Jiangjunosaurus is a genus of herbivorous stegosaurian dinosaur from the Oxfordian-age (Upper Jurassic) Shishugou Formation of the Junggar Basin, Xinjiang, China.

Discovery and naming
In 2002, Liu Yongfei discovered the remains of a stegosaurian. These were secured by a Sino-American expedition and prepared by Xiang Lishi and Ding Xiaoqing.

The type species, Jiangjunosaurus junggarensis, was named and described by Jia Chengkai, Catherine Foster, Xu Xing and James Clark in 2007. The generic name refers to the abandoned town of Jiangjunmiao. Jiangjun, 將 軍, is "general" in Chinese and the town's name, the "temple of the general", has been explained by the burial of one. The specific name refers to the provenance from the Junggar.

The holotype, IVPP V 14724, was found in a layer of the Shishugou Formation, dating from the Oxfordian. It includes the lower jaws, some rear skull bones, eleven neck vertebrae, ribs, a scapula, a coracoid, and two neck plates. These elements were found in almost perfect articulation. It represents a subadult individual.

Description
Jiangjunosaurus was a medium-sized stegosaur, reaching  in length and  in body mass. The describers established three distinguishing traits: the crowns of the teeth are symmetrical and in side view wider than tall; the spine of the axis, the second neck vertebra, has a rectangular profile in side view, instead of a triangular one; and the rear neck vertebrae have large vein openings in their sides.

The skull of Jiangjunosaurus is relatively elongated, the maximum width above the postorbitals probably measuring 35% of the skull length. There are at least fourteen teeth in the maxilla. The quadratojugal has a robust horizontal front branch and a thin short vertical branch, only half as tall as the quadrate shaft. There is no clear foramen paraquadraticum, opening between the quadrate and quadratojugal. The quadrate is inclined to the rear and has a depression on its flange contacting the pterygoid. There is no clear opening between the front branches of the pterygoids.

The predentary, the bone core of the lower beak placed on the fronts of both lower jaws, has a deep and hooked "chin". Between the predentary and the tooth row a gap is present equal to about four tooth positions. From the rear part of a bone shelf at the outside of the tooth row a vertical plate extends upwards obscuring that row in side view. The plate continues to the rear into a high coronoid process. Between dentary, surangular and angular a rather tall triangular mandibular fenestra is present. The dentary bears twenty-one teeth, which are slightly larger than those of the upper jaws. All teeth of Jiangjunosaurus are symmetrical with a triangular profile. Front and rear edges have both seven denticles. In side view the teeth are broad, about as wide as tall. Both their inner and outer sides are convexly curved from the front to the rear. The usual vertical ridges are present but weakly developed; the frontmost and rearmost teeth lack them completely. Primary vertical ridges in the middle are absent.

Of the neck vertebrae the second, the axis, has a neural spine or processus spinosus that is rectangular in side view, due to a higher than normal front edge. It is elongated and rather low. From the fifth cervical vertebra onwards large depressions appear on the lower rear side of the vertebral body. These are pierced by large openings that become progressively wider further back in the series. These foramina are superficially very similar to the pneumatic openings with Saurischia. However, CAT-scans of the Jiangjunosaurus fossils revealed that the openings are not connected to inner air spaces and thus probably served as vein channels. Some dorsal ribs have a crescent-shaped flange at their lower ends. Two neck plates have been preserved, probably in their original position. One is positioned above the axis, the other above the third cervical. The plates are roughly circular or diamond-shaped in form. They are slightly taller than wide in side view, have an obtuse triangular top and a constricted base. The bases are transversely thicker than the top sections, which show a pattern of fine diverging ridges. The plates are positioned to the right of the neural spines and the describers assumed two rows were originally  present.

Phylogeny
Jiangjunosaurus was placed in the Stegosauridae in 2007. The describers concluded that within the Stegosauridae it had a basal position. This was not based on an exact cladistic analysis but on the method of comparative anatomy. Jiangjunosaurus shows a mix of basal and derived traits. Characters that are typically stegosaurid are the inclined quadrate; the vertical plate on the dentary; the depression on the pterygoid flange of the quadrate; the bottom edge of the scapula exceeding the upper edge of the coracoid in length; and the double row of larger neck plates. A basal stegosaurid position is suggested by the horizontal front branch of the quadratojugal combined with a ventral process on the main body.

Paleobiology
Jiangjunosaurus may have been a prey item for the  metriacanthosaurid theropod Sinraptor.

See also

 Timeline of stegosaur research

References

Stegosaurs
Oxfordian life
Late Jurassic dinosaurs of Asia
Jurassic China
Fossils of China
Paleontology in Xinjiang
Fossil taxa described in 2007
Taxa named by Xu Xing
Ornithischian genera

Jiangjunosaurus


The dollar coin is a United States coin with a face value of one United States dollar. Dollar coins have been minted in the United States in gold, silver, and base metal versions. Dollar coins were first minted  in the United States in 1794.

While true gold dollars are no longer minted, the Sacagawea, Presidential, and American Innovation dollars are sometimes referred to as golden dollars because of their color. As with several other denominations of U.S. coinage, golden dollars are similar in diameter and color to their Canadian counterpart (known as the "loonie", which predates the Sacagawea dollar by thirteen years). However, unlike the 11-sided Canadian dollar coins, U.S. "golden dollar" coins are round.

Dollar coins have never been popular in circulation since their inception. Despite efforts by the U.S. government to promote their use to save the cost of printing one dollar bills, the Anthony Dollar, the Sacagawea Dollar and the Presidential Dollar Series are all seldom seen in circulation, since most Americans prefer to use the dollar bill. For this reason, since December 11, 2011, the Mint has not produced dollar coins for general circulation, and all dollar coins produced after that date have been specifically for collectors. These collector coins can be ordered directly from the Mint, while pre-2012 circulation dollars can be obtained from most U.S. banks.

Popularity
One-dollar coins, both in silver and base-metal forms, have never been popular in circulation from the 19th century to the present, despite several attempts to increase their usage since the 1970s, for various reasons:
 From 1792 to 1803 the $1 coin compared favorably with the Spanish dollar and was accepted at par for overseas purchases. Its coinage was suspended in 1803 since it did not remain long in domestic circulation.
 During the 1850s California gold rush the silver dollar of 371.25 grains was internationally worth more than the gold dollar of 23.22 grains and was therefore exported. Likewise, the gold dollar of 1849–1889 was a tiny coin measuring only  in diameter, making it difficult to grasp and easy to lose, a serious problem when one dollar was about a day's wage.
 While substantial numbers of silver Morgan dollars were minted from 1878 pursuant to the Bland-Allison Act, there also existed an option to hold silver certificates fully backed by silver dollars kept in reserves. The majority of citizens, therefore, opted to use silver certificates while most silver dollars languished inside treasury and bank vaults.

Succeeding base-metal $1 coins minted from 1971 onwards did not circulate widely as well, the most important reason being the continued circulation of the $1 bill.
 The copper-nickel clad Eisenhower dollar minted from 1971 to 1978 was not popular due to its large size relative to its gradually diminishing value;
 The smaller-sized Susan B. Anthony dollar coin minted from 1979 to 1981 and again in 1999, was highly unpopular because they were often mistaken for quarters, due to their nearly equal size, color and reeded edge;
 Sacagawea dollars and Presidential dollar coins have been issued since 2000. These coins have a distinct weight, gold color, and smooth edge. Despite these remedies, golden dollars continue to circulate poorly since the $1 bill continues to be produced.

The non-acceptance of $1 coins in the United States contrasts with the practice in most other developed countries where denominations of similar value exist only in coins. These coins have largely succeeded because of a removal (or lack) of their corresponding paper issues, whereas the U.S. government has taken no action to remove the $1 bill. The Government Accountability Office (GAO) has stated that discontinuing the dollar bill in favor of the dollar coin would save the U.S. government approximately  over thirty years primarily through seigniorage. The Federal Reserve has refused to order the coin from the mint for distribution citing a lack of demand, according to ex-Mint director Philip Diehl in November 2012.

Whatever the reason, a U.S. Mint official claimed in a November 2012 meeting that most of the 2.4 billion dollar coins minted in the previous five years were not in circulation.

In 2019, the GAO re-estimated the cost of replacing the $1 bill and found for the first time that it would cause the government to lose between   and  because physical money was being used less, resulting in dollar bills remaining in circulation longer compared the 2011 analysis.

Mint marks
The list below is of all mint marks used on the dollar coin:
C: Charlotte, North Carolina (gold coins only; 1838–1861).
CC: Carson City, Nevada (1870–1893).
D: Dahlonega, Georgia (gold coins only; 1838–1861).
D: Denver, Colorado (1906 to date).
O: New Orleans, Louisiana (1838–1861; 1879–1909).
P: Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (produced from 1793 to date, mint mark introduced in 1979).
S: San Francisco, California (1854 to date).
W: West Point, New York (1984 to date).

History

Early dollar coins

Before the American Revolutionary War, coins from many European nations circulated freely in the American colonies, as did coinage issued by the various colonies. Chief among these were the Spanish silver dollar coins (also called pieces of eight or eight reales) minted in Mexico and other colonies with silver mined from Central and South American mines. These coins, along with others of similar size and value, were in use throughout the colonies, and later the United States, and were legal tender until 1857.

In 1776, several thousand pewter Continental Currency coins were minted. Although unconfirmed, many numismatists believe these to have been pattern coins of a proposed silver dollar coin authorized by the Continental Congress to prop up the rapidly failing Continental Currency—the first attempt by the fledgling U.S. at paper currency.  Several examples were also struck in brass and silver, but a circulating coin was not produced, in large part because of the financial difficulties of running the Revolutionary War. The Continental Currency dollar coin bears the date 1776, and while its true denomination is not known, it is generally the size of later dollars, and the name has stuck. The failure of the Continental Currency exacerbated a distrust of paper money among both politicians and the population at large. The letters of Thomas Jefferson indicate that he wished the United States to eschew paper money and instead mint coins of similar perceived value and worth to those foreign coins circulating at the time.

The Coinage Act of 1792 authorized the production of dollar coins from silver. The United States Mint produced silver dollar coins from 1794 to 1803, then ceased regular production of silver dollars until 1836. The first silver dollars, precisely 1,758 of them, were coined on October 15, 1794, and were immediately delivered to Mint Director David Rittenhouse for distribution to dignitaries as souvenirs. Thereafter, until 1804, they were struck in varying quantities. There are two obverse designs: Flowing Hair (1794–1795) and Draped Bust (1795–1804). There are also two reverse designs used for the Draped Bust variety: small eagle (1795–1798) and heraldic eagle (1798–1804). Original silver dollars from this period are highly prized by coin collectors and are exceptionally valuable, and range from fairly common to incredibly rare. Because of the early practice of hand engraving each die, there are dozens of varieties known for all dates between 1795 and 1803.

