The Isuzu Faster is a pickup truck that was manufactured and marketed by Isuzu between 1972 and 2002 over three generations. The Faster was succeeded worldwide by Isuzu D-Max, except in Japan and North America.

First generation (1972–1980)

Isuzu of Japan introduced the KB20 / 25 series Faster pickup in 1972. The regular wheelbase models were designated "20", while "25" referred to the longer version. Derived from the Isuzu Florian, the Faster shared many components, including doors and the front-end assemblage. It served as a replacement for the Isuzu Wasp, a pickup version of the Bellett which preceded the Florian. Both single and twin headlamp front fascia designs were produced.

Due to the exterior dimensions, and engines offered were found to be in compliance with Japanese regulations, the platform was classed in the favorable "compact" designation, and competed with other Japanese made products sold in Japan at the time.

In most export markets, Isuzu rebranded the Faster as the "Isuzu KB". However, the Faster was often distributed through General Motors (GM) retail channels and sold under the Chevrolet brand as the "Chevrolet LUV"—LUV being an acronym for light utility vehicle. Bedford, the European commercial vehicle subsidiary of GM also offered the vehicle under the "Bedford KB" name.

The Isuzu Faster used a traditional pickup truck chassis with a ladder frame and a leaf spring live axle rear suspension. At the front, the A-arm suspension used an independent configuration. The  wheelbase was similar to its competitors, as was the  cargo bay. Unlike for the preceding Wasp, there was also a long wheelbase version (KB25) which had  between the axles, which made for a  bed.

In 1978, a four-wheel drive version became available, with the KB40 chassis code but sold under the "Faster Rodeo" label in Japan. There was also a double cab (on the longer chassis) version. Sales ended in 1980 when the second generation was introduced. The engine used in most markets was a carbureted  gasoline SOHC inline-four of , which was complemented by a  diesel four (KBD) which produced . Top speeds were  and  for the gasoline and diesel versions respectively. In Japan, an overhead valve engine (G161) was fitted originally; this produces  for a  top speed.

Australia
General Motors-Holden imported the Faster into Australia from November 1972 under the name "Chevrolet LUV", renaming it "Isuzu KB" in 1977 before it was replaced in December 1980 by the second generation model (badged "Holden Rodeo"). Holden launched the LUV in Australia with the 1.6-liter inline-four gasoline engine delivering approximately  of power and  of torque. Gaining an early reputation for reliability and durability, these original rear-wheel drive models featured a four-speed manual transmission, short-wheelbase construction, and circa  payload capacity.

An update in 1978 expanded the LUV range—now comprising the short-wheelbase KB20 model, the new long-wheelbase KB25 and the four-wheel drive KB40 short-wheelbase. These KB25 and KB40 variants were offered in both cab chassis and utility (pickup) body styles and could be specified with the 1.6-liter gasoline engine or the newly available 1.95-liter inline-four diesel. The diesel produced  and .

North America
Responsibility of sales in North America was delegated to General Motors. Thus, the Isuzu was retailed via Chevrolet dealerships as the "Chevrolet LUV". The only engine was a  SOHC inline-four which produced .

Sales in the United States began in March 1972 as a response to the Datsun and Toyota pickup trucks, as well as Ford's Mazda-built Courier. To circumvent the 25 percent tariff on light trucks (known as the chicken tax), LUVs were imported in cab chassis configuration, which included the entire light truck, less the cargo box or truck bed and were only subject to a 4 percent tariff. Subsequently, a truck bed would be attached to the chassis and the vehicle could be sold as a light truck.

The LUV's exterior was updated slightly for the 1974 model year, but the first major update came in the 1976 model year, when a three-speed automatic transmission option and front disc brakes were added. Power was up to  for 1977, and sales continued to rise. An exterior refresh and the addition of a  cargo bay option, with longer  wheelbase, brought sales up to 71,145 in 1978. The addition of four-wheel drive for 1979 brought the LUV to the attention of Motor Trend magazine, and earned it their second "Truck of the Year" award. The LUV was the first four-wheel-drive minitruck available and set a new trend. Sales peaked at 100,192.

Second generation (1980–1988)

The second generation was more commonly marketed worldwide under the Isuzu label (either as the "Isuzu KB" or just plain "Pick Up"). It continued to use the "Rodeo" suffix for the four-wheel drives. The second generation model was the first Isuzu pickup offered in three cab styles: single cab, double cab and "Space Cab" ("Sports Cab" in some markets). Although it had received a completely new body, its chassis remained the same as its predecessor. Sales in the UK continued as the Bedford KB.

This generation was not shared with the GM North American GMT325 platform, which replaced the North American Chevrolet LUV in 1982.

Australasia

Holden in Australasia distributed the second generation Isuzu Faster between January 1981 and August 1988 as the first generation or KB series "Holden Rodeo", for which production started in December 1980. Early KBs were fitted with circular headlamps and a horizontal four-bar grille, but a 1983 model year facelift in December 1982 brought rectangular lamps with a 12-port grille insert as well as restyled side mirrors.

At launch, Holden made the Rodeo available in utility (pickup) and cab chassis body variants in both rear- (LWB) and four-wheel drive (SWB) layouts. All models featured a floor- or column-mounted four-speed synchromesh manual transmission coupled with the 1.6-liter gasoline or 2.0-liter diesel engines. The 1983 model year update increased these displacements to 1.8- and 2.2-liters, respectively. At the same time a new upmarket "LS" model was issued (coded KB28), fitted with a 2.0-liter gasoline engine and five-speed manual. For the 1984 year model, beginning in February 1984, the 2.0-liter became the base gasoline engine.

With the demise of the Holden WB in 1984, the Rodeo became the only pickup and chassis cab vehicle available from Holden (until the arrival of the car-based Holden VG Utility in 1990). The 1985 model from July the same year signaled another facelift, the release of the two-door Space Cab body style, the debut of a new 2.3-liter gasoline engine, and the deletion of the four-speed manual and column-shift selector (making the floor-mounted five-speed manual standard). From March 1986 (1986 model year), the 2.3-liter became the standard gasoline engine and in April the subsequent year, the 1987 models obtained a final facelift with an open rectangular grille design and optional power steering.

Versions with unique local specifications were assembled in New Zealand at GM's Trentham assembly plant. These were also badged as Holdens.

Europe
The second generation KB was introduced in many European markets, not only Britain, as the Bedford KB. In subsequent years continental markets saw a switch to Isuzu badging as General Motors stopped using the Vauxhall and Bedford brands outside of the United Kingdom. It was called by the model code,  Specifications and trims varied depending on market needs, but most received the 1.6-liter G161Z petrol engine with a twin carburettor and , or the 2-liter C190 diesel inline-four with . Two-wheel-drives were also available on a long wheelbase not offered in combination with four-wheel-drive.

North America

The United States continued to receive the Faster under the "Chevrolet LUV" name for the second generation, introduced in 1980 for the 1981 model year. The gasoline engine remained the same, but the LUV was now available with an Isuzu C223 diesel engine making  at 4300 rpm and  at 2200 rpm. This new engine gave the rear-wheel drive diesel LUV a fuel economy rating of  city /  highway.

After the 1982 model year, General Motors stopped selling the Chevrolet LUV (although many '82s lingered on forecourts into the next year) in the United States in favor of their own S-10 compact pickup. Meanwhile, Isuzu had sold their version in parallel with the LUV since their 1981 entry to the US market, under the name "Isuzu P'up" (short for "pickup"). Isuzu's version received another grille and other differences to set it apart from the LUV, not the least of which is the giant "ISUZU" block letters on the tailgate. The P'up received the same engines as the LUV; either an  1.8-liter gasoline inline-four (G180Z) or a 2.2-liter diesel version with  (C223). Four-wheel drive was available with either engine but only in short-wheelbase form, though some 4WD long-wheelbase diesel are known to exist, possibly dealer-installed or aftermarket conversions. Because of technology-sharing agreement between GM and Isuzu, the diesel was also offered with the LUV's replacement until 1985. Later, the gasoline engine was upgraded to Isuzu's 1.95-liter four and a turbodiesel version was added, with the turbo standard on diesel-engined 4WD models.

For 1987, the P'up gained a "Spacecab" extended cab model. This was only available in LS or Deluxe trim. Also new was the option of a 2.3-liter gasoline four (standard on 4WDs). Production for the Mexican and Latin American markets did not end until 1994.

South America
As with North America, the Isuzu KB was generally issued under the name "Chevrolet LUV" in South America. Manufactured in Colombia from Japanese complete knock down (CKD) sets, these models entered production in 1980 to be exported to other South American countries, continuing on until the release of the TF series in 1988. At the start, the versions assembled were the K-26 and K-28. It was offered with a 1584 cc (G161Z) engine. It was also offered a (C190) diesel version of 1951 cc with eight valves in the cylinder head and . This model of the Isuzu KB only was assembled in Chile via CKD kits from Japanese origin.

