HMS Jason was a .  She was named after the hero in Greek mythology and was the sixteenth Royal Navy ship to carry the name Jason.  She was laid down on 12 December 1936, launched on 6 October 1937, and was completed on 9 June 1938.  She survived the  Second World War and was sold in 1946 to become a cargo ship.  She was eventually broken up in 1950.  Her pennant number was originally N99, but was changed to J99 in May 1940.

Design
The Halcyon class were a class of dedicated minesweepers, designed to be smaller and cheaper than the dual-purpose (minesweeping and colonial patrol vessel) minesweeping sloops that had been built since the late 1920s (i.e. the ,   and ), which as their design evolved, were becoming increasingly focused on escort duties and becoming too large for use as minesweepers.

Jason was  long overall and  between perpendiculars, with a beam of  and a draught of  at deep load. Displacement was  standard and  deep load. Two Admiralty 3-drum water-tube boilers supplied steam to geared steam turbines driving two shafts. The machinery was rated at  giving a speed of .

Armament consisted of two QF 4 inch (102 mm) Mk V guns on High-Angle mounts and so capable of being used for anti-aircraft duties, with a close-in armament of one quadruple Vickers .50 machine gun mount. One of the 4-inch guns was removed during the Second World War, while the multiple machine guns were replaced by 4–8 Oerlikon 20 mm cannon. Up to 40 depth charges could be carried when used in the escort role. The ship had a crew of 80 officers and other ranks.

Service

Pre-war Duties
Before the war, HMS Jason carried out surveys of the English and Bristol Channels.  She carried out two principal surveys during 1938 and 1939.  She was unarmed until the outbreak of the Second World War.

World War II

Home Waters
Although HMS Jason had been designed as a minesweeper, in September 1939, she was converted into an antisubmarine vessel and assigned to 1st Anti-submarine striking force at Belfast.  Her first minor damage sustained was on 12 October when she was grounded at Row Point.  Repairs were completed by 17 October and she was deployed in home waters for convoy defence, but she put in for more repairs on 3 August 1940, this time because of problems in her boilers.

After the repairs, she was again deployed to convoy defence, this time in the North West Approaches, during which she came under repeated attack from German U-boats  and .  Although HMS Jason was not damaged in the attacks, four merchant ships were lost and Jason picked up 18 survivors.  After one month in that role, yet more repairs were needed after a collision with the rescue tug Scheldt, in which significant structural damage to her stem was sustained.  This time repairs were completed at HM Dockyard, Rosyth, and she was, upon release, deployed to the Rosyth Escort Force to defend shipping to and from Clyde.

As part of the Rosyth Escort Force, she was again subject to U-boat attack in October whilst escorting Convoy HX 79 (totalling 49 ships) off Rockall.  This was part of the most vicious U-boat attacks of the war, with ten ships being lost from Convoy HX 79 alone.  HMS Jason, however, was undamaged and picked up 78 survivors on 19 October and a further 111 survivors on 20 October. None of the eight attacking submarines were sunk.

After this, Jason was primarily assigned to an anti-air role, and the number of AA guns was increased c.1941.  On several occasions in early 1941, she was required to use this extra armament to fend off attacks from German aircraft.  No ship was damaged in any of these attacks, sometimes as a direct result of Jasons anti-aircraft fire.

She was once again put in for repair on 21 July 1941 at Leith, after which she escorted more convoys through quieter times.  In mid-1942, she yet again put in for repair and re-fit which, together with trials, lasted until early 1943.  Part of the re-fit was in preparation for her new assignment, which was to operate in Arctic waters with ships of the Soviet Union.

Soviet Waters
Her first assignment in this new rôle was to escort Arctic Convoy JW 53 to Murmansk on 15 February.  Things did not start well, with several ships unable to even begin the journey.  The convoy encountered terrible weather from the start, some of the worst experienced by any of the Russian convoys.  HMS Jason was the lead ship and under command of Cdr. H.G.A. Lewis.  Lewis did a remarkable job of keeping order in the confusion which saw several ships damaged.   had the armour plating torn from one of her turrets by the heavy seas on the first day. The visibility was so poor that it was rarely clear how many ships were keeping up with the convoy, and communication was always troublesome.

On the third day, the escort trawler  suffered flooding and was forced to retreat to Scapa Flow, another escort, , also left the convoy to escort Lord Middleton.  Also that day, the trawler Komiles suffered damage and was forced to retreat to the Faeroe Islands.  An SOS signal was received from Komiles two days later as she had suffered hull damage in the storm.

The next day brought yet more chaos.  Heavy seas made visual communication almost impossible, and Jason was damaged by the weather and forced to carry out repairs to the ventilation trunking.  By the afternoon, only 22 ships were left in the convoy, the others having retreated.  Over the next few days, more destroyers and corvettes joined the escort but  and  left for Seydisfjord, Iceland to refuel.

The weather started to clear on 23 February, but German aircraft sighted the convoy and one day later it was attacked by  and . The escorts managed to defend the convoy and no ships were damaged. Air attacks from 21 Ju 88s followed over the next two days, but were again prevented by the escort from causing any damaging to the convoy.

On  26 February, Soviet destroyers joined the escort and it arrived at the Kola Inlet in Murmansk the following day with only 15 ships making it to the Soviet port.

Along with , HMS Jason was stationed in North Russia for the next few months as a minesweeper and patrol. Throughout this period, they were under constant air attack, but neither suffered any significant damage (two bombs hit HMS Britomart and skidded along the deck, but neither exploded).  It was noted that standards of the crew had dropped significantly since operation in Soviet waters, but both ships performed so well that the Russians offered to buy them. On 1 November 1943, she joined Convoy RA 54 as an escort and returned to the United Kingdom.

Normandy Landings

From 22 November 1943 through to early 1944, she was going under another extensive re-fit at HMNB Portsmouth.  On completion of the re-fit she was nominated to join the newly formed 1st Minesweeping Flotilla, along with HMS Britomart, Gleaner, Halcyon, Harrier, Hussar, Salamander, Seagull and Speedwell.

Throughout February and March they carried out their duties in the North Sea, and were subsequently nominated for a support rôle during the Normandy Landings.

Prior to the landings, Jason was assigned to sweep channel 9 in front of the landing parties, no mines were discovered, but coastal batteries fired upon her.  She continued in support for the next few days, as well as providing an escort for her flagship, HMS Scylla.  On 18 June, she was involved in a collision which caused significant damage and flooding, and so she was required to retire to Portsmouth for repairs.

Post-invasion Minesweeping Duties
She resumed her service in the 1st Minesweeping Flotilla in August after her re-fit.  They were now operating out of Mulberry Harbour at Arromanches, with instructions to keep the channel between there and Portsmouth clear of mines.

On 22 August they were deployed to clear a magnetic minefield off Cap d'Antifer in preparation for HMS Warspite, Erebus and Roberts to move in and bombard enemy positions at Le Havre.  On 26 August, they were ordered back to their previous rôle between Arromanches and Portsmouth, but upon a specific request from Commander Crick of HMS Jason, who noted that the Cap d'Antifer area was not yet safe, they were allowed to remain in the area for another day and complete the task.

Friendly Fire Incident

Although this was the responsible request of a mindful commander, and although the continuation of operations off Cap d'Antifer were official, it would end in disaster the following day when a flag officer failed to advise all concerned with air operations of the approval to extend minesweeping operations in the area.

Jason was leading the 1st Minesweeping Flotilla in sweeping operations when, at about noon, an RAF reconnaissance aircraft flew over low, the pilot returning the waves from the ships' companies.  Yet about ninety minutes later, 16 RAF rocket-firing Typhoons, of 263 and 266 Squadrons operating from Caen, accompanied by a Polish squadron of Spitfires, swooped out of the sun and attacked HMS Britomart, they then returned for a second attack, hitting HMS Hussar and Salamander.  Many of the seamen from the two ships were now in the water being shelled by German shore batteries.  As a result of this friendly fire disaster, HMS Britomart and Hussar were sunk and Salamander was a useless wreck floating on the calm water.  HMS Jason was damaged but not destroyed and started to rescue survivors.  She also deployed a smoke screen to hinder German shore batteries and took HMS Salamander on tow.  The ship was saved from sinking, but was damaged beyond repair.  Soon, other ships in the area assisted in the rescue of stricken seamen.  HMS Gozo and ships of the 6th Minesweeping Flotilla were in the area preparing to join up with HMS Jason and witnessed the attack.

In total, 117 Royal Navy men were killed and 149 wounded, many seriously.  It was the most severe attack endured by any ships during Operation Neptune and as a result, the commander of HMS Jason, Acting Commander Trevor Crick, was granted the military OBE for his "coolness, courage and devotion to duty".  Four other ship commanders were made MBEs, including Lieutenant John Sulman of HMS Colsay, who was injured in the back during the incident.  The RAF was exonerated, but Acting Commander D N Venables DSC, was severely reprimanded for negligence in not making sure the Flag Officer British Assault Area was informed of the change of order.

HMS Jason was then put in for repair at Portsmouth.  It would be a month before she returned to active duty.  For the last two months of 1944, she operated out of Ostend sweeping off the Belgium coast.  In January 1945, the 1st Minesweeping Flotilla was reassigned to Harwich to counter mining efforts by German E-boats and midget submarines.  In February, HMS Jason was nominated for re-fit in London.

In April 1945, she rejoined the 1st Minesweeping Flotilla at Harwich and continued minesweeping in the North Sea.  It was one task that was not completed as soon as VE-Day dawned, and she continued in this capacity until a serious collision in the North Sea with HMS Hazard caused serious structural damage, forcing a return to Portsmouth for repairs.  After repairs, she was again sent to continue clearing mines in the North Sea.

Cargo Vessel
She was sold to Wheelock Marden & Co. on 3 September 1946, renamed Jaslock''''' and converted into a cargo vessel.  This career did not last long and she was broken up in 1950.

Footnotes

References

 HMS Jason Halcyon Class Minesweeper
 Specifications Halcyon Class Ships
 HMS Jason, minesweeper
 Minesweeper HMS Jason of the Halcyon class at U-boat.net
 "HMS Jason" comes under friendly fire after the D-Day landings by Thomas Jackson

Halcyon-class minesweepers
Ships built on the River Clyde
1937 ships
World War II minesweepers of the United Kingdom
Friendly fire incidents of World War II
Cold War minesweepers of the United Kingdom

HMS Jason (J99)


The Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) is the European Union's (EU) policy in terms of defence and crisis management. It is a main part of the EU's Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP).