It is also one of only two denominations (the other being the cent) minted every year from its inception during the first decade of mint operation. Though a new Spanish dollar or 8-real minted after 1772 theoretically contained 417.7 grains of silver of fineness 130/144 (or 377.1 grains fine silver), reliable assays of the period confirmed a fine silver content of  for the average Spanish dollar in circulation.

The new US silver dollar of  therefore compared favorably and was received at par with the Spanish dollar for foreign payments, and in 1803 President Thomas Jefferson halted new silver dollars made out of the US Mint's limited resources since it failed to stay in domestic circulation. The less-exportable half dollar therefore became the largest US-made silver coin in domestic use for the next several decades. It was only after Mexican independence in 1821 when their peso's fine silver content of 377.1 grains was firmly upheld, which the US later had to compete with using a heavier Trade dollar coin of  fine silver.

The 1804 dollar

The 1804 dollar is one of the rarest and most famous coins in the world. Its creation was the result of a simple bookkeeping error, but its status as a highly prized rarity has been established for nearly a century and a half. The silver dollars reported by the mint as being struck in 1804 were dated 1803. (With die steel being very expensive in the early 19th century, dies were used until they were no longer in working condition. This is why many early U.S. coins exhibit various kinds of die cracks, occlusions, cuds, clash marks, and other late-state die wear. Nearly every coin the U.S. struck from 1793 to 1825 has an example that was struck in a year other than that which it bears.) No dollars bearing the date 1804 were ever struck in 1804, though this was unknown to mint officials at the time the 1804 dollar came to be.

The 1804 silver dollar was actually produced in 1834, when the U.S. Department of State decided to produce a set of U.S. coins to be used as gifts to rulers in Asia in exchange for trade advantages. Since 1804 was the last recorded year of mintage for both the dollar and $10 Eagle, it was decided that the set would contain examples of those coins dated 1804, as well as the other denominations currently being produced. Mint officials, not realizing that the 19,000+ dollars recorded as being produced in 1804 were all dated 1803, proceeded to make new dies bearing the date 1804. Only 15 silver dollars with the date of 1804 are known to exist; in 1999, one of them sold at auction for more than $4 million. There are 8 Class I dollars, struck in 1834 for the aforementioned sets, 1 Class II dollar, struck over an 1857 Swiss Shooting Thaler (and now residing in the U.S. Coin Collection at the Smithsonian Institution), and 6 Class III dollars, struck surreptitiously sometime between 1858 and 1860 to meet collector demand for the coin.

Seated Liberty dollar (1836–1873)

Seated Liberty dollars were introduced in 1836 and were minted in lesser quantities than the sparsely minted Gobrecht dollar that preceded it. The dollars were used in general circulation until 1873. The production of large numbers of U.S. gold coins (The first $1 and $20 gold coins were minted in 1849) from the new California mines lowered the price of gold, thereby increasing the value of silver. By 1853, the value of a U.S. silver dollar contained in gold terms, $1.04 of silver, equal to $ today. With the Mint Act of 1853, all U.S. silver coins, except for the U.S. silver dollar and new 3-cent coin, were reduced by 6.9% as of weight with arrows on the date to denote reduction. The U.S. silver dollar continued to be minted in very small numbers mainly as a foreign trade coin with the Orient.

The international trading partners did not like the fact that U.S. coins were reduced in weight. The use of much more common half dollars became problematic since merchants would have to separate higher value pre-1853 coins from the newer reduced ones. From 1853 onward, trade with Asia was typically done with Mexican coins that kept their weight and purity in the 19th century. This ended in 1874 when the price of silver dropped so that a silver dollar had less than $1.00 worth of silver in it (because of huge amounts of silver coming from the Nevada Comstock Lode mines). By 1876, all silver coins were being used as money and by 1878, gold was at par with all U.S. paper dollars. Beginning in 1878, huge amounts of the Morgan silver dollars were produced but few were used as money. The size was too large to carry on business so Silver Certificates were used instead. The mint made the coins, placed them in their vaults, and issued the Silver Certificates instead. This is the reason so many Morgan and Peace dollars can be purchased in AU or UNC condition (near perfect) since they sat in bank or U.S. Treasury vaults most of the time.

Each Seated Liberty dollar is composed of 0.77344 troy oz of silver. They were minted at Philadelphia, New Orleans, Carson City, and San Francisco. A silver dollar would be worth $1 in silver if the price of silver is . The current silver price (January 29, 2021) is  so a silver dollar is worth, in melt value of about .

Gold dollar coins (1849–1889)

The gold dollar was produced from 1849 to 1889. 1849 to 1853 gold dollar coins were 13 mm across and are called Type I. Type II gold dollars were thinner but larger at 15 mm diameter and were produced from 1854 to 1855. The most common gold dollar is the Type III, struck from 1856 until 1889. Production of US$1 gold dollars was high until the Civil War and by 1863, only the larger value gold coins were produced in large quantities. Most gold coins produced from 1863 and onward were produced for imports to pay for enormous amounts of war material and interest on some U.S. Government bonds. Many of these coins from the Civil War and after (silver coins included) are in excellent condition since they saw very limited circulation with greenbacks and postage currency taking their place.

Composed of 90% pure gold, it was the smallest denomination of gold currency ever produced by the United States federal government. When the U.S. system of coinage was originally designed there had been no plans for a gold dollar coin, but in the late 1840s, two gold rushes later, Congress was looking to expand the use of gold in the country's currency. The gold dollar was authorized by the Act of March 3, 1849, and the Liberty Head type began circulating soon afterward.  Because of the high value of gold, the gold dollar is the smallest coin in the history of U.S. coinage.

Trade dollar (1873–1885)

The trade dollar was produced in response to other Western powers, such as Great Britain, Spain, France, and particularly Mexico, to compete with these trade coins for use in trade in Asia. While the previous Spanish dollar of  contained less fine silver than the standard dollar coin of , Mexican pesos minted after Mexican independence contained a full  of fine silver.
The American trade dollar therefore had to contain more silver, at 420 grains of 90% fine silver, fine content , or 0.44 g more fine silver than the regular circulation Seated Liberty Dollars and Morgan Dollars. Most trade dollars ended up in China during their first two years of production, where they were very successful. Many of them exhibit holes or chopmarks which are counterstamps from Asian merchants to verify the authenticity of the coins. Many trade coins of the western powers and large silver coins from China, Korea, and Japan also bear these chopmarks. While most chopmarked coins are generally worth less than those without, some of the more fascinating chopmarks can give the coin a modest premium.

Trade dollars did not circulate in the United States initially, but were legal tender for up to . Things changed, however, in 1876, when the price of silver spiraled downward as western producers dumped silver on the market, making the trade dollar worth more at face value than its silver content. That resulted in trade dollars pouring back into the United States, as they were bought for as little as the equivalent of 80 US cents in Asia, and were then spent at  in the United States. This prompted Congress to revoke their legal tender status, and restrict their coinage to exportation demand only. However, this did not stop unscrupulous persons from buying trade dollars at bullion value, and using them for payment as  to unsuspecting workers and merchants.

Production of the trade dollar was officially discontinued for business strikes in 1878, and thereafter from 1879 to 1885, produced only as proof examples of the coin. The issues of 1884 and 1885 were produced surreptitiously and were unknown to the collecting public until 1908.

In February 1887, all non-mutilated, non-chopmarked outstanding trade dollars were made redeemable to the United States Treasury for , and approximately 8 million of them were turned in.

Morgan dollar (1878–1904, 1921, 2021-present)

Morgan silver dollars, all composed of 90% silver and 10% copper (slightly less silver than sterling silver, 92.5%) containing  of pure silver, were struck between 1878 and 1904, with a minting in 1921 and a commemorative minting in 2021. The 1921-dated coins are the most common, and there exists a substantial collector market for pristine, uncirculated specimens of the rarer dates and mint marks. Morgan dollars are second only to Lincoln Cents in collector popularity. The coin is named after George T. Morgan, its designer. Morgan dollars were minted at Philadelphia (no mint mark), New Orleans ("O" mint mark), San Francisco ("S" mint mark), Carson City ("CC" mint mark), and (in 1921 only) Denver ("D" mint mark). The mint mark is found on the reverse below the wreath, above the "O" in "DOLLAR". Production of the Morgan Dollar began again in 2021 and US Mint officials announced an intention to continue producing them in 2022 and beyond.

Peace dollar (1921–1928, 1934–1935, 2021-present)

Introduced in December 1921 and having the same ratio of silver-to-copper as the Morgan dollar, the Peace dollar, designed by medalist Anthony de Francisci, was promulgated to commemorate the signing of formal peace treaties between the Allied forces and Germany and Austria. These treaties officially ended the Allies' World War I hostilities with these two countries. In 1922 the Mint made silver dollar production its top priority, causing other denominations to be produced sparingly if at all that year. Production ceased temporarily after 1928; original plans called for only a one-year suspension, but this was extended by the Great Depression. Mintage resumed in 1934, but for only two years.

In May 1965, 316,000+ Peace dollars were minted, all at the Denver Mint and dated 1964-D; however, plans for completing this coinage were abandoned, and most of those already minted were melted, with two known trial strike specimens being preserved (for assay purposes) until 1970, when they too were melted, and none released either for circulation or collection purposes. It is rumored that one or more pieces still exist, most notably any examples obtained by key members of Congress, the president, or mint officials. However, this coin, much like the 1933 $20 gold double eagle (aside from the "exception", sold in 2002 for over $7 million and the 10 found later), is illegal to own and would be subject to confiscation.

Minting of the Peace Dollar began again in 2021. US Mint officials have announced an intention to continue minting Peace Dollars in 2022 and beyond.

Release of dollars by the U.S. Treasury: the GSA sale

Because of the size and weight of the dollar coins, they circulated minimally throughout their history, except in the West (especially at casinos in the early-to-mid-20th century, where they were commonly used both at the tables and at slot machines.) As a result, the coins were generally shipped to Washington and stored in the vaults of the U.S. Treasury; at times these stores numbered into the hundreds of millions.

They were very popular as Christmas gifts, however, and from the 1930s to the early 1960s, many bags were annually released to banks nationwide to be distributed as presents. In November 1962, during this annual distribution, it was discovered that there were some rare and valuable dates, still sealed in their original mint bags, all in uncirculated condition, among the millions of dollar coins still in the Treasury vaults. Collectors/investors/dealers lined up to purchase them in $1,000 bags, trading silver certificates for the coins. Before this event, the great rarity of the Morgan series was 1903-O, which was by far the most expensive of the entire set. It was discovered that there were millions of this specific date and mint in the Treasury vaults; an estimated 84% of the entire mintage sat in these bags, untouched for 60 years, all in uncirculated condition. While still relatively expensive in circulated grades, uncirculated examples can be had for a modest amount over common dates.