Third generation (TF; 1988–2002)
{{Infobox automobile
| name = Third generation
| image = Isuzu TF pickup Euro specification.jpg
| caption = Isuzu TF 4-door pickup (Italy)
| aka = Isuzu Rodeo (Japan and Thailand; 4WD only)Isuzu Dragon Eyes (Thailand; 1996–2002)Isuzu Dragon Power  (Thailand; 2000–2002)Isuzu Fuego (Philippines)Isuzu Invader (Malaysia)Isuzu Ippon (Israel)Isuzu KB (South Africa)Isuzu Pickup (North America)Isuzu TFIsuzu TFR (Thailand)Isuzu TT FortigoChevrolet LUVChevrolet T-Series (Egypt)Holden RodeoHonda Tourmaster (Thailand)Opel CampoVauxhall Brava (United Kingdom)Bedford Brava (United Kingdom)Foton SUP (China)Jinbei Jindian SY10 (China)JiangLing Baodian (China)JiangLing Hunter (Philippines)Winnerway ZH6500/ZH1021LU2 (China) Xinkai Century (China) Autorrad Century (China) GMC Dragon (Mexico; 1996–2001)GMC Invader (Mexico; 1998–2002)
| assembly = Chile: GM Chile Arica PlantChina: Beijing (Foton), Shenyang (Jinbei), Chongqing (Qingling), Nanchang (Jiangling)Colombia: GM Colmotores Bogotá PlantJapan: Fujisawa Plant, Fujisawa, KanagawaPhilippines: Dasmariñas (1989–1992) Biñan (1992–2005) (IPC) Portugal: Vendas Novas (ITUK)Thailand: Samrong, Samut PrakanTunisia: Kairouan (IMM)United States: Lafayette, Indiana
| production = 1988–20021992–2016 (China)
| body_style = 2-door pickup truck2-door pickup truck (Space Cab)4-door pickup truck (Crew Cab)
| engine = 2.0 L 4G63 I4 (China - Jiangling)2.2 L I4 (China - Jinbei)2.2 L 115 hp (85 kW) C22NE / 22LE I42.3 L 4ZD1 I42.4 L I4 (China - Jiangling)2.5 L 4ZE3 I4 (China - Qingling Isuzu)2.6 L 4ZE1 I42.5 L 4JA1-T2.1 L td I4 (China - Jinbei)2.2 L td I4 (China - Jinbei)2.4 L td I4 (China - Jinbei)2.8 L 4JB1-T td I43.0 L 4HK1-TC1 td I4 (China - Qingling Isuzu)3.0 L 4JH1-T3.1 L 4JG2-T td I43.1 L LG6 V63.2 L 6VD1 V6 "2.5.L 2500 cc Isuzu C240 (Diesel) (China)
| transmission = 4-speed automatic5-speed manual
| related = Isuzu Wizard (first generation)Isuzu Panther
| weight =
| wheelbase =
| length =
| width =
}}

For the third generation (TF), introduced in 1988, the domestic Japanese lineup was divided into two, with the "Faster" label used on rear-wheel drive versions with four-wheel drives now sold as the Isuzu Rodeo. Rodeo became the name used in most markets for this car, but the profusion of labels for different markets continued. Versions sold in the Americas were called Isuzu Pickup and Chevrolet LUV. In the United Kingdom, the pickup was called Isuzu TF and also Bedford Brava from 1988 until 1991 when the Bedford brand was dropped and it became the Vauxhall Brava. The Isuzu was also sold in mainland Europe along with the Opel Campo. This Opel branding was also utilized in the Middle East, parts of North Africa and some Asian countries.

Holden Rodeo was the only name used in Australasia, with the Isuzu KB name used in South Africa and some other markets. The names Isuzu Faster-Z, Isuzu TFR, and Honda Tourmaster were used in Thailand. A Thai-market SUV based on the TF was sold as the Thairung Adventure, produced in semi-knocked-down by Thai Rung Union Car. Names used in other markets include: Chevrolet T-Series (Egypt), Isuzu Ippon (Israel), Isuzu Fuego (Philippines), and as the Isuzu Invader in the north-eastern parts of Malaysia (Sabah). License built copies have been sold as the Jinbei SY10 series, Foton Aoling T-Series in China, where the car has served as a basis for innumerable local copies, authorized and unauthorized.

In Japan, two-wheel drive versions were called "Isuzu Faster", with the "Rodeo" name reserved for four-wheel drive units. In 1992, an updated version of the 4JB1 2.8-litre turbodiesel with direct injection was introduced; while the original 2.8 has , the direct-injected version offered  at 3,600 rpm and  of torque at 2,300 rpm. Japanese sales ended in 1994 without replacement, although export markets continued to receive the vehicle until replaced by the D-Max from 2002.

Isuzu Japan had Yokohama Motor Sales manufacture from 1990-1993 a 4 berth camper on the Isuzu Rodeo TFS55H chassis platform. This was the popular 4WD version which gave offroad accessibility and comfort. This option only came in the 2.8 litre 4JB1T engine option and 5 Speed manual with low/high transferbox. There was no automatic options offered.

The TF series received a facelift in 1997. Styling was changed, with a more rounded look at the front, and a new-look dash similar to that used in the 1995 to 1997 model Isuzu Wizard. In China, where the TF is still built by Isuzu's local joint venture partner Qingling Motors, it received a second facelift at the beginning of 2015.

Australia

Holden introduced the TF series into Australia in 1988, branded as the Holden Rodeo, following on from the name of the previous Isuzu based light truck sold by the brand in Australia. The Holden Rodeo was initially available with a 2.6-liter  inline-four. A 2.8-liter  turbodiesel was introduced soon after. Body styles offered were a two-door single cab, a two-door SpaceCab, with space for two small jump-seats (rarely if ever fitted in Australia) behind the front passengers, and a four-door Crewcab, with space for the driver and four passengers. Several trim levels were available, which included DX (base model), LX (mid-range RWD, top of the 4WD range) and LT (top of the range, only available as an RWD petrol Crewcab).

The facelifted 1997 (1998 model year) Holden Rodeo came with a new trim level, LT Sport, available as a four-wheel Crewcab only. Airbags for the driver and front passenger also became an option. By 1998 the 2.6-liter engine was discontinued and a new engine was offered, a 3.2-liter  V6. This engine was available in both rear- and four-wheel-drive. The rear-wheel-drive version had the same chassis, and thus ride-height as the four-wheel-drive, but without the transfer case and front axle. The 3.2-liter V6 was the most powerful engine in a pickup truck in Australia until it was replaced in 2003 by the new look Rodeo based on the Isuzu D-Max. Accordingly, this engine was the most popular engine in the Rodeo, and the Rodeo sold very well overall, near the sales numbers of the Toyota Hilux, traditionally the best-selling commercial vehicle in Australia.

The Holden Rodeo was updated once again in 2001 for the 2002 model year, with a new diesel engine, a 3.1-liter  direct injection intercooled turbodiesel. The update was also accompanied by minor styling changes, such as clear indicator lenses, and a different grille.

Europe
In Europe, the Isuzu was sold as the TF alongside the rebadged "Opel Campo". It was also sold as the "Isuzu Campo." In the United Kingdom "Bedford Brava" badging was used rather than Opel. When the Bedford brand was retired, it was rebadged as a Vauxhall. These received the same updates as did the Isuzu TF in general markets, and a variety of body styles were available, usually coupled with diesel engines.

North America
In North America, the TF series appeared in 1988 as simply the "Isuzu Pickup". Produced at Lafayette, Indiana, Isuzu continued on with the TF until 1996 when it was finally replaced with the Hombre (a badged-engineered Chevrolet S-10). The only engines available were the  2.3-liter 4ZD1, the  2.6-liter 4ZE1 and the GM 3.1-liter V-6 (designation LG6) producing  and  for the 1991–1994 model years. The 2.3-liter version holds the distinction of becoming the last carbureted passenger vehicle sold new in the United States (1994 model year). There was also a heavier, work oriented one-tonne model available. The truck continued to be sold in Mexico, and Latin America until production ended in 2016.

South America
As with the previous KB series generation, South American markets again received the TF models under the "Chevrolet LUV" name. The Chilean assembling works began in 1982, meanwhile in Colombia commenced in 1989, In the assembling process, the local parts usage percentage was high and important for the LUV manufacturing process. In Chile it has to reach 40% percent domestic parts content, meanwhile in Colombia exceeded 70%.

A successful export program beginning in Chile in 1980s to the Andean Community countries: Bolivia, Ecuador and Venezuela; and in 1993 began the exports from Chilean assembled units (in the SpaceCab model only) to Bolivia, Peru, Argentina, Mexico, Uruguay, Paraguay, Colombia, and Venezuela. In total, more than 220,000 units were produced only in Chile, and more than 300.000 in Colombia. From 1999 and to little success, Thai Rung Union Car supplied the Chevrolet plant in Arica, Chile with the unique body panels from their "Isuzu Grand Adventure" model to make the Chevrolet Grand Adventure and the "Chevrolet Grand LUV". The Grand Adventure was a wagon version of the TF'' series pickup.

By the late 1980s, supplementary assembly began in Quito, Ecuador by Omnibus BB Transportes (now General Motors Ecuador) with a 1.6-liter inline-four cylinder engine, making .

In October 2005; was ceased the Isuzu Faster Chilean manufacture. In Colombia, the Isuzu Faster has ceased its production in 2010. The last Faster rolled off the assembly line on May 8, 2010. In both countries, the Isuzu Faster was replaced by the Isuzu D-Max, these firsts units were assembled only in Ecuador and later from vehicles coming from Thailand (2014 onwards).

References

Bibliography

External links

 LUVTruck.com — Chevrolet LUV information and history

Faster
Cars introduced in 1972
Cars discontinued in 2002
Pickup trucks

Isuzu Faster


Lord Frederick Spencer Hamilton (13 October 1856 – 11 August 1928) was a Conservative Party politician in the United Kingdom, the sixth son and thirteenth child of James Hamilton, 1st Duke of Abercorn and Lady Louisa Jane Russell.

He was Second Secretary of the Diplomatic Service (1877–1884) and Member of Parliament (MP) for Manchester South West (1885–1886) and North Tyrone (1892–1895).  Lord Frederick also wrote the three-volume set of books, The Days Before Yesterday, Vanished Pomps of Yesterday and Here, There and Everywhere,  which were first published in 1920 by Hodder and Stoughton, and known collectively as My Yesterdays. These give vivid, sometimes amusing and always well-written accounts of his early life, life in the diplomatic service, and travels.

While serving as aide-de-camp to Lord Lansdowne, then Governor-General of Canada, in Ottawa, In January 1887, Lord Frederick was the first person to introduce skiing to Canada, using skis he had brought from Russia. As he recounts, he used to "slide down the toboggan slides at Ottawa on them, to universal derision". He was told they were "unsuited to Canadian conditions, and would never be popular in Canada".

From 1896 to 1900, he was editor of the Pall Mall Magazine. He never married and died without children.

