Prototype-based programming is a style of object-oriented programming in which behaviour reuse (known as inheritance) is performed via a process of reusing existing objects that serve as prototypes. This model can also be known as prototypal, prototype-oriented, classless, or instance-based programming.

Prototype-based programming uses the process generalized objects, which can then be cloned and extended. Using fruit as an example, a "fruit" object would represent the properties and functionality of fruit in general. A "banana" object would be cloned from the "fruit" object and general properties specific to bananas would be appended. Each individual "banana" object would be cloned from the generic "banana" object. Compare to the class-based paradigm, where a "fruit" class would be extended by a "banana" class.

The first prototype-oriented programming language was Self, developed by David Ungar and Randall Smith in the mid-1980s to research topics in object-oriented language design. Since the late 1990s, the classless paradigm has grown increasingly popular. Some current prototype-oriented languages are JavaScript (and other ECMAScript implementations such as JScript and Flash's ActionScript 1.0), Lua, Cecil, NewtonScript, Io, Ioke, MOO, REBOL and AHK.

Design and implementation
Prototypal inheritance in JavaScript is described by Douglas Crockford as

Advocates of prototype-based programming argue that it encourages the programmer to focus on the behavior of some set of examples and only later worry about classifying these objects into archetypal objects that are later used in a fashion similar to classes.  Many prototype-based systems encourage the alteration of prototypes during run-time, whereas only very few class-based object-oriented systems (such as the dynamic object-oriented system, Common Lisp, Dylan, Objective-C, Perl, Python, Ruby, or Smalltalk) allow classes to be altered during the execution of a program.

Almost all prototype-based systems are based on interpreted and dynamically typed languages. Systems based on statically typed languages are technically feasible, however. The Omega language discussed in Prototype-Based Programming is an example of such a system, though according to Omega's website even Omega is not exclusively static, but rather its "compiler may choose to use static binding where this is possible and may improve the efficiency of a program."

Object construction
In prototype-based languages there are no explicit classes. Objects inherit directly from other objects through a prototype property. The prototype property is called prototype in Self and JavaScript, or proto in Io. There are two methods of constructing new objects: ex nihilo ("from nothing") object creation or through cloning an existing object. The former is supported through some form of object literal, declarations where objects can be defined at runtime through special syntax such as {...} and passed directly to a variable. While most systems support a variety of cloning, ex nihilo object creation is not as prominent.

In class-based languages, a new instance is constructed through a class's constructor function, a special function that reserves a block of memory for the object's members (properties and methods) and returns a reference to that block. An optional set of constructor arguments can be passed to the function and are usually held in properties. The resulting instance will inherit all the methods and properties that were defined in the class, which acts as a kind of template from which similarly typed objects can be constructed.

Systems that support ex nihilo object creation allow new objects to be created from scratch without cloning from an existing prototype. Such systems provide a special syntax for specifying the properties and behaviors of new objects without referencing existing objects. In many prototype languages there exists a root object, often called Object, which is set as the default prototype for all other objects created in run-time and which carries commonly needed methods such as a toString() function to return a description of the object as a string. One useful aspect of ex nihilo object creation is to ensure that a new object's slot (properties and methods) names do not have namespace conflicts with the top-level Object object. (In the JavaScript language, one can do this by using a null prototype, i.e. Object.create(null).)

Cloning refers to a process whereby a new object is constructed by copying the behavior of an existing object (its prototype). The new object then carries all the qualities of the original. From this point on, the new object can be modified. In some systems the resulting child object maintains an explicit link (via delegation or resemblance) to its prototype, and changes in the prototype cause corresponding changes to be apparent in its clone. Other systems, such as the Forth-like programming language Kevo, do not propagate change from the prototype in this fashion and instead follow a more concatenative model where changes in cloned objects do not automatically propagate across descendants.

// Example of true prototypal inheritance style
// in JavaScript.

// object creation using the literal
// object notation {}.
const foo = { name: "foo", one: 1, two: 2 };

// Another object.
const bar = { two: "two", three: 3 };

// Object.setPrototypeOf() is a method introduced in ECMAScript 2015.
// For the sake of simplicity, let us pretend
// that the following line works regardless of the
// engine used:
Object.setPrototypeOf(bar, foo); // foo is now the prototype of bar.

// If we try to access foo's properties from bar
// from now on, we'll succeed.
bar.one; // Resolves to 1.

// The child object's properties are also accessible.
bar.three; // Resolves to 3.

// Own properties shadow prototype properties
bar.two; // Resolves to "two"
bar.name; // unaffected, resolves to "foo"
foo.name; // Resolves to "foo"

For another example:
const foo = { one: 1, two: 2 };

// bar.[[prototype]] = foo
const bar = Object.create(foo);

bar.three = 3;

bar.one; // 1
bar.two; // 2
bar.three; // 3

Delegation
In prototype-based languages that use delegation, the language runtime is capable of dispatching the correct method or finding the right piece of data simply by following a series of delegation pointers (from object to its prototype) until a match is found. All that is required to establish this behavior-sharing between objects is the delegation pointer. Unlike the relationship between class and instance in class-based object-oriented languages, the relationship between the prototype and its offshoots does not require that the child object have a memory or structural similarity to the prototype beyond this link. As such, the child object can continue to be modified and amended over time without rearranging the structure of its associated prototype as in class-based systems. It is also important to note that not only data, but also methods can be added or changed. For this reason, some prototype-based languages refer to both data and methods as "slots" or "members".

Concatenation
In concatenative prototyping - the approach implemented by the Kevo programming language - there are no visible pointers or links to the original prototype from which an object is cloned. The prototype (parent) object is copied rather than linked to and there is no delegation. As a result, changes to the prototype will not be reflected in cloned objects. Incidentally, the Cosmos programming language achieves the same through the use of persistent data structures.

The main conceptual difference under this arrangement is that changes made to a prototype object are not automatically propagated to clones. This may be seen as an advantage or disadvantage. (However, Kevo does provide additional primitives for publishing changes across sets of objects based on their similarity — so-called family resemblances or clone family mechanism — rather than through taxonomic origin, as is typical in the delegation model.) It is also sometimes claimed that delegation-based prototyping has an additional disadvantage in that changes to a child object may affect the later operation of the parent. However, this problem is not inherent to the delegation-based model and does not exist in delegation-based languages such as JavaScript, which ensure that changes to a child object are always recorded in the child object itself and never in parents (i.e. the child's value shadows the parent's value rather than changing the parent's value).

In simplistic implementations, concatenative prototyping will have faster member lookup than delegation-based prototyping (because there is no need to follow the chain of parent objects), but will conversely use more memory (because all slots are copied, rather than there being a single slot pointing to the parent object). More sophisticated implementations can avoid this problem, however, although trade-offs between speed and memory are required. For example, systems with concatenative prototyping can use a copy-on-write implementation to allow for behind-the-scenes data sharing — and such an approach is indeed followed by Kevo. Conversely, systems with delegation-based prototyping can use caching to speed up data lookup.

Criticism
Advocates of class-based object models who criticize prototype-based systems often have concerns similar to the concerns that proponents of static type systems for programming languages have of dynamic type systems (see datatype). Usually, such concerns involve correctness, safety, predictability, efficiency and programmer unfamiliarity.

On the first three points, classes are often seen as analogous to types (in most statically typed object-oriented languages they serve that role) and are proposed to provide contractual guarantees to their instances, and to users of their instances, that they will behave in some given fashion.

Regarding efficiency, declaring classes simplifies many compiler optimizations that allow developing efficient method and instance-variable lookup. For the Self language, much development time was spent on developing, compiling, and interpreting techniques to improve the performance of prototype-based systems versus class-based systems.

A common criticism made against prototype-based languages is that the community of software developers is unfamiliar with them, despite the popularity and market permeation of JavaScript. However, knowledge about prototype-based systems is increasing with the proliferation of JavaScript frameworks and the complex use of JavaScript as the World Wide Web (Web) matures. ECMAScript 6 introduced classes as syntactic sugar over JavaScript's existing prototype-based inheritance, providing an alternative way to create objects and manage inheritance.

Languages supporting prototype-based programming

 Actor-Based Concurrent Language (ABCL): ABCL/1, ABCL/R, ABCL/R2, ABCL/c+
 Agora
 AutoHotkey
 Cecil and Diesel of Craig Chambers
 ColdC
 COLA
 Common Lisp
 Cyan
 ECMAScript
 ActionScript 1.0, used by Adobe Flash and Adobe Flex
 ECMAScript for XML (E4X)
 JavaScript
 JScript
 TypeScript
 Io
 Ioke
 Jsonnet
 Logtalk
 LPC
 Lua
 M2000
 Maple
 MOO
 Neko
 NewtonScript
 Nim
 Nix
 Object Lisp
 Obliq
 Omega
 OpenLaszlo
 Perl, with the Class::Prototyped module
 Python with prototype.py.
 R, with the proto package
 REBOL
 Red (programming language)
 Ruby (programming language)
 Self
 Seph
 Slate (programming language)
 SmartFrog
 Snap!
 Etoys
 TADS
 Tcl with snit extension
 Umajin

See also
 Class-based programming (contrast)
 Differential inheritance
 Programming paradigm

References

Further reading

 Class Warfare: Classes vs. Prototypes, by Brian Foote.

 Using Prototypical Objects to Implement Shared Behavior in Object Oriented Systems, by Henry Lieberman, 1986.