The law includes:
the European Commission's Defence Industry Directorate-General
the External Action Service's (EEAS) Crisis Management and Planning Directorate (CMPD) and permanent Operation Headquarters (OHQs) for command and control (C2) at the military/civilian strategic level, i.e. the MPCC and CPCC.
a number of Foreign Affairs Council (FAC) – such as the Military Committee (EUMC)
four agencies, including the Defence Agency (EDA)

References

European Union

Common Security and Defence Policy


A tavern is a type of business where people gather to drink alcoholic beverages and be served food such as different types of roast meats and cheese, and (mostly historically) where travelers would receive lodging. An inn is a tavern that has a license to put up guests as lodgers. The word derives from the Latin taberna whose original meaning was a shed, workshop, stall, or pub.

Over time, the words "tavern" and "inn" became interchangeable and synonymous. In England, inns started to be referred to as public houses or pubs and the term became standard for all drinking houses.

Europe

France
From at least the 14th century, taverns, along with inns and later cabarets, were the main places to dine out. Typically, a tavern offered various roast meats, as well as simple foods like bread, cheese, herring and bacon. Some offered a wider variety of foods, though it would be cabarets and later traiteurs which offered the finest meals before the restaurant appeared in the 18th century. Their stated purpose, however, was to serve wine (not beer or cider, which had other outlets) and they were so disreputable that women of any standing avoided them.

After 1500, taxes on wine and other alcoholic beverages grew increasingly more burdensome, not only because of the continual increase in the level of taxation but also because of the bewildering variety and multiplicity of the taxes. This chaotic system was enforced by an army of tax collectors. The resultant opposition took many forms. Wine growers and tavern keepers concealed wine and falsified their methods of selling it to take advantage of lower tax rates. The retailers also refilled their casks secretly from hidden stocks. Wine merchants stealthily circumvented inspection stations to avoid local import duties. When apprehended, some defrauders reacted with passive resignation, while others resorted to violence. Situated at the heart of the country town or village, the tavern was one of the traditional centers of social and political life before 1789, a meeting place for both the local population and travelers passing through and a refuge for rogues and scoundrels. Taverns symbolized opposition to the regime and to religion.

Taverns sometimes served as restaurants. In 1765, in Paris was founded the first restaurant in the modern sense of the term. However, the first Parisian restaurant worthy of the name was the one founded by Beauvilliers in 1782 in the Rue de Richelieu, called the Grande Taverne de Londres.

Émile Zola's novel L'Assommoir ("The tavern") (1877) depicted the social conditions typical of alcoholism in Paris among the working classes. The drunk destroyed not only his own body, but also his employment, his family, and other interpersonal relationships. The characters Gervaise Macquart and her husband Coupeau exemplified with great realism the physical and moral degradation of alcoholics. Zola's correspondence with physicians reveals that he used authentic medical sources for his realistic depictions in the novel.

Germany

A common German name for German taverns or pubs is Kneipe. Drinking practices in 16th-century Augsburg, Germany, suggest that the use of alcohol in early modern Germany followed carefully structured cultural norms. Drinking was not a sign of insecurity and disorder. It helped define and enhance men's social status and was therefore tolerated among men as long as they lived up to both the rules and norms of tavern society and the demands of their role as householders. Tavern doors were closed to respectable women unaccompanied by their husbands, and society condemned drunkenness among women, but when alcohol abuse interfered with the household, women could deploy public power to impose limits on men's drinking behaviour.

United Kingdom

Taverns were popular places used for business as well as for eating and drinking – the London Tavern was a notable meeting place in the 18th and 19th centuries, for example. However, the word tavern is no longer in popular use in the UK as there is no distinction between a tavern and an inn. Both establishments serve wine and beer/ale.  The term 'pub' (an abbreviation of 'public house') is now used to describe these houses.  The legacy of taverns and inns is now only found in the pub names, e.g. Fitzroy Tavern, Silver Cross Tavern, Spaniards Inn, etc. The word also survives in songs such as "There is a Tavern in the Town".

The range and quality of pubs varies wildly throughout the UK as does the range of beers, wines, spirits and foods available. Most quality pubs will still serve cask ales and food.  In recent years there has been a move towards "gastro" pubs where the menu is more ambitious. Originally, taverns served as rest stops about every fifteen miles and their main focus was to provide shelter to anyone who was traveling. Such taverns would be divided into two major parts – the sleeping quarters and the bar. There is generally a sign with some type of symbol, often related to the name of the premises, to draw in customers. The purpose of this is to indicate that the establishment sells alcohol and to set it apart from the competition.

Scandinavia
Scandinavia had very high drinking rates, which led to the formation of a powerful prohibition movement in the 19th century. Magnusson (1986) explains why consumption of spirits was so high in a typical preindustrial village (Eskilstuna) in Sweden, 1820–50. An economic feature of this town of blacksmiths was the Verlag, or outwork production system, with its complex network of credit relationships. The tavern played a crucial role in cultural and business life and was also the place where work and leisure were fused. Heavy drinking facilitated the creation of community relationships in which artisans and workers sought security. Buying drinks rather than saving money was a rational strategy when, before adjustment to a cash economy, it was essential to raise one's esteem with fellow craftsmen to whom one could turn for favors in preference to the Verlag capitalist.

Greece
A restaurant in Greece is commonly known as a taverna. Their history begins in Classical times, with the earliest evidence of a taverna discovered at the Ancient Agora of Athens; the style remains the same to this day. Greek tavernes (plural of taverna) are the most common restaurants in Greece. A typical menu includes portion dishes, or small dishes of meat and fish, as well as salads and appetizers. Mageirefta is the menu section that includes a variety of different casserole cooked dishes every day. The other choices are mainly prepared roasted (tis oras) or fried. Orektika (appetizers) include small dishes of Greek sauces, alifes, usually eaten on bites of bread. Tavernes offer different kinds of wines and retsina in barrels or in bottles, ouzo or tsipouro, with beer and refreshments being a recent addition. In Byzantine times, tavernes were the place for a social gathering, to enjoy a meal, live music and friendly talk with a drink accompanied by small variety dishes (mezes).

Former Yugoslavia
In former Yugoslavia, the kafana serves food and alcoholic beverages.

Czech Republic & Slovakia
The most frequent Czech translation of tavern or pub is "hospoda". It comes out from hospodář (landlord) and is also close to hostitel (host), host (guest) and hostina (dinner, banquet). And also to Russian gospodin (master, lord, sir) and, not to forget, to hospitality. Traditionally, "hospoda" or "hostinec" were full-fledged facilities, providing lodging, meals and drink, an inn. In modern times, the meaning of the word has a bit narrowed. Nevertheless, it is used colloquially to denote both traditional restaurants where people go to eat, and bars, where people mainly go to drink and socialize. "Hospoda" is nowadays a very widespread but only colloquiall word, while "hostinec" or "pohostinství" were often official names of such establishment in the 20th century, now a bit obsolete. "Hospoda" could be with meals served or without, typically with tapped beer. (This term is not used for wine bars.) As drinking beer is an important part of the Czech culture, inviting to "hospoda" generally means: "let's go and have a drink together, let's meet, chat, and socialize…". It is often equipped with a TV, billiards table, darts etc. Pubs serve both local regulars as well as excursionists, tourists and other guests.

Establishments specialized primarily in the consumption of beer (beer bars) are called "výčep" ("výčap" in Slovak), expressively "nálevna", or "pajzl" (from German Baisel, originally from Jidish). "Knajpa" (from German) is an expressive word, and "krčma" is rather archaic in Czech. The word "taverna" (from Italian) is understood as a foreign term for establishment from South-European cultures, especially Greek or Italian.

In Moravia, especially South Moravia, this social role is rather fulfilled by "wine cellars".

Slovak language prefers the word "krčma" as a neutral colloquial term for pubs and restaurants. It is an old panslavic word.

Asia

Iraq
One of the earliest references to a tavern is found in the Code of Hammurabi.

North America

See also

 Bar (establishment)
 Coaching inn
 Izakaya
 List of bars
 List of public house topics
 Prohibition
 Prohibition in the United States
 Pub (public house)
 Roadhouse (premises)
 Taverna
 Tavern clock
 Woman's Christian Temperance Union

References

Bibliography
 Blocker, Jack S. (ed.) Alcohol and Temperance in Modern History: An International Encyclopedia (2 vol 2003)
 Cherrington, Ernest, (ed.) Standard Encyclopaedia of the Alcohol Problem 6 volumes (1925–1930), comprehensive international coverage to late 1920s
 Gately, Iain Drink: A Cultural History of Alcohol (2008). .
 Heath, Dwight B. International Handbook on Alcohol and Culture (1995), 27 countries in late 20th century
 Phillips, Rod. Alcohol: A History (U. of North Carolina Press, 2014)

Europe
 Bennett, Judith M. Ale, Beer, and Brewsters in England: Women's Work in a Changing World, 1300-1600 (Oxford University Press, 1996)
 Brennan, Thomas. Public Drinking and Popular Culture in Eighteenth Century Paris (1988),
 Clark, Peter. The English Alehouse: A Social History, 1200–1800 (1983).
 Unger, Richard W. Beer in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance (U of Pennsylvania Press, 2004)

Further reading
Historic Taverns of Boston by Gavin R. Nathan

External links

Types of drinking establishment
Restaurants by type

Tavern


Bradley Charles Cooper (born January 5, 1975) is an American actor, filmmaker, occasional singer and producer. He is best known for his roles in the movies, The Hangover, The A-Team, Wedding Crashers and Limitless. He appeared in the 2012 movie Hit and Run. In 2011, he sang Shallow (Lady Gaga Song)  at the OscarsPeople magazine named Cooper "Sexiest Man Alive". According to Pinkvilla, Cooper is one of the most famous actors of all time.

Early life
Cooper was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. He grew up in nearby Jenkintown, Pennsylvania. His parents were Gloria (née Campano) and Charles J. Cooper. Cooper was raised Catholic.

While attending Germantown Academy, Cooper worked at the Philadelphia Daily News. After graduating from Germantown Academy in 1993, Cooper attended Villanova University for his first year, then transferred to Georgetown University.

Career
Cooper began his career after a small guest role in an episode of Sex and the City in 1999. He starred in his first movie West Hot American Summer (2001).

Cooper then landed the role as Will Trippin the drama series Alias. After leaving Alias in 2003, Cooper guest-starred on the short-lived TV series Miss Match, and later returned twice to Alias to reprise his role in guest appearances.

Afterwards, Cooper began starring in small television movies for ABC Family. He starred in I Want to Marry Ryan Banks. He then appeared in a television series called Jack & Bobby.

In March 2006, Cooper starred in Three Days of Rain on Broadway with Julia Roberts and Paul Rudd at the Bernard B. Jacobs Theater.

Cooper appeared in Season 5 of Nip/Tuck as Aidan Stone, a television star on the fictional show Hearts 'N Scalpels. In 2008, Cooper had roles in Yes Man with Jim Carrey and in The Rocker with Rainn Wilson. On February 7, 2009, Cooper hosted Saturday Night Live.