Ancestry

Works
 ,  by Lord Frederic [sic] Hamilton,1919 * ,  by Lord Frederic [sic] Hamilton, 1920
 , by Lord Frederic [sic] Hamilton, 1921

References

External links

1856 births
1928 deaths
Irish Unionist Party MPs
Conservative Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for County Tyrone constituencies (1801–1922)
Younger sons of dukes
UK MPs 1885–1886
UK MPs 1892–1895

Lord Frederick Spencer Hamilton


Floruit (; abbreviated fl. or occasionally flor.; from Latin for "flourished") denotes a date or period during which a person was known to have been alive or active. In English, the unabbreviated word may also be used as a noun indicating the time when someone flourished.

Etymology and use
 is the third-person singular perfect active indicative of the Latin verb ,  "to bloom, flower, or flourish", from the noun , , "flower".

Broadly, the term is employed in reference to the peak of activity for a person or movement. More specifically, it often is used in genealogy and historical writing when a person's birth or death dates are unknown, but some other evidence exists that indicates when they were alive. For example, if there are wills attested by John Jones in 1204, and 1229, and a record of his marriage in 1197, a record concerning him might be written as "John Jones (fl. 1197–1229)", even though Jones was born before 1197 and died possibly after 1229.

The term is often used in art history when dating the career of an artist. In this context, it denotes the period of the individual's known artistic activity, which would generally be after they had received their training and, for example began signing work or being mentioned in contracts.

In some cases, it can be replaced by the words "active between  and ", depending on context and if space or style permits.

See also

 Reign (r., Latin )
 Tempore (temp.)
 Family tree

References

Latin words and phrases
Verbs

Floruit


Traditional Yamal cuisine is  an important part of national culture of Nenets, Khanty and Komi. Yamal is a hunting and fishing land so many dishes include meat, fowl and fish.  Berries and mushrooms are also abundant; this accounts for the wealth of "gifts of the forests" on the Yamal table. Presently, Yamal cuisine is renowned for diverse delicacies of Russian cuisine. Yamal hosts enjoy treating their guests with traditional Yamal cuisine and have hot tea which came to Yamal cuisine from Russia. Tea has become the national Yamal beverage, drunk to warm and soothe. Yamal is in northern Russia with frigid winters, so its cuisine should be nourishing to give the people energy to survive during the long  winter time. The essential component of Yamal cuisine is warm and hot dishes. Fresh fruits and vegetables are rarely used as they must be imported, as they are not grown in the tundra. The Yamal cuisine is associated with malosol and stroganina. Yamal cuisine has absorbed techniques from other regions. Yamal cuisine is based on reindeer meat and fish of the Yamal rivers, enriched with mushrooms and bread.

The most known dishes of Yamal cuisine are:
Fish Soup made from burbot), Malosol, Bread on the Selkup, Stroganina (Sliced Fish), Chopsy Shomoh, Warka, Sliced meat, Preserves of vendace, Kulebyaka (pie with fish), Aibat-nyarhul (raw fish).

Uha (fish soup)
Fish soup mostly is served as the first course at dinner. Fish is cut up and cut into pieces and immersed in cold water. When boiling, the cauldron is moved aside to slow fire and skimmed when necessary.  It should be brewed to a bluish-gray color and served at once. Usually it is drunk with a mug.

Malosol
Malosol comes from Muksun. The key secret to this dish is cutting the fish into very delicate slices very fast in order that the fish remains slightly frozen. It is prepared from just caught muksun. Fish are gutted and cleaned, and liberally sprinkled with salt then held for 3-4 hours.

Bread of Selkup
"Bread is head for everything" is a saying of Russians and Selkups. It symbolizes hospitality of the house. Bread of Selkup is mentioned from the 8th-9th centuries. The bread is baked not in an oven as Russians do although the initial stages are the same. Flour is mixed with water and salt. Soda is used instead of yeast to raise the dough and it is baked in very hot sand on the fire.

Hot smoked fish

Yamal cuisine has four principal types of fish dishes: "as it is", boiled, baked and smoked. Smoked fish is  very popular on the table nowadays. Hot smoked fish is prepared in the towns and villages, although it is not the national dish. Camp cooking uses an aluminum saucepan filled with smoldering sawdust, topped with a wire grid. A low heat is all that is needed to give the fish a golden hue, indicating doneness.

Stroganina (sliced fish)
Stroganina  have always been a pride of Yamal. It is a delicacy and a simple food which is prepared from frozen white salmon. Strips of skin are cut from the back and abdomen from tail to head. Vertical incisions are made in the flesh. The fish is placed head down on a hard surface and skinned. With sostragivaetsya, the fish is in thin slices or layers, depending on whether male or female fish are used.

References

 Dialectics  of Yamal cuisine by Nikolai Dudnikov and Nikolai Samburov. S-pb. 2008

External links
Yamal Culture

Khanty
Komi peoples
Nenets people
Indigenous cuisine
Russian cuisine
Cuisine by ethnicity
Siberian cuisine

Yamal cuisine


A bullet is a kinetic projectile, a component of firearm ammunition that is shot from a gun barrel. They are made of a variety of materials, such as copper, lead, steel, polymer, rubber and even wax; and are made in various shapes and constructions (depending on the intended applications), including specialized functions such as hunting, target shooting, training, and combat. Bullets are often tapered, making them more aerodynamic. Bullet size is expressed by weight and diameter (referred to as "caliber") in both imperial and metric measurement systems. Bullets do not normally contain explosives but strike or damage the intended target by transferring kinetic energy upon impact and penetration.

Description
The term bullet is from Early French, originating as the diminutive of the word boulle (boullet), which means "small ball". Bullets are available singly (as in muzzle-loading and cap and ball firearms) but are more often packaged with propellant as a cartridge ("round" of ammunition) consisting of the bullet (i.e., the projectile), the case (which holds everything together), the propellant (which provides the majority of the energy to launch the projectile), and the primer (which ignites the propellant). Cartridges, in turn, may be held in a magazine or a belt (for rapid-fire automatic firearms). Although the word bullet is often used in colloquial language to refer to a cartridge round, a bullet is not a cartridge but rather a component of one. This use of the term bullet (when intending to describe a cartridge) often leads to confusion when a cartridge and all its components are specifically being referenced.

The sound of gunfire (i.e. the "muzzle report") is often accompanied with a loud bullwhip-like crack as the supersonic bullet pierces through the air, creating a sonic boom. Bullet speeds at various stages of flight depend on intrinsic factors such as sectional density, aerodynamic profile and ballistic coefficient, as well as extrinsic factors such as barometric pressure, humidity, air temperature and wind speed. Subsonic cartridges fire bullets slower than the speed of sound, so there are no sonic booms. This means that a subsonic cartridge, such as .45 ACP, can be substantially quieter than a supersonic cartridge, such as the .223 Remington, even without the use of a suppressor.

Bullets shot by firearms can be used for target practice or to injure or kill animals or people. Death can be by blood loss or damage to vital organs, or even asphyxiation if blood enters the lungs. Bullets are not the only projectiles shot from firearm-like equipment: BBs are shot from BB guns, airsoft pellets are shot by airsoft guns, paintballs are shot by paintball markers, and small rocks can be hurtled from slingshots. There are also flare guns, potato guns (and spud guns), tasers, bean bag rounds, grenade launchers, flash bangs, tear gas, RPGs, and missile launchers.

Speed
Bullets used in many cartridges are fired at muzzle velocities faster than the speed of sound—about  in dry air at —and thus can travel substantial distances to their targets before any nearby observers hear the sound of the shots.

Rifle bullets, such as that of a Remington 223, leave the muzzle at speeds of up to . A bullet from a 9 mm Luger handgun, reaches speeds of only . Similarly, an AK-47, has a muzzle velocity of about .

History

The first true gun evolved in China from the fire lance (a bamboo tube that fired porcelain shrapnel) with the invention of the metal hand cannon sometime around 1288, which the Yuan dynasty used to win a decisive victory against Mongolian rebels. The artillery cannon appeared in 1326 and the European hand cannon in 1364. Early projectiles were made of stone. Eventually it was discovered that stone would not penetrate stone fortifications, which led to the use of denser materials as projectiles. Hand cannon projectiles developed in a similar manner. The first recorded instance of a metal ball from a hand cannon penetrating armor was in 1425.  Shot retrieved from the wreck of the Mary Rose (sunk in 1545, raised in 1982) are of different sizes, and some are stone while others are cast iron.

The development of the hand culverin and matchlock arquebus brought about the use of cast lead balls as projectiles. The original round musket ball was smaller than the bore of the barrel. At first it was loaded into the barrel just resting upon the powder. Later, some sort of material was used as a wadding between the ball and the powder as well as over the ball to keep it in place, it held the bullet firmly in the barrel and against the powder. (Bullets not firmly set on the powder risked exploding the barrel, with the condition known as a "short start".)

The loading of muskets was therefore easy with the old smooth-bore Brown Bess and similar military muskets. The original muzzle-loading rifle, however, was loaded with a piece of leather or cloth wrapped around the ball, to allow the ball to engage the grooves in the barrel.  Loading was a bit more difficult, particularly when the bore of the barrel was fouled from previous firings. For this reason, and because rifles were not often fitted for bayonets, early rifles were rarely used for military purposes, compared to muskets.

There was a distinct change in the shape and function of the bullet during the first half of the 19th century, although experiments with various types of elongated projectiles had been made in Britain, America and France from the first half of the 18th century onwards. In 1816, Capt. George Reichenbach of the Bavarian army invented a rifled wall musket using cylindro-conical ammunition. In 1826, Henri-Gustave Delvigne, a French infantry officer, invented a breech with abrupt shoulders on which a spherical bullet was rammed down until it caught the rifling grooves. Delvigne's method, however, deformed the bullet and was inaccurate. In 1855, a detachment of 1st U.S. Dragoons, while on patrol, traded lead for gold bullets with Pima Indians along the California–Arizona border.

Square bullets have origins that almost pre-date civilization and were used in slings. They were typically made out of copper or lead. The most notable use of square bullet designs was by James Puckle and Kyle Tunis who patented them, where they were briefly used in one version of the Puckle gun. The early use of these in the black-powder era was soon discontinued because of the irregular and unpredictable flight patterns.