On March 25, 1964, Secretary of the Treasury C. Douglas Dillon announced that Silver Certificates would no longer be redeemable for silver dollars. Subsequently, another act of Congress dated June 24, 1967, provided that Silver Certificates could be exchanged for silver bullion for a period of one year, until June 24, 1968.

Following this, the Treasury inventoried its remaining stock of dollar coins and found approximately 3,000 bags containing 3 million coins. Many of the remaining coins were Carson City mint dollars, which even then carried a premium. The coins were placed in special hard plastic holders and the General Services Administration (GSA) was given authorization to sell them to the public in a series of mail-bid sales. Five sales were conducted in 1973 and 1974, but sales were poor, and the results unspectacular. There was much complaining among the coin-buying public, many stating that the United States government should not be in the "coin business", especially considering that the government had spent little more than a dollar to mint and store each coin. After these sales, more than a million coins were still left unsold.

These sat again until 1979–1980, where, amidst an extraordinarily volatile precious metals market (the attempt by the 3 Hunt brothers to corner the silver market), the remaining coins were sold under chaotic conditions. The GSA, having published minimum bids in November 1979, announced on January 2, 1980, that those minimum bids were no longer valid, and that prospective bidders would have to "call in" to a toll-free number to get current minimum bids. Then, on February 21, 13 days after the bidding process officially began, the maximum number of coins per bidder was changed from 500 to 35. Many bidders, under these confusing conditions, ended up with no coins at all. Complaints again flooded into Congress, but the damage had already been done, and the last silver dollars held by the United States Treasury were gone.

Over the years, many of these GSA dollars have been broken out of their special holders for purposes of grading or otherwise, and now GSA dollars still in the unbroken original holders carry a small premium. Some third-party grading companies have begun to grade coins still in their GSA holders, as a means of preservation, though this is not without controversy.

Eisenhower dollar (1971–1978)

From 1971 to 1978, the U.S. Mint issued dollar coins with the obverse depicting President Dwight David Eisenhower  and the reverse the insignia of the Apollo 11 Moon landing, both designed by Chief Engraver Frank Gasparro. The 1976 Bicentennial commemorative design, produced in 1975 and 1976, featured the Liberty Bell and the Moon on the reverse (designed by Dennis R. Williams) while retaining the Eisenhower obverse, and the dual dates 1776–1976. The Eisenhower dollars minted for general circulation contained no silver or gold but were instead composed of the same copper-nickel clad composition used for the dime, quarter, and half dollar. This made the circulation coins extremely resistant to wear and, like the smaller denominations, they still retain a good deal of shine even when subject to mass usage.

From 1971 through 1976, the Mint also produced dollars composed of 40% silver aimed at the collector market. The 1971–1974 issues appeared in brown boxes or blue packages, depending on whether they were proof or uncirculated. Somewhat different Bicentennial sets were produced in the following two years. All issues remain very common.

The coins were never very popular, primarily because of their large size and weight which made them inconvenient to carry, and the fact that very few vending machines were designed to accept them. They saw the greatest use in casinos, and one-dollar tokens in many United States casinos still approximate the size and weight of the coins. Prior to the withdrawal of the coins, which remain legal tender (and are sometimes available at banks by request), many casinos did not strike their own tokens, but instead used the Eisenhower dollar.

Susan B. Anthony dollar (1979–1981; 1999)

From 1979 to 1981, and again in 1999, the Mint produced Anthony Dollars depicting women's suffrage activist Susan B. Anthony (also designed by Frank Gasparro). Anthony thus became the first historical female person portrayed on circulating U.S. coinage. Many earlier circulating coins had featured images of women via allegorical figures such as Peace or Liberty; Spain's Queen Isabella appeared on the 1893 Columbian Exposition quarter dollar but the coin was not intended for general circulation. The Anthony dollars, like the Eisenhower dollars, were made from a copper-nickel clad. The 1981 coins were issued for collectors only but occasionally show up in circulation.

The Anthony dollar, because of its color, size, and design, was often confused with the quarter. It was never popular and production was suspended after 1981. In 1999, it was struck again when Treasury reserves of the coin were low and the Sacagawea dollar was still a year away from production.  While reserves of the coins were high, the coins were most often seen in vending machines, transit systems, and post offices.

American Silver Eagle (1986–present)

The American Silver Eagle is the official silver bullion coin of the United States. It was designed by Adolph A. Weinman and John Mercanti and it was first released by the United States Mint on November 24, 1986. It is struck only in the one troy ounce size, which has a nominal face value of one dollar and is guaranteed to contain one troy ounce of 99.9% pure silver. It is authorized by Title II of Public Law 99-61 (Liberty Coin Act, approved July 9, 1985) and codified as (e)-(h). Its content, weight, and purity are certified by the United States Mint. In addition to the bullion version, the United States Mint has produced a proof version and an uncirculated version for coin collectors. The Silver Eagle has been produced at three mints: the Philadelphia Mint, the San Francisco Mint, and the West Point Mint. The American Silver Eagle bullion coin may be used to fund Individual Retirement Account investments.

Sacagawea dollar (2000–present)

The Sacagawea dollar was authorized by Congress in 1997 because the supply of Anthony dollars, in inventory since their last mintage in 1981, was soon expected to be depleted. These coins have a copper core clad by manganese brass. Delays in increasing Sacagawea dollar production led to a final 1999-dated mintage of Susan B. Anthony dollars. Dollar coins are used infrequently in general commerce. They used to be given as change by United States Postal Service (USPS) stamp vending machines, which created a relatively small but significant demand, but the USPS eliminated all those machines by 2011. They were also used in certain subway and public transit systems, such as the Boston subway and New York City Subway ticketing machines.

In 1998, the U.S. Mint conducted a limited design competition for the new dollar, inviting 23 artists to submit designs portraying Sacagawea on the obverse ("heads") side and American bald eagle on the reverse ("tails") side. In November 1998, an exhibit of 123 submitted designs was held at the Casa Italiana Hall in Washington, D.C. to solicit public and private comment. Design concepts were submitted in the form of drawings, renderings, sculpture, and die-struck prototypes.

The obverse was designed by artist Glenna Goodacre. Since no verifiable image of Sacagawea exists, Goodacre used Randy'L He-dow Teton, a University of New Mexico college student and a Shoshone Indian, as a model for the coin.

There are approximately 1 billion Sacagawea coins in circulation and about 250 million in reserve. The U.S. Mint greatly reduced production of Sacagawea dollars after the 2001 minting, citing sufficient inventory. From 2002 to 2008, the Sacagawea dollar was still minted for collectors and was available in uncirculated rolls, mint sets, and proof sets, but it was not released for general circulation again until the introduction of the Native American series in 2009.

The Mint took great care to create the coin with the same size, weight, and electromagnetic properties as the Anthony dollar, but with a golden color. Unlike most other coins in circulation, the selected alloy has a tendency to tarnish quite severely in circulation, as is the case with most brasses, resulting in a loss of the golden shine, except on raised areas where the "patina" is more frequently rubbed off. While some consider the blackening an undesired quality, the Mint suggests the uneven tarnishing effect gives the coins an "antique finish" that "accentuate[s] the profile and add[s] a dimension of depth to the depiction of Sacagawea and her child".

The coin featured a plain edge through 2008, but starting in 2009, incused lettering was applied. The year and mint mark moved from the coin's obverse (front) to its edge.

, dollar coins are not widely encountered in U.S. commerce, except in vending machines for rides on mass transit, some pay and display machines, some laundromats, and old-fashioned slot machines. On the other hand, the Sacagawea dollar has achieved popularity in El Salvador, Ecuador, and Panama, where the U.S. dollar is also the official currency.

Native American series

With the passage of the Native American $1 Coin Act on September 20, 2007, the U.S. Mint began designing a series of Sacagawea dollars with modified reverses to further commemorate "Native Americans and the important contributions made by Indian tribes and individual Native Americans to the development of the United States and the history of the United States". Four designs were to be minted, each for one year from 2009 to 2012. The first Native American series coin was released in January 2009 and had a reverse that depicted a Native American woman sowing seeds of the Three Sisters, symbolizing the Indian tribes' contributions to agriculture.

Like the Presidential Dollar, the year of issue, mint mark, and motto E Pluribus Unum are found on the edge of the coin instead of on the obverse or reverse, which allows for more room for the design. Unlike the Presidential $1 coins from before 2009, "In God We Trust" remains on the obverse and the vacant space on the edge lettering has been taken up by thirteen stars, symbolizing the Thirteen Colonies. Also, unlike any other denomination of circulating U.S. coinage (but in common with the Presidential $1 coins), the value is inscribed in numerals on the reverse. The act passed by Congress requires that 20% of the total dollar coins minted in any year during the Presidential $1 Coin Program be Sacagawea dollars bearing the new design.

In January 2010, the second reverse design in the series was released which has the theme of "Government" and the "Great Tree of Peace". The 2010 Sacagawea reverse depicts the Hiawatha Belt and five arrows bound together representing unity with the inscription "Haudenosaunee", a synonym for the Iroquois Confederacy meaning "People of the Longhouse". Another inscription is found along the lower edge of the reverse spelling "Great Law of Peace" (an English translation of Gayanashagowa, the Iroquois Confederacy constitution). The Great Law of Peace was used as a model for the Constitution of the United States. The four links on the belt are meant to symbolize four of the five Nations of the Iroquois Confederacy, namely the Mohawk, Oneida, Cayuga and Seneca Nations. The Eastern White Pine tree in the middle of the belt represents the fifth Nation, the Onondaga, and is a depiction of the Tree of Peace.

Presidential Dollar Coins (2007–2016; 2020)

In December 2005, Congress decided to create a new series of $1 coins that would honor the former U.S. presidents. In 2007, Presidential coins of four different designs were produced. Another four designs will be produced each year, honoring the presidents in order of service. (Grover Cleveland is on two coins, since he served two non-consecutive terms.)  The Presidential $1 Coin Act is intended to create renewed interest in dollar coins, like that seen during the 50 State Quarters program. At least one-third of all dollar coins produced are still Sacagawea coins, with the remaining coins making up the four presidential coins annually. Under federal law (), no coins may be issued featuring a living president, or a president who died less than two years earlier.

The presidential dollar coin is the same size and composition as the Sacagawea dollar. "In God We Trust", the issue year, and the mint mark appear on the edge. The first dollar, honoring George Washington, was released into circulation on February 15, 2007.
However,  became law on December 26, 2007, which moved "In God We Trust" from the edge to the obverse.