In 2009, Cooper starred in the movies He's Just Not That Into You, Case 39, All About Steve, and ''The Hangover. In 2012, he starred with Robert De Niro and Jennifer Lawrence in David O. Russell's Silver Linings Playbook.

In 2013, Cooper reprised his role as Phil Wenneck in the third and final installment of The Hangover trilogy, The Hangover Part III. That year, Cooper starred in American Hustle, with Christian Bale, Amy Adams, Jeremy Renner and Jennifer Lawrence. His performance earned him a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor.

He starred in Guardians of the Galaxy, providing the voice of Rocket Raccoon. Cooper stars in the 2018 remake of A Star Is Born alongside Lady Gaga. Cooper also directs the remake. In 2019, he produced the comic book thriller movie Joker.

Personal life
Cooper was married to Jennifer Esposito from December 2006 until they divorced in November 2007. He is Catholic.

Cooper began dating Russian model Irina Shayk in 2015.  They welcomed their first daughter, Lea De Seine Shayk Cooper, on March 21, 2017. They ended their relationship in 2019.

References

Other websites

Satellite Award winners
1975 births
Living people
Actors from Philadelphia
American movie actors
American Roman Catholics
American stage actors
American television actors
American voice actors

Bradley Cooper


The Architectural Research Group (ARG) was an association of mostly young architects in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, established in 1932 by Louis Kahn and Dominique Berninger "for the group study of Housing and Slum Clearance." Berninger acted as its president during the whole of the group's brief existence, 1932 to 1935. Until 1932, both founders were employed by the Philadelphia firm of Zantzinger, Borie & Medary, with Kahn working on their U.S. Department of Justice Building in Washington, D.C.

Its members were interested in the ideas of the European avantgarde and a populist social agenda. Uncommissioned, most of the ARG's significant project output was left unbuilt, including Kahn's public housing scheme submitted to the Public Works Administration. However, Kahn soon took a job with the Philadelphia City Planning Commission, while Berninger continued his practice with Carswell, Berninger & Bower.

References

Architecture organizations based in the United States
Organizations established in 1932
Organizations disestablished in 1935

Architectural Research Group


Lev Abramovich Polugaevsky (; 20 November 1934 – 30 August 1995) was a Soviet chess player. He was awarded the title of International Grandmaster by FIDE in 1962 and was a frequent contender for the World Championship, although he never achieved that title. He was one of the strongest players in the world from the early 1960s until the late 1980s, as well as a distinguished author and opening theorist whose contributions in this field remain important to the present day.

Career
Lev Polugaevsky was born in Mogilev, in the Soviet Union (now Mahilyow, Belarus), and, after being evacuated during the Second World War, grew up in Kuybyshev (modern Samara). He began playing chess around the age of 10. In 1948, he attracted the attention of Candidate Master Alexy Ivashin, who became his first teacher. International Master Lev Aronin, who lived in Moscow but had family in Kuybyshev, eventually became the teacher whom Polugaevsky credited most for his development. Additionally, between 1950 and 1953 he trained with Rashid Nezhmetdinov. Unlike many of his grandmaster colleagues, his development in chess came slowly, and he did not receive the Soviet master title until he was an adult. His progress then accelerated rapidly, however, and by the late 1960s he was one of the world's strongest players, as was recognized by his participation in the famous "USSR vs. Rest of the World" match of 1970. In this match he occupied fourth board, losing one game to Vlastimil Hort and drawing his other three. Until 1973, Polugaevsky did not pursue chess as a career, working as an engineer and taking time off for tournaments.

Polugaevsky won at Mar del Plata in 1962 and 1971. He won or tied in the USSR Chess Championship three times. He played regularly in qualifying events to select a challenger for the world championship, qualifying for the Candidates Tournament on four occasions. His greatest advancement toward the title came during the 1977 and 1980 cycles, when he defeated Henrique Mecking and former world champion Mikhail Tal, respectively, in quarterfinal Candidates matches, before succumbing both times in the semifinals to the eventual challenger, Viktor Korchnoi.

Polugaevsky played on the Soviet national team in seven Chess Olympiads, in 1966, 1968, 1970, 1978, 1980, 1982 and 1984. His team won the gold medal on each occasion, except in 1978, when the USSR finished second to Hungary.

Author
In addition to his over-the-board and theoretical successes, Polugaevsky was a highly respected chess author. His 1977 book Grandmaster Preparation (now out of print) is a classic that contains notable insights into his own thinking as he crafted the ultra-sharp eponymous variation in the main line (6. Bg5 e6 7. f4 b5) Najdorf Sicilian Defence. He went about his writing with the same meticulous care as characterized his analyses, and was contemptuous of the many less thorough authors who sought to profit from the post-Fischer chess boom with shoddy work, memorably commenting that "Ninety per cent of all chess books you can open at page one and then immediately close again for ever. Sometimes you see books that have been written in one month. I don't like that. You should take at least two years for a book, or not do it [at] all."

Books by Polugaevsky
Queen's Gambit: Orthodox Defence
Grandmaster Preparation,
Grandmaster Performance,
Grandmaster Achievement
Art of Defence in Chess
The Sicilian Labyrinth
Sicilian Love – Lev Polugaevsky Chess Tournament 1994 (Buenos Aires), with Jeroen Piket, the New in Chess Editorial team, 1995, 240 p.,

Death
To celebrate Polugaevsky's 60th birthday, a Sicilian Defence-themed tournament was held in recognition of his contributions to the opening. The event was funded by Luis Rentero and took place in Buenos Aires in October 1994. Polugaevsky was too ill to participate but attended as a guest of honour. He died of a brain tumour on August 30, 1995.

Legacy

Polugaevsky was a noted theorist whose work on a number of openings has stood the test of time. He is best remembered for a variation of the Sicilian Defence that bears his name: 1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 d6 3.d4 cxd4 4.Nxd4 Nf6 5.Nc3 a6 6.Bg5 e6 7.f4 b5!? This Polugaevsky Variation of the Najdorf Sicilian leads to extraordinarily complicated tactical play on which the last word has still not been said, although theory  seems to give White the upper hand.

Illustrative games
This game from the 1969 Soviet championship against Tal would seem at first glance to be an example of Polugaevsky beating "The Magician from Riga" at his own sacrificial game. More subtly, however, it also reveals the depth of his opening knowledge and preparation. Polugaevsky had worked with Boris Spassky as the latter was preparing for his successful 1969 world championship match with Tigran Petrosian, and the two had made a searching analysis of the opening used in this game. Polugaevsky remarked later that the position as late as move 25 had appeared on the board during his analysis on the morning of the game.

Polugaevsky–Tal, Queen's Gambit Declined 1.c4 Nf6 2.Nc3 e6 3.Nf3 d5 4.d4 c5 5.cxd5 Nxd5 6.e4 Nxc3 7.bxc3 cxd4 8.cxd4 Bb4+ 9.Bd2 Bxd2+ 10.Qxd2 0-0 11.Bc4 Nc6 12.0-0 b6 13.Rad1 Bb7 14.Rfe1 Na5 15.Bd3 Rc8 16.d5 exd5 17.e5 Nc4 18.Qf4 Nb2 19.Bxh7+ Kxh7 20.Ng5+ Kg6 21.h4 Rc4 22.h5+ Kh6 23.Nxf7+ Kh7 24.Qf5+ Kg8 25.e6 Qf6 26.Qxf6 gxf6 27.Rd2 Rc6 28.Rxb2 Re8 29.Nh6+ Kh7 30.Nf5 Rexe6 31.Rxe6 Rxe6 32.Rc2 Rc6 33.Re2 Bc8 34.Re7+ Kh8 35.Nh4 f5 36.Ng6+ Kg8 37.Rxa7 1–0

See also
 List of Jewish chess players

References

Bibliography

External links

GM Genna Sosonko's reminiscences on the Polugaevsky-Tal game
Tribute to Lev Polugaevsky - TWIC 51

1934 births
1995 deaths
Chess grandmasters
Russian chess players
Soviet chess players
Jewish chess players
Soviet chess writers
Soviet male writers
20th-century male writers
Chess theoreticians
Chess Olympiad competitors
People from Mogilev
Belarusian Jews
Russian Jews
20th-century chess players

Lev Polugaevsky


Non-autonomous mechanics describe non-relativistic mechanical systems subject to time-dependent transformations. In particular, this is the case of mechanical systems whose Lagrangians and Hamiltonians depend on the time. The configuration space of non-autonomous mechanics is a fiber bundle  over the time axis  coordinated by .

This bundle is trivial, but its different trivializations  correspond to the choice of different non-relativistic reference frames. Such a reference frame also is represented by a connection
 on  which takes a form  with respect to this trivialization. The corresponding covariant differential
determines the relative velocity with respect to a reference frame .

As a consequence, non-autonomous mechanics (in particular, non-autonomous Hamiltonian mechanics) can be formulated as a covariant classical field theory (in particular covariant Hamiltonian field theory) on . Accordingly, the velocity phase space of non-autonomous mechanics is the jet manifold  of  provided with the coordinates . Its momentum phase space is the vertical cotangent bundle  of  coordinated by  and endowed with the canonical Poisson structure. The dynamics of Hamiltonian non-autonomous mechanics is defined by a Hamiltonian form .

One can associate to any Hamiltonian non-autonomous system an equivalent Hamiltonian autonomous system on the cotangent bundle  of  coordinated by  and provided with the canonical symplectic form; its Hamiltonian is .

See also
 Analytical mechanics
 Non-autonomous system (mathematics)
 Hamiltonian mechanics
 Symplectic manifold
 Covariant Hamiltonian field theory
 Free motion equation
 Relativistic system (mathematics)

References
 De Leon, M., Rodrigues, P., Methods of Differential Geometry in Analytical Mechanics (North Holland, 1989).
 Echeverria Enriquez, A., Munoz Lecanda, M., Roman Roy, N., Geometrical setting of time-dependent regular systems. Alternative models, Rev. Math. Phys. 3 (1991) 301.
 Carinena, J., Fernandez-Nunez, J., Geometric theory of time-dependent singular Lagrangians, Fortschr. Phys., 41 (1993) 517.
 Mangiarotti, L., Sardanashvily, G., Gauge Mechanics (World Scientific, 1998) .
 Giachetta, G., Mangiarotti, L., Sardanashvily, G., Geometric Formulation of Classical and Quantum Mechanics (World Scientific, 2010)  ().

Theoretical physics
Classical mechanics
Hamiltonian mechanics
Symplectic geometry

Non-autonomous mechanics


Sir Arthur Bliss CH KCVO (London, 2 August 1891; died London, 27 March 1975) was a British composer (a person who writes music).  When he started composing, his music sounded very modern and harsh. As he got older he changed his style and wrote more Romantic music in the style of English composer Edward Elgar.  For more than twenty years he was Master of the Queen's Music.