Object-oriented programming
Programming paradigms
Type theory

Prototype-based programming


Major General Orlando Ward (November 4, 1891 – February 4, 1972) was a career United States Army officer who fought in both World War I and World War II. During the latter, as a major general, he commanded the 1st Armored Division during Operation Torch and during the first few months of the Tunisian campaign, before being relieved in March 1943. He trained and returned to Europe in 1945 as commander of the 20th Armored Division.

Ward also served as Secretary to the Army Chief of Staff, General George C. Marshall, in the critical years prior to the war and made major contributions to field artillery procedures in the 1930s that, a decade later, made the American field artillery especially effective in World War II.

Early life and military career

Born in Macon, Missouri, on November 4, 1891, Orlando Ward, at the age of 18, entered the United States Military Academy (USMA) at West Point, New York in March 1909, graduating five years later (after being held back due to problems with the French curriculum) on June 12, 1914, shortly before the outbreak of World War I in Europe, as a second lieutenant in the Cavalry Branch of the United States Army. Among his fellow graduates were Frank W. Milburn, Jens A. Doe, Vicente Lim, Carl Spaatz, Ralph Royce, James L. Bradley, Brehon B. Somervell, Harry C. Ingles, Harold R. Bull, John B. Anderson, Charles P. Gross. All of these men, like Ward, would become general officers.

Ward's first assignment was as a commander of black cavalry troops, serving with 'E' Troop of the 9th Cavalry Regiment on border patrol in the wilds of Arizona and New Mexico. He later was part of Brigadier General John J. Pershing's forces chasing Pancho Villa into Mexico in 1916. He was awarded the Mexican Service Medal for serving in the Pancho Villa Expedition. Recognizing that the horse had a limited future, Ward became interested in artillery and transferred to the Field Artillery Branch and was sent to join the 10th Field Artillery Regiment at Camp Douglas, Arizona.

The United States entered World War I in April 1917, and Ward's regiment soon became part of the 3rd Division. He served on the Western Front with the American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) during the war. During the Second Battle of the Marne, in July 1918, under conditions that rendered other officers in charge useless, he took charge of the 2nd Battalion, 10th Field Artillery Regiment and kept the battalion effective until the tide of Germans was turned back. He was later awarded the Silver Star Citation for his actions. He continued to serve on the Western Front until the war ended with the Armistice with Germany on November 11, 1918. By that time he was attending the Command and General Staff School at Langres, from where he graduated in January 1919.

Between the wars
During the quiet interwar period, he continued to serve in the field artillery, but was assigned posts like ROTC instructor at the University of Wisconsin–Madison (where Charles Lindbergh was one of his students). Eventually, he became an instructor at the U.S. Army Field Artillery School at Fort Sill, Oklahoma, where he and others developed key forward observer procedures that made the U.S. Army's artillery effective in the upcoming war. He attended the United States Army War College from August 1935 until June 1936. While he was there he was promoted to lieutenant colonel on November 25, 1935. Shortly after his graduation, he assumed command of the 1st Battalion, 83rd Field Artillery Regiment, which he commanded for over eighteen months until being assigned to the War Department, where he served as a staff officer in a variety of roles for the next few years.

World War II
Ward was Secretary to General George C. Marshall, the U.S. Army Chief of Staff, from July 1939 to August 1941, a critical time of building up in preparation for the American entry into World War II. Ward assisted Marshall in finding the resources to build the military while political forces were fighting to keep the United States out of the war and to help Britain. He worked closely there with Walter Bedell Smith and Omar Bradley. While he was there he received a promotion to the temporary rank of colonel on December 23, 1940. On August 5, 1941 he was promoted again, now to the temporary rank of brigadier general, shortly before assuming command of the 1st Armored Brigade in September. He was later awarded the Legion of Merit for his services during this period, with the medal's citation stating the following:

North Africa
He left that post (and was promoted to the two-star rank of major general) to become the second commander of the 1st Armored Division, a Regular Army formation, in March 1942, three months after the American entry into World War II. The division was sent to Northern Ireland in May and participated in numerous exercises with the British Army stationed there. In November he supervised the deployment of his division across the Atlantic Ocean to French North Africa, which was brought piecemeal as part of Operation Torch, the Allied invasion of French North Africa, and subsequent operations. The failure of the 1st Armored Division to arrive intact and deploy as a single entity would have important consequences in later action against German forces in the Tunisian Campaign.

The 1st Armored Division's first action against the Germans was not promising, when Combat Command 'B' (CCB) and other Allied forces were thrown back after an advance by German forces. On the night of December 10–11, 1942, during a withdrawal from Medjez el Bab, the focal point of the enemy attack, scores of combat vehicles of CCB—tanks, half-tracks, and tank destroyers — had bogged down in thick mud and had to be abandoned. The tanks were so badly mired that the advancing Germans themselves could not extricate them. It was a crippling loss. In its brief experience in action, CCB had lost 32 medium and 46 light tanks. The combat vehicles that remained were in poor condition after their long overland journey to the front lines.

At the Battle of Kasserine Pass in February 1943, the first major battle between the Americans and Germans during World War II, elements of the 1st Armored Division were sent reeling back by a series of sudden enemy offensive thrusts. The dispersal of the 1st Armored Division into separate combat commands across the front by British Lieutenant General Kenneth Anderson, commanding the British First Army, with the connivance of Ward's immediate superior, Major General Lloyd Fredendall, the U.S. II Corps commander, had angered Ward from the start, as it greatly weakened the division's ability to repulse concentrations of German armor and to shift his forces in response to enemy thrusts (Fredendall was later relieved of command and replaced by Major General George S. Patton). However, Ward also bore responsibility for his failure to consult British tank commanders on German panzer tactics and to disseminate that information to his subordinate commanders . As a consequence, elements of the 1st Armored Division at Faïd fell victim to one of Generalfeldmarschall Erwin Rommel's familiar tactics when they pursued German tanks feigning retirement into a screen of 88 mm high-velocity German anti-tank guns, resulting in large American armor losses.

After the rout at Kasserine, Patton at first counseled, then admonished Ward of the need for personal leadership of his division in order to keep German forces under pressure. Impatient with the progress of the 1st Armored Division, Patton took the unusual step of ordering Ward to personally lead a night assault on the Meknessy Heights, a series of stubbornly defended knolls in front of the 1st Armored Division's lines. Ward obeyed the order, and the attack was initially successful. Wounded in the eye, he was awarded a Purple Heart as well as a Silver Star, the citation for which reads:

He was also later awarded the Distinguished Service Cross. The citation for the medal reads:

However, the stalemate east of Meknassy continued, and it appeared to Patton that Ward was still overcautious and too reluctant to incur casualties when conducting offensive operations. By April 1, 1943 the American offensive that had begun at El Guettar had bogged down against stiffened Axis defenses. With the concurrence of British General Sir Harold R. L. G. Alexander, commander of the 18th Army Group (which controlled all Allied forces in North Africa), Patton finally relieved Ward of duty. Patton's actions were in keeping with personal written instructions to him from General Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Supreme Allied Commander in the Mediterranean Theater of Operations (MTO), after Fredendall was sacked: "You must not retain for one instant any man in a responsible position where you have become doubtful of his ability to do his job."

Recent scholarship suggests that political factors may also have played a significant part in Ward's relief. "Ward's dismissal covered up Alexander's incoherent plans for the American commitment to North Africa; in its wake, Patton's failure to punch through the German line and prove American superiority was assuaged as well. Ike kept the upper-level alliance intact (if not healthy) by sacrificing the position of a lower-level subordinate."

Ward was replaced with Major General Ernest N. Harmon, the former commander of the 2nd Armored Division who had successfully intervened to remedy Fredendall's inaction during the battles of Kasserine Pass. Major General Ward was the only general relieved of his command by Patton during World War II.

Later World War II service
Returning to the United States, Ward was briefly commander of the U.S. Army Tank Destroyer School (Tank Destroyer Tactical and Firing Center) at Camp Hood, Texas before becoming Commandant of the United States Army Field Artillery School at Fort Sill, Oklahoma, where he had served as an instructor before the war.

In September 1944 he assumed command of the 20th Armored Division from Major General Roderick R. Allen. In February 1945 the division was sent overseas to the European Theater of Operations (ETO) to serve on the Western Front where it fought briefly in the Allied invasion of Germany, and assisting other divisions in the capture of the German city of Munich. The end of World War II in Europe came soon afterwards, on May 8, 1945, known now as Victory in Europe Day. Ward relinquished command of the division in August to Major General John W. Leonard.

For his services in World War II, Ward was twice awarded the Legion of Merit, along with the Silver Star and the Purple Heart, the Army Distinguished Service Medal and the DSC.

Postwar
After the war, Ward briefly commanded V Corps between June and November 1946.
Ward then had two major assignments, first as commander of the 6th Infantry Division (October 1946 to January 1949), in Korea (prior to the war there). He then served as Chief of Military History, where he oversaw the production of the famous "Green Books," the official U.S. Army history of World War II.

Major General Ward retired from the army in January 1953, after over 38 years of service as a commissioned officer. He returned to Denver, Colorado, where he remained until his death, aged 80,  on February 4, 1972.