A common minting error on this coin, estimated at 80,000, from a mintage of 300,000,000 coins, is the omission of the edge lettering causing a plain outside edge.  Because the omission includes the words "In God We Trust", some in the popular media have dubbed it the "godless" coin.  A false (although at one time widely reported) error is the report that the edge lettering is upside down. The edge lettering does not occur at the same time as the minting of the coins, allowing for the natural occurrence of the lettering in either orientation, except Proof Coins where the date and lettering are all "right-side-up".

Because of budget constraints and increasing stockpiles of these relatively unpopular coins, the production of new presidential dollar coins for circulation was suspended on December 11, 2011, by U.S. Treasury Secretary Timothy F. Geithner. Further minting of these coins was reserved solely for collectors.

American Innovation Dollar Coins (2018–2032)

On July 20, 2018, then-President Donald Trump signed the American Innovation $1 Coin Act into law. The program calls for the release of four new coins each year from 2019 through 2032 "to honor innovation and innovators by issuing $1 coins for each of the 50 states, the District of Columbia, and the five U.S. territories – Puerto Rico, Guam, American Samoa, the U.S. Virgin Islands, and the Northern Mariana Islands". An introductory coin, commemorating George Washington signing the country's first patent into law, was released in December 2018. The coins are currently only being minted for collectors.

Designs

 Silver dollar coins
 Flowing Hair dollar 1794–1795
 Draped Bust dollar 1795–1803
 Draped Bust, Small Eagle 1795–1798
 Draped Bust, Heraldic Eagle 1798–1803, 1804 (not a regular issue)
 Gobrecht dollar 1836–1839
 Seated Liberty dollar 1840–1873
 Seated Liberty, no motto 1840–1865
 Seated Liberty, with motto 1866–1873
 Trade dollar 1873–1878 (Business & Proofs struck), 1879–1885 (Proofs only)
 Morgan dollar 1878–1904, 1921
 Peace dollar 1921–1935
 Peace dollar (high relief) 1921
 Peace dollar (low relief) 1922–1928, 1934–1935
American Silver Eagle 1986–present

 Gold dollar coins
 Liberty Head (Small Size) 1849–1854
 Indian Head (Large Size) 1854–1889
 Small Indian Head 1854–1856
 Large Indian Head 1856–1889

 Copper-nickel clad dollar coins
 Eisenhower dollar 1971–1974, 1977–1978
 Eisenhower Bicentennial 1975–1976 (all dated 1976)
 Susan B. Anthony dollar 1979–1981, 1999

 Manganese brass "golden" dollar coins
 Sacagawea dollar (eagle reverse) 2000–2008
 Sacagawea dollar (Native American series) 2009–present
 Presidential dollar coins 2007–2016, 2020
 American Innovation dollars 2018–2032

See also

 Modern United States commemorative coins
 United States $1 Coin Act of 1997
 United States Mint coin production

References

Further reading
 The Comprehensive U. S. Silver Dollar Encyclopedia by John W. Highfill,
 Comprehensive Catalog and Encyclopedia of Morgan and Peace Dollars,
 Financial Impact of Issuing the New $1 Coin , GAO/GGD-00-111R, April 7, 2000.
 New coin unlikely change?, Steve Cranford, Charlotte Business Journal, July 21, 2000.

External links

 Exhibition: Legendary Coins & Currency (National Museum of American History)
 United States Mint

United States dollar coins

Dollar coin (United States)


Charles McGee (December 15, 1924 – February 4, 2021) was an American artist and educator known for creating paintings, assemblages, and sculptures. His artwork is in the collections of the Detroit Institute of Arts and the Charles H. Wright Museum of African American History.  He also had several large-scale public works in the city of Detroit.

Early life and education
McGee was born in Clemson, South Carolina, on December 15, 1924.  He was first raised by his grandparents, who were sharecroppers.  He received his first artistic inspiration while picking cotton and helping his grandfather tend the land.  There, "he observed firsthand the order and harmony that exists within nature."  He had no formal schooling until moving to Detroit at age 10, where he found that "everything was on the move and it hasn't slowed down yet." in 2017 he observed, "I learned something not being in school — because life is school . . .I learn something every time I move. Every time I go around a corner, something new is revealed to me."

As a boy, McGee attended George Washington Elementary and took art classes at the McGregor Public Library in Highland Park.  He attended Cleveland High School near Hamtramck and was active as a creative designer and coordinator of float construction for the school's parades.  After high school, McGee went to work for Briggs Manufacturing Company in Detroit.

Military service
McGee enlisted in the Marine Corps in 1943 and served for three years, including during World War II.  He was stationed in Nagasaki as part of the Allied occupation of Japan.    After returning to Detroit, he took advantage of the GI Bill to attend classes at the College for Creative Studies, then known as the Society of Arts and Crafts.

Career
The mediums McGee employed in the early part of his career were charcoal and painting.  He had a one-year sojourn in Barcelona in 1968 to learn and sightsee.  This experience represented a crossroads in his artistic career.  The artwork he produced afterwards centered more on fundamental elements and less on subject matter, and he abandoned the realism that had dominated his early drawings.  One notable exception to this was in Noah's Ark: 'Genesis''' (1984) at the Detroit Institute of Arts, which depicts two Egyptian-styled women and animals that are presented in "playful, abstracted simplicity".  However, these human representations were created in line with the abstract form he adopted, with Jean Dubuffet named as a key inspiration.  Nature was also a key theme in his work, inspired by his childhood experiences while outdoors picking cotton.  One of his final works, Unity (2018) painted on the outside of 28 Grand Building, ties in with nature and human interaction.

McGee regularly taught art at Eastern Michigan University from 1969 until 1987.  He also taught at the University of Michigan and the Birmingham Bloomfield Art Center.  He established Gallery 7 and a small namesake School for the Arts where he taught.  He was also responsible for preparing and curating art exhibitions.

McGee's paintings, assemblages and sculptures are held in U.S. and international collections, and are on permanent display at the Detroit Institute of Arts, the Dennos Museum, and the Charles H. Wright Museum of African American History.

McGee's work is installed in public settings, including the William Beaumont Hospital of Royal Oak, Michigan and the Detroit People Mover Broadway Station.  He co-founded the Contemporary Art Institute of Detroit (CAID) in 1978. The Charles McGee Community Commons, dedicated by Marygrove College in 2016, stands at the corner of West McNichols Road and Wyoming Avenue in Detroit, across the street from the space that served as McGee's studio for over fifty years. McGee's Playscape II'' is the centerpiece of the Commons.

Detroit as a creative setting
According to the Kresge Foundation, "McGee developed an unwavering loyalty to the city and its residents, and endowed it with much of his artistic energy and artwork. 'Detroit really has been a heaven for me,' McGee explains. 'It has given me dignity and treated me with respect.'"

Awards
McGee was named the inaugural Kresge Eminent Artist in 2008.  Administered by the College for Creative Studies, this award honors one Detroit artist each year for professional achievements, cultural contributions, and commitment to the local arts community.  The College also awarded him an honorary doctorate for his work as an artist and educator.

In early 2019, Michigan Legacy Art Park announced that McGee would receive its 2019 Legacy Award "in recognition of a lifetime of achievements and influences as an artist, teacher, advocate and global citizen."

Later life
McGee suffered a stroke in 2011, which impacted his ability to produce art.  He died on February 4, 2021, at his home in Detroit.  He was 96, and died of natural causes.

References

External links
Artist Charles McGee, 2018 PBS video interview
Charles McGee, 2011 Art X Detroit, video
Charles McGee 2004
Charles McGee Profile, Metro Times
Charles McGee at Work : Detroit
McGregor Public Library in Highland Park
Kresge Eminent Artist
Michigan Legacy Art Park

1924 births
2021 deaths
African-American painters
Painters from Detroit
Artists from South Carolina
College for Creative Studies alumni
Military personnel from South Carolina
People from Clemson, South Carolina
United States Marine Corps personnel of World War II
20th-century African-American painters
20th-century American painters
21st-century African-American people

Charles McGee (painter)


Charles "Homeboy" Albert Smith (born July 26, 1950) is a former American football wide receiver. He played eight seasons (1974–1981) in the National Football League (NFL) for the Philadelphia Eagles. He played college football at Grambling State University.

Professional career

Los Angeles Rams
Smith signed as an undrafted free agent with the Los Angeles Rams following the 1973 NFL Draft. At the beginning of the 1973 season, the Rams released Smith, and attempted to re-sign him for the 1974 season. Smith did not re-sign with them, because he knew that all the Rams' receivers would be coming back the following season, and Lance Rentzel would be back after being suspended for the season.

Philadelphia Eagles
Smith thought he would have a better chance at making the Philadelphia Eagles' team, and signed with them. Eagles wide receiver Harold Carmichael, who attended Southern University, was Smith's rival in college due to their teams playing in the same conference. Eagles defensive end Ricky Harris played with Smith at Grambling State.

In 1974, Smith returned four punts for seven yards and did not catch any passes. In 1975, Smith became the Eagles starting wide receiver alongside Carmichael. Smith caught 37 passes for 515 yards and six touchdowns in his first season as a starter. He also rushed for 85 yards on nine carries. In 1976, Smith caught 27 passes for 412 yards and four touchdowns. He had nine carries for 25 yards and one touchdown. In 1977, Smith made 33 receptions for 464 yards and four touchdowns. He also had two carries for 13 yards. In 1978, he caught 11 passes for 142 yards and two touchdowns. He made 24 catches for 399 yards and one touchdown in 1979.

In 1980, Smith had the best season of his career, hauling in 47 passes for 825 yards and three touchdowns. He rushed five times for 33 yards. In Super Bowl XV against the Oakland Raiders, Smith caught two passes for 59 yards. In his final season in 1981, Smith made 38 receptions for 564 yards and four touchdowns, along with two rushes for five yards.

Smith caught 218 passes for 3,349 yards and 24 touchdowns in the eight seasons of his career.

Boston/New Orleans Breakers

Smith played for the Boston/New Orleans Breakers of the USFL in 1983 and 1984, before retiring.

Coaching career
From 1985 to 2005, Smith was a high school football head coach in his hometown of Monroe, Louisiana, mostly at Wossman High School. Since 1988, Smith has been Wossman High School's track coach.

Personal
Smith is married to his wife, Bernice, and has two sons, Charles, Jr. and Eric, and five grandchildren.

References

1950 births
Living people
American football wide receivers
Boston/New Orleans/Portland Breakers players
Grambling State Tigers football players
Philadelphia Eagles players
High school football coaches in Louisiana
Players of American football from Monroe, Louisiana

Charlie Smith (wide receiver)


The 2011 UFL Championship Game was the third championship game of the United Football League and took place on October 21, 2011, the concluding weekend of the league's truncated third season.  The game was won by the Virginia Destroyers, who, in front of a standing-room-only home crowd at Virginia Beach Sportsplex, defeated the two-time defending champion Las Vegas Locomotives 17–3, spurred by the performance of strong safety and game MVP Aaron Rouse.  The win gave Destroyers coach Marty Schottenheimer, notorious for his failure to reach the Super Bowl in his NFL coaching career despite strong regular season statistics, his first and only championship as a professional head coach and his first professional championship since the 1965 American Football League Championship Game, Schottenheimer's rookie season as a player.