Pointed bullets

Delvigne continued to develop bullet design and by 1830 had started to develop cylindro-conical bullets. His bullet designs were improved by Francois Tamisier with the addition of "ball grooves" which are known as "cannelures", which moved the resistance of air behind the center of gravity of the bullet. Tamisier also developed progressive rifling: the rifle grooves were deeper toward the breech, becoming shallower as they progressed toward the muzzle. This causes the bullet to be progressively molded into the grooves which increases range and accuracy.

Among the first pointed or "conical" bullets were those designed by Captain John Norton of the British Army in 1832. Norton's bullet had a hollow base made of lotus pith that on firing expanded under pressure to engage with a barrel's rifling. The British Board of Ordnance rejected it because spherical bullets had been in use for the previous 300 years. Renowned English gunsmith William Greener invented the Greener bullet in 1836. Greener fitted the hollow base of an oval bullet with a wooden plug that more reliably forced the base of the bullet to expand and catch the rifling. Tests proved that Greener's bullet was effective, but the military rejected it because, being two parts, they judged it as too complicated to produce.

The carabine à tige, developed by Louis-Étienne de Thouvenin in 1844, was an improvement of Delvigne's design. The rifle barrel has a forcing plug in the breech of the barrel to mold the bullet into the rifling with the use of a special ramrod. While successful in increasing accuracy, it was difficult to clean.

The soft lead Minié ball was first introduced in 1847 by Claude-Étienne Minié, a captain in the French Army. It was another improvement of the work done by Delvigne. The bullet was conical in shape with a hollow cavity in the rear, which was fitted with a small iron cap instead of a wooden plug. When fired, the iron cap forced itself into the hollow cavity at the rear of the bullet, thus expanding the sides of the bullet to grip and engage the rifling. In 1851, the British adopted the Minié ball for their 702-inch Pattern 1851 Minié rifle. In 1855, James Burton, a machinist at the U.S. Armory at Harper's Ferry, West Virginia, improved the Minié ball further by eliminating the metal cup in the bottom of the bullet. The Minié ball first saw widespread use in the Crimean War (1853-1856). Roughly 90% of the battlefield casualties in the American Civil War (1861-1865) were caused by Minié balls fired from rifled muskets. A similar bullet called the Nessler ball was also developed for smoothbore muskets.

Between 1854 and 1857, Sir Joseph Whitworth conducted a long series of rifle experiments and proved, among other points, the advantages of a smaller bore and, in particular, of an elongated bullet. The Whitworth bullet was made to fit the grooves of the rifle mechanically. The Whitworth rifle was never adopted by the government, although it was used extensively for match purposes and target practice between 1857 and 1866. In 1861, W. B. Chace approached President Abraham Lincoln with an improved ball design for muskets. In firing over the Potomac River, where the Chace ball and the round ball were alternated, Lincoln observed that the Chace design carried a third or more farther fired at the same elevation. Although Lincoln recommended testing, it never took place.

Around 1862, W. E. Metford carried out an exhaustive series of experiments on bullets and rifling, and he invented the important system of light rifling with increasing spiral and a hardened bullet. The combined result was that, in December 1888, the Lee–Metford small-bore (.303", 7.70 mm) rifle, Mark I, was adopted for the British army. The Lee–Metford was the predecessor of the Lee–Enfield.

Modern bullets

The next important change in the history of the rifle bullet occurred in 1882, when Lieutenant Colonel Eduard Rubin, director of the Swiss Army Laboratory at Thun, invented the copper-jacketed bullet — an elongated bullet with a lead core in a copper jacket. It was also small bore (7.5 and 8 mm) and it is the precursor of the 8 mm Lebel bullet adopted for the smokeless powder ammunition of the Lebel Model 1886 rifle. The surface of lead bullets fired at high velocity may melt from the hot gases behind and friction within the bore. Because copper has a higher melting point, and greater specific heat capacity, and higher hardness, copper-jacketed bullets allow greater muzzle velocities.

European advances in aerodynamics led to the pointed spitzer bullet. By the beginning of the 20th century, most world armies had begun the transition to spitzer bullets. These bullets flew for greater distances more accurately and transferred more kinetic energy. Spitzer bullets combined with machine guns greatly increased lethality on the battlefield.

Spitzer bullets were streamlined at the base with the boat tail. In the trajectory of a bullet, as air passes over a bullet at high speed, a vacuum is created at the end of the bullet, slowing the projectile. The streamlined boat tail design reduces this form drag by allowing the air to flow along the surface of the tapering end. The resulting aerodynamic advantage is currently seen as the optimum shape for rifle technology. The first combination spitzer and boat-tail bullet, named balle D by its inventor Captain Georges Desaleux, was introduced as standard military ammunition in 1901, for the French Lebel Model 1886 rifle.

A ballistic tip bullet is a hollow-point rifle bullet that has a plastic tip on the end of the bullet. This improves external ballistics by streamlining the bullet, allowing it to cut through the air more easily, and improves terminal ballistics by allowing the bullet to act as a jacketed hollow point. As a side effect, it also feeds better in weapons that have trouble feeding rounds that are not full metal jacket rounds.

Design

Bullet designs have to solve two primary problems. In the barrel, they must first form a seal with the gun's bore. If a strong seal is not achieved, gas from the propellant charge leaks past the bullet, thus reducing efficiency and possibly accuracy. The bullet must also engage the rifling without damaging or excessively fouling the gun's bore and without distorting the bullet, which will also reduce accuracy. Bullets must have a surface that forms this seal without excessive friction. These interactions between bullet and bore are termed internal ballistics. Bullets must be produced to a high standard, as surface imperfections can affect firing accuracy.

The physics affecting the bullet once it leaves the barrel is termed external ballistics. The primary factors affecting the aerodynamics of a bullet in flight are the bullet's shape and the rotation imparted by the rifling of the gun barrel. Rotational forces stabilize the bullet gyroscopically as well as aerodynamically. Any asymmetry in the bullet is largely canceled as it spins. However, a spin rate greater than the optimum value adds more trouble than good, by magnifying the smaller asymmetries or sometimes resulting in the bullet breaking apart in flight. With smooth-bore firearms, a spherical shape is optimal because no matter how the bullet is oriented, its aerodynamics are similar. These unstable bullets tumble erratically and provide only moderate accuracy; however, the aerodynamic shape changed little for centuries. Generally, bullet shapes are a compromise between aerodynamics, interior ballistic necessities, and terminal ballistics requirements.

Terminal ballistics and stopping power are aspects of bullet design that affect what happens when a bullet impacts with an object. The outcome of the impact is determined by the composition and density of the target material, the angle of incidence, and the velocity and physical characteristics of the bullet. Bullets are generally designed to penetrate, deform, or break apart. For a given material and bullet, the strike velocity is the primary factor that determines which outcome is achieved.

Bullet shapes are many and varied. With a mold, bullets can be made at home for reloading ammunition, where local laws allow. Hand-casting, however, is only time- and cost-effective for solid lead bullets. Cast and jacketed bullets are also commercially available from numerous manufacturers for handloading and are most often more convenient than casting bullets from bulk or scrap lead.

Propulsion

Propulsion of the ball can happen via several methods:
 by using only gunpowder (as in flintlock weapons)
 by using a percussion cap and gunpowder (as in percussion weapons)
 by using a cartridge

Materials

Bullets for black powder, or muzzle-loading firearms, were classically molded from pure lead. This worked well for low-speed bullets, fired at velocities of less than 450 m/s (1,475 ft/s). For slightly higher-speed bullets fired in modern firearms, a harder alloy of lead and tin or typesetter's lead (used to mold linotype) works very well. For even higher-speed bullet use, jacketed lead bullets are used. The common element in all of these, lead, is widely used because it is very dense, thereby providing a high amount of mass—and thus, kinetic energy—for a given volume. Lead is also cheap, easy to obtain, easy to work, and melts at a low temperature, which results in comparatively easy fabrication of bullets.

 Lead: simple cast, extruded, swaged, or otherwise fabricated lead slugs are the simplest form of bullets. At speeds of greater than 300 m/s (1,000 ft/s) (common in most handguns), lead is deposited in rifled bores at an ever-increasing rate. Alloying the lead with a small percentage of tin and/or antimony serves to reduce this effect but grows less effective as velocities are increased. A cup made of harder metal, such as copper, placed at the base of the bullet and called a gas check, is often used to decrease lead deposits by protecting the rear of the bullet against melting when fired at higher pressures, but this does not solve the problem at higher velocities. A modern solution is to powder coat the lead projectile, encasing it in a protective skin, allowing higher velocities to be achieved without lead deposits.
 Jacketed lead: bullets intended for even higher-velocity applications generally have a lead core that is jacketed or plated with gilding metal, cupronickel, copper alloys, or steel; a thin layer of harder metal protects the softer lead core when the bullet is passing through the barrel and during flight, which allows delivering the bullet intact to the target. There, the heavy lead core delivers its kinetic energy to the target. Full metal jacket or "ball" bullets (cartridges with ball bullets, which despite the name are not spherical, are called ball ammunition) are completely encased in the harder metal jacket, except for the base. Some bullet jackets do not extend to the front of the bullet, to aid expansion and increase lethality; these are called soft point (if the exposed lead tip is solid) or hollow point bullets (if a cavity or hole is present). Steel bullets are often plated with copper or other metals for corrosion resistance during long periods of storage. Synthetic jacket materials such as nylon and Teflon have been used, with limited success, especially in rifles; however, hollow point bullets with plastic aerodynamic tips have been very successful at both improving accuracy and enhancing expansion. Newer plastic coatings for handgun bullets, such as Teflon-coated bullets, are making their way into the market.