Decorations
Major General Ward's decorations included the Distinguished Service Cross, the Army Distinguished Service Medal, the Silver Star with Oak Leaf Cluster, Legion of Merit with Oak Leaf Cluster, Purple Heart, the Mexican Border Service Medal, World War I Victory Medal with four campaign stars, Army of Occupation of Germany Medal, American Defense Service Medal, American Campaign Medal, European–African–Middle Eastern Campaign Medal with four campaign stars, World War II Victory Medal, Army of Occupation Medal and the National Defense Service Medal.

Promotions

Bibliography

References

External links
U.S. Army in World War II Series ("The Green Books")

Investigation into the Reliefs of Generals Orlando Ward and Terry Allen
Generals of World War II

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1891 births
1972 deaths
United States Army Cavalry Branch personnel
United States Army Field Artillery Branch personnel
United States Army generals
United States Army personnel of World War I
People from Macon, Missouri
Recipients of the Distinguished Service Cross (United States)
Recipients of the Silver Star
United States Army Command and General Staff College alumni
United States Army War College alumni
United States Military Academy alumni
Military personnel from Missouri
Recipients of the Distinguished Service Medal (US Army)
United States Army generals of World War II
University of Wisconsin–Madison faculty

Orlando Ward


Letlapa Mphahlele (born 8 December 1960) is a member of the National Assembly of South Africa who represents the Pan Africanist Congress of Azania.

Exile
Mphahlele left for exile in Botswana in August 1978. Upon his arrival, he joined the Pan Africanist Congress. As a refugee in Botswana, he was sent by the Botswana Government to the Dukwe Refugee Camp, and from there left for Tanzania, and then Guinea, where he underwent military training.

Returning to Botswana on an Azanian People's Liberation Army (APLA) assignment, he was expelled from the country and crossed the border to Zimbabwe, where he was detained as an illegal immigrant. After being released, he was appointed by the PAC as Chief representative to Uganda, but Ugandan President Yoweri Museveni turned down his appointment in favour of an old colleague. He was then appointed to APLA's high command, where he helped orchestrate several high-profile attacks against whites in South Africa, stating that he "regarded all whites as legitimate targets as they were complicit in the government's policy of apartheid". Still based in Zimbabwe, he was responsible for couriering arms from Botswana to South Africa, but was arrested in Botswana and sentenced to five years imprisonment. Ignored by the PAC and forced to rely upon African National Congress members for food and supplies, he embarked on a hunger strike and was visited by then PAC-president Zephania Mothopeng.

Political career

He was elected leader of the PAC in September 2006, and reelected unopposed in July 2008.

Under his leadership, the PAC suffered numerous splits, a rebellion by its youth wing, PAYCO, and lost two of its three seats in the 2009 general election.

He was expelled from the party in May 2013 on charges of financial impropriety, bringing the party into disrepute, and not steering the party in the right direction, and the decision was ratified in August 2013.

However, in Case No: 13/19023 (2013-06-14) of the South Gauteng High Court Johannesburg S Africa, with presiding Judge Kgomo, the following order was made:

1. The meeting held on 11 May 2013 convened by the first respondent (Narius Moloto) is declared invalid and unconstitutional vis-a-vis the Constitution of the PAC.
2. All resolutions and/or decisions adopted or made at the above mentioned meeting of 11 May 2013 are declared invalid and are set aside
3. The suspension and subsequent or ultimate dismissal of the first applicant (Letlapa Mphahlele) is set aside. The first applicant remains the President of the second applicant(PAC).
4. The body of persons purported to be the NEC of the second applicant constituted pursuant to the meeting of 11 May 2013 is dissolved forthwith as their election is set aside.
5. The respondents (Narius Moloto and Phillip Dhlamini) are ordered to pay the costs of this application jointly and severally, the one paying, the other being absolved.

I submit that the accusations of financial impropriety and other accusations levelled against Letlapa Mphahlele are erroneous and have not been tested in a court of law, but follow from people who are envious of the rightful President of the PAC, namely Letlapa Mphahlele, until party elections later in 2014.

Books
Mphahlele has written two books:
 Child of this Soil: My life as a freedom fighter (2002)
 Matlalela: The flood is coming

Films
 Beyond Forgiving - Beyond Forgiving - Mphahlele to visit UK in May 2014

References

1960 births
Living people
People from Capricorn District Municipality
Northern Sotho people
Pan Africanist Congress of Azania politicians
Members of the National Assembly of South Africa
South African atheists

Letlapa Mphahlele


is French for "half-world." The term derives from a play called , by Alexandre Dumas , published in 1855. The play dealt with the way that prostitution at that time threatened the institution of marriage. The  was the world occupied by elite men and the women who entertained them and whom they kept, the pleasure-loving and dangerous world Dumas immortalized in the 1848 novel  and its many adaptations. Demimondaine became a synonym for a courtesan or a prostitute who moved in these circles—or for a woman of social standing with the power to thumb her nose at convention and throw herself into the hedonistic nightlife. A woman who made that choice would soon find her social status lost, as she became . The 1958 film Gigi, based on a 1944 novella by Colette, vividly portrays the world of the demimonde near the end of its existence. Gigi's Aunt Alicia, a legendary courtesan now enjoying a wealthy retirement, trains her teenage niece in elegant manners and deportment and the value of jewels and tries to stir her interest in fashion, in order to prepare her for life in the demimonde, pleasing the gentlemen who will provide her with the means to live comfortably.

For the men, the high life of the  was isolated from the other world of wives and families and duties (if any). It embraced heavy drinking and other drug use, gambling, attending the theatre and ballet and horse races, the pursuit of high fashion in every aspect of life, and sexual promiscuity. Lavish spending led to indebtedness; promiscuity, in the worst scenario, led to disease.

Historically, the height of the  was encapsulated by the period known in France as  (1871–1914), from the end of the Franco-Prussian War to the beginning of World War I.

The twentieth century brought the rise of the New Woman, changing economies and social structures, as well as changing fashions and social mores, particularly in the aftermath of World War I. Prostitution and the keeping of mistresses did not disappear,  but the label  became obsolete as the 'half-world' changed.

Women called
Externally, the defining aspects of the demimonde were an extravagant lifestyle of fine food and clothes, often surpassing that of other wealthy women of their day with a steady income of cash and gifts from their various lovers. Internally, their lifestyle was an eclectic mixture of sharp business acumen, social skills, and hedonism. Intelligent demimondaines, like the fictional Gigi's grandmother, would invest their wealth for the day when their beauty faded. Others ended up penniless and starving when age took its toll on their beauty, unless they managed to marry.

A famous beauty was Virginia Oldoini, Countess di Castiglione, who came to Paris in the 1850s with very little money of her own and soon became mistress of Napoleon III; after that relationship ended she moved on to other wealthy men in government, finance and European royalty. She was one of the most aristocratic and exclusive of the demimondaines—reputed to have charged a member of the British aristocracy one million francs for 12 hours in her company.

Another woman who doubtless influenced later images of the demimondaine was the dancer and adventuress Lola Montez, though she died before the term came into general use.

The actress Sarah Bernhardt was the illegitimate child of a courtesan; in her day all actresses were generally considered demimondaines. Her many lovers and extravagant lifestyle fit the type, though her genuine successes as an artist and innovator eventually gained her a kind of public esteem most demimondaines never achieved.

Fictional
Descriptions of the  can be found in Vanity Fair (1848), a novel which satirizes nineteenth century society, written by William Makepeace Thackeray.  Although it does not mention the terms  and  (they were coined later), the terms were later used by reviewers and other authors in reference to three characters in it. Lady Crackenbury and Mrs. Washington White are  characters, both of whom Captain Rawdon Crawley lusts after in his younger days. Becky Sharp is perceived as a  before she is presented at court, and then becomes one when she travels through Europe after her husband abandons her.

Possibly the most famous portrayal of the , albeit from before the word was coined, is in Giuseppe Verdi's opera  (1853). The opera, in turn, was inspired by Alexandre Dumas 's ; Marguerite Gautier, the heroine of the book and subsequent play, was based on Marie Duplessis, 1840s Paris courtesan and mistress to a number of prominent men, including Dumas. She would famously be portrayed on stage by the aforementioned Sarah Bernhardt.

In writing his 1924 play Easy Virtue, Noël Coward stated his object was to present a comedy in the structure of a tragedy "to compare the  woman of to-day with the more flamboyant  of the 1890s."

Colette's Gigi (1944) also describes the demimonde and their lifestyle.  Gigi is schooled from childhood to be a kept woman, to stifle her feelings in return for a life of ease. "We never marry in our family", says Gigi's grand-mother. But Gigi finds herself a misfit in the  of Paris in the 'Gay Nineties', as she desires true love with only one man.

In A Little Night Music (1973, Stephen Sondheim), the main female character, Desiree Armfeldt, is an actress whose mother, Madame Leonora Armfeldt, sings a song, Liaisons, which describes the material benefits of being a serially kept woman. For example, "At the villa of the Baron De Signac, Where I spent a somewhat infamous year, At the villa of the Baron De Signac—I had ladies in attendance—Fire-opal pendants." And: "At the palace of the Duke of Ferrara, Who was prematurely deaf but a dear, At the palace of the Duke of Ferrara—I acquired some position—Plus a tiny Titian."

In The Seven-Per-Cent Solution (1976), the character Lola Devereaux is labeled a  by the character Sigmund Freud.

Other uses of the term in fiction
In Henryk Sienkiewicz's Without Dogma (1891), the term  refers to the affluent, pleasure-seeking portion of society, unbound by morals, religion or tradition, and is loosely analogous to the "jet set" of modern times.