Background

The date of the 2011 championship game was the subject of ongoing upheaval in the UFL both before and during its 2011 season.  At the start of the offseason, the UFL had six teams: the Las Vegas Locomotives, Sacramento Mountain Lions, Omaha Nighthawks, Florida Tuskers, Hartford Colonials, and expansion Virginia Destroyers.  The leagued had hoped for a ten-game season involving those six teams that would begin in August with the title game in late October or early November, on the premise that the National Football League's ongoing player lockout would extend into its preseason and early regular season, which takes place in August and September.  Plans would start to shift in January 2011, when the Tuskers folded and its players and staff shifted to Virginia to form the Destroyers.  The UFL's new plans for a five-team season, starting in August and ending with the title game the weekend of October 21–23, would be delayed in July and changed in August, when the Colonials were folded, the NFL's lockout was resolved, and the UFL couldn't reach a national TV partnership.

The UFL's 2011 season would finally begin on September 15, with the Championship Game set for the weekend of November 4–5.  By mid-October, when five of the season's seven weeks were played, the UFL announced the cancellation of the last two weeks of the season and moved up the title game to the night of October 21—ironically the weekend originally slated for the title game in the previous five-team plan.  Virginia and Las Vegas, who shared first place at the time of cancellation (with identical 3-1 records) were awarded berths in the Championship Game.  Using similar criteria employed to determine the 2010 Championship Game's host venue (an inexact formula based on team success and fan support), Virginia Beach Sportsplex was announced as the 2011 title game's venue; the Destroyers attracted crowds in the 12,000 for their two home games, while only 6,500 came to Las Vegas' lone home game on October 8 (the Locos' final two home games were among the games cancelled by the league).

On the field, the play of the Locomotives and Destroyers (the former Florida Tuskers) were on par with their performances in 2009 and 2010. Coached by Jim Fassel, the Locos were led by quarterback Chase Clement, the 2010 title game MVP, and the top-ranked passing defense in the UFL.  The Destroyers, under the guidance of 2011 Coach of the Year Marty Schottenheimer, were led by running back Dominic Rhodes, the league's leading rusher, top scorer, and Offensive Player of the Year.

Game summary
The Championship Game was dominated by defense, specifically that of the Destroyers.  On the 3rd offensive drive of the game (Las Vegas' 2nd), Virginia strong safety Aaron Rouse put the first points on the board with a return of a Chase Clement interception 46 yards for a touchdown with 8:32 remaining in the 1st quarter; it was Rouse's 2nd of 3 interceptions in the game.  Indeed, Virginia's defense would hound Clement all night; the Locos' quarterback "just couldn't make it happen" (his post-game comment) was held to 93 yards passing, sacked 6 times, threw the 3 INT's to Rouse, and failed to get a 1st down until 7:45 remained in the 3rd quarter.

The Destroyers' offense fared a little better than the Locos'.  On the 3rd play of the 2nd quarter, Virginia's Clifton Smith returned a Danny Baugher punt 60 yards to the Las Vegas 7; 3 plays later, Dominic Rhodes would score on a 2-yard run for a 14-0 Destroyers lead.  After a 32-yard Clint Stitser field goal (the Locos' only points of the night) made it 14-3, Virginia would respond on the next drive with a Delbert Alvarado field goal (from 21 yards out) to cement the final score.  The Destroyers defense would stand down in the 2nd half and secure the team the UFL title and deny the Locos a championship three-peat.

Scoring Summary

Statistical Leaders
Rushing Leaders
LV: Hakim Hill, 43 yards on 9 carries
VA: Dominic Rhodes, 96 yards on 27 carries
Passing Leaders
LV: Chase Clement, 7-26, 93 yards, 3 INT's
VA: Chris Greisen, 21-31, 154 yards, 1 INT
Receiving Leaders
LV: Samie Parker, 2 catches for 27 yards
VA: Dominic Rhodes, 4 catches for 9 yards
Defensive Leaders
LV: Wale Dada, 8.5 tackles (8 solo, 1 assisted); Brandon Moore, 2 tackles (4 assisted), 1 INT
VA: Tony Taylor, 4.5 tackles (2 solo, 5 assisted); Aaron Rouse, 4 tackles (2 solo, 4 assisted), 3 INT's, 1 TD

Most Valuable Player
Virginia Destroyers strong safety Aaron Rouse was awarded the UFL Championship Game's most valuable player award after the game.  Rouse, a Virginia Beach native and former Virginia Tech star, spearheaded the Destroyers' defensive performance in the game, with 3 interceptions (the 2nd of which he returned for the first touchdown of the game), 4 tackles, and 2 pass break-ups.  Rouse's performance came during a difficult personal week, when he suffered the loss of his 19-year-old cousin in a shooting incident.

Broadcasting
Unlike the league's first two championship games, which were broadcast by former TV partner Versus, which had fairly wide national cable and satellite availability, TV coverage of the 2011 UFL Championship Game was limited to regional coverage by Comcast SportsNet Mid-Atlantic, with Brent Harris and Jerry Glanville calling the game.  The broadcast was simulcast online through the UFL's partnership with Veetle.  Radio coverage was provided by the Locos' and Destroyers' respective radio outlets, KBAD and WVSP-FM.

Consolation game
As part of the UFL's cancellation announcement of its 2011 regular season, a "consolation game" involving the league's third- and fourth-place teams, the Omaha Nighthawks and Sacramento Mountain Lions, was also set for October 21 and played concurrently with the championship game. The game, played at Omaha's TD Ameritrade Park, was one of the games cancelled by the UFL (it had been scheduled for October 28) and had a high demand (15,000 tickets were sold); rather than distributing a mass refund, the UFL moved the game to October 21 while honoring tickets for the October 28 game. In front of a crowd of 10,123, the Mountain Lions won in overtime, 25-19, thanks to a 23-yard touchdown run by running back Cory Ross with 1:36 left in the extra period.  This game was the first third-place outdoor professional American football game played since the NFL had discontinued the Playoff Bowl effective after the one held at the end of the 1969 season.

References

Championship Game
UFL Championship Game
UFL Championship Game
American football in Virginia
Las Vegas Locomotives
Sports in Virginia Beach, Virginia
Virginia Destroyers
November 2011 sports events in the United States

2011 UFL Championship Game


The First Battle of Tarain, also spelt as the First Battle of Taraori, was fought in 1191 between the invading Ghurid army led by Muhammad of Ghor and the Rajput Confederacy led by Prithviraj Chauhan, near Tarain (modern Taraori in Haryana, India). The battle ended in decisive victory for the Rajputs; however, Muhammad of Ghor managed to escape and returned to Ghazni.

After the Ghurid armies were routed, they retreated to the Ghazni and left garrison of 2,000 soldiers under Zia ud-Din Tulaki to secure the fort of Tabarhind (present day Bhatinda) to delay the Rajput army and was successful in keeping them at bay for thirteen months, while Muhammad of Ghor, during these months, raised a stronger army of 120,000 men, and invaded again, leading to the Second Battle of Tarain.

Sources

The contemporary sources for the battle include Tajul-Ma'asir of Hasan Nizami (on the Ghurid side) and Jayanaka's Prithviraja Vijaya (on the Chahamana side).

Later sources for the battle include the following Persian-language chronicles:

 Minhaj-i-Siraj's Tabaqat-i Nasiri (1260 CE)
 Abdul Malik Isami's Futuh-us-Salatin (c. 1350)
 Yahya bin Ahmad Sirhindi's Tarikh-I-Mubarakshahi (1434 CE)
 Nizam al-Din Ahmad's Tabaqat-i Akbari (1593-1594 CE)
 `Abd al-Qadir Bada'uni's Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh (c. 1590s CE)
 Firishta's Tarikh-i Firishta (early 17th century)

These chroniclers call Prithviraj by various names including "Rae Kolah Pithorā" (Minhaj), "Pithor Rai" (Sirhindi), and "Pithow Ray" (Firishta). They call Prithviraj's commander-in-chief Govind Rai Tomar as "Gobind Rae" (Minhaj); "Gobind Rai" (Sirhindi); Khand, Khanda, or Khandi (Nizam al-Din and Bada'uni); and Chawund Ray (Firishta).

The later sources written in Indic languages include Hammira Mahakavya and Prithviraj Raso.

Background

Mu'izz ad-Din captured Multan in 1175, and in 1178, unsuccessfully invaded the Chaulukya (Solanki) Kingdom in present-day Gujarat and northern Rajasthan. Subsequently, the Ghurids defeated the Ghaznavids, and conquered Lahore in 1186.

Mu'izz ad-Din sent his envoy - the Chief Judge Qiwam-ul Mulk Ruknud Din Hamza - to the court of Prithviraj, to persuade the Indian king to come to a peaceful agreement. Tajul-Ma'asir, a chronicle by the Muslim writer Hasan Nizami, describes the envoy as a "prominent dignitary", who conveyed Mu'izz ad-Din's message to Prithviraj "in a refined and graceful manner", using "elegant language". The Chahamana-sponsored text Prithviraja Vijaya, which describes Mu'izz ad-Din as an "evil" beef-eating "demon", portrays the envoy as an extremely ugly person whose "ghastly white" complexion made him appear to be suffering from a skin disease, and whose speech was like "the cry of wild birds".

Prithviraj refused to agree to the Ghurid envoy's terms, which according to Hasan Nizami, included converting to Islam and accepting the Ghurid suzerainty. Mu'izz ad-Din then decided to invade the Chahamana kingdom.

The Ghurid campaign that led to the first battle of Tarain may have started in 1190, but the actual battle was most probably fought in the winter of 1191 CE.

The battle

Sometime before 1191, Mu'izz ad-Din's army captured the Tabarhindh fort (probably present-day Bathinda), which was presumably under Chahamana control. According to Sirhindi, sometime in 1191 (Hijri year 587), Prithviraj marched against the Ghurid army with infantry, cavalry, and an elephant force. Mu'izz ad-Din was about to leave Tabarhindah, when he received the news of Prithviraj's approach; he then marched against Prithviraj, and the two armies met at Tarain.