 Solid or monolithic solid: mono-metal bullets intended for deep penetration in big game animals and slender shaped very-low-drag projectiles for long range shooting are produced out of metals like oxygen-free copper and alloys like cupronickel, tellurium copper and brass (e.g., highly machinable UNS C36000 free-cutting brass). Often these projectiles are turned on precision CNC lathes. In the case of solids, and the ruggedness of the game animals on which they are used, e.g., the African buffalo or elephant, expansion is almost entirely relinquished for the necessary penetration. In shotgunning, "slug" loads are often solid large single lead projectiles, sometimes with a hollow point, used for deer or wild pig hunting in jurisdictions that do not allow hunting with rifles (because a missed slug shot will travel considerably less far than a rifle bullet).
Fluted: in appearance, these are solid bullets with scalloped sides (missing material). The theory is that the flutes produce hydraulic jetting when passing through tissue, creating a wound channel larger than that made by conventional expanding ammunition such as hollow point bullets.
Hard cast: a hard lead alloy intended to reduce fouling of rifling grooves (especially of the polygonal rifling used in some popular pistols). Benefits include simpler manufacture than jacketed bullets and good performance against hard targets; limitations are an inability to mushroom and subsequent over-penetration of soft targets.
 Blank: wax, paper, plastic, and other materials are used to simulate live gunfire and are intended only to hold the powder in a blank cartridge and to produce noise, flame and smoke. The "bullet" may be captured in a purpose-designed device or it may be allowed to expend what little energy it has in the air. Some blank cartridges are crimped or closed at the end and do not contain any bullet; some are fully loaded cartridges (without bullets) designed to propel rifle grenades. The force of the expanding gas from blank cartridges can be lethal at short range; numerous tragic accidents have occurred with blank cartridges (e.g., the death of actor Jon-Erik Hexum).
 Practice: made from lightweight materials like rubber, wax, wood, plastic, or lightweight metal, practice bullets are intended for short-range target work only. Because of their weight and low velocity, they have limited range.
 Polymer: these are metal-polymer composites, generally lighter and having higher velocities than pure metal bullets of the same dimensions. They permit unusual designs that are difficult with conventional casting or lathing.
 Less lethal, or less than lethal: Rubber bullets, plastic bullets, and beanbags are designed to be non-lethal, e.g., for use in riot control. They are generally low velocity and are fired from shotguns, grenade launchers, paint ball guns, or specially designed firearms and air gun devices.
 Incendiary: these bullets are made with explosive or flammable mixtures in the tips that are designed to ignite on contact with a target. The intent is to ignite fuel or munitions in the target area, thereby adding to the destructive power of the bullet.
 Exploding: similar to the incendiary bullet, this type of projectile is designed to explode upon hitting a hard surface, preferably the bone of the intended target. Not to be mistaken for cannon shells or grenades with fuse devices, these bullets have only cavities filled with a small amount of high explosive depending on the velocity and deformation upon impact to detonate. Exploding bullets have been used in various heavy machine guns and in anti-materiel rifles.
 Tracer: these have hollow backs, filled with a flare material. Usually this is a mixture of magnesium, a perchlorate, and strontium salts to yield a bright red color, although other materials providing other colors have also sometimes been used. Tracer material burns out after a certain amount of time. This allows the shooter to visually trace the flight path of the projectile and thus make necessary ballistic corrections, without having to confirm projectile impacts and without even using the sights of the weapon. This type of round is also used by all branches of the United States military in combat environments as a signaling device to friendly forces. Normally it is loaded at a four to one ratio with ball ammunition.
 Armor-piercing: jacketed designs where the core material is a very hard, high-density metal such as tungsten, tungsten carbide, depleted uranium, or steel. A pointed tip is often used, but a flat tip on the penetrator portion is generally more effective.
 Nontoxic shot: steel, bismuth, tungsten, and other alloys prevent release of toxic lead into the environment. Regulations in several countries mandate the use of nontoxic projectiles especially when waterfowl hunting. It has been found that birds swallow small lead shot for their gizzards to grind food (as they would swallow pebbles of similar size), and the effects of lead poisoning by grinding of lead pellets against food means lead poisoning effects are magnified. Such concerns apply primarily to shotguns firing pellets (shot) and not bullets, but there is evidence suggesting that consumption of spent rifle and pistol ammunition is also hazardous to wildlife. Reduction of hazardous substances legislation has also been applied to bullets on occasion to reduce the impact of lead on the environment at shooting ranges.
 Blended-metal: bullets made using cores from powdered metals other than lead with binder or sometimes sintered.
 Frangible: designed to disintegrate into tiny particles upon impact to minimize their penetration for reasons of range safety, to limit environmental impact, or to limit the shoot-through danger behind the intended target. An example is the Glaser Safety Slug, usually a pistol caliber bullet made from an amalgam of lead shot and a hard (and thus frangible) plastic binder designed to penetrate a human target and release its component shot pellets without exiting the target.
 Multiple projectile: bullets that are made of separate slugs that fit together inside the cartridge and act as a single projectile inside the barrel as they are fired. The projectiles part in flight but are held in formation by tethers that keep the individual parts of the "bullet" from flying too far away from each other. The intention of such ammo is to increase hit chance by giving a shot-like spread to rifled slug firing guns, while maintaining a consistency in shot groupings. Multiple impact bullets may be less stable in flight than conventional solid bullets because of the added drag from the tether line holding the pieces in formation, and each projectile affects the flight of all the others. This may limit the benefit provided by the spread of each bullet at longer ranges.

Treaties and prohibitions
Poisonous bullets were a subject to an international agreement as early as the Strasbourg Agreement (1675). The Saint Petersburg Declaration of 1868 prohibited the use of explosive projectiles weighing less than 400 grams. The Hague Conventions prohibits certain kinds of ammunition for use in war. These include poisoned and expanding bullets. Protocol III of the 1983 Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons, an annexed protocol to the Geneva Conventions, prohibits the use of incendiary ammunitions against civilians.

Types of bullets
Some types of bullets include:

 Armor piercing (sometimes with a depleted uranium or other heavy metal core)
 Armor-piercing fin stabilized discarding sabot round
 Cast
 Expanding (hollow point, soft point)
 Frangible
 Full metal jacket (also known as "ball" ammunition)
 Hollow-base
 Hollow-point
 Hydra-Shok
 Nosler partition
 Plastic-tipped
 Sabot
 Saboted light armor penetrator
 Spitzer
 Semiwadcutter
 Total metal jacket
 Very low drag
 Wadcutter
 Wax

See also
 Flechette
 List of handgun cartridges
 List of rifle cartridges
 Meplat
 Smart bullet
 Table of handgun and rifle cartridges
 The Second Amendment to the US Constitution

References

External links

 High speed imaging of in flight bullet transition ballistics
 "Bullets by the Billion", 1946 – Story about the manufacture of small caliber ammunition during World War II
 Arizona Gun List – ammunition types
 Dangerous Game Bullets
 European Ammunition Box Translations
 Remington Core-Lokt, Bronze Point & Power-Lokt Centerfire Ammunition
 How To Make GUN BULLET | How To Machines

Projectiles

Articles containing video clips

Bullet


Yield in college admissions is the percent of students who choose to enroll in a particular college or university after having been offered admission. It is calculated by dividing the number of students who decide to enroll at a school in a given year, which is often based on their decision to pay a deposit, by the total number of offers of acceptance sent. A higher yield indicates greater interest in enrolling at a particular school of higher education. The yield rate is usually calculated once per year based on admissions statistics. As a statistical measure, it has been used by college ratings services as a measure of selectivity, such that a higher yield rate is a sign of a more selective college. For example, the yield rate for Princeton University was 69% in 2016, while the yield rate for Dartmouth was 55%, and the yield rate for Colorado College was 37%. The yield rate has sometimes been criticized for being subject to manipulation by college admissions staffs; in 2001, a report by Daniel Golden in The Wall Street Journal suggested that some college admissions departments reject or wait list well-qualified applicants on the assumption that they will not enroll, as a way to boost the college's overall yield rate; according to the report, these actions are part of an effort to improve a college's scores on the U.S. News college ranking. This practice is known as yield protection.

References

University and college admissions

Yield (college admissions)


Jan Seklucjan (born either in 1498 or around 1510, died 1578) (also known as Jan from Siekluki,  Seclucian, Seclucianus) was a Polish Lutheran theologian, an activist in the Protestant Reformation in Poland and Ducal Prussia (a Polish fief), translator, writer, publisher and printer.

Biography

Little is known about his early life. According to his name he perhaps was born or came from the village of Siekluki in the  Duchy of Masovia, near Radom. Originally Seklucjan was a Dominican. After studying at Leipzig he moved in around 1543 to Poznań, where he served as a Lutheran preacher. Threatened by the local bishop with a charge of heresy, in 1544 he found refuge at Königsberg (Królewiec, today Kaliningrad) in Ducal Prussia, at the time a fief of the Kingdom of Poland. There he lived under the protection of Duke Albert of Prussia and began publishing and printing Lutheran literature in the Polish language. He was encouraged in his endeavors by Duke Albert, who wanted to have the Bible and catechism translated into the vernacular language of the many refugees from Poland, who became his subject. Seklucjan was in charge of the parish of the church in Steindamm (part of Königsberg), which served as a local center for Lutheran Poles. In many of his works he cooperated with the Polish Lutheran theologian Andrzej Samuel.

Works

Seklucjan focused mostly on translations into Polish. In 1544 or 1545 he published a Polish language catechism, entitled Wyznanie wiary chrześcijańskiej (Profession of the Christian Faith), most likely based on Martin Luther's Small Catechism, a second edition of which was printed in 1547. Also in 1547 he published a hymnal, Pieśni duchowne a nabożne ("Holy and divine hymns"), which included 35 religious hymns, including eight written by Luther.

In 1544 Albert of Prussia issued an edict requiring that the Bible be read in Polish to the growing number of Polish Protestants in the Duchy. To that effect he sought to procure a Polish language translator. His first choice was the theologian Rapagelanus, chair at the University of Königsberg. However, Rapagelanus died in 1545 before completing the task. Albert's second choice was the theologian Stapelage, who soon became embroiled in controversy and ended up converting back to Catholicism. It was at this point that Albert commissioned Seklucjan. As a result, in 1551 Seklucjan began publishing translations of the New Testament into Polish. First, in that year, he published the Gospel of Matthew, then the other Evangelists, and in 1553 the complete New Testament. In these translations, Seklucjan collaborated with and relied on Stanisław Murzynowski, and it is likely that most of the translation work was done by Murzynowski, with Seklucjan merely taking the credit.

