be led into the shippen next to the pub, which is now Read's D.I.Y. Stores.
They would have been on their way down to Henders Corner, the stage coach stop on the way from Plympton to Saltash.

In around 1850, horse trams were now using Henders Corner as a terminus, and by 1870 the Anglican parish of Emmanuel, Compton Gifford was born.
The centre for this parish was a small church built on land offered by Betsy and Elizabeth Revel. At the turn of the century the bustling little village
was still mainly agricultural, with cows, market gardens, sheep, goats, pigs and horses still in evidence. It was a popular pastime for Plymothians
to take a stroll out to Compton, to take tea at one of the many places offering some refreshment from their front gardens or parlours.

Compton even had a reputation as a spa, due to a piped off water chute, just near what is now Crowndale Road. Granny Daw, who lived in Beckham Place,
built a reputation for being able to cure most ailments with her remedies, and a little help from the water.

In 1896 the Tything of Compton Gifford was incorporated into the Borough of Plymouth. This was not a popular decision with the people of Compton, as the rates in Compton
were roughly half that of Plymouth. However the deed was done, and Plymothians lived to regret it, as it cost a great deal of
money to bring Compton up to the Borough's standards.

Around 1900 the first telephones were reaching Compton, and by the 1920s the first cars were starting to appear, although, with railway stations
at Laira, Lipson, Mutley and North Hill, the tram terminus at Henders Corner and Baskerville's horse tram, public transport was plentiful.

In these times there were still plenty of local businesses. Apart from the market gardeners and farms, there was a slaughterhouse,
a rubbish collection business, a brickworks, which when disused was turned into a mushroom farm. Of course there were a large amount of shops,
a fishmonger, cobblers, Post Office, general stores, two dairies, fish and chip shop, and even an undertakers.

From the early 1900s onward Lower Compton had a school. When Mary Leigh took over as Headmistress in 1936 the school had 82 pupils. Some classes had to walk up the hill to the Methodist hall to be taught. There was terrible poverty during this time, and she managed to obtain some boots for the children who had none, but she had to punch holes in the uppers, so that the parents would not sell them off to buy food. By the time she left in 1947 the school had 300 pupils, and Compton School was one of the best in Plymouth.

References

Suburbs of Plymouth, Devon
Former manors in Devon

Compton, Plymouth