In Marcel Proust's Swann's Way (1913), Odette de Crécy is described as a .

Françoise Sagan, in her novel  (1954), uses the term  to refer to the character Elsa, a young, stunningly attractive woman who leverages her appearance into support by wealthy men, which allows her entrance into the social world of the upper classes.

The high society men in Peter Matthew Hillsman Taylor's novella The Old Forest (from the story collection of the same name, 1985) use  to refer to a group of "adventurous" and intelligent young women in 1937 Memphis, Tennessee; in the story, it is common for the men to continue courting such "demimondames" right up until the time they are married to high society women.

The term appears repeatedly in James Joyce's Ulysses.

In Kim Stanley Robinson's Mars trilogy (1990s), the term  refers to a semi-tolerated, "off the net" society of commerce and education.

In his ''Rivers of London'' series, author Ben Aaronovitch repeatedly uses the term demi-monde to refer to a societal underworld where supernatural and faerie peoples mingle.

In popular culture
 The English-language title of the Hungarian feature film  is .
 The Showtime series Penny Dreadful recasts the  as a spiritual dimension. It is also the title of the fourth episode of the first season.

See also
 Ukiyo

References

Sources
 William Makepeace Thackeray (1848), Vanity Fair.
 Colette (1945), Gigi.
 William Blatchford (editor) (1983), The Memoirs of Cora Pearl: The Erotic Reminiscences of a Flamboyant 19th Century Courtesan. London; New York: Granada. .
 Katie Hickman (2003), Courtesans : Money, Sex and Fame in the Nineteenth Century . New York: Morrow. .

1850s neologisms
Social groups
French words and phrases
High society (social class)
Prostitution in France
Prostitutes by type
Courtesans by type
Belle Époque

Demimonde


Justin Potter Wilson (born January 4, 1945) is an American lawyer and Republican politician who was the 34th Comptroller of the Treasury of Tennessee. He has been Tennessee deputy governor, a federal judicial nominee to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit, and an adjunct professor at Vanderbilt University Law School.

Early life and education
Born in Oakland, California, in 1945, Wilson earned a bachelor's degree from Stanford University in 1967, a J.D. degree from Vanderbilt University Law School in 1970, an L.L.M. in taxation from New York University in 1974, and a master's degree in criminal justice from the unaccredited Kennedy-Western University in 1995.

Career

Private practice of law
Wilson is a member of the bar in the states of Tennessee and New York. He practiced law with the Nashville law firm of Waller Lansden Dortch & Davis, LLP from 1976 until 1996.  He rejoined the firm in 2003 and resigned in 2009 when he became state comptroller.

Government service
From 1996 until 2003, Wilson was deputy governor to Tennessee Governor Don Sundquist, in which position he was the governor's chief policy advisor.  He also served as a commissioner of the Tennessee Department of Environment and Conservation.

As a top policy advisor to Governor Sundquist, Wilson focused on environmental issues. He was honored as the state's Conservationist of the
Year in 1997. The Justin P. Wilson Cumberland Trail State Park was renamed in his honor in 2002 in recognition of his environmental work, which included cleanup of pollution in the Pigeon River and negotiating land donations from the Tennessee Valley Authority.   He was named the Tennessee Conservation League's "Conservationist of the Year" in 1997.  He battled United States Environmental Protection Agency smog rules  and toxic waste incineration at Oak Ridge National Laboratory, and negotiated water allocation of the Tennessee River with the TVA.

On January 15, 2009, Wilson was elected Tennessee state comptroller by the Tennessee General Assembly. He was awarded the honorific title of Comptroller Emeritus after retiring on January 13, 2021.

Judicial nomination
On March 20, 1992, President George H. W. Bush nominated Wilson to a seat on the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit that became vacant after Judge Robert B. Krupansky assumed senior status. Wilson received a rating of "qualified" from the American Bar Association.  Wilson's nomination languished in the Democrat-controlled U.S. Senate Judiciary Committee, which never held a hearing.  Wilson's nomination expired with the end of Bush's presidency.  Several years later, Judge Karen Nelson Moore was confirmed to the seat to which Wilson had been nominated.

Professional activities
Wilson is or was a member of the Financial Advisory Board of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and chairman of the Nashville Electric Board, Davidson County Metropolitan Health Board, Community Health Agency of Nashville and Davidson County, and the Committee of Visitors of the Blair School of Music of Vanderbilt University. He also has served as foreman of the Davidson County Grand Jury and as a member of the executive committee of Meharry Medical College.

Personal life
Wilson is married to Barbara Engelhardt. They have two sons, Walter and Wesley. Wilson also has two sons, Justin Potter Wilson, Jr and Whitney Danner Wilson, from a previous first marriage to Donna Danner Wilson.

See also
 George H.W. Bush judicial appointment controversies

References

External links
 Tennessee Comptroller of the Treasury official website

1945 births
21st-century American politicians
American lawyers
Living people
Stanford University alumni
State cabinet secretaries of Tennessee
Tennessee Republicans
Vanderbilt University Law School alumni
Comptrollers of the Treasury of Tennessee

Justin P. Wilson


The Argo Tunnel is a  mine drainage and access tunnel with its portal at Idaho Springs, Colorado, USA.  It was originally called the Newhouse Tunnel after its primary investor, Salt Lake City mining magnate Samuel Newhouse, and appears by that name in many industry publications from the time period when it was constructed. The tunnel intersected nearly all the major gold mines between Idaho Springs and Central City, and is the longest such drainage tunnel in the Central City-Idaho Springs mining district.

The mines along the Argo Tunnel are no longer active or maintained, but continue to exfiltrate ground water. The drainage from the tunnel was a major source of pollution in Clear Creek, until the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) began treating it with a facility, built near the tunnel entrance. Large drainage tunnels in other mining districts include the Sutro Tunnel on the Comstock Lode in Nevada, and the Leadville Tunnel and the Yak Tunnel at Leadville, Colorado.

The associated gold ore mill is open to public tours. As of 2017, the tunnel's front portal was re-opened to the public and included on the tour circuit.

History
The Argo Tunnel was started from its southern terminus at Idaho Springs in September 1893, and reached its final length of  in November 1910, after several pauses in the work.  The actual time spent driving the tunnel was nine years and seven months.  The tunnel intersected nearly all the major mines between Idaho Springs and Central City.

The tunnel was built on an incline of one-half percent, so that water from the intersected mine workings would drain out the entrance at Idaho Springs rather than needing to be pumped out.  In addition, loaded ore cars from the mines could benefit from gravity as they were trammed downhill to the tunnel entrance and then returned uphill as empties. Previously, ore from the mines was hoisted out of the vertical shafts and trucked to railroad sidings or mills. The tunnel was driven in a north-northwest direction, perpendicular to the predominant orientation of the gold veins.  It was hoped that the tunnel would intersect previously undiscovered gold veins, but there is no record that important new ore bodies were discovered.

The tunnel operated until January 1943, when miners attempting to construct access and drainage for the Kansas Lode mine group near Nevadaville critically weakened a wall between the Argo and a flooded mine works. The section was holding back water at a later-estimated pressure of 500 psi (approximately 1,155 feet of hydraulic head), and a large slug of water was ejected through the tunnel and out the entrance, killing the four miners at the blasting site. A fifth person near the portal suspected trouble when the lights suddenly failed and ran for the entrance, narrowly escaping. Water was ejected for several hours.

Due to preparations for World War II, the federal government ordered all gold mines in the US to shut down shortly before the accident occurred, intending that the workers and mining resources should be available for metals considered more essential to the war effort.  The Argo Tunnel never reopened.

Environmental remediation

The Argo Tunnel continued to drain acid water from the mines, and was recognized as a major continuing source of dissolved metals in Clear Creek. In May 1980, a surge of water flowed from the tunnel and turned the water in Clear Creek orange for some distance downstream.  The temporary large increase in flow was attributed to a roof collapse somewhere within the tunnel damming a large volume of water behind it, then failing suddenly.

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency listed the tunnel as part of the Central City/Clear Creek federal Superfund site in 1983, and built a treatment system at the mouth to neutralize and remove heavy metals from the  per minute acid mine drainage flow from the Argo, as well as lesser flows diverted to the plant from three other nearby mineworks, before it flows into Clear Creek.  The treatment system began operation in 1998. The water treatment plant is just west of the old ore mill. A later modification to the tunnel included a high-pressure bulkhead installed roughly 200 feet inside of the portal entrance, enabling flow variations to be buffered inside the tunnel.

References

See also
Gold mining in Colorado

Industrial buildings and structures on the National Register of Historic Places in Colorado
Transportation buildings and structures in Clear Creek County, Colorado
Mining in Colorado
National Register of Historic Places in Clear Creek County, Colorado
Drainage tunnels in the United States
Superfund sites in Colorado
1893 establishments in Colorado

Argo Tunnel


The Jerry Malloy Negro League Conference (JMNLC) is an annual conference sponsored by Negro leagues Committee (NLC), a standing committee of the Society for American Baseball Research (SABR), a non-profit 501(c)(3) organization.  As of 2016, the NLC has held nineteen conferences in various cities known for their history in hosting Negro league baseball teams. The JMNLC is the first and remains the only such event dedicated exclusively to the examination of black baseball history.