Prithviraj was accompanied by a number of feudatory rulers, whom Minhaj describes as "the whole of the Ranas of Hind". These rulers included Govind Rai, the ruler of Delhi. Sirhindi states that Govind Rai Tomar, seated on an elephant, was at the frontline, suggesting that he was the commander-in-chief of Prithviraj's army. Sirhindi and later chroniclers, such as Nizam al-Din and Bada'uni, describe Govind Rai as a brother of Prithviraj. Firishta also describes Prithviraj and Govind Rai as brothers, stating that the two men marched against the Ghurids in alliance with other Indian rulers. Firishta portrays Govind Rai as someone who was almost equally as powerful as Prithviraj, presumably because Govind Rai was the ruler of Delhi, which had become politically important by Firishta's time.

The Ghurid cavalry initiated the battle by launching arrows at the enemy center. The Chahamana forces counter-attacked from three sides and dominated the battle, pressuring the Ghurid army into a withdrawal.

According to Sirhindi, the Ghurid troops suffered reverses despite having fought bravely: when Mu'izz ad-Din saw this, he charged against Govind Rai. Minhaj states that Mu'izz ad-Din, who was riding a horse, attacked Govind Rai with a lance, hitting his mouth and breaking two of his teeth. Govind Rai retaliated with a javelin, severely wounding Mu'izz ad-Din's upper arm. According to Minhaj, Mu'izz ad-Din would have died or been captured, had a young soldier not led his horse to safety. After his departure from the battlefield, the Ghurid troops were disheartened and defeated.

Mu'izz ad-Din left for Ghazni, leaving behind a garrison at Tabarhindah. Prithviraj besieged the fort, and captured it sometime before the second battle of Tarain. He did not pursue the Ghurid army, either not wanting to invade hostile territory or misjudging Mu'izz ad-Din's ambition.

See also
 List of battles fought in Rajasthan

References

Bibliography

Islamic rule in the Indian subcontinent
Tarain 1191
12th century in India
Battles involving the Ghurids
Tarain
Conflicts in 1191
Conflicts in 1192
1191 in Asia
1192 in Asia
Karnal district
History of Haryana
Battles involving Turkic peoples
Battles involving the Tajiks

First Battle of Tarain


Moon for Sale is a 2007 British documentary film directed and produced by Nick Davidson. The film premiered on BBC Two on 10 April 2007 and has played worldwide since. The primary focus of the documentary is on the value of the Moon to scientists and collectors. Dr. Harrison Schmitt, an Apollo 17 astronaut, is seen discussing harvesting Helium 3 on the Moon to meet Earth's energy needs. Also discussed in the documentary is the black market industry in stolen Apollo-era Moon rocks, which sell for as much as $5 million a gram. Specifically, the viewer is introduced to a sting operation known as Operation Lunar Eclipse, where for the first time a Moon rock, the Honduras Apollo 17 Goodwill Moon rock, is recovered by US federal agents.

See also
The Case of the Missing Moon Rocks
 Moon tree
Sex on the Moon
 Joseph Gutheinz

References

Documentary films about outer space
Moon in film
Stolen and missing Moon rocks

Moon for Sale


St. Mary's Catholic Church, known as the "Prairie Cathedral" or the "Cathedral of the Cornfields", is a Roman Catholic church in Beaverville, Illinois. The Romanesque Revival church was built in 1909–1911. The church features two towers and a tiled dome roof; it is both the tallest and most prominent landmark in Beaverville. In 1996, the church was added to the National Register of Historic Places.

Architecture
Prominent Chicago church architect Joseph Molitor designed the church in the Romanesque Revival style. The church was built using limestone blocks with a rough cut exterior. The church has an "L"-shaped plan with a small wing in the back forming the leg. The building is both the tallest structure in Beaverville and the most visible landmark in the village.

The church's main entrance is located on its west side; the three sets of double doors are each topped by a stained glass transom. A pair of four-story towers are located on either side of the entrance. The third and fourth floors of each tower are open with pilasters framing the arched openings; balustrades run along the third-floor apertures, while the fourth-floor openings feature keystones and classical cornices. Triangular pediments are situated atop both towers.

The center of the church includes an octagonal section topped by a dome roof. The roof is composed of red French clay tiles. Each side of the octagon is  long with a  base. A small flat octagonal section at the top of the dome is fenced off by an iron railing. Seven secondary gable roofs cover the other parts of the church, while a smaller octagon tops the wing; these other roofs are also shingled with red tiles. Roughly 22,000 tiles were used to construct the church's roofs.

Each side of the church features seven arched stained glass windows on its first floor. Six windows on each side have the same dimensions, while a larger window is located in the base of the octagon. Each side of the octagon's second story includes three smaller windows. The wing includes five additional stained glass windows; two are located on each floor of the west side, while the fifth is on the east side's second story.

History
The St. Mary's parish was established in 1857, when the village of Beaverville was known as St. Marie. The parish opened its own school in 1895 and established a convent the following year. Due to the parish's increasing congregation, construction began on the current church building in 1909. The new church was dedicated in 1911; however, the building's construction debts were not fully paid until 1945. After its debt was cleared, the congregation decorated the interior of the church; however, many of these decorations were lost to renovations in the 1970s. The parish's elementary and high schools closed in 1965 and 1969 respectively;  services are still held in the church, however.

References

External links
Church website

Roman Catholic churches completed in 1911
Buildings and structures in Iroquois County, Illinois
Churches on the National Register of Historic Places in Illinois
Renaissance Revival architecture in Illinois
Churches in the Roman Catholic Diocese of Joliet in Illinois
Romanesque Revival church buildings in Illinois
1857 establishments in Illinois
Religious organizations established in 1857
Tourist attractions in Iroquois County, Illinois
National Register of Historic Places in Iroquois County, Illinois
20th-century Roman Catholic church buildings in the United States

St. Mary's Church (Beaverville, Illinois)


Gasbags is a 1941 British comedy film directed by Walter Forde and Marcel Varnel and starring The Crazy Gang as well as Moore Marriott. The film was a morale-booster in the early part of the Second World War.

Production
It was shot at the Lime Grove Studios in London. The film's sets were designed by the art director Alex Vetchinsky. It was the fourth and final film starring the comedians at Gainsborough Pictures. Flanagan and Allen subsequently moved to British National where they made a further four films over the next few years.

Plot summary
The Crazy Gang's mobile fish and chip shop is tethered to a barrage balloon which lifts the shop into the air and the gang is carried to Nazi Germany. They are captured but break out of prison, impersonate Adolf Hitler and return to England in a stolen secret weapon.

Cast
Bud Flanagan as Bud
Chesney Allen as Ches
Jimmy Nervo as Cecil
Teddy Knox as Knoxy
Charlie Naughton as Charlie
Jimmy Gold as Goldy
Moore Marriott as Jerry Jenkins
Wally Patch as Sergeant-Major
Peter Gawthorne as Commanding Officer
Frederick Valk as Sturmfuehrer
Eric Clavering as Scharffuehrer
Anthony Eustrel as Gestapo Officer
Carl Jaffe as Gestapo Chief
Manning Whiley as Colonel
Torin Thatcher as SS Man
 George Merritt as German General
Irene Handl as Burgomaster's wife
Leonard Sharp as Chip Shop customer
 Mavis Villiers as Woman
 Henry Longhurst as Woodcutter
Theodore Zichy as 2nd in Command

Critical reception
TV Guide called it "An exhilarating comedy"; while the Radio Times called it "the best film ever made by the Crazy Gang...Director Marcel Varnel has just the right surreal touch to make it work and leave audiences laughing."

Soundtrack
Bud Flanagan and Chesney Allen - "Yesterday's Dreams" (Written by Michael Carr and Dorothy Day)

References

Bibliography
 Mayer, Geoff. Guide to British Cinema. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2003.

External links

1941 films
1940s adventure comedy films
British adventure comedy films
British World War II propaganda films
1940s English-language films
British black-and-white films
Films set in London
Films set in Germany
Films set in Salzburg
Films about Nazi Germany
Films directed by Walter Forde
Films directed by Marcel Varnel
Films with screenplays by Marriott Edgar
Gainsborough Pictures films
Films shot at Lime Grove Studios
1941 comedy films

Gasbags


Eudo Dapifer (sometimes Eudo fitzHerbert and Eudo de Rie); (died 1120), was a Norman aristocrat who served as a steward (server, Latin 'dapifer') under William the Conqueror, William II Rufus, and Henry I.

Life
Eudo was the fourth son of Hubert of Ryes, who is legendarily known as the loyal vassal who hosted Duke William of Normandy prior to his flight from Valognes during a revolt in 1047.

Eudo's brothers were Ralph, Robert, Bishop of Séez,  Hubert, William, and Adam. A sister, Albreda, was married to Peter de Valognes. There was also another sister, named Muriel, who was married to Osbert.

Eudo is known as "dapifer" because of his position as a steward or server which in Latin is "dapifer".

Service in England

William the Conqueror
There is no evidence of Eudo having been at the Battle of Hastings, although some have speculated that Wace may have designated him as the Sire de Préaux which Eudo was in possession of by 1070. After the Norman Conquest of England all five brothers and their father were in England.

Eudo's brother Ralph was named Castellan of Nottingham, Hubert had custody of Norwich Castle, and Adam was one of the commissioners of the Domesday Survey in 1085. Eudo received lands in Essex, Hertfordshire, Berkshire, Bedfordshire, Northamptonshire, Cambridgeshire, Huntingdonshire, Hampshire, Norfolk and in Suffolk; as well as being a steward in the English royal household by at least 1072. Sometime after the Domesday Survey he inherited the lands of his brother Adam, held of Odo, Bishop of Bayeux, and those of his brother William at Bardley, Hertfordshire. He was involved in the building of Colchester Castle, the largest Norman keep built and the first stone keep in England, becoming its custodian until his death, when it reverted to Crown ownership.

William II
Eudo was present at Rouen for the death of King William, and then accompanied the new king, William II of England to England; securing for him the royal castles at Dover, Pevensey, and Hastings.

Eudo was a steward to William II also, and was one of the early adherents, witnessing charters and serving in the royal household. In 1096/7 Eudo founded Colchester Abbey, as well as St Mary Magdalene's Hospital in Colchester. During William II's reign, Eudo witnessed 27 royal writs. The historian Francis West, who studied the office of the justiciarship, asserts that Eudo, along with Haimo and Urse d'Abetot, as well as Ranulf Flambard, could be considered the first English justiciars, a position that the historian Emma Mason has modified towards them being the first barons of the exchequer. By that time Eudo's position was so powerful that he was able to impede efforts by the monks of Westminster Abbey to recover a church in London that had previously belonged to the abbey but had been alienated.

Henry I
Eudo continued as a steward to King Henry I of England, William's younger brother who succeeded as king in 1100. Eudo was one of the witnesses to Henry's coronation charter, issued shortly after his coronation in August 1100. Eudo was also a royal witness to the treaty between Henry and his brother Robert Curthose in 1101. From his service to Henry, Eudo acquired more lands, including the town of Colchester and several manors. Eudo continued to be a frequent witness to the royal charters and writs, along with Urse and Haimo.