Early life
His father was American, his mother was English.  He went to school at Rugby. He went to Cambridge University where he studied with Irish composer Charles Wood.  Wood also taught the composer Ralph Vaughan Williams. Bliss got to know Elgar whose music influenced him very much.

For a short time he learned music from Charles Villiers Stanford at the Royal College of Music.  During World War I he served in the army.

After World War 1
After the war he started to play his music in public.  These compositions show the influence of Stravinsky, Ravel and Les Six.  His music even sounded jazzy.  After a few years his music became more Romantic.  Elgar asked him to write something for the Three Choirs Festival in 1922.  The piece he composed was his Colour Symphony in which he tries to describe colours in music.

During the 1920s his music became more traditional.  He wrote a lot of music for movies including music for the movie Things to Come (H.G.Wells).  He loved the theatre and composed music for the ballets Checkmate and Miracle in the Gorbals.  One of his best works is the choral symphony Morning Heroes (1930). This was written to remember those who were killed in World War I.

America
When World War II started he was in the USA.  He stayed there and taught at Berkeley, California until 1941.  Then he returned to England.  For a time he was Director of Music of the BBC.  He wrote an opera The Olympians.  In 1953 he was made Master of the Queen's Music.  He kept that position until his death, writing many pieces of music for official royal occasions.

He was given many honours, including the Companion of Honour and the Royal Victorian Order.

In his later years he composed several works for orchestra as well as for choirs.

He died on 27 March 1975.  His wife, Gertrude died on 21 November 2008 at the age of 104.

References
The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie

Other websites
The Arthur Bliss society

20th-century English composers
1891 births
1975 deaths
Companions of Honour
Royal Victorian Order

Arthur Bliss


SPW may refer to:
 Schroders Personal Wealth, a British financial planning company operated as a joint venture between Schroders and Lloyds Banking Group.
 The Schützenpanzerwagen, Sd.Kfz. 251, an armoured fighting vehicle built by Germany during World War II
 Semi Precious Weapons, an American glam rock band.
 Sexuality Policy Watch, a global activist and research forum on sexuality, policies and politics; based in Brazil.
 MTR station code for Shui Pin Wai stop, Hong Kong
 Singapore Pro Wrestling, the first professional wrestling promotion in Singapore.
 The Socialist Party of Washington, a state affiliate of the Socialist Party of America established in 1901
 South Pole Wall, massive cosmic structure formed by a giant wall of galaxies (a galaxy filament).
 The IATA code for Spencer Municipal Airport, a public airport in Spencer, Iowa.
 SPW, the SAME code for a shelter-in-place warning.
 SPX Corporation, based on its symbol on the New York Stock Exchange, SPW.
 St Peter's Woodlands Grammar School, a co-educational Anglican primary school located in Adelaide, South Australia.
 Students Partnership Worldwide, an international development charity specialising in youth-to-youth education

SPW


Emile Anthony Sinclair  (born 29 December 1987) is an English semi-professional footballer who plays as a striker.

Career

Nottingham Forest
Born in Leeds, West Yorkshire, Sinclair started his career with Bradford City's youth system in 2005 before being released and signing for Nottingham Forest in 2006. The forward was given chances, along with other young players, in Forest's 2007 pre-season.

Sinclair made his professional debut away at Chester City in the first round of the League Cup. He came on as a substitute in extra time and went on to score the winning penalty in the penalty shootout.

He made his League debut with a brief appearance at Swansea City. He scored his first professional goal after netting the last of Forest's 4–0 victory against Gillingham, just two minutes after coming on as a substitute for hat-trick man Junior Agogo. Following this run of form, the 19-year-old was rewarded with a new two-year deal at the City Ground club on 2 October 2007.

On 22 November 2007, Sinclair joined Brentford on a one-month loan deal. His debut was in a 7–0 loss against to Peterborough United. He was dropped onto the bench and made his other three appearances as a substitute. His loan spell ended on 2 January 2008.  He netted two goals in the reserves upon his return and returned to the first team days later as he came off the bench in Forest's 4–0 victory over Leyton Orient. He helped The Reds finish second in the 2007–08 season in League One, gaining promotion to the Championship.

With The Reds gaining promotion, manager Colin Calderwood has commented that he will be given the chance to impress next season after Forest's promotion to the Championship in the upcoming 2008–09 campaign.

On 16 October, he joined Conference Premier club Mansfield Town on loan, scoring on his debut against Wrexham. His impressive display at the club soon led Mansfield Town extending his loan until 17 January 2009. He went on to score five goals in 15 appearances on loan with Mansfield before returning to Forest.

After his loan spell at Macclesfield Town ended, Sinclair was involved in the first team against Ipswich Town as a substitute and replaced Joe Garner at half-time, but lost 2–1. After the match was concluded, Manager Billy Davies criticised Sinclair's performance by stating he was no where near from being a first team player.

At the end of the 2008–09 season, it was announced in May 2009 that Sinclair was released by Nottingham Forest.

Macclesfield Town
Sinclair joined Macclesfield Town on loan on 15 January 2009 on a one-month loan deal. After making his debut against Aldershot Town on 21 January 2009, Sinclair scored his Macclesfield Town goal on 24 January 2009, in a 2–0 win over Brentford. With six appearances and scoring once, Sinclair made his return to his parent as a result of loan spell expired at Macclesfield Town. After playing game for Nottingham Forest, Sinclair made his return to the club, where he went on to make eleven appearances. Sinclair was keen to join Macclesfield Town on a permanent basis.

After a successful loan spell out the club, it was announced on 22 May 2009 that Sinclair had signed a permanent one-year deal. Sinclair made his Macclesfield Town debut, in the opening match of the season, in a 0–0 draw against Northampton Town. It took until on 29 September 2009 for Sinclair to score his first goal after signing for the club on a permanent basis, in a 1–1 draw against Burton Albion. Sinclair scored a brace, in a 3–1 win over Hereford United on 12 December 2009 and then scored against Hereford United for the third time this season, in a 2–0 win on 6 March 2010. Sinclair scored three more goals against Bradford City, Barnet and Chesterfield. Sinclair progressed through the 2009/10 season, making 42 appearances and scoring 7 goals. He signed a new two-year contract with the club, keeping him at the end of the 2011/12 season.

In the 2010–11 season, Sinclair started well when he scored his first goal of the season, in a 1–1 draw against Chesterfield on 28 August 2010. Sincalir's second goal came on 25 September 2010, in a 3–1 win over Torquay United. His performance was subjected to transfer bid, only for the club to reject it. Unfortunately, Sinclair suffered a hamstring injury that kept him out for four weeks. After returning to training, Sinclair made his return to the first team, in a 1–0 win over Bradford City on 20 November 2010. Despite being sent-off in a 1–0 loss against Wycombe Wanderers on 26 February 2011, which saw him miss three match, Sinclair scored three goals later in the 2010–11 season: twice against Burton Albion and once against Gillingham.

At the start of the 2011–12 season, Sinclair scored twice, in the first round of League Cup, in a 2–0 win over Hull City and scored again in the second round of League Cup, in a 2–1 loss against Bolton Wanderers. Three days later, Sinclair scored his first league goal of the season, in a 4–0 win over Wimbledon. His goal scoring form for the seven matches attracted further interests from clubs, as Macclesfield Town were determined to keep the hold of Sinclair.

Peterborough United
Sinclair signed for Peterborough United on 31 August 2011. Peterborough paid an undisclosed fee for the striker, who signed a three-year contract with the club. He believed his pace, power and goals abilities could see him fit in at the club.

Sinclair made his Peterborough United debut, coming on as a substitute for Paul Taylor in the 59th minute, in a 1–0 loss against Hull City, just month after scoring them in the League Cup. In the next match, Sinclair scored a brace on his debut start in a 2–1 home victory against Burnley with both goals. By November, Sinclair scored three goals in fourteen matches against Watford, Southampton and Reading. On 17 December he started against Coventry City at home, Paul Taylor picked up the ball with 20 minutes remaining and found Sinclair in the box, Sinclair guided the ball into the top corner, the match finished 1–0. Sinclair scored his first 2012 goal for the club, in a 1–1 draw against Birmingham City. But soon after, Sinclair find himself in a pecking order following a new signing of Tyrone Barnett. As a result, Championship's rival Coventry City and other clubs made a bid for him, but this was rejected by Peterborough United. Weeks after the bid was rejected, Sinclair scored his first goal in two months, in a 3–2 loss against Ipswich Town. Then on 7 April 2012, Sinclair scored twice, in a 2–2 draw against Coventry City. However, Sinclair suffered ankle injury during a match against Nottingham Forest and was out for the rest of the 2011–12 season. Despite this, he helped the club survive relegation to stay in the Championship next season, as he scored ten times in thirty-five appearances.

In the 2012–13 season, Sinclair scored his first goals of the 2012–13 season with a hat-trick in a 3–1 win at Hull City on 29 September. These goals helped Peterborough to their first points of the season, Peterborough were the only team in all 4 divisions without a point. After the match, Sinclair described scoring a hat-trick as "incredible". Sinclair continued to be in the first team at Peterborough United until Sinclair was transfer-listed following a breach of club discipline, along with three other players. Sinclair was previously placed on the transfer list over contract negotiation that yet responded from the player. Rotherham United and Barnsley were keen to sign Sinclair and Barnett on loan, but the attempt to sign the pair were rejected by Peterborough United.

On 20 November, he signed for Barnsley on loan until 19 January 2013. Sinclair made his Barnsley debut, where he came on as a substitute for Marcus Tudgay in the 81st minute, in a 2–1 loss against Cardiff City on 24 November 2012. After making four appearances for the club, Sinclair's loan spell at Barnsley ended abruptly.

Shortly after his loan spell with Barnsley came to an end, Sinclair signed for Doncaster Rovers on loan until the end of the season on 5 January 2013. Upon moving to the club, Manager Brian Flynn believed Sinclair could play a vital of helping the club's attempt to get promoted to Championship. He made his debut immediately, starting in the match against Colchester on 5 January, being subbed in 67th minute as manager Dean Saunders chose to bolster the midfield. However, he only made four appearances, as he spent the most of the career at Doncaster Rovers on the bench.

Ahead of the 2013–14 season, Sinclair started his Peterborough United return when he scored the winning goal in a 1–0 win over Queens Park Rangers. Following this, Sinclair said he determined to fight for his first team place. However, after appearing the first five matches as an unused substitute, the club and unnamed League One club made an agreement for Sinclair.