The objective of the conference and committee is to encourage the study and research of Negro league baseball, pre-Negro league baseball, African-Americans in baseball, and the positive influence on American society by the elimination of racial barriers. This national conference attracts scholars, historians, collectors, social activists, and fans of the game. The Conference focus includes scholarly, literary, and educational components.

History of the Conference

The Conference has been an annual SABR event since 1998, and was named in memory of Jerry Malloy (1946–2000) after his death.  Malloy was a journalist and was considered by his peers in SABR to be a skilled authority on 19th century black baseball. Malloy was an important member of the Negro Leagues Committee and a respected researcher and historian.  Admission to the conference is open to all.

The 2016 conference is being held in Kansas City, Missouri, July 7–9. Past conferences have been held in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania (1998, 2000, 2003), Kansas City, Missouri (2001, 2006), Chicago, Illinois (2005, 2008), Atlantic City, New Jersey (1999), Memphis, Tennessee (2002), Cleveland, Ohio (2004, 2012), Portsmouth, Virginia (2007), Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania (2009, 2015), Birmingham, Alabama (2010), Indianapolis, Indiana (2011), Newark, New Jersey (2013) and Detroit, Michigan (2014).

Since 2004, the conference has also included an update on the Negro Leagues Baseball Grave Marker Project.

Awards
The SABR Negro Leagues Committee announces the following awards during the conference:

 The Robert Peterson Recognition Award: for bodies of work that increase public awareness about the Negro leagues, akin to Peterson's book "Only The Ball Was White."
 The John Coates Next Generation Award: for recognition of outstanding achievement and dedication by newcomers to the research field.
 The Normal "Tweed" Webb Lifetime Achievement Award: to recognize long-term contributions to the field of Negro league research.
 The Fay Vincent Most Valuable Partner (MVP) Award: for the contributor with the greatest impact towards a successful conference and shares former Commissioner Vincent's vision to recognize the Negro leagues and its impact on the socialization of American culture.

Events and Programs
Between ten and 14 research presentations are given at every conference, ranging from historical research to statistical studies to entertaining stories, covering any subject related to the history of African-American baseball.  A trivia contest (related to Negro leagues history) with prizes for the winner is held, and two auctions (one silent, one live) are conducted.  Fundraising is also done to help pay to mark the graves of former Negro league players. The effort, known as the Negro Leagues Baseball Grave Marker Project has provided a headstone for more than 30 players since 2004.

An authors panel is held, and book signings are done afterward.  A bus tour is done of most host cities, citing the memorable spots related to that city's Negro leagues history, and an awards banquet is held in which the four named awards are announced, plus two $2,500 youth scholarships, based upon submitted essays, and two $1,000 library grants.  A seminar on Negro leagues history is held during the conference for education professionals, and an academic journal, based on presentations made during the conference, is published later in the year in partnership with McFarland & Company.

References

External links
 Negro Leagues Baseball Grave Markers
 www.seamheads.com and the Negro League Database
 Larry Lester, Negro League Historian
 The Ongoing Research Site for John Donaldson
 Todd Peterson Gallery

Negro league baseball
Recurring sporting events established in 1998

Jerry Malloy Negro League Conference


Orion's Sword is a compact asterism in the constellation Orion. It comprises three stars (42 Orionis, Theta Orionis, and Iota Orionis) and M42, the Orion Nebula, which together are thought to resemble a sword or its scabbard. This group is south of the prominent asterism, Orion's Belt.  Fables and old beliefs are in Europe dominated or widely influenced by those of the Greco-Roman narratives.  Beyond Europe this grouping is quite widely referenced as a weapon just as the majority of cultures perceived Orion's standout asymmetrical "hourglass" of seven very bright stars as a human.

Components

Orion Nebula

The Orion Nebula consists of one of the nearest (thus in the Milky Way Galaxy), massive molecular clouds (30 - 40 light years in diameter) about 1,300 light years from the solar system. This makes the nebula potentially the closest HII region to Earth, a mass of hydrogen that has been ionized by nearby, hot, young stars. Regions like this are called stellar nurseries, nurturing the birth of multiple young stars such as the Orion Nebula Star Cluster. These are a hallmark of the asterism.

Main stars

42 Orionis, also called c Ori, is a B1V magnitude star in the northern half of the Orion nebula. Theta Orionis has a more central position in the nebula, and is actually composed of a multi-star system. Iota Orionis is one of the brightest in the collection, in the south of the Orion nebula. Iota Orionis is a spectroscopic binary system, with a variable magnitude of O9III.

Scientific studies
Given the scientific significance of M42, Orion's Sword is a popular spot for stellar and protostellar studies. Using the Hubble Space Telescope, O'dell et al. focused on identifying previously unseen features of the nebula, such as high-ionization shocks, compact sources, and protoplanetary disks. Some studies have focused on the sword region overall. Gomez & Leda found that less than half of the OB and Hα stars in this region are associated with well-defined stellar clusters. This positional similarity, as well as the high star formation rates and gas pressure in the nearby molecular cloud, confirms the previous notion that old, foreground OB stars triggered star formation in this cloud.

References in history and culture
In his De Astronomia, Hyginus describes the constellation Orion having three faint stars where the sword is depicted. Aratus goes into significant detail about the Orion constellation as well, proclaiming: "Should anyone fail to catch sight of him (Orion) up in the heavens on a clear night, he should not expect to behold anything more splendid when he gazes up at the sky." Cicero and Germanicus, the translators of Aratus's Phaenomena, expressed it as , Latin for "sword". Arabic astronomers also saw this asterism as a sword ( ), calling it , Sword of the Powerful One or Sword of the Giant. Orion is one of the few constellations to have parallel identities in European and Chinese culture, given the name Shen, the hunter and warrior. Chinese astronomers made the sword a sub-constellation within Shen called Fa.

In the myths of the Nama of Namibia and the western Cape, this was the arrow of the husband of the Pleiades, daughters of the sky god, who was represented by Orion's SW main star Rigel. When he fired his arrow at three zebras (Orion's belt) and missed, he was too afraid to retrieve the arrow due to its proximity to a fierce lion, represented by Betelgeuse. Therefore, he sits in the cold, suffering from hunger but too ashamed to return home.  Regionally the prevailing cold breezes and currents come from that direction. The Tswana to the east traditionally call the unusually bright nebula and its companions , three dogs which chase the three pigs (the belt). This serves as an etiological myth for why pigs have their litters in the same season Orion is prominent in the sky.

Orion's sword is referenced in the song "The Dark of the Sun" by Tom Petty on his 1991 album Into the Great Wide Open, in the line "saw you sail across a river underneath Orion's sword...". It is also mentioned in Jethro Tull's song "Orion", on their 1979 album Stormwatch, in the lines "Your faithful dog shines brighter than its lord and master, your jewelled sword twinkles as the world rolls by."

Gallery

See also
Orion (constellation)
Orion's Belt
Thornborough Henges
Orion Correlation Theory

Notes

Orion (constellation)
Asterisms (astronomy)

Orion's Sword


The Boy is a 2016 horror film directed by William Brent Bell and written by Stacey Menear. The film stars Lauren Cohan and Rupert Evans. It is an international co-production between China and the United States. Filming began on March 10, 2015, in Victoria, British Columbia. STXfilms released The Boy in the United States on January 22. The film grossed $64 million worldwide on a $10 million budget. A sequel, Brahms: The Boy II, was released on February 21, 2020.

Plot
Greta Evans, an American from Montana, travels to the United Kingdom after being hired as a nanny by the elderly Heelshires. Upon her arrival, the couple introduce Greta to her charge: a lifesize porcelain doll named Brahms that they treat like their son. The Heelshires coach Greta on taking care of Brahms and their house while they are on holiday; leaving her a list of strict rules to follow, including reading to Brahms in a loud, clear voice and playing loud music for him.

Initially, Greta ignores the rules. She regularly calls her sister, who tells her that Greta's abusive ex-boyfriend Cole has been trying to find out where she is. Malcolm, the local deliveryman, stops by often, and Greta learns that the real Brahms was killed in a fire 20 years ago on his eighth birthday. Malcolm asks out Greta, and she accepts. While preparing for the date, her dress and jewelry vanish while she is in the shower; she is lured to the attic by strange noises and locked inside, and is mysteriously let out the next morning. In the attic, she finds photographs of young Brahms and in each of them he looks sullen and never smiles. She explains to Malcolm what happened, and they discuss the real Brahms, whom Malcolm says Mr. Heelshire described as "odd".

Strange events occur: a child's sobs are heard in the hallways, phone calls are cut off, and the doll seems to move on its own. After receiving a phone call in which a child's voice urges her to follow the rules, Greta locks herself in her room. She then finds a peanut butter and jelly sandwich outside her door, her favorite, and the child's voice promises he will be good. Believing that Brahms' spirit lives within the doll, Greta begins to take the rules seriously.

Remembering that the Heelshires said Brahms was shy, she realizes that the doll only moves when she isn't in the room with him; she demonstrates this to Malcolm, who becomes worried. He informs Greta that a girl Brahms was friends with was found in the forest with her skull crushed. Before the police could question Brahms, the Heelshires' house was burnt down with him in it. Malcolm warns her not to stay, but Greta, having previously suffered a miscarriage after being beaten by Cole, feels obligated to care for Brahms. Elsewhere, the Heelshires write a goodbye letter to Brahms before drowning themselves.