Additionally, the translation of the New Testament into Polish was delayed by a dispute between Seklucjan and another Polish translator, Jan Sandecki-Malecki. While the origins of the dispute concerned the usefulness of the Czech language as an aid in translating the New Catechism (with Sandecki-Malecki extolling the usefulness of Czech and Seklucjan insisting on purely "Polish words"), it quickly evolved to include doctrinal matters. Ultimately, thanks to support from Andreas Osiander, Seklucjan was given the exclusive right to the translation for four years, although he was forbidden from including his own commentary (aside from a preface).

Seklucjan also wrote original works, including Rozprawa krótka a prosta o niktórych ceremonijach i ustawach kościelnych (A short and simple treatise on some ceremonies and practices of the church"), a poetic dialog between a "student" (the author) who had just come back from travels abroad, and his elders who had stayed home. He also translated the works of the vernacular Polish poet and the founder of Polish literary language and literature, Mikołaj Rej.

References

1578 deaths
1498 births
Polish Lutheran clergy
Polish printers
Polish translators
Protestant Reformers

Jan Seklucjan


The Habsburg monarchy (, ), also known  as Habsburg Empire ( ), was the collection of empires, kingdoms, duchies, counties and other polities that were ruled by the House of Habsburg and, following the partition of the dynasty, especially by its Austrian branch. From the 18th century it is also referred to as the Danubian monarchy ( ) or the Austrian monarchy.

The history of the Habsburg monarchy can be traced back to the election of Rudolf I as King of Germany in 1273 and his acquisition of the Duchy of Austria for the Habsburgs in 1282. In 1482, Maximilian I acquired the Netherlands through marriage. Both realms passed to his grandson and successor, Charles V, who also inherited the Spanish throne and its colonial possessions, and thus came to rule the Habsburg empire at its greatest territorial extent. The abdication of Charles V in 1556 led to a division within the dynasty between his son Philip II of Spain and his brother Ferdinand I, who had served as his lieutenant and the elected king of Hungary and Bohemia. The Spanish branch (which held all of Iberia, the Netherlands, and lands in Italy) became extinct in 1700. The Austrian branch (which ruled the Holy Roman Empire, Hungary, Bohemia and various other lands) was itself split into different branches in 1564 but reunited 101 years later.

The Habsburg monarchy was a union of crowns, with only partial shared laws and institutions other than the Habsburg court itself; the provinces were divided in three groups: the Inner Austria, the Archduchy proper, the Higher Austria that included Styria and Carniola, and the Outer Austria with Tyrol and the Swabian lands. The territorial possessions of the monarchy were thus united only by virtue of a common monarch. The Habsburg realms were unified in 1804 with the formation of the Austrian Empire and later split in two with the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867. The monarchy began to fracture in the face of inevitable defeat during the final years of World War I and ultimately disbanded with the proclamation of the Republic of German-Austria and the First Hungarian Republic in late 1918.

In historiography, the terms "Austria" or "Austrians" are frequently used as shorthand for the Habsburg monarchy since the 18th century. From 1438 to 1806, the rulers of the House of Habsburg almost continuously reigned as Holy Roman Emperors. However, the realms of the Holy Roman Empire were mostly self-governing and are thus not considered to have been part of the Habsburg monarchy. Hence, the Habsburg monarchy (of the Austrian branch) is often called "Austria" by metonymy. Around 1700, the Latin term monarchia austriaca came into use as a term of convenience. Within the empire alone, the vast possessions included the original Hereditary Lands, the Erblande, from before 1526; the Lands of the Bohemian Crown; the formerly Spanish Austrian Netherlands from 1714 until 1794; and some fiefs in Imperial Italy. Outside the empire, they encompassed all the Lands of the Hungarian Crown as well as conquests made at the expense of the Ottoman Empire. The dynastic capital was Vienna, except from 1583 to 1611, when it was in Prague.

Origins and expansion

The first Habsburg who can be reliably traced was Radbot of Klettgau, who was born in the late 10th century; the family name originated with Habsburg Castle, in present-day Switzerland, which was built by Radbot. After 1279, the Habsburgs came to rule in the Duchy of Austria, which was part of the elective Kingdom of Germany within the Holy Roman Empire. King Rudolf I of Germany of the Habsburg family assigned the Duchy of Austria to his sons at the Diet of Augsburg (1282), thus establishing the "Austrian hereditary lands". From that moment, the Habsburg dynasty was also known as the House of Austria. Between 1438 and 1806, with few exceptions, the Habsburg Archduke of Austria was elected as Holy Roman Emperor.

The Habsburgs grew to European prominence as a result of the dynastic policy pursued by Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor. Maximilian married Mary of Burgundy, thus bringing the Burgundian Netherlands into the Habsburg possessions. Their son, Philip the Handsome, married Joanna the Mad of Spain (daughter of Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile). Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, the son of Philip and Joanna, inherited the Habsburg Netherlands in 1506, Habsburg Spain and its territories in 1516, and Habsburg Austria in 1519.

At this point, the Habsburg possessions were so vast that Charles V was constantly travelling throughout his dominions and therefore needed deputies and regents, such as Isabella of Portugal in Spain and Margaret of Austria in the Low Countries, to govern his various realms. At the Diet of Worms in 1521, Emperor Charles V came to terms with his younger brother Ferdinand. According to the Habsburg compact of Worms (1521), confirmed a year later in Brussels, Ferdinand was made Archduke, as a regent of Charles V in the Austrian hereditary lands.

Following the death of Louis II of Hungary in the Battle of Mohács against the Ottoman Turks, Archduke Ferdinand (who was his brother-in-law by virtue of an adoption treaty signed by Maximilian and Vladislaus II, Louis's father at the First Congress of Vienna) was also elected the next King of Bohemia and Hungary in 1526. Bohemia and Hungary became hereditary Habsburg domains only in the 17th century: Following victory in the Battle of White Mountain (1620) over the Bohemian rebels, Ferdinand II promulgated a Renewed Land Ordinance (1627/1628) that established hereditary succession over Bohemia. Following the Battle of Mohács (1687), in which Leopold I reconquered almost all of Ottoman Hungary from the Turks, the emperor held a diet in Pressburg to establish hereditary succession in the Hungarian kingdom.

Charles V divided the House in 1556 by ceding Austria along with the Imperial crown to Ferdinand (as decided at the Imperial election, 1531), and the Spanish empire to his son Philip. The Spanish branch (which also held the Netherlands, the Kingdom of Portugal between 1580 and 1640, and the Mezzogiorno of Italy) became extinct in 1700. The Austrian branch (which also ruled the Holy Roman Empire, Hungary and Bohemia) was itself divided between different branches of the family from 1564 until 1665, but thereafter it remained a single personal union.

Names
 Habsburg monarchy (German Habsburgermonarchie): this is an unofficial umbrella term, very frequently used, but was not an official name.
 Austrian monarchy () came into use around 1700 as a term of convenience for the Habsburg territories.
 "Danubian monarchy" () was an unofficial name often used contemporaneously.
 "Dual monarchy" () referred to the combination of Cisleithania and the Transleithania, two states under one crowned ruler.
 Austrian Empire (): This was the official name of the new Habsburg empire created in 1804, after the end of the Holy Roman Empire. The English word empire refers to a territory ruled by an emperor, and not to a "widespreading domain".
 Austria-Hungary (), 1867–1918: This name was commonly used in international relations, although the official name was Austro-Hungarian Monarchy ().
 Crownlands or crown lands (Kronländer) (1849–1918): This is the name of all the individual parts of the Austrian Empire (1849–1867), and then of Austria-Hungary from 1867 on. The Kingdom of Hungary (more exactly the Lands of the Hungarian Crown) was not considered a "crownland" anymore after the establishment of Austria-Hungary in 1867, so that the "crownlands" became identical with what was called the Kingdoms and Lands represented in the Imperial Council (Die im Reichsrate vertretenen Königreiche und Länder).
 The Hungarian parts of the empire were called "Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen" or "Lands of Holy (St.) Stephen's Crown" (Länder der Heiligen Stephans Krone). The Bohemian (Czech) Lands were called "Lands of the St. Wenceslaus' Crown" (Länder der Wenzels-Krone).

Names of some smaller territories:
 Salzburg finally became Austrian in 1816 after the Napoleonic wars; before that it was ruled by the prince-archbishops of Salzburg as a sovereign territory.
 Vienna, Austria's capital, became a state on 1 January 1922, having been the imperial residence and capital of the Austrian Empire (Reichshaupt und Residenzstadt Wien) for centuries.
 Austria, historically, was split into "Austria above the Enns" and "Austria below the Enns" (the Enns river is the state-border between Upper- and Lower Austria). Upper Austria was enlarged after the Treaty of Teschen (1779) following the War of the Bavarian Succession by the so-called Innviertel ("Inn Quarter"), formerly part of Bavaria.
 Hereditary Lands (Erblande or Erbländer; mostly used Österreichische Erblande) or German Hereditary Lands (in the Austrian monarchy) or Austrian Hereditary Lands (Middle Ages – 1849/1918): In a narrower sense these were the "original" Habsburg territories, principally the Archduchy of Austria (Oesterreich), Duchy of Styria (Steiermark), Duchy of Carinthia (Kaernten), Duchy of Carniola (Krain), County of Tyrol (Tirol) and Vorarlberg. In a wider sense the Lands of the Bohemian Crown were also included (from 1526; definitively from 1620/27) in the Hereditary Lands. The term was replaced by the term "Crownlands" (see above) in the 1849 March Constitution, but it was also used afterwards. The Erblande also included many small territories that were principalities, duchies or counties in other parts of the Holy Roman Empire, such as Further Austria.