Crawley Town
Sinclair signed for League One club Crawley Town on 29 August 2013 on a two-year contract for a £100,000 fee. He made his debut when he came on as a substitute for Billy Clarke in the 90th minute of a 3–2 loss against Gillingham on 7 September 2013. Two weeks later on 21 September 2013, Sinclair scored his first Crawley Town goal, in a 1–1 draw against Colchester United. After the match, Sinclair said he determined to impress Manager Richie Barker following his first goal for the club. His second goal for the club then came on 19 October 2013, in a 1–0 win over Bradford City. Sinclair's third goal came on 8 October 2013, in a 3–2 loss against Newport County in the second round of Football League Trophy. Sinclair scored his fourth goal of the season, in a 2–1 win over Hednesford Town.

However, Sinclair struggled to score goals regularly, as he scored four times, which he said he fallen out of football. Sinclair was allowed to leave the club in the January transfer window. Mansfield Town, who he played in 2008, were keen to sign Sinclair, but decided against over issues.

Northampton Town
On 31 January 2014, Sinclair joined League Two club Northampton Town on loan for the remainder of the season. The options included with a view to a two-year contract.

The next day on 1 February, Sinclair made his Northampton Town debut, coming on as a substitute for Alan Connell in the 57th minute, in a 1–1 draw against Cheltenham Town. His performance saw him named the Northampton Town Player of the Month for February. Two weeks later on 11 February 2014, Sinclair scored his first goals, in a 2–1 win over Torquay United. Sinclair went on to make twenty appearances and scoring two times.

In the 2014–15 season, Sinclair suffered a groin injury that kept him out for weeks and soon regained his fitness. Upon returning to training, the club was considering selling Sinclair after finding himself in the pecking order following new signings. Sinclair made his first appearance of the season, where he came on as a substitute in the 58th minute and scored a late equaliser, in a 1–1 draw against Shrewsbury Town. Sinclair then suffered ankle injury that kept him out for a month. Sinclair continued to have injury plagued when he suffered a hamstring injury.

Sinclair was released by Northampton on 19 January 2015, just six months into a two-year deal.

York City

On 20 January 2015, Sinclair signed for League Two club York City on a one-and-a-half-year contract. Following his move to the club, Sinclair determined to score more goals for York City. Four days later, Sinclair made a quick impact when he scored in a 1–1 draw against Burton Albion. Three weeks later on 10 February 2015, Sinclair scored his second goal for the club, in a 2–2 draw against Luton Town. But unfortunately, Sinclair went on to make twelve appearances and scoring two times after suffering a thigh injury he sustained in the 14th minute and was substituted in the 14th minute against Accrington Stanley.

On 1 February 2016, Sinclair joined National League club Guiseley on a one-month loan. He made 13 appearances and scored two goals as Guiseley finished the 2015–16 National League in 20th place. Sinclair was released by York when his contract expired at the end of 2015–16.

Later career
In August 2016, Sinclair signed for National League North club Altrincham. He signed for their divisional rivals Bradford Park Avenue on 14 September 2016. He was released at the end of 2016–17.

On 9 June 2017, Sinclair signed for Northern Premier League Division One North club Scarborough Athletic. He signed for another Northern Premier League Division One North club, Ossett Town, in October 2017. He moved on to Goole in January 2018. Sinclair moved to Liversedge in late December 2018.

Career statistics

References

External links

Emile Sinclair profile at the Ossett Town F.C. website

1987 births
Living people
Footballers from Leeds
English men's footballers
Men's association football forwards
Bradford City A.F.C. players
Nottingham Forest F.C. players
Brentford F.C. players
Mansfield Town F.C. players
Macclesfield Town F.C. players
Peterborough United F.C. players
Barnsley F.C. players
Doncaster Rovers F.C. players
Crawley Town F.C. players
Northampton Town F.C. players
York City F.C. players
Guiseley A.F.C. players
Altrincham F.C. players
Bradford (Park Avenue) A.F.C. players
Scarborough Athletic F.C. players
Ossett Town A.F.C. players
Goole A.F.C. players
English Football League players
National League (English football) players
Northern Premier League players
Black British sportsmen

Emile Sinclair


Carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS) is the collection of symptoms and signs associated with median neuropathy at the carpal tunnel. Most CTS is related to idiopathic compression of the median nerve as it travels through the wrist at the carpal tunnel (IMNCT). Idiopathic means that there is no other disease process contributing to pressure on the nerve. As with most structural issues, it occurs in both hands, and the strongest risk factor is genetics.

Other conditions can cause CTS such as wrist fracture or rheumatoid arthritis. After fracture, swelling, bleeding, and deformity compress the median nerve. With rheumatoid arthritis, the enlarged synovial lining of the tendons causes compression.

The main symptoms are numbness and tingling in the thumb, index finger, middle finger and the thumb side of the ring finger. People often report pain, but pain without tingling is not characteristic of IMNCT. Rather, the numbness can be so intense that it is described as painful.

Symptoms are typically most troublesome at night. Many people sleep with their wrists bent, and the ensuing symptoms may lead to awakening. Untreated, and over years to decades, IMNCT causes loss of sensibility and weakness and shrinkage (atrophy) of the muscles at the base of the thumb.

Work-related factors such as vibration, wrist extension or flexion, hand force, and repetition increase the risk of developing CTS. The only certain risk factor for IMNCT is genetics. All other risk factors are open to debate. It is important to consider IMNCT separately from CTS in diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis.

Diagnosis of IMNCT can be made with a high probability based on characteristic symptoms and signs. IMNCT can be measured with electrodiagnostic tests.

People wake less often at night if they wear a wrist splint. Injection of corticosteroids may or may not alleviate better than simulated (placebo) injections. There is no evidence that corticosteroid injection alters the natural history of the disease, which seems to be a gradual progression of neuropathy.

Surgery to cut the transverse carpal ligament is the only known disease modifying treatment.

Anatomy

The carpal tunnel is an anatomical compartment located at the base of the palm. Nine flexor tendons and the median nerve pass through the carpal tunnel that is surrounded on three sides by the carpal bones that form an arch. The median nerve provides feeling or sensation to the thumb, index finger, long finger, and half of the ring finger. At the level of the wrist, the median nerve supplies the muscles at the base of the thumb that allow it to abduct, move away from the other four fingers, as well as move out of the plane of the palm. The carpal tunnel is located at the middle third of the base of the palm, bounded by the bony prominence of the scaphoid tubercle and trapezium at the base of the thumb, and the hamate hook that can be palpated along the axis of the ring finger. From the anatomical position, the carpal tunnel is bordered on the anterior surface by the transverse carpal ligament, also known as the flexor retinaculum. The flexor retinaculum is a strong, fibrous band that attaches to the pisiform and the hamulus of the hamate. The proximal boundary is the distal wrist skin crease, and the distal boundary is approximated by a line known as Kaplan's cardinal line. This line uses surface landmarks, and is drawn between the apex of the skin fold between the thumb and index finger to the palpated hamate hook.

Pathophysiology

The carpal tunnel is a narrow canal surrounded by bone and fibrous tissue. The median nerve passes through this space along with the flexor tendons and their sheaths. Increased compartmental pressure for any reason can squeeze the median nerve. Specifically, increased pressure can interfere with normal intraneural blood flow, eventually causing a cascade of physiological changes in the nerve itself. There is a dose-respondent curve such that greater and longer periods of pressure are associated with greater nerve dysfunction. Most cases of carpal tunnel syndrome are idiopathic (cause unknown), but common known causes are hypertrophy of the synovial tissue surrounding the flexor tendons of the forearm, and repetitive wrist movements.

Prolonged pressure can lead to a cascade of physiological changes in neural tissue. First, the blood-nerve barrier breaks down (increased permeability of perineureum and endothelial cells of endoneural blood vessels). Then edema forms. If the pressure continues, the nerves will start the process of demyelination under the area of compression. This will result in abnormal nerve conduction even when the pressure is relieved leading to persistent sensory symptoms until remyelination can occur. If the compression continues and is severe enough, axons may be injured and Wallerian degeneration will occur. At this point there may be weakness and muscle atrophy, depending on the extent of axon damage.

The critical pressure above which the microcirculatory environment of a nerve becomes compromised depends on diastolic/systolic blood pressure. Higher blood pressure will require higher external pressure on the nerve to disrupt its microvascular environment. The critical pressure necessary to disrupt the blood supply of a nerve is approximately 30mm Hg below diastolic blood pressure or 45mm Hg below mean arterial pressure. For normohypertensive (normal blood pressure) adults, the average values for systolic blood pressure is 116mm Hg diastolic blood pressure is 69mm Hg. Using this data, the average person would become symptomatic with approximately 39mm Hg of pressure in the wrist (69 - 30 = 39 and 69 + (116 - 69)/3 - 45 ~ 40). Carpal tunnel syndrome patients tend to have elevated carpal tunnel pressures (12-31mm Hg) compared to controls (2.5 - 13mm Hg). Applying pressure to the carpal tunnel of normal subjects in a lab can produce mild neurophysiological changes at 30mm Hg with a rapid, complete sensory block at 60mm Hg. Carpal tunnel pressure is affected by wrist movement/position, with flexion and extension capable of raising the tunnel pressure as high as 111mm Hg. Many of the activities associated with carpal tunnel such as driving, holding a phone, etc. involve flexing the wrist and it is likely due to an increase in carpal tunnel pressure during these activities.

Nerve compression can result in various stages of nerve injury. The majority of carpal tunnel syndrome patients have a degree I nerve injury (Sunderland classification), also called neuropraxia. This is characterized by a conduction block, segmental demyelination, and intact axons. With no further compression, the nerves will remyelinate and fully recover. Severe carpal tunnel syndrome patients may have degree II/III injuries (Sunderland classification), or axonotmesis, where the axon is injured partially or fully. With axon injury there would be muscle weakness or atrophy, and with no further compression the nerves may only partially recover.

While there is evidence that chronic compression is a major cause of carpal tunnel syndrome, it may not be the only cause. Several alternative, potentially speculative, theories exist which describe alternative forms of nerve entrapment. One is the theory of nerve scarring (specifically adherence between the mesoneurium and epineureum) preventing the nerve from gliding during wrist/finger movements, causing repetitive traction injuries. Another is the double crush syndrome, where compression may interfere with axonal transport, and two separate points of compression (e.g. neck and wrist), neither enough to cause local demyelination, may together impair normal nerve function.

Epidemiology
IMNCT is estimated to affect one out of ten people during their lifetime and is the most common nerve compression syndrome. There is notable variation in such estimates based on how one defines the problem, in particular whether one studies people presenting with symptoms vs. measurable median neuropathy (IMNCT) whether or not people are seeking care. IMNCT accounts for about 90% of all nerve compression syndromes. The best data regarding IMNCT and CTS comes from population-based studies, which demonstrate no relationship to gender, and increasing prevalence (accumulation) with age.