One evening, Cole arrives, intending to force Greta back home. For Greta's safety, Malcolm stays nearby. Greta asks the doll for help. Cole wakes up and sees a message written in blood telling him to leave. Believing it was done by either Greta or Malcolm, he angrily smashes the doll to pieces. The house begins to shake and they hear noises behind the walls. The mirror explodes; from a hole behind it emerges the real, now-adult Brahms wearing a porcelain mask identical to the doll's face; after surviving the fire, Brahms has been living in the walls of the house. Brahms kills Cole, then turns on Malcolm and Greta.

As they are pursued, Greta and Malcolm discover Brahms' room; a doll made from Greta's missing dress, hair, and jewelry sits in Brahms' bed, and Greta finds the goodbye letter from the Heelshires, revealing their plan of leaving Greta behind as a mate for Brahms. Brahms knocks out Malcolm, threatening to kill him if Greta leaves. Greta is able to escape the house but returns to save Malcolm. Arming herself with a screwdriver, she invokes the rules and forces Brahms to bed. He asks for a good night kiss; when he tries to kiss her, she stabs him. Brahms tries to choke her but she pushes the weapon in deeper and he collapses. Greta rescues Malcolm and they escape the house.

Later, someone is seen repairing the doll on the stairs.

Cast
 Lauren Cohan as Greta Evans
 Rupert Evans as Malcolm
 Jim Norton as Mr. Heelshire
 Diana Hardcastle as Mrs. Heelshire
 Ben Robson as Cole
 Stephanie Lemelin as voice of Sandy
 Jett Klyne as young Brahms Heelshire
 James Russell as adult Brahms Heelshire
 Lily Pater as Emily Cribbs

Production

Development

On July 14, 2014, it was announced that The Devil Insides director William Brent Bell was set to direct a supernatural thriller, The Inhabitant, which Tom Rosenberg and Gary Lucchesi would produce through Lakeshore Entertainment, along with Roy Lee, Matt Berenson, Jim Wedaa, through Vertigo Entertainment. The script was written by Stacey Menear.

Casting
On January 23, 2015, Lauren Cohan signed on to star for the lead role in the film, which by then had been retitled The Boy. On March 11, 2015, more cast members were announced, including Jim Norton, Diana Hardcastle, Ben Robson, Rupert Evans and James Russell.

Filming
On March 10, 2015, principal photography on The Boy officially began in Victoria, British Columbia, Canada, at Craigdarroch Castle. Filming was completed a month later, on April 12, 2015.

Release
On February 25, 2015, STX Entertainment acquired the US rights to the film and set the film for a February 5, 2016, release, but in March 2015 the release of the film was moved up to January 22, 2016.

Reception

Box office
The Boy grossed $35.8million in the United States and Canada, and $28.4million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $64.2 million, against a production budget of $10million.

The film was released in the United States on January 22, 2016, alongside Dirty Grandpa and The 5th Wave, and was projected to gross $10–13million from 2,671 theaters in its opening weekend. The film made $3.9million on its first day and $10.8million in its opening weekend, finishing fifth at the box office.

Critical response
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 30% based on 64 reviews and an average rating of 4.50/10. The site's consensus reads "The Boy could have gone in any number of scary or interesting directions, but instead settles for usual jump scares scattered throughout a pedestrian plot." Metacritic gives the film a weighted average score of 42 out of 100 based on 10 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B−" on an A+ to F scale.

Joe Leydon criticized the average story line in Variety and commented, "Despite game efforts by the cast, this tepid horror opus is never scary enough to overcome its silly premise." Chris Alexander of ShockTilYouDrop called it "one of the best contemporary wide-release horror movies I've seen in years". A review for The Wrap stated that the "scary-doll horror flick is creepy and clever".

In 2017, GQ Magazine called it "the most underrated horror movie of 2016".

Sequel

By October 2018, it was announced that a sequel was in development. Katie Holmes was cast to play Liza, the mother of a young family who, unaware of the dark history, move into the Heelshire Mansion. The premise follows the story of the youngest son finding the porcelain doll, and befriending Brahms. William Brent Bell and Stacey Menear returned as director and screenwriter, respectively. Tom Rosenberg, Gary Lucchesi, Eric Reid, Matt Berenson, Jim Wedaa and Roy Lee served as producers. It was released on February 21, 2020.

See also
 List of horror films of 2016
 Bad Ronald, a 1974 film also featuring a troubled boy who murders a young girl and is then hidden by parents in the walls of his house.

References

External links

2016 films
2016 horror films
American horror films
2010s English-language films
Fictional dolls and dummies
Films set in England
Films shot in British Columbia
Huayi Brothers films
Lakeshore Entertainment films
STX Entertainment films
Films about dolls
Films directed by William Brent Bell
Films produced by Roy Lee
Films produced by Tom Rosenberg
Films produced by Gary Lucchesi
Films about nannies
Films scored by Bear McCreary
Films set in country houses
Vertigo Entertainment films
Horror films about toys
2010s American films
English-language horror films

The Boy (2016 film)


USS Klamath — a single-turreted, twin-screw monitor of the United States Navy — was launched 20 April 1865 by S. T. Hambleton & Co., Cincinnati, OH, under subcontract with Alexander Swift & Co., also of Cincinnati, OH. She was delivered to the Navy on 6 May 1866 but was never commissioned and saw no service.

Klamath was a Casco-class, light-draft monitor intended for service in the shallow bays, rivers, and inlets of the Confederacy. These warships sacrificed armor plate for a shallow draft and were fitted with a ballast compartment designed to lower them in the water during battle.

Design revisions

Though the original designs for the Casco-class monitors were drawn by John Ericsson, the final revision was created by Chief Engineer Alban C. Stimers following Rear Admiral Samuel F. Du Pont's failed bombardment of Fort Sumter in 1863. By the time that the plans were put before the Monitor Board in New York City, Ericsson and Stimers had a poor relationship, and the Chief of the Bureau of Construction and Repair, John Lenthall, had little connection to the board. This resulted in the plans being approved and 20 vessels ordered without serious scrutiny of the new design.  $14 million US was allocated for the construction of these vessels. It was discovered that Simers had failed to compensate for the armor his revisions added to the original plan and this resulted in excessive stress on the wooden hull frames and a freeboard of only 3 inches. Stimers was removed from the control of the project and Ericsson was called in to undo the damage. He was forced to raise the hulls of the monitors under construction by 22 inches to make them seaworthy.

Fate

As a result, she was laid up at Mound City, IL. She was renamed Harpy 15 June 1869, but was changed back to Klamath 10 August of that same year. She was moved to New Orleans, LA in 1870, and sold at auction there to Schickels, Harrison & Co. 12 September 1874.

References

External links
 history.navy.mil: USS Klamath

Casco-class monitors
Ships built in Cincinnati
1865 ships

USS Klamath


A publishing agent (or a literary agent) is an agent who represents writers and what they are writing. They represent these to publishers, film producers and film studios. They help in the sale of the writers' works. They get a percentage from the sales of these works.

Publishing
Business occupations

Publishing agent


Abū Al-Abbas Abdullāh al-Maʾmūn ibn Harūn (also spelled Almamon, Al-Maymun, Al-Ma'moon, and el-Mâmoûn; 13 September 786 – 9 August 833) was an Abbasid caliph. He reigned from 813 until his death in 833.

Al-Ma'mun was born on 13 September 786 AD in Baghdad. His father was Harun al-Rashid, who was an Abbasid caliph. He was a member of the third dynasty of the descendants of Muhammad who were caliphs of Islam. While his father ruled, al-Ma'mun was the governor of Khorasan. After al-Ma'mun was born his father had another son named al-Amin. Before his father died he announced that al-Amin would be the new caliph and al-Ma'mun would continue to be the governor of Khorasan even though al-Ma'mun was older. When Harun al-Rashid died and al-Amin became the caliph, he took away al-Ma'mun's ability to inherit the throne after he died. The two brothers went to war against each other. Al-Ma'mun defeated al-Amin. He cut off al-Amin's head. Since al-Amin had no other heir to the throne, al-Ma'mun became the new caliph.

During his reign al-Ma'mun tried to reunite Sunnis and Shiites. These are the two main brances of Islam that have different beliefs on who should lead Islam. Al-Ma'mun opened many learning centers in his empire. One big one was in Baghdad, which was called the House of Wisdom. Many other libraries and schools were built all over the empire. He was also a big sponsor of philosophy and astronomy.

He had one wife who he tried to divorce. However, his wife got a powerful judge who refused to allow the divorce. He had no children and no heirs with this wife. Instead, he chose another woman to provide an heir.

Al-Ma'mun died on August 9, 833. He remained caliph until his death.

Notes

786 births
833 deaths
Caliphs

Al-Ma'mun


Tawus Ibn Kaysan (; died 723) was one of the Tabi'in, one of the narrators of hadith and scholars of fiqh.

He is also known as Tawoos ibn Kaysaan, "Tawoos" or "al-Taus,".

Biography
He was one of the scholars of the Tabi'in, one of the narrators of hadith, and a companion of, Ali Zayn al-Abidin, Ali Ibn al-Hussein. Ibn Hajar related that Tawus who inhabited an area called al-Jund and that he was the master of Hamadan in Iran. Ibn Hayyan said about him: He was among the worshipers of the people of the Yemen  and the masters of the leading members of the next generation." He performed the hajj forty times and narrated some of the whispered prayers of Imām Zayn al-'Ābidin. Ibn Kaysan was also a student of Abdullah ibn Abbas. It was said that he was a great tabi'i who met over 50 companions. Tawus heard all the ahadeeth from the mouth of ibn Abbas. Tawus himself was the main teacher of Umar ibn Abdul Aziz.