Territories

The territories ruled by the Austrian monarchy changed over the centuries, but the core always consisted of four blocs:
 The Hereditary Lands, which covered most of the modern states of Austria and Slovenia, as well as territories in northeastern Italy and (before 1797) southwestern Germany. To these were added in 1779 the Inn Quarter of Bavaria and in 1803 the Prince-Bishoprics of Trent and Brixen. The Napoleonic Wars caused disruptions where many parts of the Hereditary lands were lost, but all these, along with the former Prince-Archbishopric of Salzburg, which had previously been temporarily annexed between 1805 and 1809, were recovered at the peace in 1815, with the exception of Further Austria. The Hereditary provinces included:
 Archduchy of Austria
 Upper Austria
 Lower Austria
 Inner Austria
 Duchy of Styria
 Duchy of Carinthia
 Duchy of Carniola
 The Imperial Free City of Trieste
 Margraviate of Istria (although much of Istria was Venetian territory until 1797)
 Princely County of Gorizia and Gradisca
 County of Tyrol (although the Bishoprics of Trent and Brixen dominated what would become the South Tyrol before 1803
 Further Austria, mostly ruled jointly with Tyrol.
 Vorarlberg (actually a collection of provinces, only united in the 19th century)
 The Vorlande, a group of territories in Breisgau and elsewhere in southwestern Germany lost in 1801 (although the Alsatian territories (Sundgau) which had formed a part of it had been lost as early as 1648)
 Grand Duchy of Salzburg (only after 1805)
 The Lands of the Bohemian Crown. The Bohemian Diet elected Ferdinand, later Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand I, as king in 1526. Initially consisting of the five lands:
 Kingdom of Bohemia
 Margraviate of Moravia
 Silesia, Most of Silesia was conquered by Prussia in 1740–1742 and the remnants which stayed under Habsburg sovereignty were ruled as Duchy of Upper and Lower Silesia (Austrian Silesia).
 Lusatia, was ceded to Saxony in 1635.
 Upper Lusatia
 Lower Lusatia
 The Kingdom of Hungary – two-thirds of the former territory that was administered by the medieval Kingdom of Hungary was conquered by the Ottoman Empire and the Princes of vassal Ottoman Transylvania, while the Habsburg administration was restricted to the western and northern territories of the former kingdom, which remained to be officially referred as the Kingdom of Hungary. In 1699, at the end of the Ottoman-Habsburg wars, one part of the territories that were administered by the former medieval Kingdom of Hungary came under Habsburg administration, with some other areas being acquired in 1718 (some of the territories that were part of medieval kingdom, notably those in the south of the Sava and Danube rivers, remained under Ottoman administration).
 Kingdom of Croatia

Over the course of its history, other lands were, at times, under Austrian Habsburg rule (some of these territories were secundogenitures, i.e. ruled by other lines of Habsburg dynasty):
 Serbia occupation (1686–1691)
 Kingdom of Slavonia (1699–1868)
 Duchy of Milan (1706–1797)
 Duchy of Mantua (1706–1797)
 Kingdom of Naples (1707–1735)
 Kingdom of Sardinia (1707–1720)
 State of the Presidi (1707–1733)
 Austrian Netherlands, consisting of most of modern Belgium and Luxembourg (1713–1795)
 Grand Principality of Transylvania, between 1699 (Treaty of Karlowitz) and 1867 (Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867)
 Kingdom of Serbia (1718–1739)
 Banat of Temeswar (1718–1778)
 Banat of Craiova (1718–1739 de facto, 1716–1737)
 Kingdom of Sicily (1720–1735)
 Duchy of Parma and Piacenza (1735–1748)
 Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, in modern Poland and Ukraine (1772–1918)
 Duchy of Bukovina (1774–1918)
 Serbia occupation (1788–1792)
 New Galicia, the Polish lands, including Kraków, taken in the Third Partition (1795–1809)
 Venetia (1797–1805)
 Kingdom of Dalmatia (1797–1805, 1814–1918)
 Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia (1814–1866)
 Free City of Cracow, which was incorporated into Galicia (1846–1918)
 Serbian Vojvodina (1848–1849) de facto entity, officially unrecognized
 Voivodeship of Serbia and Banat of Temeschwar (1849–1860)
 Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia (1868–1918)
 Sanjak of Novi Pazar occupation (1878–1908)
 Austro-Hungarian rule in Bosnia and Herzegovina (1878–1918)

The boundaries of some of these territories varied over the period indicated, and others were ruled by a subordinate (secundogeniture) Habsburg line. The Habsburgs also held the title of Holy Roman Emperor between 1438 and 1740, and again from 1745 to 1806.

Characteristics

Within the early modern Habsburg monarchy, each entity was governed according to its own particular customs. Until the mid 17th century, not all of the provinces were even necessarily ruled by the same person—junior members of the family often ruled portions of the Hereditary Lands as private apanages. Serious attempts at centralization began under Maria Theresa and especially her son Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor in the mid to late 18th century, but many of these were abandoned following large scale resistance to Joseph's more radical reform attempts, although a more cautious policy of centralization continued during the revolutionary period and the Metternichian period that followed.

Another attempt at centralization began in 1849 following the suppression of the various revolutions of 1848. For the first time, ministers tried to transform the monarchy into a centralized bureaucratic state ruled from Vienna. The Kingdom of Hungary was placed under martial law, being divided into a series of military districts, the centralized neo-absolutism tried to as well to nullify Hungary's constitution and Diet. Following the Habsburg defeats in the Second Italian War of Independence (1859) and Austro-Prussian War (1866), these policies were step by step abandoned.

After experimentation in the early 1860s, the famous Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 was arrived at, by which the so-called dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary was set up. In this system, the Kingdom of Hungary ("Lands of the Holy Hungarian Crown of St. Stephen.") was an equal sovereign with only a personal union and a joint foreign and military policy connecting it to the other Habsburg lands. Although the non-Hungarian Habsburg lands were referred to as "Austria", received their own central parliament (the Reichsrat, or Imperial Council) and ministries, as their official name – the "Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council". When Bosnia and Herzegovina was annexed (after 30 years of occupation and administration), it was not incorporated into either half of the monarchy. Instead, it was governed by the joint Ministry of Finance.

During the dissolution of Austria-Hungary, the Austrian territories collapsed under the weight of the various ethnic independence movements that came to the fore with its defeat in World War I. After its dissolution, the new republics of Austria (the German-Austrian territories of the Hereditary lands) and the First Hungarian Republic were created. In the peace settlement that followed, significant territories were ceded to Romania and Italy and the remainder of the monarchy's territory was shared out among the new states of Poland, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later Yugoslavia), and Czechoslovakia.

Other lines
A junior line ruled over the Grand Duchy of Tuscany between 1765 and 1801, and again from 1814 to 1859. While exiled from Tuscany, this line ruled at Salzburg from 1803 to 1805, and in Grand Duchy of Würzburg from 1805 to 1814. The House of Austria-Este ruled the Duchy of Modena from 1814 to 1859, while Empress Marie Louise, Napoleon's second wife and the daughter of Austrian Emperor Francis I, ruled over the Duchy of Parma and Piacenza between 1814 and 1847. Also, the Second Mexican Empire, from 1863 to 1867, was headed by Maximilian I of Mexico, the brother of Emperor Franz Josef of Austria.

Rulers, 1508–1918

The so-called "Habsburg monarchs" or "Habsburg emperors" held many different titles and ruled each kingdom separately through a personal union.

House of Habsburg

 Frederick III (1452–1493)
 Maximilian I (1493–1519)
 Charles V (1519–1556)
 Ferdinand I (1556–1564)
 Maximilian II (1564–1576)
 Rudolf II (1576–1612)
 Matthias (1612–1619)
 Ferdinand II (1619–1637)
 Ferdinand III (1637–1657)
 Leopold I (1657–1705)
 Joseph I (1705–1711)
 Charles VI (1711–1740)
 Maria Theresa (1740–1780) (German: Maria Theresia)

House of Habsburg-Lorraine
 Joseph II (1780–1790), known as "the great Reformer"
 Leopold II (1790–1792), from 1765 to 1790 "Grand Duke of Tuscany"
 Francis II (1792–1835), (became Emperor Francis I of Austria in 1804, at which point numbering starts anew)
 Ferdinand I (1835–1848), known as "Ferdinand the Good" German: "Ferdinand der Gütige"
 Francis Joseph I (1848–1916)
 Charles I (1916–1918), last reigning monarch of Austria-Hungary

Family tree
 Habsburg family tree

In literature
The most famous memoir on the decline of the Habsburg Empire is Stefan Zweig's The World of Yesterday.

Male-line family tree

See also
 Habsburg Myth
 Universal monarchy

References

Notes

Citations

Sources

Further reading

 Fichtner, Paula Sutter (2003). The Habsburg Monarchy, 1490–1848: Attributes of Empire, Palgrave Macmillan.
 Henderson, Nicholas. "Joseph II" History Today (Sept 1955) 5#9 pp. 613–621.

 Judson, Pieter M. The Habsburg Empire: A New History (2016) excerpt
 Kann, Robert A. A History of the Habsburg Empire: 1526–1918 (University of California Press, 1974) online
 Lieven, Dominic. Empire: The Russian empire and its rivals (Yale University Press, 2002), comparisons with Russian, British, & Ottoman empires.

 McCagg, Jr., William O (1989). A History of the Habsburg Jews, 1670–1918 (Indiana University Press.
 Mitchell, A. Wess (2018). The Grand Strategy of the Habsburg Empire. Princeton University Press.
 Oakes, Elizabeth and Eric Roman (2003). Austria-Hungary and the Successor States: A Reference Guide from the Renaissance to the Present.

 Stone, Norman. "The Last Days of the Habsburg  Monarchy", History Today (Aug 1968), Vol. 18 Issue 8, pp. 551–560; online

External links
 Habsburg in an email discussion list dealing with the culture and history of the Habsburg Monarchy and its successor states in central Europe since 1500, with discussions, syllabi, book reviews, queries, conferences; edited daily by scholars since 1994.

Former monarchies of Europe
.
States and territories established in 1526
1526 establishments in the Holy Roman Empire
16th-century establishments in Europe
1804 disestablishments in the Holy Roman Empire
16th century in Europe
17th century in Europe
18th century in Europe
19th century in Europe
Monarchy
Christian states
Tributary states of the Ottoman Empire
Former empires

Habsburg monarchy


David Hiscock (born 25 May 1953 in Stokes Valley) is a New Zealand motorcycle rider.