In 1103, Eudo's son-in-law William de Mandeville had lands confiscated which were then granted to Eudo. The punishment was likely for allowing Ranulf Flambard to escape from the Tower of London in 1101. In addition Henry I removed William de Mandeville as Constable of the Tower of London and appointed Eudo to the position.

Death
Eudo died at Préaux in Normandy early in 1120, and was buried in the chapter-house of St John's Abbey, Colchester, which he had founded, on 28 February 1120. He left gifts to Colchester Abbey, including the manor of Brightlingsea. There is a statue of Eudo on Colchester Town Hall in honour of his service to the town.

Family

Eudo was married to Rohais, daughter of Richard Fitz Gilbert, in about 1088. They had one daughter Margaret who married William de Mandeville and Ottiwel d'Avranches, the illegitimate son of Hugh d'Avranches, Earl of Chester. She was the mother of Geoffrey de Mandeville, first Earl of Essex.

Notes

Citations

References

The original text of this article was taken from:
 James Planché The Conqueror and His Companions Somerset Herald, London, 1874.

11th-century births
1120 deaths
11th-century Normans
12th-century Normans
Normans in England
People from Essex
Year of birth unknown
William the Conqueror
William II of England
Henry I of England

Eudo Dapifer


Wilbur Wade "Cap" Card (October 29, 1873 – September 3, 1948) was an American baseball player, coach and athletic director at Duke University.  He initially introduced college basketball to the state of North Carolina and became the university's first men's coach of that program from 1906 to 1912 as well as being Duke's first athletic director from 1902 to 1948.

Card was born in Franklinton, North Carolina on October 29, 1873, to Sabert Henry Card and Cecilia Bennett Fuller.  He attended Trinity College in Durham in 1895, becoming one of the school's best athletes as an outfielder and batter, breaking a number of baseball records and eventually earning his nickname "Cap."  Card was team captain in 1899.  He graduated from college the following year.

In 1900, Card entered the School of Physical Education at Harvard University and later trained and worked at the Sargent Normal School every summer through 1913.  After graduating from Harvard in 1901, Card worked as director at the YMCA in Mobile, Alabama.  In 1902, he was invited by President John Carlisle Kilgo to return to Trinity College and become director of the new physical education program there.

Card served as athletic director at Trinity College (later named Duke University in 1924) through the rest of his life.  He also was a sports coach, including baseball and basketball, at the school through 1912.  Card was first to introduce college basketball in North Carolina after being asked by coach Richard Crozier of Wake Forest College (now Wake Forest University) in 1905 about playing a game.  After recruiting a makeshift team and setting the gym up for basketball, he coached Trinity College during its inaugural game played in Durham verus Wake Forest in 1906, but lost 24–10.  From doing this, he was soon known as the "Father of Intercollegiate Basketball in North Carolina."  Card would finish in 1912 with a 30–17 lifetime record as Duke University's first men's basketball coach.

On September 3, 1948, Card died from a heart attack at age 74.  He is buried at Maplewood Cemetery in Durham.  In his honor, the gymnasium at Duke University was renamed Card Gymnasium in March 1958.  The gym, which opened in 1930, is located adjacent to the famous Cameron Indoor Stadium.

Head coaching record

References

1873 births
1948 deaths
Basketball coaches from North Carolina
Duke Blue Devils athletic directors
Duke Blue Devils baseball coaches
Duke Blue Devils baseball players
Duke Blue Devils men's basketball coaches
Harvard University alumni
People from Franklinton, North Carolina

Wilbur Wade Card


Kalikst von Morawski (1859 – after 17 September 1939) was a Polish chess master.

Born in a village Boryszkowce (Боришківці), Galicia (then Austria-Hungary, next Poland, now Ukraine), he studied law in the Lviv University from 1877 to 1884. He moved to Stanislau in 1893, and lived there until 1914, working in the state treasure's office. Soon after World War I had broken out, he went to Vienna. In 1915, he came back to Stanislau, and then settled in Lemberg (Lwów, Lviv). After the war, he became an honorary president of the Lviv Chess Club. He died probably during the Soviet occupation of Lviv (1939–1941) or his exile to Siberia.

He took 2nd, behind Ignatz von Popiel, at Lviv 1895, drew a match with Max Judd (+4 –4 =0) and defeated Alexander Halprin (+7 –2 =1), both at Vienna 1896. Later, during the war, he played casual games at the Café Central in Vienna, among others with Rudolf Spielmann, Richard Réti, Adolf Albin, and Heinrich Wolf, in Autumn 1914. He took 2nd, behind Ernst Grünfeld, in the Viennese Chess Club at Schäuflergasse 2, Vienna in 1914/15, and tied for 2nd-3rd with Josef Krejcik, behind Józef Dominik and ahead of Réti, in Vienna in March 1915 (Quadrangular). He was granted the privilege of adding "von" to his name.

After the war, he won three tournaments in Lwów in 1925 (the Lviv City Championship, the Hetman Chess Club, the Lviv Chess Club). Then he participated in team matches Hetman vs. Lviv CC.

References

1859 births
1939 deaths
Polish chess players
People from Ternopil Oblast
People from the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria
Polish Austro-Hungarians
Polish civilians killed in World War II
Chess players from Austria-Hungary

Kalikst Morawski


Richeza of Berg (;  – 27 September 1125) was Duchess of Bohemia from 1111 to 1117 and again from 1120 until 1125, by her marriage with the Přemyslid duke Vladislav I.

She was the daughter of Swabian, Henry I, Count of Berg (d. 1116) and his wife Adelheid of Mochental (d. 1127), a daughter of the Bavarian margrave Diepold II of Vohburg. Adelheid's elder brother, Margrave Diepold III, was a loyal follower of Emperor Henry V; his daughter Adelaide married the Hohenstaufen duke (and later Emperor) Frederick Barbarossa in 1147. Richinza was named after her maternal great-grandmother Richwara, wife of Duke Berthold I of Zähringen.

About 1110/1111 Richeza married Vladislav, who ruled the Duchy of Bohemia since 1109; her sister Sophia married another Přemyslid prince, Otto II the Black, in 1114. The third sister, Salomea of Berg (d. 1144), married the Piast duke of Poland, Bolesław III Wrymouth, in 1115. Richeza and Salomea ensured peace between their Bohemian and Polish husbands.

The ducal couple founded the Benedictine monastery of Kladruby in 1115; Richeza also made several donations to Zwiefalten Abbey in her Swabian homelands. Through the intercession of his wife, in 1125 the dying Duke Vladislav I chose his cousin Prince Otto II the Black as his successor. Only the intervention of his mother, the aged queen dowager Świętosława (Svatava), changed his mind and Vladislav reconciled with his younger brother Soběslav.

While Soběslav became duke upon Vladislav's death, the disappointed Richeza had to flee from Bohemia. She wished to retire to Zwiefalten Abbey, however, she died on the way on 27 September 1125. She is buried in Reichenbach Abbey in Bavaria. Her eldest son Vladislav II succeeded to the Prague throne after Duke Soběslav's death in 1140.

Issue
 Svatava (Luitgarda; died after 1146)
 Vladislav II ( – 18 January 1174), Duke of Bohemia from 1140, Bohemian king from 1158
 Děpold I of Jamnitz (died August 1167)
 Jindřich (Henry; died after 1169), father of Duke Bretislav III

Literature
KAREŠOVÁ, Z.; PRAŽÁK, J. Královny a kněžny české. Prague : X-Egem, 1996.

References

Duchesses of Bohemia
Year of birth uncertain
1090s births
1125 deaths
12th-century people from Bohemia.
12th-century women from Bohemia
11th-century people from Bohemia
11th-century women from Bohemia

Richeza of Berg


Euphorbia is genus of over 2000 plant species. It is one of the biggest genera in the plant kingdom. Common names include poinsettia, spurge, or just Euphorbia.

Many of these plants have developed a defence against herbivory: They are poisonous when swallowed. The Euphorbia family is in the group Malpighiales, one of the largest groups in the plant kingdoms. The euphorbia family also includes crotons (Codiaeum), castor bean plants (ricinus), and hogworts (Croton).

Euphorbias are commonly plants that do not need a lot of water, like cacti. Pointsettias are commonly called Christmas flowers. There are many smaller genera in Euphorbia. Ricinus (castor bean plant) is very toxic. It is the second most poisonous plant after Nerium oleander (family Apocynaceae).

Euphorbiaceae

Euphorbia


Richard Witting (born: Witkowski; 19 October 1856, Berlin – 22 December 1923, Berlin) was a Prussian politician and financier.

Witting studied law at Göttingen, where he became member of Burschenschaft Hannovera (fraternity), and later became mayor of Poznań in 1891–1902. From 1902 to 1910 he was director of Nationalbank für Deutschland (National Bank for Germany). Witting was a brother of Maximilian Harden and father-in-law of Hans Paasche. Witting is considered one of the major authors (fathers) of the democratic Weimar Constitution, which he and Hugo Preuß worked out in first drafts. He was also a convert to Lutheran Protestantism from Judaism, a common practice of this epoch.

References
 Witold Jakóbczyk, Przetrwać na Wartą 1815-1914, Dzieje narodu i państwa polskiego, vol. III-55, Krajowa Agencja Wydawnicza, Warszawa 1989
 Joachim Bergmann: Die Schaubühne – Die Weltbühne 1905–1933, Bibliographie und Register mit Annotationen. Saur, München 1991, p. 261

References

1856 births
1923 deaths
Politicians from Berlin
19th-century German Jews
Converts to Lutheranism from Judaism
National Liberal Party (Germany) politicians
Prussian politicians
Members of the Prussian House of Lords
Mayors of Poznań
Businesspeople from Berlin
Französisches Gymnasium Berlin alumni

Richard Witting


Mitsuhama (三津浜), formerly also known as Mitsugahama, is the main port of Matsuyama, Ehime, Japan.

In October, 1888, the Iyotetsu light railway line connecting Mitsuhama with Matsuyama began operation.

Mitsuhama absorbed the village of Furumitsu in 1925 and Shinhama in 1937. In 1940 Mitsuhama was merged into the city of Matsuyama.

Dissolved municipalities of Ehime Prefecture
Matsuyama, Ehime

Mitsuhama


Nur University of Bolivia was established as a Bahá'í school of higher education in August 1984 and started its first academic year in April 1985.

History
Following development of the Foundation for the Integral Development of Bolivia (FUNDESIB) in 1982, Nur University received Presidential Decree No. 20441 authorizing its establishment as a private university. It began offering undergraduate programs in 1985 and became Bolivia's first graduate college in 1994.