Abdullah ibn Abbas loved Tawus so much that he said that "I believe that Tawus is from the people of Jannah". Also Ibn Kathir wrote that he met 50 of the Sahaba.

Hadith
Hadith from him are recorded by Muhammad al-Bukhari (85 traditions), Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj (78 traditions), al-Tirmidhi, al-Nasa'i, Abu Dawood, Ibn Maja, Ahmad ibn Hanbal.

References

Tabi'un
Tabi'un hadith narrators
720s deaths
Year of birth unknown

Tawus ibn Kaysan


ARCH+ is a quarterly German magazine for architecture, urbanism, and design that was established in 1967. The magazine has been praised by a number of different architects and publications.

History
A group of architecture students and junior faculty from the University of Stuttgart established ARCH+ in 1967 and its first issue appeared in January of the following year. Despite forming concurrent to the student protest movement of 1968, the magazine's content was not explicitly political in its first years. Early issues focused on technocratic aspects of architecture and urbanism, such as planning theory, semiotics, mathematics, and cybernetics.

In the early 1970s, growing ideological divides among the publication's contributors led to the establishment of splinter editorial groups in West Berlin and Aachen. A new wave of editors effected a politicization of the magazine, which came to focus increasingly on the sociological issues surrounding the built environment.

While this progressive political orientation has stayed with the magazine until today, subsequent decades saw an increase in attention to other aspects of the field, including: aesthetics and postmodernism in the late 1970s, the legacy of the modern movement in the mid-1980s, and high-tech architecture in the 1990s.

Since 2000, ARCH+ has expanded its scope of activities to include exhibition design, exhibition catalogs, a lecture and conversation series, research projects, and competitions. In 2010, ARCH+ released one of its first fully bilingual publications, Post-Oil City, which was followed by its first bilingual issue, Think Global, Build Social!, in 2013. The issue also served as a catalog for an eponymous exhibition at the German Architecture Museum in Frankfurt am Main.

Content
ARCH+ is one of the largest and oldest periodicals in Germany that focuses on architectural history and theory. Every issue is devoted to a particular subject, place, or theme; recent topics include contemporary Japanese architecture, social housing design, service architecture, and shrinking cities. Contemporary buildings are featured to illustrate the topic, while timelines and reference projects are meant to situate the topic in broader historical and cultural contexts. Issues regularly include long-form essays by academics and architects as well. The Zeitung section of every issue features book and exhibition reviews.

References

External links

1968 establishments in Germany
Architecture magazines
Visual arts magazines published in Germany
German-language magazines
Quarterly magazines published in Germany
Magazines established in 1968
Magazines published in Berlin

ARCH+


A near-Earth object (NEO) is a Solar System object whose orbit brings it close to the Earth.

Their least distance from the Sun, their perihelion, is less than 1.3 AU. NEOs include near-Earth asteroids (NEAs) and near-Earth comets.

They include more than ten thousand near-Earth asteroids (NEAs), near-Earth comets, some solar-orbiting spacecraft, and meteoroids large enough to be tracked in space before striking the Earth. Collisions in the past have had a significant role in shaping the geological and biological history of the planet.

In some cases NEOs hit the Earth. Most of these meteors explode harmlessly in the upper atmosphere. But some NEOs are dangerous. We try to find out when one is going to hit Earth using impact prediction. On 30 June 1908, a meteorite of around 45 metres in diameter exploded over the basin of the Podkamennaya Tunguska River. It released an energy of 10–15 megatons of TNT and destroyed roughly 2,000 square kilometres of forest. Such an explosion, similar to one of the biggest nuclear weapons, could have razed London about as far out as the M25 ring road. However, because the location was remote, no deaths were recorded. The Association of Space Explorers estimates that a Tunguksa-like event happens two or three times every thousand years on average. An asteroid roughly 10 km in diameter is thought to have hit Earth 66 million years ago and caused the K/T extinction event, including the extinction of all non-avian dinosaurs.

Related pages
Near-Earth asteroid
Asteroid impact prediction
Late Heavy Bombardment

References

Astronomical objects

Near-Earth object


The Ducati 851 is a 90° V-twin fully faired sport bike with liquid cooling and four valve heads. It was produced by Ducati between 1987 and 1992, when it was succeeded by the Ducati 888.

Development
The Ducati 851 was the successor to the air-cooled two-valve Ducati 750 F1. Development had lagged with the continued use of two-valve engines, but new investment funded the technological advance that Ducati desperately needed. After buying Ducati, Cagiva invested in the development of another V-twin, but with liquid cooling, and four-valve desmodromic heads. Massimo Bordi had designed a 4V Desmo in 1973 for his thesis at the University of Bologna, and with Cagiva in 1985, saw his updated ideas come into production as the Desmoquattro. Based on the Pantah motor, but with liquid cooling, fuel injection, and desmodromic four valve heads (with an included valve angle of 40°), the 851 made Ducati once again competitive in motorcycle racing.

The original Desmo Quattro was an experimental 748 cc four-valve racer (seen at the Bol d'Or in 1986) and used 750 F1 Pantah crankcases. Bordi collaborated with Cosworth to develop the heads, but in the time they had, they were only able to reduce the included valve angle of the desmodromic engine to 40°, while less than 30° was possible with valve springs. Ducati stuck with the desmodromics. The subsequent 851 road bike had stronger crankcases, while the heads and valves remained the same; designed to fit above the 88 mm bore of a 748 cc version.

The 1987 – 1988 Ducati 851 Tricolor used the signature steel tube trellis frame, adorned with Marvic wheels, Brembo brakes and Marzocchi suspension. That first release was criticised for its handling, with the 16-inch wheels so the wheels were enlarged from a 16-inch to 17-inch wheels. In addition, upgraded Ohlins USD suspension components were fitted front, along with fully floating front Brembo brake rotors.

In 1991, the bore was enlarged when Ducati released the SP Series of limited edition race replicas needed to sell the required number of bikes for the street in order to be homologated for racing, thus creating the Ducati 888. In 1992, three Ducati superbike models were available: the 851 Strada (851 cc), the 888 SP4 (888 cc), and the 888 SP4S (888 cc).

A notable owner of this motorcycle was triple Formula One world champion Ayrton Senna.

Racing

 1986 Marco Lucchinelli - (Pole Position, Misano GP)
 1987 Marco Lucchinelli - (Pole Position, SBK)
 1990 Raymond Roche - SBK (World Champion, SBK)

References

External links

 Ducati 851 at Ducati.com Heritage.
 Ducati 851 sbk at Ducati.com Heritage.

851
Sport bikes
Motorcycles introduced in 1987
Motorcycles powered by V engines

Ducati 851


Pargasite is a complex inosilicate mineral of the amphibole group with formula NaCa2(Mg4Al)(Si6Al2)O22(OH)2.

It was first described for an occurrence in Pargas, Finland in 1814 and named for the locality.

It occurs in high temperature regional metamorphic rocks and in the skarns within contact aureoles around igneous intrusions. It also occurs in andesite volcanic rocks and altered ultramafic rocks.

Pargasite is the main water-storage site in the uppermost mantle, however it becomes unstable at depths greater than . This has significant consequences for the water storage capacity, and the solidus temperature of the lherzolite of the upper mantle.

It is used as a gemstone.

See also
Anyolite

References

Amphibole group
Monoclinic minerals
Minerals in space group 12
Gemstones

Pargasite


Eliyahu Noach Flug (; 1 January 1925 – 11 August 2011) was an Israeli economist, diplomat and advocate for the rights of Holocaust survivors.

Biography
Flug was born in Łódź, Poland to Rywka (née Gliksman) and Icek Flug. During the Second World War he was a resident of the Łódź ghetto, from which he was transferred in 1944 to Auschwitz. In the last months of the war he was also sent to Gross-Rosen concentration camp and was rescued by the Allied forces while on a death march to Mauthausen.

In 1958, he made aliyah to Israel. An economist, Flug worked in the civil service for over 30 years. He worked at the Ministry of Finance and later appointed as a financial advisor to the Finance Committee of the Knesset and to the Israeli embassy in Bonn. Flug also served as the Israeli consul to Zürich.

Flug was a central advocate for the rights of Holocaust survivors. In 1987 he was a founding member of the Center of Organizations of Holocaust Survivors in Israel, an umbrella organization for about 70 bodies. After his retirement from the civil service he dedicated his time to these causes, serving as president of the International Auschwitz Committee, vice president of the Claims Conference and a member of the Yad Vashem executive board. For several years he served chairman of the Center of Organizations of Holocaust Survivors in Israel, reelected to the post a second time in June 2011.

Noach was married to Dorota Flug (née Tugendreich), they had two daughters, Anat Flug-Levin, a psychoanalyst, and Karnit Flug, former governor of the Central Bank of Israel. Flug is the grandfather of Boaz Levin, a writer and curator, Noa Levin, a philosopher and filmmaker, Michael Lach, a PhD student at the Weizmann institute, and Maya Lach, a psychologist.

Flug died in 2011 at Shaare Zedek Medical Center in Jerusalem, age 86.