Early life
Hiscock and elder brother Neville grew up in Stokes Valley, a suburb of Lower Hutt in Greater Wellington, where the pair rode an old BSA Bantam in grass paddocks and later perfected their skills on the Rimutaka Hill climb north of Upper Hutt. David and Neville began racing in 1972 at the Gracefield street circuit in Lower Hutt on Commando 750s.  Dave finished eighth and Neville finished in fifth place.

Career

Hiscock achieved fame in the 1970s and early 1980s, when he dominated the big-bike production class in Australia and New Zealand, gaining 40 consecutive wins on Suzuki GS1000 and GSX1100 bikes over the course of two seasons. His brother Neville was also an accomplished rider of 500cc, 750cc and 1100c motorcycles. The Hiscocks would race against each other or work together as a team, with one team win in the New Zealand Castrol Six Hour Race in 1982 on a Suzuki GSX1100 Katana that Dave and Neville shared. In all, Hiscock won the New Zealand Castrol Six Hour race five times.

He also achieved placings in the Australian Castrol Six Hour Race five times. In 1977 he was second in the 750 class on a GS750, finishing fifth overall with fellow Kiwi Peter Fleming.

Hiscock also competed in the Isle of Man TT Classic gaining several place holdings, and also the British and World F1 TT Championships, finishing third in both the Isle of Man TT formula 1 and World Road Race Championship in 1982, and finishing 2nd in the British Street Bike Series in 1981.

Retirement

Hiscock retired from competitive racing shortly after his brother was killed in February 1983 while racing at Killarney near Cape Town in South Africa. Hiscock lived in South Africa for a number of years before moving to Australia. On Boxing Day 2009, he returned to New Zealand and rode a demonstration lap around the Wanganui Cemetery Circuit on one of his old bikes, The Steve Roberts Built Plastic Fantastic.

Racing statistics

New Zealand Castrol Six Hour wins
 1978: Dave Hiscock and Neil Chivas – Suzuki GS1000
 1979: Dave Hiscock and Neil Chivas – Suzuki GSX1100 (first model)
 1980: Dave Hiscock and Neil Chivas – Suzuki GSX1100 Black piper (New Zealand Built special)
 1982: Dave and Neville Hiscock – Suzuki GSX1100 Katana
 1985: Dave Hiscock and Neil Chivas – Suzuki GSXR750

Australian Castrol Six Hour placings
 1978: eighth place, Dave Hiscock and Peter Fleming – Suzuki GS750; 350 laps completed.
 1979: fifth place, Dave Hiscock and Peter Fleming – Suzuki GS1000; 357 laps completed.
 1980: ninth place, Dave Hiscock and Alan Hales – Suzuki GSX1100; 313 laps completed.
 1981: fourth place, Dave Hiscock and Neil Chivas – Suzuki GSX1100; 310 laps completed.
 1985: sixth place, Dave Hiscock and Neil Chivas –  Suzuki GSX-R750; 234 laps completed.

References

1953 births
Living people
New Zealand motorcycle racers
People from Lower Hutt
Isle of Man TT riders

Dave Hiscock


Podova () is a settlement in the Municipality of Rače–Fram in northeastern Slovenia. It lies on the flatlands on the right bank of the Drava River southeast of Rače. The area is part of the traditional region of Styria. The municipality is now included in the Drava Statistical Region.

A small chapel in the village square dates to the late 18th century.

References

External links
Podova on Geopedia

Populated places in the Municipality of Rače-Fram

Podova


The Flint Hills Discovery Center is a municipal heritage and science center located in the city of Manhattan, Kansas. Featured within the facility are exhibits detailing local history and preservation of the Flint Hills, a theater, a specialized interactive playground for youth and parents, and a temporary exhibition gallery. The facility also promotes various educational outreach programs for youth and adults and serves as a venue for special events.

Exhibits
The Flint Hills Discovery Center features exhibits that explore the ecology, history, and culture of the Flint Hills in Kansas and Oklahoma.  It also hosts traveling and temporary exhibits on related themes. The permanent exhibits are arranged in nine topical zones including an immersive theater experience.

Main floor exhibits zones
Shaping Winds and Water - a brief overview of the geologic formation of the area and the eventual formation of the grasslands.
Blowing Winds in a Tallgrass prairie - details on biological diversity on the grasslands and how local flora and fauna contribute to the area.
The Underground Forest - details on the biologic diversity within the soils, how soils come to be and how they are maintained.
Winds of the Past - an overview of native North American settlers and their interaction with the Flint Hills region over time.
Where the Air is so Pure - an overview on the impact of European immigrants, the displacement and relocation of the native North Americans, and the increased land development for cattle ranching.
Voices of the Flint Hills - a videographic editorial of the opinions from area citizens on numerous subjects including water use, wind power, controlled burning, and cultural inspiration within the region.

Tallgrass Prairie: Tides of Time
The Horizon Ranch Flint Hills Immersive Experience Theater is an immersive theater that features Tallgrass Prairie: Tides of Time a short introductory film that highlights the ecology, history, and culture of the Flint Hills. The film includes special effects  to give the audience an elevated sensory immersion.

Second floor exhibit zones
Prairie Playscape - a specialized interactive playground for youth and parents that was renovated in 2022. It offers multiple interactive exhibits in three themed areas - exploring the land, working the land, and sharing the land.

Tallgrass Gallery
The Tallgrass Gallery is a 2,000 square foot exhibition space that hosts a variety of traveling and in-house produced exhibits.

Prairie Garden Terrace and Trail
An outdoor exhibit highlighting unique building and landscape features as well as topics important to the Flint Hills.

Annual Events
The Discovery Center hosts several annual events throughout the year
Kansas Day - a celebration of Kansas on January 29
Flint Hills Festival - festival focusing on the history, culture, and resources of the Flint Hills
National Day of the Cowboy - celebration of the cowboy held on the fourth Saturday of July
Community Day - free day held in August
Breakfast with Santa - holiday event celebrated the first two Saturdays in December
Family New Year's Eve - family friendly new year celebration on December 31

References

External links
Official website
FHDC in the City of Manhattan

Museums established in 2012
Museums in Riley County, Kansas
Science museums in Kansas
Manhattan, Kansas
Nature centers in Kansas
Natural history museums in Kansas

Flint Hills Discovery Center


National Amusement Devices in Dayton, Ohio was an American construction company founded in 1919 as the Dayton Fun House by Aurel Vaszin. Based on research, they built a 2-foot gauge miniature train that could be either gasoline or electric powered.  This resembled a typical standard-gauge center cab electric train as early as 1922. Vaszin was an early environmental idealist and really pushed the idea of electric powered trains, as safer and less polluting.

A young mechanical engineer by the name of Frank Williams joined the Dayton Fun House in the mid-1920s, and later so did his dad and his son. They greatly improved on the concepts that had been previously developed. After World War II the Fun House began attracting worldwide recognition, and supplying amusement parks elsewhere.  They changed their name to "National Amusement Device Co." (or NAD) and operated under that name for three decades.

They designed some of the popular early miniature trains used in amusement parks around the country.  Their most popular and recognizable model was the "Century Flyer", supplied to various amusement parks and for children's rides.  From the 1940s to the 1960s, NAD also built some full-size rollercoasters, many designed by John Miller.  These were mostly wooden, and as of 2022, only 3 still exist and operate today.

Famous rides
In addition to building trains and components for amusement parks, NAD also built entire rides, including some unique roller coasters. As of 1959, they claimed to have built more than 400 full roller coasters.

Some of their famous rides include:
 A mile-long roller coaster (name currently unknown) in Guatemala City, Guatemala.  Operated from 1953 – 1960.  It was a ravine coaster, built from cypress and pine cut by hand from the nearby jungle, reported by Billboard Magazine to be 2400 feet long, and it has been said "workers had to dig 38 feet out of the side of a mountain to get the right grade." Unfortunately, it lasted only a few years before a new government used it for firewood.
 The "Big Dipper" at Camden Park (amusement park), in Huntington, West Virginia , was built in 1958. The Big Dipper features original Century Flyer cars with working headlights, and a classic figure-eight track design. The ride's name refers to a big dip measuring almost the full height of the roller coaster after the first turn. A second, shallower dip leads into an unlit tunnel, from which the cars emerge shortly before returning to the pavilion to let off passengers. The "Big Dipper" and "Little Dipper" (also built by NAD and located at Camden Park) are both still in operation, as of 2015, running with no seat belts and manual brakes. Although John A. Miller is often credited with designing the "Big Dipper" at Camden Park, he, in fact, did not. The confusion lies with the common name of the coaster, in that he designed three other coasters also named "Big Dipper", located in Aurora, OH (1925), Blackpool, England (1923), and Chicago, IL (1920). The Camden Park coaster was actually designed with the help of Aurel Vaszin, the founder and owner of NAD.
 The "Roller Coaster", 110' high and 5000' long.  It was billed as the world's largest roller coaster in 1964.  Vaszin designed and developed this for La Feria Chapultepec Mágico in Mexico City, Mexico. Nowadays, this roller coaster was standing but not operating after an accident at the park in 2019. In April 2022, works began to demolish the structure as La Feria de Chapultepec is expected to reopen with new attractions with Mexico City as theme, and will be known as "Parque Aztlán".
 The "Fairyland Wildcat" coaster in Kansas City. Vaszin designed this and was on board during its maiden voyage on June 10, 1968.

Sale and change to International Amusement Devices
NAD was sold to Bill Roose, son of George Roose of Cedar Point, in April 1973.
The name was changed at that time to International Amusement Devices Inc, based out of Sandusky, Ohio. From this point on they specialized in park design and brokering rides.  Vaszin stayed on as a consultant until his death in 1979. IAD was later run by Eugene K. Feerer.

References

External links
 National Amusement Device Company at the roller coaster database.
 Partial list of roller coasters produced by NAD and IAD (from the 1960s on, in the US, and still in operation)
 Historical posters for NAD and their miniature trains

Roller coaster designers
Companies based in Dayton, Ohio
Manufacturing companies established in 1919
1919 establishments in Ohio

National Amusement Devices