Symptoms
The characteristic symptom of CTS is numbness, tingling, or burning sensations in the thumb, index, middle, and radial half of the ring finger. These areas process sensation through the median nerve. Numbness or tingling is usually worse with sleep. People tend to sleep with their wrists flexed, which increases pressure on the nerve. Ache and discomfort may be reported in the forearm or even the upper arm, but its relationship to IMNCT is uncertain. Symptoms that are not characteristic of CTS include pain in the wrists or hands, loss of grip strength, minor loss of sleep, and loss of manual dexterity.

As the median neuropathy gets worse, there is loss of sensibility in the thumb, index, middle, and thumb side of the ring finger. As the neuropathy progresses, there may be first weakness, then to atrophy of the muscles of thenar eminence (the flexor pollicis brevis, opponens pollicis, and abductor pollicis brevis). The sensibility of the palm remains normal because the superficial sensory branch of the median nerve branches proximal to the TCL and travels superficial to it.

Median nerve symptoms may arise from compression at the level of the thoracic outlet or the area where the median nerve passes between the two heads of the pronator teres in the forearm, although this is debated.

Signs
Severe IMNCT is associated with measurable loss of sensibility.  Diminished threshold sensibility (the ability to distinguish different amounts of pressure) can be measured using Semmes-Weinstein monofilament testing. Diminished discriminant sensibility can be measured by testing two-point discrimination: the number of millimeters two points of contact need to be separated before you can distinguish them.

A person with idiopathic median neuropathy at the carpal tunnel will not have any sensory loss over the thenar eminence (bulge of muscles in the palm of hand and at the base of the thumb). This is because the palmar branch of the median nerve, which innervates that area of the palm, separates from the median nerve and passes over the carpal tunnel.

Severe IMNCT is also associated with weakness and atrophy of the muscles at the base of the thumb.  People may lose the ability to palmarly abduct the thumb. IMNCT can be detected on examination using one of several maneuvers to provoke paresthesia (a sensation of tingling or "pins and needles" in the median nerve distribution).  These so-called provocative signs include:
 Phalen's maneuver. Performed by fully flexing the wrist, then holding this position and awaiting symptoms. A positive test is one that results in paresthesia in the median nerve distribution within sixty seconds.
 Tinel's sign is performed by lightly tapping the median nerve just proximal to flexor retinaculum to elicit paresthesia.
 Durkan test, carpal compression test, or applying firm pressure to the palm over the nerve for up to 30 seconds to elicit paresthesia.
 Hand elevation test The hand elevation test is performed by lifting both hands above the head. Paresthesia in the median nerve distribution within 2 minutes is considered positive.

Diagnostic performance characteristics such as sensitivity and specificity are reported, but difficult to interpret because of the lack of a consensus reference standard for CTS or IMNCT.

Causes

Idiopathic median neuropathy at the carpal tunnel

Most people with CTS have median neuropathy of unknown cause. The medical term for this is "idiopathic." The pathology can be described as idiopathic median neuropathy at the carpal tunnel (IMNCT).

The association of other factors with CTS and IMNCT is a source of notable debate. It is important to distinguish factors that provoke symptoms, and factors that are associated with seeking care, from factors that make the neuropathy worse.

Genetic factors are believed to be the most important determinants of who develops carpal tunnel syndrome due to IMNCT. In other words, one's wrist structure seems programmed at birth to develop IMNCT later in life. A genome-wide association study (GWAS) of carpal tunnel syndrome identified 50 genomic loci significantly associated with the disease, including several loci previously known to be associated with human height.

Factors that may contribute to symptoms, but have not been experimentally associated with neuropathy include obesity, and Diabetes mellitus. One case-control study noted that individuals classified as obese (BMI >29) are 2.5 times more likely than slender individuals (BMI <20) to be diagnosed with CTS. It is not clear whether this association is due to an alteration of pathophysiology, a variation in symptoms, or a variation in care-seeking.

Discrete pathophysiology and carpal tunnel syndrome

Hereditary neuropathy with susceptibility to pressure palsies is a genetic condition that appears to increase the probability of developing MNCT. Heterozygous mutations in the gene SH3TC2, associated with Charcot-Marie-Tooth, may confer susceptibility to neuropathy, including CTS.

Association between common benign tumors such as lipomas, ganglion, and vascular malformation should be handled with care. Such tumors are very common and overlap with IMNCT is more likely than pressure on the median nerve. Similarly, the degree to which transthyretin amyloidosis-associated polyneuropathy and carpal tunnel syndrome is under investigation. Prior carpal tunnel release is often noted in individuals who later present with transthyretin amyloid-associated cardiomyopathy. There is consideration that bilateral carpal tunnel syndrome could be a reason to consider amyloidosis, timely diagnosis of which could improve heart health. Amyloidosis is rare, even among people with carpal tunnel syndrome (0.55% incidence within 10 years of carpal tunnel release). In the absence of other factors associated with a notable probability of amyloidosis, it is not clear that biopsy at the time of carpal tunnel release has a suitable balance between potential harms and potential benefits.

Other specific pathophysiologies that can cause median neuropathy via pressure include:
 Rheumatoid arthritis and other diseases that cause inflammation of the flexor tendons.
 With severe untreated hypothyroidism, generalized myxedema causes deposition of mucopolysaccharides within both the perineurium of the median nerve, as well as the tendons passing through the carpal tunnel. Association of CTS and IMNCT with lesser degrees of hypothyroidism is questioned.
 Pregnancy may bring out symptoms in genetically predisposed individuals, which may be caused by the temporary changes in hormones and fluid increase pressure in the carpal tunnel. High progesterone levels and water retention may increase the size of  the synovium.
 Bleeding and swelling from a fracture or dislocation. This is referred to as acute carpal tunnel syndrome.
 Acromegaly causes excessive secretion of growth hormones. This causes the soft tissues and bones around the carpal tunnel to grow and compress the median nerve.

Other considerations
 Double-crush syndrome is a debated hypothesis that compression or irritation of nerve branches contributing to the median nerve in the neck, or anywhere above the wrist, increases sensitivity of the nerve to compression in the wrist. There is little evidence to support this theory and some concern that it may be used to justify more surgery.

Median neuropathy and activity
Work-related factors that increase risk of CTS include vibration (5.4 odds ratio), hand force (4.2), and repetition (2.3). Exposure to wrist extension or flexion at work increases the risk of CTS by two times. The balance of evidence suggests that keyboard and computer use does not cause CTS.

The international debate regarding the relationship between CTS and repetitive hand use (at work in particular) is ongoing. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has adopted rules and regulations regarding so-called "cumulative trauma disorders" based concerns regarding potential harm from exposure to repetitive tasks, force, posture, and vibration.

A review of available scientific data by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) indicated that job tasks that involve highly repetitive manual acts or specific wrist postures were associated with symptoms of CTS, but there was not a clear distinction of paresthesia (appropriate) from pain (inappropriate) and causation was not established. The distinction from work-related arm pains that are not carpal tunnel syndrome was unclear. It is proposed that repetitive use of the arm can affect the biomechanics of the upper limb or cause damage to tissues. It is proposed that postural and spinal assessment along with ergonomic assessments should be considered, based on observation that addressing these factors has been found to improve comfort in some studies although experimental data are lacking and the perceived benefits may not be specific to those interventions. A 2010 survey by NIOSH showed that two-thirds of the 5million carpal tunnel diagnosed in the US that year were related to work. Women are more likely to be diagnosed with work-related carpal tunnel syndrome than men. Many if not most patients described in published series of carpal tunnel release are older and often not working.

Normal pressure of the carpal tunnel has been defined as a range of . Wrist flexion increases the pressure eight-fold and extension increases it ten-fold. There is speculation that repetitive flexion and extension in the wrist can cause thickening of the synovial tissue that lines the tendons within the carpal tunnel.

Associated conditions
A variety of patient factors can lead to CTS, including heredity, size of the carpal tunnel, associated local and systematic diseases, and certain habits. Non-traumatic causes generally happen over a period of time, and are not triggered by one certain event. Many of these factors are manifestations of physiologic aging.

Diagnosis
There is no consensus reference standard for the diagnosis of carpal tunnel syndrome. A combination of characteristic symptoms (how it feels) and signs (what the clinician finds on exam) are associated with a high probability of IMNCT without electrophysiological testing.

Electrodiagnostic testing (electromyography and nerve conduction velocity) can objectively measure and verify median neuropathy.

Ultrasound can image and measure the cross sectional diameter of the median nerve, which has some correlation with idiopathic median neuropathy at the carpal tunnel (IMNCT). The role of ultrasound in diagnosis—just as for electrodiagnostic testing—is a matter of debate. EDX cannot fully exclude the diagnosis of CTS due to the lack of sensitivity.

The role of confirmatory electrodiagnostic testing is debated. The goal of electrodiagnostic testing is to compare the speed of conduction in the median nerve with conduction in other nerves supplying the hand. When the median nerve is compressed, as in IMNCT, it will conduct more slowly than normal and more slowly than other nerves. Compression results in damage to the myelin sheath and manifests as delayed latencies and slowed conduction velocities. Electrodiagnosis rests upon demonstrating impaired median nerve conduction across the carpal tunnel in context of normal conduction elsewhere.

It is often stated that normal electrodiagnostic studies do not preclude the diagnosis of carpal tunnel syndrome. The rationale for this is that a threshold of neuropathy must be reached before study results become abnormal and also that threshold values for abnormality vary. Others contend that idiopathic median neuropathy at the carpal tunnel with normal electrodiagnostic tests would represent very, very mild neuropathy that would be best managed as a normal median nerve. Even more important, notable symptoms with mild disease is strongly associated with unhelpful thoughts and symptoms of worry and despair. Notable CTS with unmeasurable IMNCT should remind clinicians to always consider the whole person, including their mindset and circumstances, in strategies to help people get and stay healthy.

A joint report published by the American Association of Neuromuscular & Electrodiagnostic Medicine (AANEM), the American Academy of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation (AAPM&R), and the American Academy of Neurology defines practice parameters, standards, and guidelines for EDX studies of CTS based on an extensive critical literature review. This joint review concluded median and sensory nerve conduction studies are valid and reproducible in a clinical laboratory setting and a clinical diagnosis of CTS can be made with a sensitivity greater than 85% and specificity greater than 95%. Given the key role of electrodiagnostic testing in the diagnosis of CTS, The AANEM has issued evidence-based practice guidelines, both for the diagnosis of carpal tunnel syndrome.

Imaging
The role of MRI or ultrasound imaging in the diagnosis of IMNCT is unclear. Their routine use is not recommended. Morphological MRI has high sensitivity but low specificity for IMNCT. High signal intensity may suggest accumulation of axonal transportation, myelin sheath degeneration or oedema. However, more recent quantitative MRI techniques which derive repeatable, reliable and objective biomarkers from nerves and skeletal muscle may have utility, including diffusion-weighted (typically diffusion tensor) MRI which has demonstrable normal values and aberrations in carpal tunnel syndrome.