In 1996, Nur trained 2000 rural teachers as agents of community development in Bolivia and 300 teachers in the La Rioja Province in Argentina.

The Bolivian Ministry of Education, Culture and Sports contracted Nur in 1999 to strengthen the academic and administrative capacities of two state teachers colleges: INSPOC in Camiri and INS Rafael Chávez Ortiz in Portachuelo.

The university has 4,000 registered students in 17 undergraduate and graduate programs offered full- or part-time or through distance education.

Accreditation and honors
In 2000 the university received the highest distinction granted by the Santa Cruz Municipal Government, the Municipal Merit Medal, given for the community service work developed by the university through UNIRSE (University Students in Service to the Community). That same year Nur University received the "Pioneers in Education" prize, granted by the Bolivian Center for Research and Educational Action.

In 2001, the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sports called upon all the private universities in the country to submit to an evaluation process in accordance with the new private university regulations, in which Nur was evaluated as a "Full University".

In 2002 Nur University was selected as a "Center for Educational Excellence" for the Andean region: an initiative launched at the Summit for the Americas, supported by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID).

References

External links
 Official Webpage

Bahá'í educational institutions
Universities in Bolivia
Universities and colleges established in 1984
1984 establishments in Bolivia

Nur University


Sellafield Ltd is a nuclear decommissioning Site Licence Company (SLC) controlled bi the Nuclear Decommissioning Authority (NDA), a government body set up specifically tae deal with the nuclear legacy under the Energy Act 2004. Until 2016, it was operated under licence from the NDA by a third party Parent Body Organisation called Nuclear Management Partners.

Sellafield Ltd's main aim is tae manage the decommissionin o the Sellafield facility on behalf o the NDA. The company employs mair nor 13,000 workers an its focus is tae deliver accelerated nuclear decommissioning an clean-up programmes. It is also involved in world-leading pouer operations, nuclear fuel production an reprocessin, international decommissionin, an international transport.

History
Sellafield Ltd was formed out o the remains o British Nuclear Group (BNG), a subsidiary o BNFL. BNG was created from a reorganisation o BNFL in 2005, bringing thegither all BNFL's businesses in tae one unit, with the exception o Nexia Solutions an Westinghouse Electric Company. It was BNFL's initial intention in 2006 to sell BNG as one business. However, it was later decided tae break up BNG an sell each asset individually tae maximise revenue.

BNG's US subsidiary, BNG America, its Magnox reactor business, Reactor Sites Management Company, its consultancy business, BNG Project Services an its one-third share in Atomic Weapons Establishment management company, AWE Management Ltd were all sold. The remaining business o BNG was responsible for the decommissioning wirk at Sellafield. This was renamed Sellafield Ltd an ownership was passed tae the NDA.

In 2008 the NDA contracted the management o Sellafield Ltd tae Nuclear Management Partners Ltd, a consortium o US company URS, Breetish company AMEC, an Areva o Fraunce. The initial contract was for five years, with an extension option for 17 years.

In 2016, the NDA took Sellafield Ltd back under direct control from Nuclear Management Partners, makin the company a subsidiary o HM Government. The NDA owns the Sellafield site an its liabilities, an owns all the shares in Sellafield Ltd, which is responsible for the safe an secure operation an management o the site.

Nuclear technology companies o the Unitit Kinrick

Sellafield Ltd


Evaristo Lucidi (4 October 1866 – 31 March 1929) was an Italian cardinal of the Catholic Church. He served as secretary of the Apostolic Signatura from 1916 to 1923, and was elevated to the cardinalate in 1923.

Biography
Lucidi was born in Montefranco, and studied at the Pontifical Roman Seminary, Pontifical Roman Athenaeum S. Apollinare, and University of Rome. Following his ordination to the priesthood, he did pastoral work in Rome, and served as director of the Institute of S. Girolamo degli Schiavoni for twenty years.

Lucidi was raised to the rank of privy chamberlain of his holiness on 4 July 1900. He was named consultor adjunct for Provincial Councils on 19 September 1902, and secretary of the Commission for the Revision of Provincial Councils on 15 April 1904. Before becoming a papal prelate on 20 March 1926, Lucidi was made assessor of the Sacred Congregation of the Council in 1905. He was named pro-secretary of the financial section of the Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith on 20 October 1908.

On 8 December 1916, Lucidi was appointed secretary of the Apostolic Signatura, as well as papal auditor and palatine prelate, by Pope Benedict XV. He was later named a protonotary apostolic on 13 December 1917. Pope Pius XI created him Cardinal-Deacon of S. Adriano al Foro in the consistory of 20 December 1923. In 1924, Cardinal Lucidi acted as papal legate to the Emilian Eucharistic Congress in Parma.

Lucidi died from heart disease and influenza in Rome, at the age of 62. He was initially buried in the chapel of Propaganda Fide at the Campo Verano cemetery, but his remains were later transferred to the church of his native Montefranco, which he had helped to restore, on 21 June 1929.

Trivia
The only other cleric elevated to the College of Cardinals in the same consistory as Lucidi was Aurelio Galli, who died five days before him.

References

External links
Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church
Catholic-Hierarchy

1866 births
1929 deaths
20th-century Italian cardinals
Pontifical Roman Seminary alumni
People from the Province of Terni

Evaristo Lucidi


Joel Patrick Skinner (born February 21, 1961) is an American professional baseball manager and coach, and former Major League catcher and manager. Skinner mostly has managed at the minor-league level, save for one half of one season at the helm of the  Cleveland Indians. He is the son of Bob Skinner, a National League outfielder in the 1950s and 1960s, and himself a former MLB coach and skipper.

In , Skinner became the manager of the Rochester Red Wings, the Triple-A affiliate of the Minnesota Twins.  He was replaced by Toby Gardenhire for the 2020 season.

High school career
At Mission Bay High School in San Diego, Joel Skinner, along with Matt Britt, played baseball and water polo.  He was drafted following his senior year  and was the first player taken in the free-agent compensation draft.

Major league playing career
Originally drafted by the Pittsburgh Pirates, Skinner was traded to the Chicago White Sox in 1983.  After brief call-ups to the majors over the next three years, Skinner was slated to start 1986 with the White Sox.

New general manager Hawk Harrelson had taken a liking to Skinner, and decided to make him the starting catcher in place of Carlton Fisk.  This made some sense on paper; Fisk was 38 years old, and conventional wisdom then as now held that catchers at that age don't have many years left.  Harrelson wanted to have Fisk's successor in place when Fisk retired.  To ease the transition, Fisk was moved to left field.  The move backfired when Skinner batted only .171 in April.  On May 10, Fisk became the regular catcher, and Skinner only made 25 more starts behind the plate before being traded to the New York Yankees on July 30.

Skinner's career never really recovered after that.  He bounced between the majors and minors with the Yankees and Cleveland Indians until his retirement in 1994.

Minor league managing career
Skinner spent six seasons managing in the Indians minor league system from 1995–2000. Overall, he compiled a record of 448–333 (.574) and took his teams to the playoffs in five of six seasons. In 1995 Skinner managed the Watertown Indians to a record of 46- 27 and a New York–Penn League title, and received Manager of the Year honors. With the Columbus Redstixx (South Atlantic League) in 1996, he managed them to a second half title and a regular season record of 79–63. In 1997, Skinner managed the Class A Kinston Indians (Carolina League) as they won titles in both the first and second halves with an 87–53 record overall, earning him Carolina League Manager of the Year honors. From 1998 through 1999, Skinner managed the Akron Aeros  and was named USA Today Baseball Weekly'''s Minor League Manager of the Year in 1998, after guiding the Aeros to an 81–60 record and an Eastern League regular season title. Skinner then managed the Triple-A Buffalo Bisons to the best record in the International League in 2000, including an IL North Division title with a record of 86–59 (.593). His leadership of the Bisons in earned him Minor League Manager of the Year honors from Baseball America and The Sporting News'' in addition to being given International League Manager of the Year honors. That same season Skinner was a coach for Team USA in the 2000 All-Star Futures Game in Atlanta.

In 2011 Skinner was hired as the manager of the Charlotte Knights, the White Sox Triple-A affiliate, for the 2012 season.

In 2016, Skinner was the manager of the Winston-Salem Dash of the Carolina League.

On January 17, 2018, Skinner was named as the 45th manager of the International League's Rochester Red Wings, the Triple-A affiliate of the Minnesota Twins. His contract was not renewed for the 2020 season and he was replaced by Toby Gardenhire.

Major League managing/coaching career
Skinner was named to the coaching staff of the Cleveland Indians on November 10, 2000, succeeding Jim Riggleman as third base coach.  He was named interim manager of the Tribe on July 11, 2002 after Charlie Manuel was let go in a contract dispute.   At the time, Skinner was the youngest manager in the major leagues, at age 41.  He skippered the team to a 35–41 record to finish the season, including a 15–13 record in September.  Skinner's name was mentioned among candidates to the permanent manager's job, but Eric Wedge was chosen instead.  Skinner remained on the Indians' coaching staff until Manny Acta was hired in 2009.  On October 20, 2010, Skinner was hired as the Oakland Athletics bench coach for the 2011 season replacing Tye Waller. On November 14, 2011, Skinner was hired as the manager of the Charlotte Knights.

Managerial records

Career statistics

See also
 List of second-generation Major League Baseball players

References

External links

 MLB.com Bio

1961 births
Living people
Baseball players from San Diego
Buffalo Bisons (minor league) managers
Buffalo Bisons (minor league) players
Canton-Akron Indians players
Charlotte Knights players
Chicago White Sox players
Cleveland Indians coaches
Cleveland Indians managers
Cleveland Indians players
Columbus Clippers players
Denver Bears players
Denver Zephyrs players
Glens Falls White Sox players
Greenwood Pirates players
Major League Baseball bench coaches
Major League Baseball catchers
Major League Baseball third base coaches
New York Yankees players
Sportspeople from La Jolla, San Diego
Rochester Red Wings managers
Shelby Pirates players

Joel Skinner


A 1954 Convention travel document is a travel document, unlike a Stateless travel document (stateless person by a signatory to the 1954 Convention Relating to the Status of Stateless Persons), issued to a person in circumstances of any difficulties in gaining a travel document from their country of origin. The cover bears the words travel document in English and French (and often in the language of the issuing state) along with the date of the convention, but does not bear the two stripes appearing in the upper right corner of the front cover of refugee travel documents. However, some countries such as Australia and Japan issues stateless persons travel documents with other names such as Certificate of Identity or Re-entry Permit, etc., regardless of whether the country is a contracting state of 1954 Convention.

See also
Refugee identity certificate
Travel document
Passport
Refugee travel document
Certificate of identity

References

International travel documents
Statelessness

1954 Convention travel document