Published works
Collaborations
The History of the Israelis and Palestinians with Martin Schäuble, 2007,

References

1925 births
2011 deaths
Łódź Ghetto inmates
Jewish resistance members during the Holocaust
Auschwitz concentration camp survivors
Gross-Rosen concentration camp survivors
International Auschwitz Committee members
Polish emigrants to Israel
Israeli economists
Israeli consuls
Israeli civil servants
Diplomats from Łódź
Commanders Crosses of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany

Noach Flug


Sir Edward Poole (1617 – 1673) was an English politician who sat in the House of Commons  at various times between 1640 and 1673.

Poole was the eldest son of Sir Neville Poole of Kemble and his first wife Frances Poole, daughter of Sir Henry Poole of Saperton, Gloucestershire. He matriculated at Magdalen Hall, Oxford on 8 May 1635, aged 18. He entered Lincoln's Inn in 1636.

In November 1640, Poole was elected Member of Parliament for Wootton Bassett in the Long Parliament.   He was a commissioner for sequestration for Wiltshire in 1643 and a  commissioner for  assessment for Wiltshire from 1643 to 1648  In 1647 he became commissioner for  appeals for Oxford University and in 1648 commissioner for  militia in  Wiltshire. He was excluded from parliament in 1648 under Pride's Purge.

In 1659, Poole was elected MP for  Cricklade in the Third Protectorate Parliament. He was a commissioner for  militia  in March 1660 and became lieutenant-colonel of the Militia in April 1660. He also became a J.P. for Wiltshire in March 1660. In  April 1660, he was elected MP for  Chippenham  for the Convention Parliament. He was knighted by 9 July 1660. He was a  commissioner for  assessment from August 1660 until his death and colonel of horse from 1661 to his death. He inherited the family estates of Oaksey or Oxsey, Wiltshire from his father in 1661. In 1668 he was elected MP for Malmesbury in a by-election to the Cavalier Parliament. He became a Deputy Lieutenant in 1668. He died during the summer recess in 1673.

Poole married Dorothy Pye, daughter of Sir Robert Pye of Faringdon, Berkshire after a settlement on 29 May 1638. They had four sons and a daughter.

References

1617 births
1673 deaths
Alumni of Magdalen Hall, Oxford
Politicians from Wiltshire
Members of Lincoln's Inn
English MPs 1640–1648
English MPs 1659
English MPs 1660
English MPs 1661–1679
Members of Parliament for Cricklade

Edward Poole


Sir Owen Haddon Wansbrough-Jones KBE, CB (1906, Long Stratton, Norfolk, England – 1983, Long Stratton), was a leading academic chemist and soldier whose career included serving as Chief Scientist to the British Ministry of Supply.

Educated at Norwich School, Gresham's School, Holt, and Trinity Hall, Cambridge, he took the degrees of B.A., BSc, and PhD at Cambridge, where he worked under Eric Rideal.

During his career in the Army and later in the Civil Service, he specialised in weapon development.

Career
1930 - 1946 Fellow of Trinity Hall, Cambridge
1939 - 1945 Served with British Army (with rank of Brigadier)
1945 - 1951 Scientific Adviser to the Army Council
1951 - 1953 Principal Director for Scientific Research, Ministry of Supply
1953 - 1959 Chief Scientist, Ministry of Supply
1959 - 1970 Chairman of Albright & Wilson Ltd

Other Positions
 Chairman of the Operational Research Society
 Vice-president, British Industrial Biological Research Association (BIBRA)
 Fellow of the Chemical Society
 Treasurer of the Faraday Society (1949 - 1960)
 Member of the Society of Chemical Industry
 Section Chair of the Society of Chemical Industry (1962 - 1966)

Arms

References

Sources
 The Growth of Operational Research 1939-1964, by Sir Charles Goodeve
Owen Wansbrough-Jones at the Open University Biographical Database

1906 births
1983 deaths
People educated at Norwich School
Alumni of Trinity Hall, Cambridge
British Army personnel of World War II
Companions of the Order of the Bath
Fellows of Trinity Hall, Cambridge
Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire
People educated at Gresham's School
British operations researchers
People from South Norfolk (district)

Owen Wansbrough-Jones


Willie Toua Gavera (born 18 August 1988) is a Papua New Guinean cricketer.  Gavera is a right-handed batsman who bowls right-arm fast.  He was born in Port Moresby.

Having played age group cricket for Papua New Guinea Under-19s in the 2008 Under-19 World Cup, he proceeded to be selected as a part of the Papua New Guinea squad for the 2009 World Cricket League Division Three, where he played 5 matches.  He played a single match in the 2011 World Cricket League Division Three, before making his List A debut against Bermuda in the 2011 World Cricket League Division Two.  He played a further 3 List A matches in the competition, the last against Hong Kong.  In his 4 matches, he took 6 wickets at a bowling average of 21.00, with best figures of 3/31.

He made his One Day International debut for Papua New Guinea on 8 November 2014 against Hong Kong in Australia. He made his Twenty20 International debut for Papua New Guinea against Ireland in the 2015 ICC World Twenty20 Qualifier tournament on 15 July 2015.

References

External links
Willie Gavera at ESPNcricinfo
Willie Gavera at CricketArchive

1988 births
Living people
Papua New Guinean cricketers
Papua New Guinean sportsmen
Papua New Guinea One Day International cricketers
Papua New Guinea Twenty20 International cricketers
Sportspeople from the National Capital District (Papua New Guinea)

Willie Gavera


Cyprinodontiformes is an order of fishes. These freshwater fish are sometimes called toothcarps, though they are not related to the Cypriniformes. While cyprinids are Ostariophysi, toothcarps are Ovalentaria.

Description
Many members of the family Cyprinodontidae (the pupfishes) eat plant material as well and some have adapted to a diet very high in algae to the point where one, the American Flag Fish, is a renowned algae eater in the aquarium, in spite of belonging to an order of fishes that do not generally consume any plant material. In addition, killifish derive some of the carotenoids and other chemicals required to make their body pigments from pollen grains on the surface of and in the gut of insects they eat from the surface of the water; this can be simulated in culture by the use of special color enhancing foods that contain these compounds.

Related pages

 Serranidae
 Anthiinae
 Aeoliscoides
 Amakusaichthys
 Tosanoides flavofasciatus

References

 Froese, Rainer, and Daniel Pauly, eds. (2007). "Cyprinodontiformes" in FishBase. August 2007 version.

Cyprinodontiformes


Christian Frederick Albert John Henry David "Bruno" Betzel (December 6, 1894 – February 7, 1965) was an American infielder in Major League Baseball and a longtime manager at the minor league level. In 26 years as a minor league skipper, between the years of 1927 and 1956 (he did not manage in 1931, 1949 (when he was a scout for the New York Yankees), nor in 1954–55), Betzel compiled a record of 1,887 victories and 1,892 losses for a winning percentage of .499.

Born in Chattanooga, Ohio, a small town in Mercer County on the Indiana border, Betzel played his entire, five-year Major League career for the St. Louis Cardinals, between 1914 and 1918. A right-handed batter and thrower, he appeared in 448 games and batted .231 with 333 hits, including 37 doubles, 25 triples, two home runs and 94 runs batted in. He was the Redbirds' regular third baseman in 1915 and second baseman in 1916.

An old-time ballplayer who roomed with Rogers Hornsby in his tenure with the Cardinals, Betzel once beaned Ty Cobb with an infield ground ball that set off a rare brawl in spring training. In spite of his business-like, win at all costs baseball life, he was known to share what he hunted and fished for with orphanages near his home.

In 1927 Bruno began his managing career with the Indianapolis Indians of the Class AA American Association; the following season, he won his first pennant. He would win six more championships, all of them in the higher levels of the minor leagues, over the course of his managing career. After farm systems were adopted in the 1930s, Betzel piloted minor league affiliates of the Yankees, Brooklyn Dodgers, New York Giants and Cincinnati Reds. He was integral in the process which sent the first black player to the Major Leagues. As manager of the Jersey City Giants, whose nemesis was the Montreal Royals team, Betzel said of Jackie Robinson (Montreal's second baseman), "I don't care if he is polka-dotted, he will be a big league player", and "I'd tuck him into bed at night if necessary to have him play for me in the big leagues".

In his final season as a manager, 1956, he led the Toronto Maple Leafs to the International League pennant, although the Leafs dropped the Governors' Cup playoff series to the Rochester Red Wings in seven games.

Betzel was inducted into the International League Hall of Fame in 1957.

He died in Hollywood, Florida, at the age of 70.

According to Official Baseball 1945, Betzel was endowed with six given names to honor all six of his uncles; he gained his lifelong nickname "Bruno" after a St. Bernard Dog of his youth that used to follow him around.

References
Reichler, Joseph, ed.  The Baseball Encyclopedia.  New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., 1979.
Lloyd Johnson, ed., The Minor League Register. Durham, North Carolina: Baseball America, 1994.

External links

1894 births
1965 deaths
Baseball players from Ohio
Binghamton Triplets managers
Binghamton Triplets players
Bristol Boosters players
Durham Bulls managers
Indianapolis Indians managers
Indianapolis Indians players
Kansas City Athletics scouts
Louisville Colonels (minor league) managers
Louisville Colonels (minor league) players
Major League Baseball infielders
Montreal Royals managers
New York Yankees scouts
People from Mercer County, Ohio
St. Louis Cardinals players
Syracuse Chiefs managers
Toronto Maple Leafs (International League) managers

Bruno Betzel