Differential diagnosis
Cervical radiculopathy can also cause paresthesia abnormal sensibility in the hands and wrist. The distribution usually follows the nerve root, and the paresthesia may be provoked by neck movement. Electromyography and imaging of the cervical spine can help to differentiate cervical radiculopathy from carpal tunnel syndrome if the diagnosis is unclear. Carpal tunnel syndrome is sometimes applied as a label to anyone with pain, numbness, swelling, or burning in the radial side of the hands or wrists. When pain is the primary symptom, carpal tunnel syndrome is unlikely to be the source of the symptoms.

When the symptoms and signs point to atrophy and muscle weakness more than numbness, consider neurodegenerative disorders such as Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis or Charcot-Marie Tooth.

Prevention
There is little or no data to support the concept that activity adjustment prevents carpal tunnel syndrome. The evidence for wrist rest is debated. There is also little research supporting that ergonomics is related to carpal tunnel syndrome.

Given that biological factors such as genetic predisposition and anthropometric features are more strongly associated with idiopathic carpal tunnel syndrome than occupational/environmental factors such as hand use, IMNCT might not be prevented by activity modifications.

Some claim that worksite modifications such as switching from a QWERTY computer keyboard layout to Dvorak is helpful, but meta-analyses of the available studies note limited supported evidence.

Treatment
There are more than 50 types of treatments for CTS with varied levels of evidence and recommendation across healthcare guidelines, with evidence most strongly supporting surgery, steroids, splinting for wrist positioning, and physical or occupational therapy interventions. When selecting treatment, it is important to consider the severity and chronicity of the CTS pathophysiology and to distinguish treatments that can alter the natural history of the pathophysiology (disease-modifying treatments) and treatments that only alleviate symptoms (palliative treatments). The strongest evidence for disease-modifying treatment in chronic or severe CTS cases is surgery to change the shape of the carpal tunnel.

The American Academy of Orthopedic Surgeons recommends proceeding conservatively with a course of nonsurgical therapies tried before release surgery is considered. A different treatment should be tried if the current treatment fails to resolve the symptoms within 2 to 7 weeks. Early surgery with carpal tunnel release is indicated where there is evidence of median nerve denervation or a person elects to proceed directly to surgical treatment. Recommendations may differ when carpal tunnel syndrome is found in association with the following conditions: diabetes mellitus, coexistent cervical radiculopathy, hypothyroidism, polyneuropathy, pregnancy, rheumatoid arthritis, and carpal tunnel syndrome in the workplace. CTS related to another pathophysiology is addressed by treating that pathology. For instance, disease-modifying medications for rheumatoid arthritis or surgery for traumatic acute carpal tunnel syndrome.

There is insufficient evidence to recommend gabapentin, non-steroidal anti-inflammatories (NSAIDs), yoga, acupuncture, low level laser therapy, magnet therapy, vitamin B6 or other supplements.

Splint immobilization

Wrist braces (splints) alleviate symptoms by keeping the wrist straight, which avoids the increased pressure in the carpal tunnel associated with wrist flexion or extension. They are used primarily to help people sleep.

Many health professionals suggest that, for the best results, one should wear braces at night. When possible, braces can be worn during the activity primarily causing stress on the wrists. The brace should not generally be used during the day as wrist activity is needed to keep the wrist from becoming stiff and to prevent muscles from weakening.

Corticosteroids
Corticosteroid injections may provide temporary alleviation of symptoms although they are not clearly better than placebo. This form of treatment is thought to reduce discomfort in those with CTS due to its ability to decrease median nerve swelling. The use of ultrasound while performing the injection is more expensive but leads to faster resolution of CTS symptoms. The injections are done under local anesthesia. This treatment is not appropriate for extended periods, however. In general, local steroid injections are only used until more definitive treatment options can be used. Corticosteroid injections do not appear to slow disease progression.

Surgery

Release of the transverse carpal ligament is known as "carpal tunnel release" surgery. The purpose of cutting the transverse carpal ligament to relieve pressure on the median nerve, and this type of surgery is called a nerve decompression. It is recommended when there is static (constant, not just intermittent) numbness, muscle weakness, or atrophy, and when night-splinting or other palliative interventions no longer alleviate intermittent symptoms. The surgery may be done with local or regional anesthesia with or without sedation, or under general anesthesia. In general, milder cases can be controlled for months to years, but severe cases are unrelenting symptomatically and are likely to result in surgical treatment.

Physical and occupational therapy

There are many different techniques used in manual therapy for patients with CTS. Some examples are manual and instrumental soft tissue mobilizations, massage therapy, bone mobilizations or manipulations, and neurodynamic techniques, focused on skeletal system or soft tissue.

A randomized control trial published in 2017 sought to examine the efficacy of manual therapy techniques for the treatment of carpal tunnel syndrome. The study included a total of 140 individuals diagnosed with carpal tunnel syndrome and the patients were divided into two groups. One group received treatment that consisted of manual therapy. Manual therapy included the incorporation of specified neurodynamic techniques, functional massage, and carpal bone mobilizations. Another group only received treatment through electrophysical modalities. The duration of the study was over the course of 20 physical therapy sessions for both groups. Results of this study showed that the group being treated through manual techniques and mobilizations yielded a 290% reduction in overall pain when compared to reports of pain prior to conducting the study. Total function improved by 47%. Conversely, the group being treated with electrophysical modalities reported a 47% reduction in overall pain with a 9% increase in function.

Self-myofascial ligament stretching has been suggested as an effective technique, although a meta-analysis claimed this kind of therapy does not show significant improvement in symptoms or function. Tendon and nerve gliding exercises appear to be useful in carpal tunnel syndrome.

Alternative medicine
A 2018 Cochrane review on acupuncture and related interventions for the treatment of carpal tunnel syndrome concluded that, "Acupuncture and laser acupuncture may have little or no effect in the short term on symptoms of carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS) in comparison with placebo or sham acupuncture." It was also noted that all studies had an unclear or high overall risk of bias and that all evidence was of low or very low quality.

Prognosis

The natural history of untreated IMNCT seems to be gradual worsening of the neuropathy. It is difficult to prove that this is always the case, but the supportive evidence is compelling.

Atrophy of the muscles of the thenar muscles, weakness of palmar abduction, and loss of sensibility (constant numbness as opposed to intermittent paresthesia) are signs of advanced neuropathy. Advanced neuropathy is often permanent. The nerve will try to recover after surgery for more than 2 years, but the recovery may be incomplete.

Paresthesia may increase after release of advanced carpal tunnel syndrome, and people may feel worse than they did prior to surgery for many months.

Troublesome recovery seems related to symptoms of anxiety or depression, and unhelpful thoughts about symptoms (such as worst-case or catastrophic thinking) as well as advanced neuropathy with potentially permanent neuropathy.

Recurrence of carpal tunnel syndrome after successful surgery is rare. Caution is warranted in considering additional surgery for people dissatisfied with the result of carpal tunnel release as perceived recurrence may more often be due to renewed awareness of persistent symptoms rather than worsening pathology.

History
IMNCT was first described long ago, but infrequently diagnosed until relatively recently. People were often diagnosed with acroparesthesia. Clinicians would often ascribe it to "poor circulation" and not pursue it further.

Sir James Paget described median nerve compression at the carpal tunnel in two patients after trauma in 1854. The first was due to an injury where a cord had been wrapped around a man's wrist. The second was related to a distal radial fracture. For the first case Paget performed an amputation of the hand. For the second case Paget recommended a wrist splint.

The first to notice the association between the carpal ligament pathology and median nerve compression appear to have been Pierre Marie and Charles Foix in 1913. They described the results of a postmortem of an 80-year-old man with bilateral carpal tunnel syndrome. They suggested that division of the carpal ligament would be curative in such cases. Putman had previously described a series of 37 patients and suggested a vasomotor origin. The association between the thenar muscle atrophy and compression was noted in 1914. The name "carpal tunnel syndrome" appears to have been coined by Moersch in 1938.

Physician George S. Phalen of the Cleveland Clinic drew attention to the pathology of IMNCT as the reason for most CTS after working with a group of patients in the 1950s and 1960s.

Treatment

In 1933 Sir James Learmonth outlined a method of decompression of the nerve at the wrist. This procedure appears to have been pioneered by the Canadian surgeons Herbert Galloway and Andrew MacKinnon in 1924 in Winnipeg but was not published. Endoscopic release was described in 1988.

See also
 Repetitive strain injury
 Tarsal tunnel syndrome
 Ulnar nerve entrapment
 Radial tunnel syndrome
 Cheiralgia paresthetica
 Nerve compression syndrome

References

External links

 Carpal Tunnel Syndrome Fact Sheet (National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke)
 NHS website carpal-tunnel.net provides a free to use, validated, online self diagnosis questionnaire for CTS

Mononeuropathies of upper limb
Physical ergonomics
Syndromes affecting the nervous system
Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate
Wikipedia emergency medicine articles ready to translate

Carpal tunnel syndrome


The Social Democratic Party or Social Democratic and Peasant Alternative Party (, PSD, Partido Alternativa Socialdemócrata y Campesina, Alternativa) was a left-wing Mexican political party between 2005 and 2009. It defined itself as a New Left party and distanced itself from what they claimed was the "conflictive left" in Mexico. Founded by Patricia Mercado and Ignacio Irys Salomon, the party nominated Patrica Mercado for the 2006 general election.

In the 2006 legislative elections the party won 4 out of 500 seats in the Chamber of Deputies

History

Founding in 2004–2005
Originally as Social Democratic and Peasant Alternative Party, the party started as an alliance between two political leaders, Ignacio Irys Salomon and Patricia Mercado along with peasantry factions. Although, most of its members also come from four other social democratic parties who have lost registration and merged from the following Social Democracy Party led by Gilberto Rincón Gallardo, México Posible (originally led by Patricia Mercado), Fuerza Ciudadana and the Partido Campesino y Popular.

2006 elections
During 2006, The peasant wing of the PSD was headed by Ignacio Irys Salomón. Leader as part of the fractured Coalition of Urban and Peasant Democratic Organizations which brings together ejidatarios, small landowners and commoners.

The party was seriously fractured, since it was a new party right before the 2006 elections. The peasant wing decided to promote the candidacy of pharmaceutical businessman Víctor González Torres, who was highly popular among them and challenged Mercado's candidacy, assuming that the latter did not have sufficient support within the party. González Torres proclaimed himself as candidate and began a media campaign against Mercado. The Electoral Institute ratified Mercado's candidacy for presidential candidate of the party.

After ratification was confirmed for Mercado, Víctor González campaigned without a political party or registration as a candidate.

in the 2006 elections the PSD managed to obtain 2.11% of the total votes, while in the 2006 legislative elections the party won 4 out of 500 seats in the Chamber of Deputies but no senators elected.

Dissolution
The Social Democratic Party came to an end after the results in the 2009 legislative elections; the party won only 1.03% of the vote and did not reach the 2.0% required to be known as a political party, thus losing registration and dissolving. Some of its principal members joined the Citizens' Movement Party.

Ideology
The PSD opposed the public influence of the Roman Catholic Church and has challenged the moral and teaching authority of Archbishop of Mexico Cardinal Norberto Rivera. It also pleaded in favor of equal marriage, euthanasia, the decriminalization of abortion and the legalization of some drugs.

PSD presidents
 Patricia Mercado (2005)
 Alberto Begné Guerra (2005–2008)
 Jorge Carlos Díaz Cuervo (2008–2009)

PSD presidential candidates

 Patricia Mercado (2006)

See also
Politics of Mexico
List of political parties in Mexico

References

Political parties established in 2005
Political parties disestablished in 2009
Defunct political parties in Mexico
Social democratic parties in Mexico
Feminist parties in North America
Feminism in Mexico
2005 establishments in Mexico
2009 disestablishments in Mexico

Social Democratic Party (Mexico)


Maharaja Suraj Mal (13 February 1707 – 25 December 1763) or Sujan Singh, was a Hindu Jat ruler of Bharatpur in Rajasthan, India. Under him, the Jat rule covered the present-day districts of the national capital Delhi and districts of Agra, Aligarh, Alwar, Bharatpur, Bulandshahr, Dholpur, Etah, Etawa, Faridabad, Firozabad, Ghaziabad, Gurgaon, Hathras, Jhajjar, Kanpur, Mainpuri, Mathura, Mewat, Meerut, Muzaffarnagar, Palwal, Rewari, Saharanpur and Rohtak. In addition to the troops stationed at his forts, he had an army of 25,000 infantry and 15,000 cavalry when he died. Most of his campaigns were against the Mughal Empire whose authority in North India had weakened heavily due to the constant Maratha raids and conquests. Maharaja Suraj Mal took this opportunity to form the Hindu Jat kingdom with its capital at Bharatpur in Rajasthan. He captured the Mughal garrison of Agra. He removed the Jizya tax on Hindus imposed by the Mughals.
Indian monarchs
1707 births
1763 deaths
18th century in India

Maharaja Suraj Mal


Barry Weiss (born February 11, 1959) is an American music executive. He co-founded the record label RECORDS in 2015, an imprint of Sony Music Entertainment which specializes in young recording artists.

Weiss got his start at Clive Calder's Jive Records before working his way up to the head of the RCA/Jive Label Group. While at Jive, Weiss fostered artists like Britney Spears, Justin Timberlake, NSYNC, Chris Brown, Backstreet Boys, A Tribe Called Quest, among others. He left the organization in 2011 to join Universal Music Group, prior to co-founding RECORDS in 2015. The label has since signed artists including Nelly, 24kGoldn, Noah Cyrus, B-Lovee, Lennon Stella, LSD, Matt Stell, and Dax. In 2023, the labels other co-founders (Matt Pincus and Ron Perry) were ousted in a stake buyout, leaving Weiss as the company's sole proprietor. Weiss has also co-founded the publishing firm SONGS.

Early life and education

Weiss was born to a Jewish family in New York, New York on February 11, 1959, to parents Hy and Rosalyn Weiss. His father, Hy, was also a music executive having founded Old Town Records in the late 1950s. Barry Weiss graduated from Cornell University in 1981. While in school, he worked as a promoter to radio stations from his dorm room. Weiss received his Master of Business Administration from New York University in 1986.

Career

1981–2008: Early years, Jive, and Zomba
Early on in his career, Weiss worked at Ariola America and Infinity Records. He earned his first major job in 1982 at Clive Calder's new label, Jive Records. For his job interview, Weiss took Calder to various black, hip hop, and gay clubs where he knew bouncers and doormen throughout New York City. He initially started in the position of Manager of Artist Development. At the time of his arrival, the label consisted mostly of pop acts like Billy Ocean, A Flock of Seagulls, and Samantha Fox. Weiss helped establish the label as a home for rappers and hip hop artists like DJ Jazzy Jeff & The Fresh Prince, A Tribe Called Quest, Whodini, Kool Moe Dee, Too Short, Boogie Down Productions, UGK, and others.

In January 1995, Weiss was promoted to President of Jive Records along with Verity and Silvertone. From 1995 to 2000, Weiss was involved with acts such as Britney Spears, NSYNC, The Backstreet Boys, and others. He also oversaw the release of NSYNC's 2000 album, No Strings Attached which broke the album sales record (a record that stood until 2015). In 2002, Jive Records' parent company, Zomba Music Group, was purchased by BMG for $2.7 billion. Under BMG, Weiss was named the President and CEO of the newly formed Zomba Label Group. While in that position, he oversaw the careers of artists like Chris Brown, T-Pain, R. Kelly, and others.

2008–2014: RCA/Jive to Universal

In 2008, Weiss was named Chairman and CEO of the BMG Label Group (later renamed RCA/Jive Label Group), replacing Clive Davis. As the head of the label group, Weiss oversaw Jive, Verity, GospoCentric, Volcano, RCA, Arista, Fo Yo Soul, LaFace, and J. He also inherited the management of acts such as Pink, Whitney Houston, Alicia Keys, Daughtry, the Foo Fighters, Kelly Clarkson, Leona Lewis, and numerous others. In 2010, Weiss announced that he would be leaving the RCA/Jive Label Group for a position at the Universal Music Group. His official appointment to the position of Chairman and CEO of a group of labels colloquially referred to as Universal's "East Coast" labels (i.e. Republic Records, Island Def Jam, Motown Records, etc.) came in March 2011.

Artists under Weiss's purview included Kanye West, Justin Bieber, Rihanna, 2 Chainz, Fall Out Boy, The Weeknd, Avicii, and numerous others. He left his position in 2014 after Universal decided to reorganize the music group into standalone labels.

2015–present: Founder of RECORDS

In a partnership with SONGS Music Publishing, Weiss co-founded a new independent label, RECORDS, in early 2015. The SONGS roster included The Weeknd, Diplo, Lorde, and DJ Mustard (among others) at the time of RECORDS' founding. Early RECORDS' signees included Nelly and iLoveMemphis. Both artists had 2015 singles ("The Fix" and "Hit the Quan," respectively) that were certified platinum. Other RECORDS artists include Noah Cyrus, LSD (composed of Labrinth, Sia and Diplo), Lennon Stella, Lauren Jauregui, Dylan Brady, St. Paul and The Broken Bones, and James Barker Band, among others.

SONGS Music Publishing was sold to the Kobalt Music Group in December 2017. The following month, RECORDS became a joint venture with the Sony Music Entertainment.

References

m

1959 births
Living people
Cornell University alumni
American music industry executives
American chief executives
American people of Romanian-Jewish descent
Record producers from New York (state)

Barry Weiss


Ante Paradžik (10 February 1943 – 21 September 1991) was a Croatian right-wing politician and communist-era dissident. Paradžik was one of the founders of the Croatian Party of Rights.

Early life
Paradžik was born in 1943 in Ljubuški. His father disappeared in 1945 as a member of the armed forces of the Independent State of Croatia. After finishing elementary and high school in Ljubuški, Paradžik enrolled at the Faculty of Law in Split, and later continued his law studies at the University of Zagreb. Hailing from a poor family, Paradžik occasionally worked as a manual laborer in the summer. He also volunteered in youth work actions, earning the title of udarnik three times.

In 1968 Paradžik was elected into committee of the Union of Students of Croatia () at the Faculty of Law in Zagreb, and in May 1971 he was elected SSH's president, shortly after joining the League of Communists of Croatia.

Paradžik studied social rights and worked pro bono, and he also advocated social justice. For 19 years he was without passport and deprived of human rights, after he participated in Croatian Spring in 1971. After Croatian Spring ended, he was imprisoned, and released after collapse of Socialist Republic of Croatia in 1990.

1990s activity
Paradžik was one of the restorers of Croatian Party of Rights on 25 February 1990. He was also elected vice-president of the party and leader of War Command of Croatian Defence Forces (HOS).

Ante Paradžik was very dangerous to the government of Franjo Tuđman as the leader of paramilitary Croatian Defence Forces, opposing every compromise with Serbian representatives in the conflict. He advocated Croatian statehood and independence, uniting what he saw as Croatian historical and ethnic lands: Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Syrmia.

At the founding meeting of Croatian Defense Forces, Dobroslav Paraga explained that Croatian Party of Rights organized armed volunteer detachments whose fighters had already been fighting in the first line of fire in critical areas of Croatia. Paradžik accused the Croatian government of dividing Croatian lands in negotiations with Slobodan Milošević and added that their party (Croatian Party of Rights) would not recognize any partition of Bosnia and Herzegovina. At a meeting of leaders of Croatian Party of Rights with officials from Albania and Bulgaria, they adopted a charter about creation of an anti-hegemony coalition of movements and parties of Albanians, Bulgarians and Croats, with the goal to push Serbia within its 1912 borders.

Death

Days before Paradžik was assassinated, the Defence Minister of Croatia, Ivan Vekić, told Paraga and Paradžik to instruct Croatian Defence Forces to cease the blockade of the barracks of the Yugoslav People's Army, or face disarmament by the Ministry of Internal Affairs. Paradžik was assassinated in front of the building of Ministry of Internal Affairs of Croatia on 21 September 1991. After his assassination, Slobodan Milošević requested (at a peace conference held in The Hague in November 1991) that Franjo Tuđman disarm Croatian Defence Forces and soon afterwards Tuđman issued a command to disarm the Croatian Defence Forces and to ban the Croatian Party of Rights as well as the Serbian nationalist party Serb Democratic Party. Even though the Croatian Defence Forces had formally been disarmed, they continued to be active in the Croatian War of Independence. The last unit was dissolved on 5 April 1993 in central Bosnia.

Paradžik was married with three children. His best man was Dražen Budiša, Croatian liberal politician and participant in Croatian Spring.

References

Bibliography

External links

1943 births
1991 deaths
Croatian nationalists
People from Ljubuški
Croat politicians from Bosnia and Herzegovina
Croatian Party of Rights politicians
Military personnel of the Croatian War of Independence
Croatian independence activists
Assassinated Croatian politicians
People murdered in Croatia
Croatian murder victims
Deaths by firearm in Croatia
Assassinated Yugoslav people
Faculty of Law, University of Zagreb alumni
1990s assassinated politicians

Ante Paradžik